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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:18 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:18 -0700 |
| commit | 2fe4676718e1d9b5284f6227c5fe92895e103b57 (patch) | |
| tree | 8afd0e47a4b56e92f474cccd6b651a2aa0ff4980 /33295-h | |
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diff --git a/33295-h/33295-h.htm b/33295-h/33295-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2cc2d3b --- /dev/null +++ b/33295-h/33295-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18349 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume V Slice VI - Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; 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text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6 + "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 30, 2010 [EBook #33295] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME V SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CELTES, KONRAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CENTO</a> (town of Italy)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CELTIBERIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CENTO</a> (composition)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CENTRAL AMERICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CEMETERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CENTRAL FALLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CENCI, BEATRICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CENTRALIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CENOBITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CENTRAL INDIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CENOMANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CENOTAPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CENTUMVIRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CENSOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CENTURION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CENSORINUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CENTURIPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CENSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CENTURY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CENTAUREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CEOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CENTAURS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CEPHALIC INDEX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CENTAURUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CEPHALONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CENTAURY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CEPHALOPODA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CENTENARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CEPHEUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CENTERVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CEPHISODOTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CENTIPEDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CERAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CERAMICS</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CELTES, KONRAD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin +poet, the son of a vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the +Greek translation), was born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He +early ran away from home to avoid being set to his father’s +trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to find a generous +patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola. After +the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of +a scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of +the continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere +establishing learned societies on the model of the academy of +Pomponius Laetus at Rome. Among these was the <i>Sodalitas +litteraria Rhenana</i> or <i>Celtica</i> at Mainz (1491). In 1486 he published +his first book, <i>Ars versificandi et carminum</i>, which created +an immense sensation and gained him the honour of being +crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony +being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of +Nuremberg in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor +Maximilian I. professor of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in +1502 was made head of the new Collegium Poetarum et Mathematicorum, +with the right of conferring the laureateship. He +did much to introduce system into the methods of teaching, to +purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the study +of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a +mere classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in +history and topography, especially in that of his native country. +It was he who first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at +Regensburg) the remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha +of Gandersheim, of which he published an edition (Nuremberg, +1501), the historical poem <i>Ligurinus sive de rebus gestis Frederici +primi imperatoris libri x.</i> (Augsburg, 1507), and the celebrated +map of the Roman empire known as the <i>Tabula Peutingeriana</i> +(after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He projected a +great work on Germany; but of this only the <i>Germania generalis</i> +and an historical work in prose, <i>De origine, situ, moribus et +institutis Nurimbergae libettus</i>, saw the light. As a writer of +Latin verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He +composed odes, elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an unfinished +epic, the <i>Theodoriceis</i>. His epigrams, edited by Hartfelder, +were published at Berlin in 1881. His editions of the +classics are now, of course, out of date. He died at Vienna on +the 4th of February 1508.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full list of Celtes’s works see Engelbert Klüpfel, <i>De vita et +scriptis Conradi Celtis</i> (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann Aschbach, +<i>Die früheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes</i> (Vienna, 1869); +Hartmann, <i>Konrad Celtes in Nürnberg</i> (Nuremberg, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CELTIBERIA,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a term used by Greek and Roman writers to +denote, sometimes the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes +the north-east part of the central plateau of the peninsula. +The latter was probably the correct use. The Celtiberi, in this +narrower sense, were not so much one tribe as a group of cantons—Arevaci, +Pelendones, Berones and four or five others. They were +the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time offered a +stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian +mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar +capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the +first mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however, +keep faith, and several campaigns were undertaken against them. +In 179 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> the whole country was subdued by T. Sempronius +Gracchus, who by his generous treatment of the vanquished +gained their esteem and affection. In 153 they again revolted, +and were not finally overcome until the capture of Numantia +(133). The twenty years’ war waged round this city, and its +siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) form only +the most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its +mark in entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1906-1907 +by German archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still +more after the death of Sertorius (72 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), the Celtiberians +became gradually romanized, and town life grew up among their +valleys; Clunia, for instance, became a Roman municipality, +and ruins of its walls, gates and theatre testify to its civilization; +while Bilbilis (Bambola), another municipality, was the birthplace +of the eminently Roman poet Martial. The Celtiberians +may have been so called because they were thought to be the +descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain), +or because they were regarded (cf. Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race +of Celts and Spaniards (Iberians); in either case the name represents +a geographer’s theory rather than an ascertained fact. +That a strong Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by +numerous traditions and by the more trustworthy evidence of +place-names. The Celtic place-names of Spain, however, are +not confined to Celtiberia or even to the north and east; they +occur even in the south and west.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi +is given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough +and unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being +chiefly used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a +nomadic life or occupied small villages; large towns were few. +Their infantry and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they +adopted the wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried +double-edged swords and short daggers for use hand to hand, the +steel of which was hardened by being buried underground; their +defensive armour was a light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler, +and greaves of felt round their legs. They wore brazen helmets +with purple crests, and rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept +on the bare ground. Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with +urine instead of water. They were said to offer sacrifice to a nameless +god (Strabo iii. p. 164) at the time of the full moon when all the +household danced together before the doors of the houses. Although +cruel to their enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate +meat of all kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hübner’s article +in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. (1886-1893), collects all +the ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strabo’s notice +(bk. iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEMENT<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>caementum</i>, rough pieces of stone, a +shortened form of <i>caedimentum</i>, from <i>caedere</i>, to cut), apparently +first used of a mixture of broken stone, tiles, &c., with some +binding material, and hence of any material capable of adhering +to, and uniting into a coherent mass, fragments of a substance +not in itself adhesive. The term is often applied to adhesive +mixtures employed to unite objects or parts of objects (see below), +but in engineering, when used without qualification, it means +Portland cement, its modifications and congeners; these are all +hydraulic cements, <i>i.e.</i> when set they resist the action of water, and +can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to set under water.</p> + +<p><i>Hydraulic Cements</i>.—It was well known to builders in the +earliest historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist +the action of water, <i>i.e.</i> were hydraulic; it was also known that +this property could be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture +of silicious materials such as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here +the two classes into which hydraulic cements are divided.</p> + +<p>When pure chalk or limestone is “burned,” <i>i.e.</i> heated in a +kiln until its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime. +This slakes violently with water, giving slaked lime, +which can be made into a smooth paste with water +<span class="sidenote">Pozzuolanic cement.</span> +and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The +setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime +(a purely physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring +between the lime and the sand). The function of the sand is +simply that of a diluent to prevent undue shrinkage and cracking +in drying. Subsequent hardening of the mortar is caused by +the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the air by the lime, +a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the action is +superficial. Mortar made from pure or “fat” lime cannot withstand +the action of water, and is only used for work done above +water-level. If, however, such “fat” lime is mixed in the +presence of water, not with sand but with silica in an active +form, <i>i.e.</i> amorphous and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate +containing silica in an active condition, it will unite with the +silica and form a silicate of lime capable of resisting the action +of water. The mixture of the lime and active silica or silicate is a +pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of all pozzuolanic cements +would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated silica, but though +the latter is prepared artificially for various purposes, it is too +expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar obstacle +lies in the way of using a certain native form of active silica, +viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of nitroglycerine, +for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available for +making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be +used. They are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice, +tufa, santorin earth, trass and pozzuolana itself. The following +analyses show their general composition:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Neapolitan<br />Pozzuo-<br />lana<br />(per cent)</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Roman<br />Pozzuo-<br />lana<br />(per cent)</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Trass<br />(per cent)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soluble silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Insoluble silicious residue</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">50.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>19.80</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>22.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.35</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.37</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">Trace</td> <td class="tcc rb">Trace</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Combined water (H<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>4.27</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>8.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Moisture</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.04</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alkalis and loss</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.58</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is +granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a +high percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused +into abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the +same slag allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy +which it possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified. +It bears to ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that +borne by plastic sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This +potential energy becomes kinetic when the slag is brought into +contact with lime in the presence of water, and causes the formation +of a true hydraulic silicate of lime. The following analysis +shows the composition of a typical slag:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Per Cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble residue</td> <td class="tcr">1.04</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">31.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">18.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Manganous oxide (MnO)</td> <td class="tcr">0.44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">42.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">3.18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Soda (Na<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr">0.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur (S)</td> <td class="tcr">2.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">1.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">99.20</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime +until both materials are in a state of fine division and intimately +mixed. The usual proportions are three of slag to one of slaked +lime by weight. The product termed slag cement sets slowly, +but ultimately attains a strength scarcely inferior to that of +Portland cement. Although it is cheap and suitable for many +purposes, its use is not large and tends to decrease. Pozzuolanic +cements are little used in England. Generally speaking, they +are only of local importance, their cheapness depending largely +on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit +of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured +by the careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime, +but are mixed roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being +employed. This excess does no harm, for that part which fails +to unite with the lime serves as a diluent, much as does sand in +mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic cement made on the spot +where it is to be used may be regarded as a better kind of common +mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic mortars may +be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as the +pozzuolanic constituent.</p> + +<p>Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the +pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and +active silica ready to unite under suitable conditions, +but consist of definite chemical compounds of lime and +<span class="sidenote">Portland Cement</span> +silica and lime and alumina, which, when mixed with +water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of great +mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert +material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a +high temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance +and an argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances +in England are chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand +it, limestone, marl, shale, slag or any similar material may be +used, provided that the correct proportions of lime, silica and +alumina are maintained. The earliest forms of cements of the +Portland class were the hydraulic limes. These are still largely +used, and are prepared by burning limestones containing clayey +matter. Some of these naturally possess a composition differing +but little from that of the mixture of raw materials artificially +prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement itself. +Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient +times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to +water have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity +to hydraulic lime is Roman cement, prepared by heating an +indurated marl occurring naturally in nodules. Its name must +not be taken to imply that it was used by the ancients; in point of +fact the manufacture of this substance dates back only to 1796.</p> + +<p>With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th +century arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply +of materials containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium +carbonate and clay being limited, attempts were made to produce +artificial mixtures which would serve a similar end. Among those +who experimented in this direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, +who added clay to finely ground limestone, calcined the mixture, +and ground the product, which he called Portland cement. +The only connexion between Portland cement and the place +Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles +Portland stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture +Portland cement from Portland stone (after adding a suitable +quantity of clay), but this is merely because Portland stone is +substantially carbonate of lime; any other limestone would serve +equally well. Although Portland cement is later in date than +either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account of its +greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an +artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition +and properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The +greater part of the Portland cement made in England is manufactured +on the Thames and Medway. The materials are chalk +and Medway mud; in a few works the latter is replaced by gault.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in +the following analyses:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2" style="background-color: #d0d0d0;">Chalk.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina + ferric oxide (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span> + Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">43.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99.92</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="5" style="background-color: #d0d0d0;">Clay.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Insoluble silicious matter</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.67</td> <td class="tcl rb">Consisting of</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">31.24</td> <td class="tcl rb"> Quartz (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.33</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.60</td> <td class="tcl rb"> Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.19</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="4" style="background-color: #d0d0d0;">Feldspar<br />7.34%</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferric Oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.66</td> <td class="tcl rb"> Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.25</td> <td class="tcl rb"> Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.91</td> <td class="tcl rb"> Soda (Na<span class="su">2</span>0)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soda (Na<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">———</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potash (K<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.45</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">26.67</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.86</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Combined water, organic matter, and loss</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.36</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">———</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span></p> + +<p>These materials are mixed in the proportion of about 3:1 by weight +so that the dried mixture contains approximately 75% of calcium +carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may be +effected in several ways. The method once exclusively +<span class="sidenote">Mixing.</span> +used consists in mixing the raw materials with a large quantity of +water in a wash mill, a machine having radial horizontal arms driven +from a central vertical spindle and carrying harrows which stir up +and intermix any soft material placed in the pit in which the +apparatus revolves. The raw materials in the correct proportion +are fed into this mill together with a large quantity of water. The +thin watery “slip” or slurry flows into large settling tanks (“backs”) +where the solids in suspension are deposited; the water is drawn off, +leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk and clay in the form +of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being dried on floors heated +by flues is ready for burning. This process is now almost obsolete. +According to present practice the raw materials are mixed in a wash +mill with so much water that the resulting slurry contains 40 to +50% of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow, is ground +between millstones so as to complete the process of comminution +begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are of the +utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced +will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is +generally effected by the waste heat of the kilns, so that while one +charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the +kilns. The kilns commonly employed are “chamber kilns,” circular +<span class="sidenote">Loading the kiln.</span> +structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but +having the top closed and connected at the side with a +wide flue in which the slurry is exposed to the hot products +of combustion from the kiln. The farther ends of the flues of several +such kilns are connected with a chimney shaft. The slurry, in +drying on the floor of the flue, forms a fairly tough cake which cracks +spontaneously in the process of drying into rough blocks suitable +for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of the kiln is a grate of +iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled to start the fire. A +layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a layer of coke, then a +layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is filled with coke and slurry +evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on to the drying floors, and +the kiln is started. The construction of an ordinary chamber kiln +may be gathered from the accompanying diagram (fig. l). The +operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln, which will +contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will take two +days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three days in +burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and +unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run. +The output will be about 30 tons of “clinker” ready to be ground +into cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker +is effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills, +tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the manufacture, +because the finished cement should be as fine and “floury” +as possible. The foregoing description represents the procedure in +use in many English factories. There are various modifications in +practice according to local conditions: a few of these may be +described. In all cases, however, the main operations are the same, +viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the mixture, if +necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature (about 1500° C. +=2732° F.). Thus when hard limestone is the form of calcium +carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and mixed with the +correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The mixture is +slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and burned. A +possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix the resulting +lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By this +method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an extra +expenditure of fuel in the double burning.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:280px" src="images/img655a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:383px; height:554px" src="images/img655b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland +cement. Besides the chamber kilns which have been described, +there are the old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar +to the chamber kilns, but are bottle-shaped and open +<span class="sidenote">Other kilns.</span> +at the top; they do not dry the slurry for their next +charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also stage kilns +of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical shafts, one above +the other, but not in the same vertical line, connected by a horizontal +channel. At this middle portion and in the upper part of the lower +shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper shaft is full of unburnt +raw material which is heated by the hot gases coming from the +burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker already burned +and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies that necessary +for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of Dietzsch kilns, +built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are other forms of +shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a burning zone, +a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no horizontal +stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane. Another +form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of compartments +arranged in a ring and connected with a central chimney; +in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw +materials are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled. +At a given moment one of these compartments is burning and at its +full temperature; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or +more compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and +is thereby strongly heated; the products of combustion pass away +through one or more compartments in front of it and heat their +contents before they are subjected to actual combustion. It will +be seen that the principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage +kiln. In each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully +hot serves to heat +the air-supply to +the compartment +where combustion +is actually +proceeding; +in like manner +the raw materials +about to be +burned are well +heated by the +waste gases from +the compartment +in full activity +before they themselves +are burned. +(It may be noted +that here and +generally in this +article “burn” +is used in the +technical sense; +it is technically +correct to speak +of cement clinker +being “burned”, +although it is not +a fuel; in accurate +terms it is +the fuel which is +burned, and it is +the heat it generates +which +raises the clinker +to a high temperature, +<i>i.e.</i> technically +“burns” +it.) By this device +a great part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is +effected.</p> + +<p>The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent. +They are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because +the cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in +fixed kilns. These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in +length, an ordinary length in modern practice being 100 +<span class="sidenote">Rotatory kilns.</span> +to 120 ft.; their diameter correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft. +6 in. The cylinders are made of steel plate, lined with refractory +bricks, are carried on rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal, +and are rotated by power. At the upper end the raw material is fed +in either as a dry powder or as a slurry; at the lower end is a powerful +burner. In the early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was +used as a fuel, but with little success; about 1895 petroleum was +used in the United States with complete success, but at a relatively +heavy cost. At the present time, finely powdered coal injected by +a blast of air is almost universally employed, petroleum being used +only where it is actually cheaper than coal. In the working of this +type of kiln the rotation and slight inclination of the cylinder cause +the raw material to descend towards the lower end. At the upper +end the raw material is dried and heated moderately. As it descends +it reaches a part of the kiln where the temperature is higher; here +the carbonic acid of the carbonate of lime, and the combined water +of the clay are driven off, and the resulting lime begins to act chemically +on the dehydrated clay. The material is then in a partially +burnt and slightly sintered state, but it is not fully clinkered and +would not make Portland cement. The material continues to +descend by the rotation of the kiln and reaches the lower end nearest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +the burner where the temperature is highest, and is there heated so +highly that the union of the lime, silica and alumina is complete, +and fully burnt clinker falls out of the kiln. It is extremely hot, +and is cooled usually by being passed down one or more rotating +cylinders, similar to the first, but smaller, and acting as coolers +instead of kilns. On its way down the cylinders the clinker meets +a current of cold air and is cooled, the air being correspondingly +warmed and passing on to aid in the combustion of the fuel used +in heating the kiln. This regenerative heating is similar in principle +and effect to that obtained by means of the shaft and ring kilns +described above. The output of these kilns varies from 200 to 400 +tons per kiln per week according to their size and the nature of the +raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per week for an ordinary +chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also secured. The rotatory +system presents many advantages and is rapidly replacing the older +methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents diagrammatically a +rotatory cement plant on the Hurry & Seaman system, which was +one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process successfully +on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory kilns of +various other makes are now in use, but the same principles are +embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder +for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and +a blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling +tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly +heated on its way to the burner.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:830px; height:287px" src="images/img656.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another method of making Portland cement which has been +proposed and tried with some success consists in fusing the raw +materials together in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace. +The high temperature necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this +process difficult to accomplish commercially, but it has many +inherent merits and may be the process of the future, displacing +the rotatory method.</p> + +<p>Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like +substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The +product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt +and properly vitrified; that from an ordinary fixed kiln +<span class="sidenote">Cement clinker.</span> +of whatever type is apt to contain a certain amount (5 +to 15%) of underburnt material, which is yellowish and friable and +is not properly clinkered. This material must be picked out, as such +underburnt stuff contains free lime or unsaturated lime compounds. +These may slake slowly in the finished cement and cause such expansion +as may destroy the work of which it forms part. Well-burnt, +well-picked clinker when ground yields good Portland cement. +Nothing is added during or after grinding save a small amount +(1 to 2%) of calcium sulphate in the form either of gypsum or of +plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the cement +slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water +(up to 2%) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by +blowing steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This +small addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate, +but the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone +and blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights, +is adulteration and therefore fraudulent.</p> + +<p>The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively +narrow limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending +<span class="sidenote">Composition.</span> +to become smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture +increase. The following analysis may be taken as typical +of cements made from chalk and clay on the Thames and +Medway:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">22.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble residue</td> <td class="tcr">1.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">7.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">3.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">62.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">1.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">1.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Water (H<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr">0.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alkalis</td> <td class="tcr">0.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">There may be variations from this composition according to the +nature of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range +from 19 to 27%, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7 +to 14%, the lime from 60 to 67%. All such variations are permissible +provided that the quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient +to saturate the whole of the lime and to leave none of it in a “free” +condition, likely to cause the cement to expand after setting. Other +things being equal, the higher the percentage of lime within the limits +indicated above the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed +cement is less easy to burn than cement containing about 62% of +lime; and unless the burning is thorough and the raw materials are +intimately mixed, the cement is apt to be unsound. Although the +ultimate composition of cement, that is, the percentage of each base +and acid present, can be accurately determined by analysis, its +proximate composition, <i>i.e.</i> the nature and amount of the compounds +formed from these acids and bases, can only be ascertained indirectly +and with difficulty. The foundations of our knowledge on this +subject were laid by H. le Chatelier, whose work +has since been supplemented by that of Spenser +B. Newberry, W.B. Newberry and Clifford Richardson. +As the outcome of these inquiries it has been +established that tricalcium silicate 3CaO·SiO<span class="su">2</span> is the +essential constituent of Portland cement. The constituent +of next importance is an aluminate, but +whether this is dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, or +tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is still in doubt. +In the following description it is assumed to be the +tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and +aluminates present, and ferric oxide and magnesia, +if existing in the moderate quantities which are +usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of +minor importance and may be regarded as little more +than impurities. The silicates and aluminates of +which Portland cement is composed are believed to +exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of each other, these +solid solutions taking the form of minerals recognizable as individuals. +The two principal minerals are termed alite and celite; according +to the best opinion, alite consists of a solid solution of tricalcium +aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and celite of a solid solution of +dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium silicate. Celite is little affected +by water, and has but small influence on the setting; alite is decomposed +and hydrated, this action constituting the main part of +the setting of Portland cement. Both the components of alite react, +and for simplicity their reactions may be stated in separate equations, +thus:—</p> + +<p class="noind">(1) 2(3CaO·SiO<span class="su">2</span>) + 9H<span class="su">2</span>O = 2(CaO·SiO<span class="su">2</span>)·5H<span class="su">2</span>O + 4Ca(OH)<span class="su">2</span><br /> + Tricalcium silicate.   Hydrated mono-   Calcium<br /> +           calcium silicate.   hydroxide.</p> + +<p class="noind">(2) 3CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + 12H<span class="su">2</span>O = 3CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·12H<span class="su">2</span>O<br /> + Tricalcium aluminate.  Hydrated tricalcium aluminate.</p> + +<p class="noind">Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral, +is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to tricalcium +aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary; but, whatever +the proportions, each of these substances will react in its characteristic +manner according to the equations given above.</p> + +<p>The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland +cement is not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous +to that of the setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution +of the compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more +soluble form, their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent +supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus +of the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a +coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a +small quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition +of a substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less +soluble form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an indefinitely +large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there +should be present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the reacting +substance at any one time; it is sufficient if there is enough for +hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive +stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the aluminate +is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that +its ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the +tricalcium silicate.</p> + +<p>As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium +silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of +minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in +ordinary cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of +silica, alumina and lime in the clinker; its role in the setting of the +cement is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement +can be prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free +also from manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed +for exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement +in quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is +evidence that in larger proportion, <i>e.g.</i> 10-15%, it may hydrate +and set after the general setting of the cement, and may give rise +to disruptive strains causing the cement to “blow” and fail. In +so-called natural cement which is comparatively lightly burnt, the +magnesia appears to be inert, and as much as 20 to 30% may be +present. Another constituent of Portland cement which influences +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +its setting time is calcium sulphate, naturally formed from the +sulphur in the raw materials or fuel, or intentionally added to the +finished cement as gypsum or plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable +retarding effect on the hydration of the calcium aluminate, and +consequently on the setting of the cement; thus it is that a little +gypsum is often added to convert a naturally quick-setting cement +into one which sets slowly. It will be observed that in the hydration +of tricalcium silicate, the main constituent of Portland cement, a +large portion of the lime appears as calcium hydroxide, <i>i.e.</i> slaked +lime. It is evident that this will form a pozzuolanic cement if a +suitable silicious material such as trass is added to the cement. The +ultimate product when set may be regarded as a mixed Portland +and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this manner as an +adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W. Michaelis, +and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but it has +not become general.</p> + +<p>The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis +and by determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength +and soundness. A good sample will usually have a composition +within the limits cited above and approximating +<span class="sidenote">Testing.</span> +to the typical figures given above. It will be ground so finely that +not more than 3% will be left on a sieve of 76 × 76 meshes per sq. +in., the wires of the sieve being 0.005 in. in diameter. It will have, +when freshly burned, a specific gravity not lower than 3.15, and +briquettes made from it and kept in water will possess a tensile +strength of 400-500 ℔ per sq. in. seven days after they are made, +while briquettes made from a mixture of 3 parts by weight of sand +and 1 of cement will give about 225 ℔ per sq. in. at twenty-eight +days. Formerly the soundness of cement was determined by keeping +thin pats of the cement in cold water for twenty-eight days, +or in warm water (110°-120° F.) for twenty-four hours, and examining +for cracks or other signs of expansion. Modern practice is to +measure the expansion of a test piece of cement kept in water at a +temperature of 212° F. The simplest and most generally used +method is due to H.L. le Châtelier, and consists in measuring the +increase in circumference of a cylinder of cement 30 mm. in diameter +by means of a split ring encircling the cylinder, the motion of which +is magnified by two light rods extending radially. Another quantitative +test for soundness is that formulated by L. Deval, who has +shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of cement kept in water +for two days at 80° C. = 176° F. attain approximately the same +strength as similar briquettes attain at seven days in water at the +ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes kept at 176° F. +for seven days are approximately equal in strength to those kept at +the ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A cement not +perfectly sound will give low results in the hot test, and a cement of +indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The test is admittedly +severe, but can be passed without difficulty by cement +made with proper care and skill. There are many modifications and +elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement +for all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing +and analysis before it is accepted and used.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Hydraulic Lime</i> is a cement of the Portland as distinct from +the pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is that +known as Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at +Ardèche in France. This limestone consists of calcium carbonate +most intimately intermixed with very finely divided silica. It +contains but little alumina and oxide of iron, which are the +constituents generally necessary to bring about the union of +silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the silica is so +finely divided and so well distributed that it unites readily with +the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently high +temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class; +they contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in +composition resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tccm">Chaux de Theil.<br />Per cent.</td> <td class="tccm">Blue Lias.<br />Per cent</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble silicious matter</td> <td class="tcr">0.3</td> <td class="tcr">2.39</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">21.7</td> <td class="tcr">14.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">1.8</td> <td class="tcr">6.79</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.6</td> <td class="tcr">2.34</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">74.0</td> <td class="tcr">63.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">0.7</td> <td class="tcr">1.54</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.3</td> <td class="tcr">1.63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcrm" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>0.6</td> <td class="tcr">3.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Water (H<span class="su">2</span>0)</td> <td class="tcr">2.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alkalis and loss</td> <td class="tcr">· ·</td> <td class="tcr">1.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has +to be slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking +is conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime +being sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking +proceeds slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncombined +lime is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious +compounds, notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In +English practice hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that +regular and perfect slaking is more easily attained when working +systematically on a large scale and by storing the material for a long +period, the French method is the better and more rational. The +product may then be regarded as a cement of the Portland class +mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with water and made into +a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes almost as strong as +Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage for some purposes, +<i>e.g.</i> for foundations and abutments where settlements may occur. +The structure is free to take its permanent position before the lime +sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in point is the employment +of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement as grouting outside +the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made by the shield +system.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Roman Cement</i> is another cement of the Portland class which +came into use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Portland +cement was attempted. It is still in use, though only for +special purposes where a quick-setting material is required. It +is made from septaria nodules which are dredged up on the Kent +and Essex coasts and consist of about 60% of calcium carbonate +mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently indurated to remain +coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared in any +way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but approximates +to the following figures:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tccm">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble silicious matter</td> <td class="tcr">5.86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">19.62</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>0<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">10.30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">7.44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Manganese dioxide (MnO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">1.57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">44.54</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">2.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">2.61</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">3.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Water (H<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr">0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alkalis and loss</td> <td class="tcr">1.46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives +the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also +differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains +appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of +alumina causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard +in about five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh, +very well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is +likely to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place.</p> +</div> + +<p>The term <i>Natural Cements</i> is applied to cements made by +burning mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occurring +in approximately suitable proportions. They may be +regarded as badly-mixed Portland cements, and need no special +description. American “natural” cements are of a somewhat +different class. They are usually made from a silicious limestone +containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly burned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tccm">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">24.30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>0<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">7.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">5.06</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">33.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">20.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss</td> <td class="tcr">8.78</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building +materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good +artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Passow Cement</i> is a recent product which is in a class by itself. +It is made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable composition +and finely grinding the product, either alone or with an +admixture of about 10% of Portland cement clinker. It differs +from ordinary slag cement (see above) in that it is not a pozzuolanic +cement depending on the interaction of granulated slag +and lime. The particular method of granulating slag for Passow +cement produces a material which sets <i>per se</i> and attains a +strength comparable with that of Portland cement. Passow +cement has been successfully made from slag of different +compositions in Germany, England and America.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span></p> + +<p>The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic +or Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which +is to be exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote +antiquity it was found that the jointing of masonry +<span class="sidenote">Uses of hydraulic cements.</span> +which was to be immersed required the use of a cement +indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar +failed in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from +limestones or chalks containing a little clay was found to stand; +mortar made from lime mixed with trass or similar active +silicious material was also found to stand. On this observation +rests the whole of the present enormous employment of hydraulic +cements. It was a natural transition to utilize these cements +not merely for jointing masonry but also for making concrete, +and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct from +cements which are not hydraulic (<i>e.g.</i> ordinary mortar), are used +for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their +use in above-water work is checked by the low price of common +brick. Even in such work, where it would be thought that +masses of burnt clay would be the cheapest conceivable material, +concrete is at least on level terms with its rival. It must be +remembered that one of the great advantages of concrete is that +five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from local sand and +gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement, on +which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose +incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that +the largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock +and harbour work, and for the making of foundations. It is also +employed for the building of light bridges, floors, and pipes +constructed of cement mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron +rods. Such composite structures take advantage at once of the +high tensile strength of iron and of the high compressive strength +of cement mortar. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Concrete</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials +provided certain conditions be observed. It might be supposed +that hydraulic cements from their nature would be indifferent +to the action of water, but this is only true if the structures of +which they form part are sufficiently compact. In this case the +action of the water is checked by the film of carbonate of lime +which eventually forms oh the surface of calcareous cement. +This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the +ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and +ultimate destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or +mortar is not well made and is porous, the continual passage of +water through it will gradually break up and dissolve away the +calcareous constituents of the cement until its strength is utterly +destroyed. This destructive action is increased if the water +contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of which act +chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As +sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is +especially necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every +care to produce an impervious structure. There are various +minor external causes for the failure and ultimate destruction +of cement mortar and concrete, but their discussion is a matter +for the specialist. Failure from inherent vice in the cement has +been already touched on; it can always be traced to want of +skill and care in manufacture.</p> + +<p><i>Calcium Sulphate Cements.</i>—Under this term are comprehended +all cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the +hydration of calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris, +Keene’s cement and many variants of these two types. The +raw material is gypsum (<i>q.v.</i>). This may be almost chemically +pure, when it is generally used for Keene’s cement; or it may +contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which +case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster +of Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum +at temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be +produced. If plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is +carried out at about 204° C. (= 400° F.); at this temperature, +gypsum, CaS0<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>0, loses three-quarters of its combined +water and becomes 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>0. If a cement of the Keene’s +cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is higher, +<i>e.g.</i> 500° C. (= 932° F.), and the whole of the combined water of +the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaSO<span class="su">4</span> being +obtained.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking +the mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both +processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory +kilns, a process which may be regarded as the method of +<span class="sidenote">Plaster of Paris; Keene’s cement.</span> +the present and the immediate future. Keene’s cement +and its congeners are made in fixed kilns so constructed +that only the gaseous products of combustion come into +contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid contamination +with the ash of the fuel.</p> + +<p>The setting of plaster of Paris depends on the fact that when +2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O is treated with water it dissolves, forming a supersaturated +solution of CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. The excess held temporarily in +solution is then deposited in crystals of CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. In the light +of this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes +clear. The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to +make it into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite insufficient +to dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part, +and gives a supersaturated solution of CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. In a few minutes +the surplus hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution, +and the water is capable again of dissolving 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, which in +turn is fully hydrated and deposited as CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. The process +goes on until a relatively small quantity of water has by instalments +dissolved and hydrated the 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, and has deposited +CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O in felted crystals forming a solid mass well cemented +together. The setting is rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and +is accompanied by a considerable expansion of the mass. There is +reason to suppose that the change described takes place in two stages, +the gypsum first forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystallizing +in the monosymmetric system. Gypsum thus crystallized +is in its normal monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary +conditions than the orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process +of dehydration to form plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum +is converted into the orthorhombic form before it begins to be +dehydrated.</p> + +<p>The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the +other class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene +class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of knowledge +on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential +difference between the setting of Keene’s cement and that of plaster +of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying +hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion +which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less +marked.</p> + +<p>It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low +temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, to soak +the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to +recalcine them at about 500° C. On grinding they give Keene’s +cement. Instead of alum various other salts, <i>e.g.</i> borax, may be +used. The quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of +Keene’s cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium +sulphate, and make it difficult to explain what, if any, influence +these minute amounts of alum and the like can exert on the setting +of the cement. It seems probable that the effect of the salts is +inconsiderable, and that the governing condition is the temperature +at which the cement has been burnt. The setting of Keene’s cement +takes place by the same sort of process which has been described for +the setting of plaster of Paris, the chief differences being that the +substance dissolved is anhydrous calcium sulphate and that the +operation takes a longer time.</p> + +<p>All cements having calcium sulphate as their base are suitable only +for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They +form excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white +colour and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter +quantity being due to their expansion when setting.</p> + +<p>See D.B. Butler, <i>Portland Cement</i> (London, 1905); E.C. Eckel, +<i>Cements, Limes and Plasters</i> (New York, 1905); G.R. Redgrave and +Charles Spackman, <i>Calcareous Cements</i> (London, 1905); F.H. Lewis, +“Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States,” <i>The +Mineral Industry</i> (New York, 1898); W.H. Stanger and Bertram +Blount, “Cement Manufacture in Great Britain,” <i>The Mineral +Industry</i>, New York, 1897 and 1905; <i>Id</i>. “The Testing of Hydraulic +Cements,” <i>Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,</i> 1894, 13, p. 455; <i>Id., Proc. Inst. +Civ. Eng.</i>, 1901; B. Blount, “Recent Progress in the Cement +Industry,” <i>Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,</i> 1906, 25, p. 1020; H.L. le +Chatelier, <i>Recherrhes experimenlales sur la constitution des mortiers +hydrauliques;</i> Desch, <i>Concrete</i>, No. 2, pp. 101-102; Davis, <i>Journ. +Soc. Chem. Ind.,</i> 1905, 26, p. 727.</p> +<div class="author">(B. Bl.)</div> + +<p><i>Adhesive Cements.</i>—Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral +substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making +joints, mending broken china and other objects, &c. A strong +cement for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared +by mixing 12 parts of Portland cement, 8 of fine sand and 1 of infusorial +earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of +soda; the object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone, +marble, and earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be +made as follows:—skimmed-milk cheese is boiled in water till of a gluey +consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span> +with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar +cement is a mixture of dried fresh curd with <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>th of its weight +of quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with +water when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china, +&c., is composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster +of Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to +be united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement, +the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg, +hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also +useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before +their application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of +wine is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are +solutions of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha. +For use with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of +wooden cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed oil +boiled with litharge, and 8 parts of melted glue; other strong +cements for the same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine +in cold water and dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or by mixing +glue with one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little +bichromate of potash. <i>Mahogany cement</i>, for filling up cracks in +wood, consists of 4 parts of beeswax, 1 of Indian red and yellow-ochre +to give colour. <i>Cutler’s cement</i>, used for fixing knife-blades in +their hafts, is made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin, +or of 4 parts of rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For +covering bottle-corks a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is +employed. A cheap cement, sometimes employed to fix iron rails +in stone-work, is melted brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust. +For pipe-joints, a mixture of iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac, +moistened with water, is employed. <i>Japanese cement</i>, for uniting +surfaces of paper, is made by mixing rice-flour with water and boiling +it. <i>Jewellers’</i> or <i>Armenian cement</i> consists of isinglass with mastic +and gum ammoniac dissolved in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep +their work firm by means of a cement of pitch and rosin, a little +tallow, and brick-dust to thicken. <i>Temporary cement</i> for lathe-work, +such as the polishing and grinding of jewelry and optical glasses, is +compounded thus:—rosin, 4 oz.; whitening previously made red-hot, +4 oz.; wax, ĵ oz.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEMETERY<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koimêtêrion">κοιμητήριον</span>, from <span class="grk" title="koiman">κοιμᾶν</span>, to sleep), literally +a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to the +places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally +extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of +interment in churches or churchyards being unknown in the +first centuries of the Christian era. The term cemetery has, +therefore, been appropriately applied in modern times to the +burial-grounds, generally extra-mural, which have been substituted +for the overcrowded churchyards (<i>q.v.</i>) of populous +parishes both urban and rural.</p> + +<p>From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the +condition of the London churchyards by correspondence in the +press and by the reports of parliamentary committees, the first +of which, that of Mr Chadwick, appeared in 1843. The vaults +under the pavement of the churches, and the small spaces of +open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins. +In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products +of corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease +and death to those who frequented them. In the churchyards +coffins were placed tier above tier in the graves until they were +within a few feet (or sometimes even a few inches) of the surface, +and the level of the ground was often raised to that of the lower +windows of the church. To make room for fresh interments the +sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal of bones and +partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents of +the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the +site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles +and nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the +churchyards was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the +gaseous emanations from the graves, and the water, wherever +it was obtained from wells, containing organic matter, the source +of which could not be mistaken. In all the large towns the evil +prevailed in a greater or less degree, but in London, on account +of the immense population and the consequent mortality, it +forced itself more readily upon public attention, and after more +than one partial measure of relief had been passed the churchyards +were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of +1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of +ground to the north, south, east and west became henceforth +the burial-places of the metropolis. Several of them had been +already established by private enterprise before the passing of +the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green cemetery dates from 1832), +but that enactment forms the epoch from which the general +development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland began. +Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost everywhere +abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by +such safeguards as make it practically innocuous. This tendency +has been conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the +United States. The increasing practice of cremation (<i>q.v.</i>) has +assisted in the movement for disposing of the dead in more +sanitary conditions; and the proposals of Sir Seymour Haden +and others for burying the dead in more open coffins, and +abandoning the old system of family graves, have had considerable +effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving +the sanitary aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the +cemeteries themselves as fit as possible for this purpose, and +beautiful in arrangement and decoration.</p> + +<p>The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery +on the Harrow Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of +Highgate Hill; the cemetery at Abney Park (once the residence +of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead cemeteries to the +south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton; +the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria +cemetery and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London; +and at a greater distance, accessible by railway, the great +cemetery at Brookwood near Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery +at New Southgate. The general plan of all these cemeteries +is the same, a park with broad paths either laid out in curved +lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each other +at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery. +The ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave +spaces, and trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between +them. The buildings consist of a curator’s residence and one or +more chapels, and usually there is also a range of family graves +with imposing tombs, massive structures containing in their +corridors recesses for the reception of coffins, generally closed +only by an iron grating. The provincial cemeteries in the main +features of their arrangements resemble those of the metropolis. +One of the most remarkable is St James’s cemetery at Liverpool, +which occupies a deserted quarry. The face of the eastern side +of the quarry is traversed by ascending gradients off which open +catacombs formed in the living rock,—a soft sandstone; the +ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand hundreds +of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through +a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery +chapel, built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle +porticos.</p> + +<p>Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries. +One of the largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn +near Boston. Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery +(1836) at Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at +Brooklyn (New York); the Lake View cemetery at Cleveland, +Ohio; while the cemeteries at New Orleans (<i>q.v.</i>) are famous +for their beauty.</p> + +<p>The chief cemetery of Paris is that of Père la Chaise, the +prototype of the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes +its name from the celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom +as rector of the Jesuits of Paris it once belonged. It was laid out +as a cemetery in 1804. It has an area of about 200 acres, and +contains about 20,000 monuments, including those of all the great +men of France of the 19th century—marshals, generals, ministers, +poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors and musicians. +Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the scene +of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian +column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 1871 the +Communists made their last stand among the tombs of Père la +Chaise; 900 of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were +shot there after its capture, and 200 of them were buried in +quicklime in one huge grave and 700 in another. There are +other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and Montmartre, besides the +minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles, Passy, La +Villette, &c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being more +or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the +plateau of Méry sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +it is connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit +fully 2 sq. m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs +in many respects from the English. Every city and town is +required by law to provide a burial-ground beyond its barriers, +properly laid out and planted, and situated if possible on a rising +ground. Each interment must take place in a separate grave. +This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the dead are +buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the <i>fosses communes</i>, the poor +being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being +made in all other cases. The <i>fosse</i> is filled and left undisturbed +for five years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed, +the level of the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and +interments begin again. For a fee of 50 francs a <i>concession +temporaire</i> for ten years can be obtained, but where it is desired +to erect a permanent monument the ground must be bought by +the executors of the deceased. In Paris the undertakers’ trade +is the monopoly of a company, the <i>Société des pompes funèbres</i>, +which in return for its privileges is required to give a free burial +to the poor.</p> + +<p>The <i>Leichenhäuser</i>, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich +form a remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The +object of their founders was twofold—(1) to obviate even the +remotest danger of premature interment, and (2) to offer a +respectable place for the reception of the dead, in order to +remove the corpse from the confined dwellings of the survivors. +At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of the wings of the +propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the cemetery. +It consists of the warder’s room, where an attendant is always on +duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated, +kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on +which a corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a +ring connected by a light cord with a bell which hangs outside +in the warder’s room. The use of the dead-house is voluntary. +The bodies deposited there are inspected at regular intervals by +a medical officer, and the warder is always on the watch for the +ringing of the warning bell. One revival, that of a child, has been +known to take place at Frankfort. The Leichenhaus of Munich +is situated in the southern cemetery outside the Sendling Gate. +At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular building with +an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which +contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At +both Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the +attendants receive the dead confided to them with respect, and +no interment is permitted until the first signs of decomposition +appear; the relatives then assemble in one of the halls adjoining +the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place. In any case +there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature interment, +but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of +great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which +result from the prolonged retention of the dead among the +living. Mortuaries for this purpose have also been established +in many places in England.</p> + +<p>In Italy the <i>Campo Santo</i> (Holy Field) is best illustrated by +the famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to +other Italian burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use +in southern Europe the catacombs (<i>q.v.</i>) of Sicily are the most +curious. There is one of these under the old Capuchin monastery +of Ziza near Palermo, where in four large airy subterranean +corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in the wall, many of +them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or hanging +with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation +for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then +dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end +of the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely +ornamented with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones.</p> + +<p>Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations +from time immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton +and Macao are crowded with tombs, many of them being in the +form of small tumuli, with a low encircling wall, forcibly recalling +the ringed barrows of western Europe. But the most picturesque +cemeteries in the world are those of the Turks. From them it +was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern cemetery, with +its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around Constantinople +the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under whose +branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never +reopened; a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so +the dead now occupy a wider territory than that which is covered +by the homes of the living. The Turks believe that till the body +is buried the soul is in a state of discomfort, and the funeral, +therefore, takes place as soon as possible after death. No coffin +is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few boards are arranged +round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care being taken to +leave a small opening extending from the head of the corpse to +the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently enlarged +by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone +of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban +in the case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low +relief if the grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying +form indicates not only the rank of the sleeper below but also +the period of his death, for the fashion of the Turkish head-dress +is always changing. A cypress is usually planted beside the grave, +its odour being supposed to neutralize any noxious exhalations +from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a forest, where by +day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or perching on the +trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at night. +Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite +resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside +the narrow openings that lead down into a parent’s, a husband’s, +or a brother’s grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constantinople +contrast rather unfavourably with the simple dignity +of those which belong to the Turks. That of the Armenians +abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of the death of +whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones there +are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging +on the gallows.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial and Burial Acts</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cremation</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Churchyard</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENCI, BEATRICE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1577-1599), a Roman woman, famous +for her tragic story; poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance +about her, which modern historic research has to a large extent +destroyed. Born at Rome, she was the daughter of Francesco +Cenci (1549-1598), the bastard son of a priest, and a man of +great wealth but dissolute habits and violent temper. He seems +to have been guilty of various offences and to have got off with +short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous +cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely +legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve +children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia +Petroni, a widow with three daughters, by whom he had no +offspring. He was very quarrelsome and lived on the worst +possible terms with his children, who, however, were all of them +more or less disreputable. He kept various mistresses and was +even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his sons were equally +dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter Beatrice was +probably due to his discovery that she had had an illegitimate +child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards (A. +Bertolotti, in his <i>Francesco Cenci</i>, publishes Beatrice’s will in +which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that +he tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The +eldest son Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel, +who cheated his own father and even attempted to murder him +(1595). Two other sons, Rocco and Cristoforo, both of them +notorious rakes, were killed in brawls. Finally Francesco’s +wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and Beatrice, +assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him. +Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according +to Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice’s lover), and Francesco was +assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom +of Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos +murdered, but the other was arrested by the Neapolitan +authorities and confessed everything. Information having been +communicated to Rome, the whole of the Cenci family were +arrested early in 1599; but the story of the hardships they +underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra escaped; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and +Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture, +also ended by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain +mercy for the accused, but the crime was considered too heinous, +and the pope (Clement VIII.) refused to grant a pardon; on +the 11th of September 1599, Beatrice and Lucrezia were +beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with red-hot +pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered. +Bernardo’s penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to +perpetual imprisonment, and after a year’s confinement he was +pardoned. The property of the family was confiscated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The romantic character of the history of this family has been the +subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley’s tragedy is well +known as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts +a purely fictitious version of the story. Nor is F.D. Guerrazzi’s +novel, <i>Beatrice Cenci</i> (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first +attempt to deal with the subject on documentary evidence is +A. Bertolotti’s <i>Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia</i> (2nd ed., Florence, +1879), containing a number of interesting documents which place +the events in their true light; cf. Labruzzi’s article in the <i>Nuova +Antologia</i>, 1879, vol. xiv., and another in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, +January 1879.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENOBITES<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="koinos">κοινός</span>, common, and <span class="grk" title="bios">βίος</span>, life), +monks who lived together in a convent or community under a +rule and a superior,—in contrast to hermits or anchorets who +live in isolation. The Basilians (<i>q.v.</i>) in the East and the Benedictines +(<i>q.v.</i>) in the West are the chief cenobitical orders (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENOMANI,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose +territory corresponded generally to Maine in the modern department +of Sarthe. Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum +(corrupted into Subdinnum), afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum +(whence Le Mans), the original name of the town, as usual in +the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that of the people. +According to Caesar (<i>Bell. Gall.</i> vii. 75. 3), they assisted Vercingetorix +in the great rising (52 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) with a force of 5000 men. Under +Augustus they formed a <i>civitas stipendiaria</i> of Gallia Lugdunensis, +and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii. About +400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large +number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans +southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of +Cato (in Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> iii. 130), that some of them settled near +Massilia in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route +taken by them. The limits of their territory are not clearly +defined, but were probably the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the +east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps the Addua) on the west, and +the Padus on the south. Livy gives their chief towns as Brixia +(Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona. The Cenomani +nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies +of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), +when the Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and +during the war against Hannibal. They certainly joined in +the revolt of the Gauls under Hamilcar (200), but after they had +been defeated by the consul Gaius Cornelius (197) they finally +submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia Transpadana, they +acquired the rights of citizenship.</p> + +<p>The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel +of Cenomani have given rise to discussion. According to +Arbois de Jubainville, the Cenomăni of Italy are not identical +with the Cenomāni (or Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the +latter, the survival of the syllable “man” in Le Mans is due to +the stress laid on the vowel; had the vowel been short and +unaccented, it would have disappeared. In Italy, Cenomani +is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of the +Aulerci.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Voisin, <i>Les Cénomans anciens et modernes</i> (Le Mans, 1862); +A. Desjardins, <i>Géographic historique de la Gaule romaine,</i> ii. (1876-1893); +Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Les Premiers Habitants de l’Europe</i> +(1889-1894); article and authorities in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>; +C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. pt. 2 (1899); +full ancient authorities in A. Holder, <i>Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz</i>, i. +(1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENOTAPH<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kenos">κενός</span>, empty, <span class="grk" title="taphos">τάφος</span>, tomb), a monument or +tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere. +The custom arose from the erection of monuments to those +whose bodies could not be recovered, as in the case of drowning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENSOR<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>censere</i>, assess, estimate; in Gr. <span class="grk" title="timaetaes">τιμητής</span>). +I. <i>In ancient Rome</i>, the title of the two Roman officials who +presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens +for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to +the community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea +of the arbitrary assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines +<i>census</i> as <i>arbitrium</i>, and derives the name <i>censores</i> from the +position of these magistrates as <i>arbitri populi</i> (Varro, <i>de Ling. +Lat.</i> v. 81; <i>ap.</i> Non. p. 519). This original idea of “discretionary +power” was never entirely lost; although ultimately +it came to be more intimately associated with the appreciation +of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the point +of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman +manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not +unusual feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome +possessed sumptuary laws, and laws dealing with moral offences, +which it was the duty of other magistrates to enforce; but the +organization for the control of conduct was mainly exhibited +in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited, was at once simple and +comprehensive.</p> + +<p>The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +to relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the +periods of registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous +office; but its tenure does not seem to have been fixed until +434 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when a <i>lex Aemilia</i> provided that the censors should +hold office for eighteen months. This magistracy was at first +confined to patricians; a plebeian censor is first mentioned in +351 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> A <i>lex Publilia</i> of 339 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> is said to have enacted that +one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian censors were for +the first time elected in 131 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The election always took place +in the Comitia Centuriata (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>). The censorship, +although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the +right of summoning the senate and the people, was not only one +of the higher magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a +political career. It was an irresponsible office; and the only +limitations on its powers were created by the restriction of +tenure to a year and a half, the fact that re-election was forbidden, +and the restraint imposed on each censor by the fact that no act +of his was valid without the assent of his colleague.</p> + +<p>The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration +of citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries; +(2) the taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their +property; (3) the right of exclusion from public functions on +moral grounds, known as the <i>regimen morum</i>; (4) the solemn +act of purification (<i>lustrum</i>) which closed the census. Two +other functions were subsequently added:—(5) the selection of +the senate (<i>lectio senatus</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senate</a></span>), and (6) certain financial +duties such as the leasing of the contracts for tax-collecting and +for the repair of public buildings. The first four of these functions +were those of the census, which was a detailed examination of +the citizen body as represented by heads of families (<i>patres +familiarum</i>) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select +portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights +took place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equites</a></span>). +It was in connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and +the knights, as well as with the choice of senators, that the +censors published their edicts stating the moral rules which +they intended to enforce. The offences which they punished +were sometimes concerned with family life and private relations, +sometimes with breaches of political duty. Certain professions, +such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked their stigma, +and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were the +consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. <i>Infamia</i> +was the general name given to the disabilities pronounced by +the censor. These varied in degree from the deprivation of a +senator of his seat, or a knight’s loss of his horse, to exclusion +from the tribes or centuries, an exclusion which entailed the loss +of voting power. All the disabilities pronounced by one pair of +censors might be removed by their successors.</p> + +<p>The censorship, although its control over the senate came to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +be weakened (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senate</a></span>), lasted as long as the republic; and +it was only suspended, not abolished, during the principate. +Although the princeps exercised censorial functions, he was +seldom censor. Yet the office itself was held by Claudius I. and +Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title of life censor (<i>censor +perpetuus</i>), but the precedent was not followed. A fruitless +attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was made +in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Mommsen, <i>Romisches Staatsrecht</i>, ii. 331 foll. +(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Daremberg-Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités +grecques et romaines</i>, i. 990 foll. (1875, &c.); Lange, <i>Romische +Alterthumer</i>, i. 572 foll. (Berlin, 1856, &c.); de Boor, <i>Fasti Censorii</i> +(Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, <i>Die romische Censur in ihrem Verhaltnisse +zur Verfassung</i> (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, “Über die Census” +in <i>Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil.</i> lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt, +“Die Lustra der Römer” in <i>Rhein. Museum</i>, xxv. 465, xxvi. i.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. H. J. G.)</div> + +<p>II. In modern times the word “censor” is used generally for +one who exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of +other persons. In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it +is the title of the official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate +students (<i>i.e.</i> those who are not attached to a college, hall or +hostel). In Oxford the censor is nominated by the vice-chancellor +and the proctors, and holds office for five years; in Cambridge +he is similarly appointed, and holds office for life. The censors +of the Royal College of Physicians are the officials who grant +licences.</p> + +<p><i>Council of Censors</i>, in American constitutional history, is the +name given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsylvania +from 1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont +from 1777 to 1870. Under both constitutions the council of +censors was elected once in seven years, for the purpose of +inquiring into the working of the governmental departments, +the conduct of the state officers, and the working of the laws, +and as to whether the constitution had been violated in any +particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in number +to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required +amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose. +A convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the +constitution by abolishing the censors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the censorship of the press, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Press Laws</a></span>; for the censorship +of plays, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theatre</a></span>: <i>Law</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Chamberlain</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENSORINUS,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer, +flourished during the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> He was the author of a +lost work <i>De Accentibus</i>, and of an extant treatise <i>De Die Natali</i>, +written in 238, and dedicated to his patron Quintus Caerellius +as a birthday gift. The contents are of a varied character: the +natural history of man, the influence of the stars and genii, +music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the Greek +philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and +mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining +the principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is +full of curious and interesting information. The style is clear +and concise, although somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity, +for the period, good. The chief authorities used were Varro +and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold that the entire +work is practically an adaptation of the lost <i>Pratum</i> of Suetonius. +The fragments of a work <i>De Natali Institutione</i>, dealing with +astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually +printed with the <i>De Die Natali</i> of Censorinus, are not by him. +Part of the original MS., containing the end of the genuine work, +and the title and name of the author of the fragment are lost.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Lindenbrog +(1614); the most recent critical editions are by O. Jahn (1845), +F. Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English +translation of the <i>De Die Natali</i> (the first eleven chapters being +omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENSUS<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>censere</i>, to estimate or assess; connected +by some with <i>centum, i.e.</i> a count by hundreds), a term used to +denote a periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times, +to population, and occasionally to industries and agricultural +resources, but formerly extending to property of all kinds, for +the purpose of assessment.</p> + +<p>Operations of this character have been conducted with +different objects from very ancient times. The fighting strength +of the children of Israel at the Exodus was ascertained by a +count of all males of twenty years old and upwards, made by +enumerators appointed for each clan. The Levites, who were +exempted from military duties, were separately enumerated +from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was +ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute +amongst them the functions assigned to the priestly body in +connexion with the temple. The census unwillingly carried out +by Joab at the behest of David related exclusively to the fighting +men of the community, and the dire consequences ascribed to it +were quoted in reprobation of such inquiries as late as the middle +of the 18th century. It appears, too, that a register of the +population of each clan was kept during the Babylonian captivity +and its totals were published on their return to Jerusalem. In +the Persian empire there was apparently some method in force +by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the +purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumeration +of somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in +connexion with the provincial revenues and military liabilities. +In Egypt, Amasis had the occupation of each individual annually +registered, nominally to aid the official supervision of morals +by discouraging disreputable means of subsistence; and this +ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced by Solon +into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed +later into an electoral record.</p> + +<p>It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the +name of the inquiry is derived was first established upon a +regular footing. The original census was ascribed to Servius +Tullius, and in the constitution which goes by his name it was +decreed that every fifth year the population should be enumerated +along with the property of each family—land, live-stock, +slaves and freedmen. The main object was to ensure the +accurate division of the people into the six main classes and +their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations +of combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the +city the operation grew in importance, and was followed by an +official <i>lustrum</i>, or purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the +people by the censors or functionaries in charge of the classification. +Hence the name of lustrum came to denote the intercensal +term, or a period of five years. The word census, too, came to +mean the property qualification of the class, as well as the +process of registering the resources of the individual. Later, +it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in which it has +survived in the contracted form of <i>cess</i>. Unfortunately the +statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the +fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed +down relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood. +In the time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole +empire. In the words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered +“the whole world to be <i>taxed</i>,” or, according to the revised +version, to be <i>enrolled</i>. The compilation of the results of this +the most comprehensive enumeration till then attempted was +engaging the attention of the emperor, it is said, just before his +death, but was never completed. The various inquiries instituted +during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book and the +Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that +they took little or no account of the population, the feudal +system probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary +for the purposes of taxation or military service.</p> + +<p>The foundations of the census on the modern system were +laid in Europe towards the middle or end of the 17th century. +Sweden led the way, by making compulsory the parish record +of births, deaths and marriages, kept by the clergy, and extending +it to include the whole of the domiciled population of the parish. +In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered the extension to the rural +communes of the system which had for many years been in force +in Paris of registering and periodically publishing the domestic +occurrences of the locality. Five years before this, however, +a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been +established in the colony of New France, and was continued in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span> +Quebec from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered +to be the earliest of modern censuses.</p> + +<p>Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by +statistical experts in periodical conference to bring about a +general understanding, first, as to the subjects which may be +considered most likely to be ascertained with approximate +accuracy at a census, and secondly—a point of scarcely less +importance—as to the form in which the results of the inquiry +should be compiled in order to render comparison possible +between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard +to the scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practicable +in a country where the agency of trained officials is employed +throughout the operation which cannot be expected to be +adequately recorded where the responsibility for the correctness +of the replies is thrown upon the householder. The standard +set up by eminent statisticians, therefore, may be taken to represent +an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere under present +conditions, but towards which each successive census may be +expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance +is attached from the international standpoint are age, sex, +civil condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities. +Occupation, too, should be included, but the record of so detailed +a subject is usually considered to be better obtained by a special +inquiry, rather than by the rough and ready methods of a +synchronous enumeration. This course has been adopted in +Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach to it is made +in the decennial census of Canada and the United States. +Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested, +is of considerably more importance in some countries than in +others, and the same may be said of nationality, which is often +usefully supplemented by the return of mother-tongue. Nor +should it be forgotten that the internal classification and the +combinations of the above subjects are also matters to be treated +upon some uniform plan, if the full value of the statistics is to +be extracted from the raw material. On the whole, the progress +towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of the +questions here mentioned which has been made in the present +generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long +laboured in the cause of efficient enumeration.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">The British Empire</p> + +<p><i>England and Wales.</i>—Up to the beginning of the 19th century +the number of the population was a matter of estimate and +conjecture. In 1753 a bill was introduced by a private member +of the House of Commons, backed by official support, to provide +for the annual enumeration of the people and of the persons in +receipt of parochial relief. It was violently opposed as “subversive +of the last remains of English liberty” and as likely to +result in “some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper.” +After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by +the House of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of +England the weakness of the country in fighting-material was +one of the main objections offered to the proposal. By the end +of the century, however, owing to a great extent to the publication +of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum had swung far in the +opposite direction, it was thought desirable to possess the means +of judging from time to time the relations between an increasing +population and the means of subsistence. A census bill, accordingly, +again brought in by a private member, became law without +opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under +it took place in March of the following year, the operations being +confined to Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England +to the overseers, acting under the justices of the peace and the +high constables, and in Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under +the sheriffs. A supplementary statement of births, deaths and +marriages for each parish was required from the clergy, who +transmitted it to parliament through the bishops and primates +successively. There was no central office or control. The +schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise, +the population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under +one of the three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or +industry, or (c) other than these two. The results, which were +not satisfactory, were published without comment. Ten years +later, the chief alteration in the inquiry was the substitution of +the main occupation of the family for that of the individual. +The report on this census contained a very valuable exposition +of the difficulties involved in such operations and the numerous +sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of questions. +In 1821 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it was +not repeated in 1831, when the attention of the enumerators +was concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record. +Their efforts were successful in getting a better, but still far from +complete result. The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and +the establishment, in 1836, of civil registration districts, as a +rule coterminous with them, provided a new basis for the taking +of a census, and the operations in 1841 were made over accordingly +to the supervision of the registrar-general and his staff. +The inquiry was extended to the sex, age and occupation of +every individual; those born in the district were distinguished +from others, foreigners being also separately returned. The +number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction +respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of +births, deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the +last time. The most important innovation, however, was the +transfer of the responsibility for filling up the schedule from +the overseers to the householders, thereby rendering possible +a synchronous record.</p> + +<p>With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated +has been since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head +of the family, civil condition, and the blind and deaf-mute were +included in the inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing +for the census was interpreted to authorize the collection of +details regarding accommodation in places of public worship +and the attendance thereat, as well as corresponding information +about educational establishments. A separate report was +published on the former subject which proved something of a +storm centre. The census of 1871 obtained for the first time a +return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums. +During the next ten years, the separate areas for which population +returns had to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the +creation of sanitary districts, to the number of 966. The necessity, +for administrative or other purposes, of tabulating separately +the returns for so many cross-divisions of the country constitutes +one of the main difficulties of the English census operations, +more particularly as the boundaries of these areas are frequently +altered. In anticipation of the census of 1891, a treasury +committee was appointed to consider the various suggestions +made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its proposals +were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation +column into employer, employed and independent worker, and +as to the record upon the schedule of the number of rooms +occupied by the family, where not more than five. Separate +entry was also made of the persons living upon property or +resources, but not following any occupation. No action was +taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that +midway between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and +age should be effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for +Wales, of those who could speak only Welsh, only English, and +both languages, but, owing to the inclusion of infants, the results +were of little value. In 1901 the same information was called +for, excluding all under three years of age. The term tenement, +too, was substituted for that of storey, as the subdivision of a +house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited houses, +those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately recorded. +The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be returned +only for British subjects, was called for from all not born within +the kingdom.</p> + +<p><i>Scotland.</i>—In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to +1851, provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with +that for England and Wales, allowance being made for the +differences in procedure, which mainly concerned the agency +to be employed. In 1855, however, civil registration of births +and deaths was established in Scotland, and the conduct of the +census of 1861 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the registrar-general +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +of that country. The same course was followed at the +three succeeding enumerations, but in 1901 the former practice +was resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though +far less than in England, was simplified, and the census compilation +proportionately facilitated, by the passing of the Local +Government Act for Scotland, in 1889. In 1881, the definition +of a house in Scotland was made identical with that in England, +since previously what was called a house in the northern portion +of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south, and vice +versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of +the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of +children of school-age under instruction is also included in the +inquiry. The number of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded +for the first time in 1881. The question was somewhat expanded +at the next census, and in 1901 was brought into harmony with +the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx.</p> + +<p><i>Ireland</i>.—An estimate of the population of Ireland was made +as early as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 1712, in connexion +with the hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a +regular census was made in 1811, through the Grand Juries. +It was not successful, and in 1821 again, the inquiry was considered +to be but little more satisfactory. The census of 1831 was +better, but the results were considered exaggerated, owing to +the system of paying enumerators according to the numbers they +returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a revisional +inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good +basis for the newly introduced system of public instruction. +The completion of the ordnance survey and the establishment +of an educated constabulary force brought the operations of +1841 up to the level of those of the sister kingdom. The main +difference in procedure between the two inquiries is that in +Ireland the schedule is filled in by the enumerator, a member +of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the metropolitan police, +instead of being left to the householder. The tabulation of the +returns, again, is carried out at the central office from the +original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into +which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency. +The inquiry in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great +Britain. It includes, for instance, a considerable amount of +information regarding holdings and stock. The details of house +accommodation are fuller. A column is provided for the degree +of education, and another for religious denomination, an addition +which has always been successfully resisted in England. This +last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the following +enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the +record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to +those <i>temporarily</i> incapacitated from work, whether at home +or in a hospital. There is also a column for the entry of persons +speaking the Irish language only or able to speak both that and +English. In the report of 1901 for England and Wales (p. 170) +a table is given showing, for the three divisions of the United +Kingdom, the relative number of persons speaking the ancient +languages either exclusively or in addition to English.</p> + +<p><i>British Colonies and Dependencies.</i>—A simultaneous and +uniform census of the British empire is an ideal which appeals +to many, but its practical advantages are by no means commensurate +with the difficulties to be surmounted. Scattered +as are the colonies and dependencies over the world, the date +found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother country and +the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the tropics +and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope +of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information +is thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the +inquiry, too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the +locality allow, and the population dealt with is likely to be able +and willing to answer. By prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity +may be obtained in regard to most of the main statistical facts +ascertainable at a census, at all events in the more advanced +units of the empire, and proposals to this effect were made by +the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report upon +the figures for 1901. Previous to that date, the only step towards +compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare +statement of area and population, appended without analysis; +comparison or comment, to the reports for England and Wales, +from the year 1861 onwards. In 1905, however, the returns +published in the colonial reports were combined with those of +the United Kingdom, and the subjects of house-room, sex, age, +civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and, where available, +instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as fully as +the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command +paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states, +colonies and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of +their population are set forth below.</p> + +<p><i>Canada</i>.—The first enumeration of what was afterwards +called Lower Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and +dealt with the legal, or domiciled, population, not with that +actually present at the time of the census, a practice still maintained, +in contrast to that prevailing in the rest of the empire. +The record was by families, and included the sex, age and civil +condition of each individual, with a partial return of profession +or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour of a +fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has +remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British +occupation, a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually +from 1824 to 1842, the information asked for differing from +time to time. Enumerations were conducted independently +by the different states until 1871, when the first federal census +was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since then, the +enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more +recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North-West, +where an intermediate census was found necessary in 1885-1886. +The census of Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the +United States rather than in accordance with British practice, +and includes much which is the subject of annual returns in the +latter country, or is not officially collected at all. The details +of deaths in the year preceding the census, for instance, are +called for, there being no registration of such occurrences in the +rural tracts. In consideration of the large immigrant population +again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded, with details as +to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration. Occupation +is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary +unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other +particulars. No less than eleven schedules are employed, most +of them relating to details of industries and production. The +duty of filling up so comprehensive a return, involving an answer +to 561 questions, is not left to the householder, but entrusted +to enumerators specially engaged, working under the supervision +of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to the sparse population +and difficulties of communication in a great part of the +dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not +completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator +for the collection of his returns and their revision and transmission +to the central office. A special feature in the operations +is the provision, necessitated by the record of the <i>legal</i> population, +for the inclusion in the local return of the persons temporarily +absent on the date of the census, and their adjustment in the +general aggregates, a matter to which considerable attention is +paid. The very large mass of detail collected at these inquiries +entails an unusually long time spent in compilation; the +statistics of population, accordingly, are available considerably +in advance of those relating to production and industries.</p> + +<p><i>Australasia</i>.—As the sphere of the census operations in Canada +has been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the +east coast to the immense territories of the north-west, so, in +the island continent, colonization, first concentrated in the +south-east, has extended along the coasts and thence into the +interior, except in the northern region. The first act of effective +occupation of the country having been the establishment of a +penal settlement, the only population to be dealt with in the +earlier years of British administration was that under restraint, +with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the +immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated +from 1788 onwards by official “musters,” at first weekly, and +afterwards at lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +that it had no statistical value until 1820, when the muster was +taken after due preparation and with greater care, approximating +to the system of a regular census. The first operation, however, +called by the latter name, was the enumeration of 1828, when +an act was passed providing for the enumeration of the whole +population, the occupied area and the live-stock. The details +of population included sex, children and adults respectively, +religion and <i>status</i>, that is whether free (immigrants or +liberated convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar +inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate +census was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively. +The scope of the inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat +extended and made to include occupations other than agriculture +and stock-breeding. Five years later, the increase of the population +justified the further addition of particulars regarding +birthplace and education. The record of <i>status</i>, too, was made +optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In that +year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony, +took its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated +in 1846, ten years after its foundation as a colony. From 1861 +the census has been taken decennially by all the states except +Queensland, where, as in New Zealand, it has been quinquennial +since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up to and including the census +of 1901 each state conducted separately its own inquiries. The +scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great Britain, modified +to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered population. +The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under +district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the +whole number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the population +in the rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In +more than one state the police are employed as enumerators, +but elsewhere, a staff has to be specially recruited for the purpose. +The operations were improved and facilitated by means of an +interstatal conference held before the census of 1891, at which +a standard schedule was adopted and a series of general tables +agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail according +to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in +addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition, +birthplace, occupation and house-room, includes education and +sickness as well as infirmities, and leaves the return of religious +denomination optional with the householder. Under the head +of occupation, the bread-winner is distinguished from his dependants +and is returned as employer, employed, or working on his +own account, as is now the usual practice in census-taking. +Each state issues its own report, in which the returns are worked +up in the detail required for both local administrative purposes, +and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the +neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and +Victoria are especially valuable in their statistical aspect from +the analysis they contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively +young community under modern conditions of progress.</p> + +<p><i>South Africa.</i>—Almost from the date of their taking possession +of the Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East +Indian Company instituted annual returns of population, +live-stock and agricultural produce. The results from 1687 for +nearly a century were recorded, but do not appear to have been +more accurate than those subsequently obtained on the same +method by the British government, by whom they were discontinued +in 1856. The information was collected by district +officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or +procedure. The first synchronous census of the colony, as it +was then constituted, took place in 1865, on a fairly comprehensive +schedule. Ten years later the inquiry was extended +to religion and civil condition, and for the census of 1891, again, +a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The next census +was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the disorganization +produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same lines +as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries and +religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration +of the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with +special attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more +ignorant classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy +was enlisted. In some tracts it was found advisable to substitute +a less elaborate schedule for that generally prescribed. +In Natal, indeed, where the first independent census was +taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was not on that occasion +enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were counted on a +very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to 40 +years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair +indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable +extent and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from +the white population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable +difference between the European and the Oriental in the matter +of age distribution and civil condition. The Transvaal and the +Orange River colonies were enumerated in 1904. In the latter, +a census had been taken in 1890, in considerable detail, but that +of the Transvaal, in 1896, seems to have been far from complete +or accurate even in regard to the white population. In Southern +Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in 1891, but it +was not until 1904 that the whole population was included in +the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring +a sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large +and illiterate native population has to be taken into account. +For this reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up +to 1906 of Northern Rhodesia, the British possessions and +protectorates of eastern Africa, or, again, of Nigeria and the +protectorates attached to the West African colonies of Gambia, +Sierra Leone and Lagos.</p> + +<p><i>The West Indies.</i>—Each of the small administrative groups +here included takes its census independently of the rest, though +since 1871 all take it about the date fixed for that of the United +Kingdom. The information required differs in each group, but +the schedule is, as a rule, of a simple character, and the results +of the inquiry are usually set forth with comparatively little +comment or analysis. In some of the groups distinctions of +colour are returned in general terms; in others, not at all. On +the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding the +indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class +who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad. +No census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados, +in 1901.</p> + +<p><i>Ceylon</i>.—Here the census is taken decennially, on the same +date as in India, in consideration of the constant stream of +migration between the two countries. The schedule is much the +same as in India with the substitution of race for caste. Until +1901, however, it was not filled in by the enumerator, as in India, +but was distributed before and collected after the appointed +date as in Great Britain.</p> + +<p><i>India</i>.—The population of India is the largest aggregate yet +brought within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumeration. +It amounts to three-fourths of that of the British Empire, +and but little less than a fifth of the estimated population of the +world. Between 1853 and 1881 each province conducted its +own census operations independently, with little or no attempt at +uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In the latter year the +operations were placed for the first time under central administration, +and the like procedure was adopted in 1891 and 1901, with such +modification of detail as was suggested by the experience of the +preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be brought +within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the +use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than +the standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to +the inquiry, and the efficiency of the administrative agency +increased. Not more than 5% of the householders in India can +read and write, and the proportion capable of fully understanding +the schedule and of making the entries in it correctly is still +lower. From the literate minority, therefore, agency has to be +drawn in sufficient strength to take down every particle of the +information dictated by the heads of families. As it would be +impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the +course of the census night for more than a comparatively small +number of houses, the operation is divided into two processes. +First a preliminary record is made a short time before the night +in question, of the persons ordinarily residing in each house. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +Then, on that night, the enumerator, reinforced if necessary by +aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat, and brings the record +up to date by striking out the absent and entering the new +arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include +about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men +were required for enumeration alone. To this army must be +added the controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above +number, charged with the instruction of their subordinates, the +inspection and correction of the preliminary record, and the +transmission of the schedule books to the local centre after the +census has been taken. The supply of agency for these duties is, +fortunately, not deficient. Irrespective of the large number +of clerks, village scribes and state and municipal employés +which can be drawn upon with but slight interruption of official +routine, there is a fair supply of casual literary labour up to the +moderate standard required. The services, too, of the educated +public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of the local +authorities for the census night, with no desire for remuneration +beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps, of +a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district. +By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the +preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in +1901 were given to the public within a fortnight of the census, +and differed from the final results by no more than 94,000, or +.03%. The schedule adopted contains in addition to the +standard subjects of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupation +and infirmities, columns for mother-tongue, religion and +sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed in about 20 languages. +The results for each province or large state are tabulated +locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final compilation +is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own +report upon the operations and results. This work has usually +an interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the +prominent place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical +variety of the population.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Foreign Countries</p> + +<p>Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of +taxation, such as the hearth-tax in France, were instituted in +continental Europe as early as the 14th century; but as the +basis of an estimate of population they were intrinsically untrustworthy. +Going outside Europe, an extreme instance of the +results of combining a census with more definite administrative +objects may be found in the census of China in 1711, when the +population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and liability +to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty years +later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief +of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103 +millions! The notion of obtaining a periodical record of population +and its movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities, +originated, as stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth +and death registers, till then kept voluntarily by the parish +clergy, were made compulsory and general, the results for each +year being communicated to a central office. A census, as a +special undertaking, was not, however, carried out in that country +until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in the next +year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the +parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring +state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the +18th century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate. +Amongst them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census +was not obtained until 1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small +states of Italy, too, recorded their population in the middle of +the above century, but the first general census of that country +took place in 1861, after its unification. In Austria, a census was +taken in 1754 by the parish clergy, concurrently with the civil +authorities and the military commandants. Hungary was in +part enumerated thirty years later. The starting-point of the +modern census, however, in either part of the dual monarchy, was +not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal +countries began the current series of their censuses between +1825 and 1860. The German empire has taken its census +quinquennially since its foundation, but long before 1871 a +census at short intervals used to be taken in all the states of +the Zollverein, for the purpose of ascertaining the contribution +to the federal revenue, the amount of which was revisable every +three years. The last great country to enter the census field +was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of the +population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and +police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials +without central direction or systematic organization. In 1897 +a general census was taken as synchronously throughout the +empire as was found possible. It embraced a population second +to that of India alone, as China, probably the most populous +country in the world, has not yet been subjected to this test. +The inquiry was made in great detail, under central control, +and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the requirements of so +varied a country and population. As in India, the schedules +had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were +dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The +principal regions of which the population is still a matter of mere +conjecture are the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China +and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of +Africa, and a considerable portion of South America.</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. B.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">United States</p> + +<p>Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United +States. Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative +work, “It was no European state, but the United States of +America that made a beginning of census-taking in the large +and true sense of that word,” and Professor H. Wagner, writing +of the censuses of Sweden, said to have been taken in the 18th +century, uses these words, “Since 1749 careful parish registers +have been kept by the clergy and have in general the value of +censuses.” The same authority, although mentioning a reported +census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first +real census of that country was in 1815. Sweden, Norway and +the United States are the only countries with any claim to have +taken the first modern census, as distinguished from a register +of tax-payers, &c., the lineal descendant of the old Roman census, +and the innovation seems to be due to the United States. If so, +the first modern census was the American census of 1790. At +the present date more than three-fifths of the estimated population +of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is of +interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated.</p> + +<p>The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken +every ten years since under a mandate contained in the Constitution +of the United States, was the outgrowth of a controversy +in the convention which prepared the document. Representatives +of the smaller states as a rule claimed that the vote, and +so the influence, of the states in the proposed government should +be equal. Representatives of the larger states as a rule claimed +that their greater population and wealth were entitled to recognition. +The controversy ended in the creation of a bicameral +legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the larger +states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each +state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were +to be distributed in proportion to the population, and the convention, +foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an +enumeration of the inhabitants and a redistribution or reapportionment +of seats in the House of Representatives every ten years.</p> + +<p>The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as follows:— +“Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among +the several states which may be included within this Union +according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined +by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those +bound to service for a term of years and excluding Indians not +taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration +shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the +Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent +term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct.”</p> + +<p>In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and +free, the free classed as white and others, the free whites as males +and females, and the free white males as under or above sixteen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span> +years of age. In 1800 and 1810 the same classification was +preserved, except that five age-groups instead of two were given +for free white males and the same five were applied also to free +white females. In connexion with the census of 1810 an attempt, +perhaps the earliest in any country, was made to gather certain +industrial statistics showing “the number, nature, extent, +situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United +States.” In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white +males, an age classification of four periods was applied to the free +coloured and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens +and of persons engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in +commerce was called for. The inquiry into industrial statistics +begun in 1810 was also repeated and extended.</p> + +<p>In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of +each sex, and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex. +The number of aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were +also gathered.</p> + +<p>The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained +a novel provision for the preparation in connexion with the +census of statistical tables giving “such information in relation +to mines, agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as +will exhibit a full view of the pursuits, industry, education and +resources of the country.” This was about the first indication +of a tendency, which grew in strength for half a century, to load +the Federal census with inquiries having no essential or necessary +connexion with its main purpose, which was to secure an accurate +enumeration of the population as a basis for a reapportionment +of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency was +largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under +the Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical +inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i> by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent +member of the party whose contention he states:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the +general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether +purely statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of +apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other +authority than that of the states themselves. That large party +which advocates a strict and jealous construction of the constitution +would certainly oppose any independent legislation by the national +Congress for providing a registration of births, marriages and deaths, +or for obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the +satisfaction of the publicist or for the guidance of the legislature. +Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to +be within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust +and opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of +the people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now +mainly of historic importance, exerted great influence upon the +development of the American census prior to 1900.</p> + +<p>The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educational +statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes +and of causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects. +Public discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifications +of scope and method at the census of 1850. Before the +census law was passed, a census board, consisting of three members +of the president’s cabinet, was appointed to draft plans for the +inquiry, and the essential features of its report prepared after +consultation with a number of leading statisticians were embodied +in the law.</p> + +<p>The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free +inhabitants, one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding +year, one for agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social +statistics. The last asked for returns regarding valuation, +taxation, educational and religious statistics, pauperism, crime +and the prevailing rates of wages in each municipal division. +It was also the first American census to give a line of the schedule +to each person, death or establishment enumerated, and thus to +make the returns in the individual form indispensable for a +detailed classification and compilation. The results of this +census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary +analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them +with European figures.</p> + +<p>The census of 1860 followed the model of its predecessor with +slight changes. When the time for the next census approached +it was felt that new legislation was needed, and a committee of +the House of Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards +president of the United States, at its head, made a careful and +thorough study of the situation and reported an excellent bill, +which passed the House, but was defeated by untoward influences +in the Senate. In consequence the census of 1870 was taken with +the outgrown machinery established twenty years earlier, a law +characterized by Francis A. Walker, the superintendent of the +census, who administered it, as “clumsy, antiquated and barbarous.” +It suffered also from the fact that large parts of the +country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four years +of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb +of American census work. Tie accuracy of the results is generally +denied by competent experts. The serious errors were errors of +omission, were probably confined in the main to the Southern +states, and were especially frequent among the negroes.</p> + +<p>Since 1870 the development of census work in the United +States has been steady and rapid. The law, which had been +prepared for the census of 1870 by the House committee, furnished +a basis for greatly improved legislation in 1879, under which the +tenth census was taken. By this law the census office for the +first time was allowed to call into existence and to control an +adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators. The scope +of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto +volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of +the population, but also of the products and resources of the United +States. Probably no other census in the world has ever covered +so wide a range of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India +and the eleventh American census has extended through so many +volumes. The topics usually contained in a census suffered from +the great addition of other and less pertinent matter, and the +reputation of the work was unfavourably affected by the length +of time required to prepare and publish the volumes (the last +ones not appearing until near the end of the decade), the original +underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent +supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the +superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability +and death of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh +census was taken under a law almost identical with that of the +tenth, and extended through twenty-five large volumes, presenting +a work almost as encyclopaedic, but much more distinctively +statistical.</p> + +<p>The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States, +depends largely upon the degree to which its figures for the +population of the country, of states, and especially of cities, +meet or fail to meet the expectations of the interested public. +Judged by this standard, the census of 1890 was less favourably +received than that of 1880. The enumerated population of the +country in 1880 was larger than had been anticipated; and in +the face of these figures it was difficult for local complaints, even +where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance. But +according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth +of population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had +shown between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade +of the century, except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%, +in spite of an immigration nearly double that of any preceding +decade. For this change no adequate explanation was offered +by the census office. Hence the protests of those who believed +that the figures for population were too small swelled into a +general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census was probably +more correct than the critics. Most of the motives influencing +popular estimates of population in the United States tend to +exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution +of the United States attempted to secure a balance of interests +by apportioning both representatives in Congress and direct +taxes according to population. A passage in <i>The Federalist</i> +suggests the motives of the convention as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will +necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if +not co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the +states should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +amount of their numbers. Were their share of representation +alone to be governed by this rule, they would have an interest in +exaggerating their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their +share of taxation alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By +extending the rule to both objects the states will have opposite +interests, which will control and balance each other, and produce +a requisite impartiality.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal +revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population +disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many representatives +in Congress has been reinforced by the more influential +feelings of local pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat +similar size. Hence a complaint that the population is overstated +is seldom heard, and hence, also, popular charges of an under-count +afford little evidence that the population was really larger +than stated by the census.</p> + +<p>After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown +that the number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was +surprisingly small, and that this deficiency in children was a +leading cause of the slow growth in population. Before the +tabulation had been made Francis A. Walker wrote:—“If the +birth-rate among the previously existing population did not +suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot be vindicated. +To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of +the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of +the inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years +of age.” These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the +count of 1890. Efforts to invalidate the census returns by comparison +with the registration records of Massachusetts cannot be +deemed conclusive, since in the United States, as in Great Britain, +the census must be deemed more accurate and less subject to +error than registration records. A strong argument in favour +of the eleventh census, apart from its self-consistency, is that its +results as a whole fit in with the subsequent state enumerations. +In eleven cases such enumerations have been taken; and on +computing from them and the results of the federal census of +1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census +should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform, +it appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon, +was the difference between the enumerations and these estimates +over 4%. In Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in +1890 than the estimate would lead one to expect; in New York +city, about 100,000 less. It seems not improbable that in the +latter, where the difficulties incident to a count during the +summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions occurred. +Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh +census as a whole.</p> + +<p>The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the +argument that would maintain the eleventh census to be +inaccurate because it showed a smaller rate of increase in population +during the preceding decade than had been recorded by +other censuses during earlier decades. The rate of increase during +the decade ending in 1900 was even less than that for the +preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off so marked +could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer +inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating +from the computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian +Territory and Indian reservations, was 20.7; the rate of increase +if these places are included—in which case the figures of the +population of Hawaii in 1890 must be taken from the census of +the Hawaiian government in that year—was 21%.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with +those of 1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws +relative to census work. By this law the census office was far +more independent than ever before. Appointments and removals +were made by the director of the census rather than by the secretary +of the interior, and in all plans for the execution of the law the +head of the office was responsible for success. The law divided the +subjects of census inquiry into two parts—first, those of primary +importance, requiring the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly, +those of subsidiary importance, capable of production without the +aid of the enumerator. The former had to be finished and published +by 1st July 1902; the latter were not to be undertaken until the +former were well advanced towards completion. By this means +the attention of the office could be concentrated on a small number +of subjects rather than distributed over the long list treated in the +volumes of the tenth and eleventh censuses.</p> + +<p>Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all +residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no +system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is +no such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a +national system of registration, and the country depends upon +the crude method of enumerators’ returns for its information on +vital statistics, except in the states and cities which have established +a trustworthy registration system of their own. These are +the New England states and a few others in their vicinity or influenced +by their example. Enumerators’ returns in this field are so +incomplete that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred +in any community during the preceding year are obtained by an +enumerator visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the computation +of death-rates is afforded, and the returns have comparatively +little scientific value. In the regions where census tables and +interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the +several states or cities they are often made more complete than +those in the state or municipal documents. The census of agriculture +is also liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm +accounts and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or +the value even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to +the calendar year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless +answers about the preceding year’s crop are almost sure to have been +given by many farmers in the midst of the summer’s work.</p> + +<p>The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different +character. A large proportion of the industries of the country +keep satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some +correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects +of the census, and to fear that the information given will be open +to the public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manufacturing +schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of +accounting among different companies or lines of business, and this +is often lacking. Another source of error in the manufacturing +census of the United States is that the words of the census law are +construed as requiring an enumeration of the various trades and +handicrafts, such as carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns +are gross and notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek +for them and to report what it finds, however incomplete or incorrect +the results may be. Even on the population returns certain +answers, such as the number of the divorced or the number unable +to read and write, may be open to question.</p> + +<p>The wide range of the American census, and the publication of +uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the development +of accurate census work requires a long educational process +in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough approximations +must always precede accurate measurements; and these +returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably +improve with each decade.</p> + +<p>Besides, the breadth of its scope, in which the American census +stands unrivalled, the most important American contribution to +census work has been the application of electricity to the tabulation +of the results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties +which this method reduced were two. The production of tables +for so enormous a population as that of the United States through +the method of tallying by hand requires a great number of clerks +and a long period of time, and when complete cannot be verified +except by a repetition of the process. The new method abbreviates +the time, since an electric current can tally almost simultaneously +the data, the tallying of which by hand would be separated by +appreciable intervals. The method also renders comparatively +easy the verification of the results of certain selected parts.</p> + +<p>Judged by European standards the cost of the American census +is very great. The following table gives the total and the per +capita cost of each enumeration.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date.</td> <td class="tccm tb lb rb2 bb" colspan="2">Cost.</td> +<td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Cost.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total in<br />dollars.</td> <td class="tccm tb lb rb2 bb">Per Capita<br />in cents.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Total in<br />dollars.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Capita<br />in cents.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1790</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,377</td> <td class="tcc rb2">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,423,351</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,109</td> <td class="tcc rb2">1.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,969,377</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">178,445</td> <td class="tcc rb2">2.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,421,198</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">208,526</td> <td class="tcc rb2">2.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,790,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">378,545</td> <td class="tcc rb2">2.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,547,127</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1840</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">833,371</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">4.88</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">16,116,930</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21.16</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita +cost of the English census of 1901 was 2.24 cents, or little more than +one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in +part to the greater scope and complexity of the American census, +and in part to the fact that in the United States the field work is +done by well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most +cases by the heads of families, who are not paid.</p> + +<p>The course of events has clearly established the fact that the +authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than +the strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +by General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be. +Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled +practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to supplement +the state governments in the gathering of statistics that may furnish +a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has allowed the +Federal census office in its discretion to compile and publish the +birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately kept; one +Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces throughout +the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in 1889, +and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published in +1908-1909; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for +about half the population of the country, including all the states +and cities which have approximately complete records of deaths; +Federal agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of corporations +have been created for the purpose of gathering certain +social and industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has +been made a permanent statistical office.</p> + +<p>The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation +and publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important +lines of work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton +ginning season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental +census reports upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on +further interpretation of various population tables, reports on +street and electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light +and power plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900-1904, +on benevolent institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses, +on the social statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures +in 1905. Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties, +and it has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal +government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial +Statistical Office in Berlin.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTAUREA,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae, +containing between four and five hundred species, and +of wide distribution, but with its principal centre in the Mediterranean +region. The plants are herbs with entire or cut often +spiny-toothed leaves, and ovoid or globose involucres surrounding +a number of tubular, oblique or two-lipped florets, the outer of +which are usually larger and neuter, the inner bisexual. Four +species are native in Britain. <i>C. nigra</i> is knapweed, common +in meadows and pastureland; <i>C. Cyanus</i> is the bluebottle or +cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; <i>C. Calcitrapa</i> is star-thistle, +a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of +England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads +enveloped by involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine. +Besides cornflower, a few other species are worth growing as +garden plants; they are readily grown in ordinary soil:—<i>C. +Cineraria</i>, a half-hardy perennial, native of Italy, is remarkable +for its white downy foliage; <i>C. babylonica</i> (Levant) has large +downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow flowers; <i>C. dealbata</i> +(Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger rose-coloured heads; +<i>C. macrocephala</i> (Caucasus) has large yellow heads; <i>C. montana</i> +(Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and <i>C. ragusina</i> (S.E. +Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow flowers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTAURS,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse +part man, dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. +The name has been derived (1) from <span class="grk" title="kentein">κεντεῖν</span> (goad) and <span class="grk" title="tauros">ταῦρος</span> +(bull), implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from +<span class="grk" title="kentein">κεντεῖν</span> and the common termination <span class="grk" title="-auros">-αυρος</span> or <span class="grk" title="aura">αὔρα</span> (“air”) +<i>i.e.</i> “spearmen.” The former is unsatisfactory partly from the +philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is +preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele +(the rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some +Magnesian mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known +for their fight with the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to +carry off Deidameia on the day of her marriage to Peirithous, +king of the Lapithae, himself the son of Ixion. Theseus, who +happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the Centaurs +were driven off (Plutarch, <i>Theseus</i>, 30; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xii. 210; +Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented +drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in +allusion to their drunken and amorous habits. Their general +character is that of wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the +slaves of their animal passions, with the exception of Pholus and +Chiron. They are variously explained by a fancied resemblance +to the shapes of clouds, or as spirits of the rushing mountain +torrents or winds. As children of Apollo, they are taken to +signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested as the origin of the +legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom riding was +unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as one +and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur +as half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus, +the contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between +civilization and barbarism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with +the body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they +were men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, +and the adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5; +Diod. Sic. iv. II) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney +Colvin, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article +in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>). Fig. 34 in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span> +(the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the +attempt of the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTAURUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (“<span class="sc">The Centaur</span>”), in astronomy, a constellation +of the southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), Ptolemy catalogued +thirty-seven stars in it. <i>α-Centauri</i> is a splendid binary star. +Its components are of the 1st magnitude, and revolve in a period +of eighty-one years; and since its parallax is 0.75″, it is the +nearest star to the earth; <i>ω-Centauri</i>, the finest globular star-cluster +in the heavens, consists of about 6000 stars in a space +of about 20′ diameter, of which about 125 variables have been +examined. <i>Nova Centauri</i>, a “new” star, was discovered in +1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTAURY<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<i>Erythraea Centaurium</i>, natural order Gentianaceae), +an annual herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched +above, and a terminal inflorescence with numerous small red or +pink regular flowers with a funnel-shaped corolla. The plant +occurs in dry pastures and on sandy coasts in Britain, and +presents many varieties, differing in length of stem, degree of +branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or closeness of +the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are grown +as rock-plants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTENARY<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>centenarius</i>, of or belonging to a +hundred, from <i>centeni</i>, distributive of <i>centum</i>, hundred), a space +of a hundred years, and particularly the celebration of an event +on the lapse of a hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The +word “centennial” (from Lat. <i>centennis</i>, from <i>centum</i>, and <i>annus</i>, +a year), though usually an adjective as in “the Centennial +State,” the name given to Colorado on its admission to statehood +in 1876, is also used as a synonym of centenary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTERVILLE,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Appanoose +county, Iowa, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about +90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop. (1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905, +state census) 5967 (487 being foreign-born); (1910) 6936. Centerville +is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, +Rock Island & Pacific and the Iowa Central railways. Among +the principal buildings are the county court-house and the +Federal building, and the city has a public library and a hospital. +It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the state; +it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works, +and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products, +woollen goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted +in 1846, was called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name +was adopted, was incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870 +was chartered as a city of the second class. The city limits were +extended in 1906-1907.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTIPEDE,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda, +a class of the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda +(Millipedes), the Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute +the now abandoned group Myriapoda. The resemblance between +the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is principally superficial and +due to the elongation and vermiform shape of the body, which +in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar somites +not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida +and most Crustacea, into series or “tagmata” of varying +function. Until 1893 no one doubted the correctness of the +assumption that the Chilopoda and Diplopoda were orders of a +class Myriapoda of the same systematic status as the Arachnida +or Hexapoda. But in that year, R.I. Pocock and J.S. Kingsley +independently pointed out that they differ as much from each +other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span> +rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely +associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the +Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the +Progoneata (Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda +and Symphyla. As the basis for this classification was taken +the position of the generative orifices which open in the Opisthogonea +at the posterior end and in the Prosogonea near the anterior +end of the body. As a matter of fact, in the Chilopoda they are +situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic somite; in the +Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a little +farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of +Heymons into the embryology of <i>Scolopendra</i>, one of the +Chilopods, has shown a close correspondence in the number of +cephalic metameres between the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a +correspondence which has not yet been established in the case +of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last discovery bears out +the view of relationship between the centipedes and insects, to +the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda. +But even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups +can be brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the +head, the position of the generative orifices will remain as a +fundamental and constant character, distinguishing the Chilopoda +from the other groups of so-called “Myriapods” and the +Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in many particulars they +resemble.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Structure of the Chilopoda.</i>—The exoskeletal elements of a typical +somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or sternum, +a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with chitinous +sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior extremity +there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when present, +and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the <i>Scutigeridae</i>, +the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply reflexed, ventrally +forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior edge of this bears +the labrum, which is usually represented by a small median, and two +large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a single pair +of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable number of +walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or gonopods. The +antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and preoral in +position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or more segments. +The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and bi-segmented, +with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair +or maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They +are foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera +(<i>Scutigera</i>, <i>Lithobius</i>) the inner branch consists of two distinct segments +meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The +outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four segments. +Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches +are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments +of the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The +above described condition seen in <i>Scutigera</i> suggests that two pairs +of jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the +Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second +pair of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five +or six segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its +fellow. The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-jaws, +are long and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of +six segments, whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its +fellow to form a large coxal plate, the second is small and generally +suppressed by fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also +small, while the sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at +the tip of which opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within +the appendage.</p> + +<p>The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, mandibles +and maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield +or cephalite. The tergal element of the somite bearing the palpognath +is usually suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes +of large size as in some Geophilomorpha (<i>Himantarium</i>), sometimes +small as in <i>Scutigera</i>, <i>Lithobius</i>, <i>Craterostigmus</i>, sometimes suppressed +probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite +as in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-bearing +somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite +of the toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the +somites bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements +are preserved without fusion with the corresponding plates of the +preceding or succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body +is retained. The only exception to this is presented by <i>Scutigera</i>, +where the terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen +pairs of legs are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The +walking legs are articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural +or lateral area of the somites close to the external margins of the +sterna, which widely separate those of the left from those of the +right side. Generally speaking the legs resemble each other, although +as a rule they progressively increase in length towards the posterior +end of the body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the +basal is termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is +armed with a single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilomorpha +and a few genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial +transverse joint into two segments, as is the case in <i>Scolopendra</i> and +<i>Lithobius</i> for example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-footed +centipedes of the order Lithobiomorpha (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Henicops</i>, +<i>Cermalobius</i>) the tarsi are further subdivided. The multiplication +of sub-segments reaches its maximum in <i>Scutigera</i>, where the tarsi +are extremely long, slender, flexible and annulated. The legs of +the last pair are directed backwards in a line parallel with the long +axis of the body, so that their coxae, fused in some cases with the +pleural sclerites (<i>Scolopendra</i>, <i>Geophilus</i>), or free and of large size +(<i>Scutigera</i>, <i>Lithobius</i>), serve to protect the small genital and anal +somites. They are often greatly modified. In the males of some +species of <i>Lithobius</i> one or more of the segments is inflated or furnished +with tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilomorpha +the whole limb is thickened in the male sex. In most +Scolopendromorpha the basal segment is armed beneath with spines +or spikes (<i>Dacetum</i>, <i>Scolopocryptops</i>); sometimes the whole appendage +is thickened and terminated by a sharp and serrate claw +(<i>Theatops</i>, <i>Plutonium</i>). In these cases the legs act as weapons of +defence and offence. In other cases (<i>Newportia</i>) the tarsi lose the +claw, become many-jointed and act as feelers, while in <i>Alipes</i> the +terminal segments are flattened, leaf-like and furnished with a +peculiar stridulating organ. The genital somite is always small +and sometimes retractile within the somite bearing the last pair +of legs. Its tergal plate is usually retained, but its sternal plate is +generally suppressed. In females of the Lithobiomorpha and +Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this somite—the gonopods—are +jointed, forcipate and relatively well developed although small. +In the females of the other orders they are greatly reduced or absent. +In the males their development varies considerably. They are well +developed in <i>Scutigera</i>, where they form two pairs of digitiform +sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they are reduced to a pair +of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal somite is always small +and limbless. In <i>Craterostigmus</i> the genital and anal somites are +represented by a pair of elongate valves projecting between the legs +of the last pair. The structure of the gonopods is unknown, and +the homology between the two valves and the skeletal elements +of the somites in question not clearly understood.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:177px; height:339px" src="images/img670.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 f80">Modified from Heymons, <i>Bib. Zool.</i>, 1901, +by permission of E. Nagele.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">A, Diagram of anterior extremity +of an early embryo of +<i>Scolopendra</i>, ventral view; <i>cl</i>, +clypeus; <i>lb</i>, labrum; <i>m</i>, mouth; +<i>p.a</i>, preantennal appendage; <i>a</i>, +antenna; <i>int</i>, premandibular rudiment; +<i>mdl</i>, mandible; <i>mx</i>, maxilla; +<i>p.g</i>, palpognath; <i>t.g</i>, toxicognath; +<i>lg. 1</i>, first pair of walking +legs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">B, Posterior end of a later +embryo of <i>Scolopendra</i>, ventral +view, showing the anal segment +or telson (<i>t</i>); the legs of the last +pair in the adult (<i>lg.</i> 21) and the +two rudimentary pairs of legs +(<i>lg.</i> 22, <i>lg.</i> 23).</td></tr></table> + +<p>A study of the development of <i>Scolopendra</i> has shown that the +antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral +metamere and the mandibles +those of the fourth, the first +postoral metamere, which has a +pair of transient preantennal +appendages, and the third, which +has no appendages, being excalated +at an early stage of +embryonic growth. Furthermore, +behind the legs of the last +pair two pairs of appendages are +present. The second of these +persists as the gonopods of the +adult, but the first is suppressed. +Possibly, however, it is represented +in the male of <i>Scutigera</i> +by the anterior branches of +the gonopods. The cerebral or +cephalic portion of the nervous +system consists of a quadrilobate +mass. From the two upper +lobes, which are set transversely, +arise the ocular nerves; from +the two lower lobes, which are +united by a transverse commissure, +spring the antennal nerves +in front and the chords which +form the oesophageal collar behind. +These chords unite below +the oesophagus to form the compound +suboesophageal ganglion, +whence the nerves for the four +pairs of jaws arise. The ventral +system consists of a double +chord uniting in each of the leg-bearing +segments in a ganglionic +swelling which gives off four +pairs of nerves to the limbs and +tissues of the somite. There is +a single ganglion in the genital +segment.</p> + + + +<p>Eyes are frequently absent. +When present they may be either +simple or compound, <i>i.e.</i> consisting +externally of a single lens +(monomeniscous) of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous). +Simple eyes vary in number on each side of the head from one, as in +<i>Henicops</i>, to many as forty, as in some species of <i>Lithobius</i>. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +<i>Scolopendra</i>, where there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thickening +of the cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath +the lens consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer +continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area. Thus +the eye is monostichous. The arrangement of the cells, however, +is peculiar. They are invaginated to form what may be described +as a very deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly +narrow median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed +by the inner or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by +their outer or distal ends. It results from this arrangement that +the cells forming all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizontally, +<i>i.e.</i> at right angles to the vertical axis of the eye. From the +distal ends of the cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming +a rhabdom which occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup +beneath the middle of the corneal lens. The outer ends of the cells +are nucleated and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve, +which passes from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the +brain. Compound eyes are found only in the <i>Scutigeridae</i>. Externally +the eye consists of one hundred or +more little lenses or lenticles. The retinal +portion is composed of a corresponding +number of ocular units or ommatidia. +Each ommatidium is an elongated cone +with its broad extremity abutting against +the corneal lenticle. It consists of a +non-nucleated crystalline cone developed +from embryonic cells, and is enveloped +in three tiers of large nucleated cells. +The cells of the outermost tier are heavily +pigmented; those of the middle and +innermost (proximal) tiers, the retinal +cells, are at their inner extremities produced +into threads continuous with the +fibres of the optic nerve. In the space +between these cells and the crystalline +cone which they surround, there is a layer +of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by +the cells.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:817px; height:349px" src="images/img671a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">A and B after Heymons, <i>Bibl Zool</i>, 1901, by permission of E. Nagele.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">A, Brain of <i>Scolopendra</i>. <i>n. ant</i>, Antennal nerves; +<i>n. opt</i>, ocular nerves; <i>n. pr. ant</i>, preantennal nerves; +<i>oes. comm</i>, oesophageal commissure.</td> +<td class="caption">B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra. <i>len</i>, +Corneal lens; <i>ret</i>, retinal or visual cells; +<i>n. opt</i>, optic nerve.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:243px; height:567px" src="images/img671b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc" colspan="2">Fig. 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f80" colspan="2">C after Adensamer, <i>Verh. z. b. Verein</i>, Vienna, 1893, pl. vii.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">C, Ocular unit or ommatidium +of compound Eye of <i>Scutigera</i>. +<i>len</i>, corneal lenticle; <i>c.c</i>, crystalline +cone; <i>1</i>, pigmented cells of +outermost tier; <i>2</i>, <i>3</i>, retinular +cells of middle and innermost +tiers; <i>rbd</i>, rhabdomeres; <i>n. opt</i>, +optic nerve; <i>pg</i>, pigment cells.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:139px; height:483px" src="images/img671c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Diagram of Alimentary Canal of <i>Lithobius</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>mg</i> Mid-Gut.</p> +<p><i>hg</i>, Hind-Gut.</p> +<p><i>mt</i>, Malphighian tubule.</p> +<p><i>s.gl</i>, Salivary gland.</p> +<p><i>lg.</i> 1, <i>lg.</i> 15, Legs of first + and fifteenth pairs.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The alimentary canal is a simple tube +running without convolutions from the +mouth to the anus. Its anterior portion +or pharynx, which arises from the stomodaeal +invagination in the embryo, is +short; a pair of large, so-called salivary +glands open into it. The mesenteric part +of the canal is relatively wide and +receives at its junction with the hind-gut +the excretory products of a pair of very +long and slender malpighian tubes of +proctodaeal origin. The posterior end of +the canal, arising from the proctodaeum, +is relatively short and narrow.</p> + +<p>The generative organs vary in structural +details in different centipedes. In +the male of <i>Lithobius</i> the testes consist +of a single coiled tube lying above the +alimentary canal. The slender vas deferens +which proceeds from its hinder +end divides posteriorly into a right and +left branch, embracing the gut and uniting +beneath it to form a common chamber or atrium within the +genital orifice. The atrium receives the secretion of two pairs of +large accessory glands; and a pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales, +open, one on each side, into the divided sperm ducts close to their +point of origin above the intestine. +The organs of the female are very +similar. There is a large median +ovary followed by a short oviduct +forming a circum-intestinal collar +and a common atrium. Into the +latter open a pair of short receptacula +seminis and the slender +duct of two pairs of large accessory +glands. There is nothing in +the female corresponding to the +supra-intestinal vesiculae seminales +of the male. In the male of +<i>Scolopendra</i>, on the contrary, there +are as many as twelve pairs of +somewhat sausage-shaped testes, +approximated two by two. From +each pair proceed two slender +ducts which open into a median +duct coiled in the posterior third of the body and much expanded +in the last three of the leg-bearing segments. The right and left +portions of the intestinal ring of the genital duct are unequally developed, +and there are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of +accessory glands communicate with the genital atrium as in +<i>Lithobius</i>. In the female <i>Scolopendra</i> the right and left portions +of the intestinal collar are also unequally developed, and only a +single pair of accessory glands besides the receptacula seminis open +into the atrium.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:379px" src="images/img671d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Heymons, <i>Bibl. Zool</i>, 1901, by permission of E. Nagele.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Posterior portion of generative organs of male of +<i>Scolopendra</i> (A), of female (B). <i>t</i>, Testes; <i>v.d</i>, vas deferens; <i>ov</i>, +ovary; <i>r.s</i>, receptaculum seminis; <i>gl. acc</i>, accessory glands; <i>g.o</i>, +generative orifice.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers corresponding +roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a blood-sinus +formed by a pericardial membrane whence large alary muscles +extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in <i>Scolopendra</i> +a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its posterior +extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood re-enters the +organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior chamber, +which lies in the first or second leg-bearing segment, proceed three +arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to supply +the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow of the +opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the sides +of the latter arise vessels to the gnathites, and from its inferior portion +an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and another backwards +above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the body, +supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral branch. +In <i>Scolopendra</i> the chambers of the heart, excepting the first and +last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms like <i>Scutigera</i> +where the terga are very unequal in size a corresponding inequality +in the size of the chambers is manifested.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:544px; height:359px" src="images/img672a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">A after Newport, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1843. +B after Haase, <i>Zool. Beitrage</i>, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J.N. Kern. +C after Haase, <i>loc. cit.</i><br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">A, Anterior extremity of +<i>Scolopendra</i>, showing two +chambers of the heart (h), the +aortic ring (a), the alae cordis +(a.m) and a cardiac orifice (o).</td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">B, Two segments of <i>Scolopendra</i>, +showing the branching +and anastomosing tracheae and a +spiracle (sp).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:248px; height:154px" src="images/img672b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc" colspan="2">Fig 5.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">C, A pair of tufted tracheae +of <i>Scutigera</i>. d, Dorsal plate; +t.s, tracheal sac; tr, tracheal +tubes.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In all centipedes, except <i>Scutigera</i>, respiration is effected by +chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications +throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of +spiracles perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or +fewer of the somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never +present upon the anal, genital and last leg-bearing somites, and only +rarely, as in <i>Henicops</i>, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first +pair. In the majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid +or slit-like orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like +integumental infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal +tubes which soon anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks. +In <i>Dacetum</i>, one of the <i>Scolopendridae</i>, there is no pocket-like infolding, +the small tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on +a large subcircular plate where their apertures fuse to form a complicated +network. The apertures, as in the case of other +genera, are protected by fine hairs; and the tracheae +themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral filament. In the +<i>Lithobiidae</i> the tracheae do not anastomose; but in <i>Scolopendra</i> +and <i>Geophilus</i> the main trunks in each segment fuse transversely +with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally with those +of the preceding and succeeding segments.</p> + +<p>In <i>Scutigera</i> the tracheae differ both in structure and position +from those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and +seven in number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into +a short sac from which five tracheal tubes depend into the pericardial +blood-sinus.</p> +</div> + +<p>Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders +referable to two subclasses—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Subclass I.</td> <td class="tcl">Pleurostigma.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">  Order 1</td> <td class="tcl">  Geophilomorpha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  Order 2</td> <td class="tcl">  Scolopendromorpha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  Order 3</td> <td class="tcl">  Craterostigmomorpha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  Order 4</td> <td class="tcl">  Lithobiomorpha.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Subclass II.</td> <td class="tcl">Notostigma.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">  Order 5</td> <td class="tcl">  Scutigeromorpha.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Subclass 1, Pleurostigma</span>.—Chilopods furnished with a rich +system of branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are +paired and open upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the +somites. Each leg-bearing somite contains a distinct tergum +and sternum, the number of sterna never exceeding that of +the terga. Eyes are either preserved or lost; when preserved +they are represented either by a single one-lensed ocellus or +by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head. +The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent +sharply downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior +portion lying behind the antennae, so that these appendages, +approximated in the middle line, project directly forwards +from the margin of the head formed by this retroversion of +the labral area. The maxillae are short and have no sensory +organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and the +toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single +coxal plate.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:232px; height:568px" src="images/img672c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Upper view of anterior extremity +in <i>Geophilus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Basal segments of antennae.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Cephalic plate.</p> +<p><i>t.palp</i>, Tergal plate of somite, bearing palpognaths.</p> +<p><i>t.tox</i>, Tergal plate of somite, bearing toxicognaths (<i>tox</i>).</p> +<p><i>t.lg.</i>1, Tergal plate of somite, bearing legs of first pair.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>B, Toxicognaths of <i>Scolopendra</i>, +showing the large coxal plate and +the reduced penultimate and antepenultimate +segments.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>C, Terminal segment or fang of +the same, showing the orifice of the +poison gland.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="f80">(After Latzel, <i>Die Myr. öst.-ung. Mon.</i> vol. +i. “Chilopoda,” Vienna, 1880.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Order 1. Geophilomorpha</i>.—Chilopods +with a large and indefinite +number of somites, most +of which are partially or completely +divided into a smaller +anterior segment, represented by +a pretergal and two presternal +sclerites, and a larger posterior +segment bearing the spiracles and +legs. Spiracles are present upon +all the leg-bearing somites except +the first and last; and the legs +which are short and subequal in +length consist of six segments, +the basal of which remains small. +There are no eyes, and the antennae +consist invariably of fourteen +segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the toxicognaths +always remains distinct and separates the head-shield from +the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and +antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the +preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial integumental +folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the distal +segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In the +last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the coxa +of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this +appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal +somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and +the gonopods typically persist in +the male as small two-jointed +appendages and in the female as +jointed or unjointed sclerites. The +young are hatched with the full +number of segments.</p> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—The Geophilomorpha +are universally distributed in suitable +localities. The number of +families into which the order should +be divided is as yet unsettled, some +authors admitting several groups of +this rank, others referring all the +genera to a single family, <i>Geophilidae</i>. +In habits the <i>Geophilidae</i> +are mostly subterranean, living in +the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms. Occasionally +they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the sake of +moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive to +light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to the +nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using +the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority +of the family in habits are the two species <i>Linotaenia maritima</i> and +<i>Schendyla submarina</i>, which live under stones or seaweed between +tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the +species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and +secrete a fluid which in some forms (<i>Himantarium</i>) is blood-red, while +in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form <i>Orphnaeus phosphoreus</i> +the fluid is known to possess this property; and its luminosity +has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in the +case of <i>Linotaenia acuminata</i> and <i>L. crassipes</i>.</p> + +<p style="clear: both;">The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between +thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding +discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being +less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example +recorded, a specimen of <i>Notiphilides</i> from Venezuela, was 11 in. +long and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of an inch wide.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:461px" src="images/img673a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—<i>Scolopendra +morsitans</i> (after Buffon).<br /><br /></p> + +<p>A, <i>a</i>, Cephalic plate.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Tergum of segment, bearing first pair of legs (<i>d</i>).</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Tip of palpognath.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Antenna.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Toxicognath.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Last pair of appendages, enlarged and directed backwards.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking +up a spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for +that purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered +spot, sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them +with her body, keeps guard until the young +disperse and shift for themselves.</p> + +<p><i>Order 2. Scolopendromorpha.</i>—Chilopods +differing principally from the Geophilomorpha +in that the number of leg-bearing +somites is definitely fixed at twenty-three +or twenty-one. These are differentiated +into larger and smaller, which alternate +with nearly complete regularity. The +anterior portion of each somite is only +partially cut off as a subsegment. The +tergal plate of the somite bearing the +toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by +fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing +somite. The antennae consist of a +number of segments varying from seventeen +to about thirty, and usually differing in the +individuals of a species. The second segment +(trochanter) of the legs of the last pair +is coalesced with the third (femur). In +only one genus, namely <i>Plutonium</i>, which +occurs in Italy, is there a pair of spiracles +for each leg-bearing segment, except the +first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha. +In most genera there are only nine pairs of +spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, +10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-bearing +segments, as in <i>Scolopendra</i>, <i>Cormocephalus</i>, +<i>Cryptops</i>, &c. In genera with +twenty-three pairs of legs, like <i>Scolopocryptops</i>, +there is an additional pair of +spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous +segment; and a few genera such as <i>Rhysida, +Edentistoma</i>, possess a pair upon the +7th segment. Eyes, when present, are +always four in number on each side. The +newly hatched young has the full complement +of appendages.</p> + +<p>This order is divided into four families:—<i>Scolopendridae</i> +(<i>Scolopendra</i>, <i>Rhysida</i>), +<i>Cryptopidae</i> (<i>Cryptops</i>, <i>Theatops</i>), <i>Scolopocryptopidae</i> +(<i>Scolopocryptops</i>, <i>Otocryptops</i>) +and <i>Newportudae</i> (<i>Newportia</i>). Apart from +the frigid zones it is cosmopolitan in distribution, +though only one genus (<i>Cryptops</i>) extends into north temperate +latitudes. In the tropics and warmer countries of the southern +hemisphere the genera and species are particularly abundant, and +individuals reach the greatest dimensions, some specimens of the +tropical American species <i>Scolopendra gigantea</i> exceeding 12 in. in +length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet consisting of any +animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to be overcome. +They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or stones, and +are nocturnal, shunning, like the <i>Geophilidae</i>, exposure to light; and +as in the <i>Geophilidae</i>, the females guard their eggs and young until +the latter disperse to lead an independent life.</p> + +<p><i>Order 3. Craterostigmomorpha</i>.—Chilopods with twenty-one tergal +plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with +only fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some +members of the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side +of the head, the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the +toxicognaths are complete on the postaxial side of the appendage, +and spiracles are present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th +leg-bearing somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxicognaths, +of the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing +somite, great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (<i>e.g. +Mecistocephalus</i>) is presented; but in the structure of the posterior +end of the body this order differs from all the other orders of Chilopoda. +The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are welded +together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and anal +somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of +opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:322px; height:458px" src="images/img673b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 f80">After Pocock. <i>Q.J.M.S.</i> vol. 45, pl. 23, 1902.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> + +<p>A, Anterior end of <i>Craterostigmus</i> from above.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Basal segments of antennae.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Cephalic plate with eyes (<i>o</i>).</p> +<p><i>t.tox</i>, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxicognaths (<i>tox</i>).</p> +<p><i>t.lg</i>.1, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of the first pair.</p> +<p>B, Maxillae.</p> +<p>C, Palpognath.</p> +<p>D, Toxicognath.</p> +<p>E, Last segment with genital capsule (<i>g.c</i>), and + basal segments of legs of 14th and 15th + pairs (<i>lg</i>. 14, <i>lg</i>. 15).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>This order, containing the family <i>Craterostigmidae</i>, is based upon +a remarkable genus and species <i>Craterostigmus tasmanianus</i>, of +which only two specimens are known. These were collected under +stones upon the +summit of Mount +Rumney in Tasmania. +They are +about 1½ in. in length; +but nothing has been +recorded of their +habits. The chief +morphological interest +attaching to +<i>Craterostigmus</i> is +that, apart from certain +structural peculiarities +of its own, +it presents features +previously believed +to be found exclusively +either in the +Scolopendromorpha, +or the Geophilomorpha, +or the Lithobiomorpha; +and it +shows how the Lithobiomorpha +may be +derived from a Scolopendromorphous +type most nearly resembling +<i>Plutonium</i> +by the excalation +of the third, sixth, +ninth, eleventh, fourteenth +and seventeenth +leg-bearing +somites.</p> + +<p><i>Order 4. Lithobiomorpha.</i> +Chilopoda +with fifteen pairs of +leg-bearing somites +differentiated into +larger and smaller, +the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, +8th, 10th, 12th and +14th being large, the +others small. Spiracles +present upon all +the larger with the +exception sometimes +of the 1st. The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders +hitherto considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused +mesially. In correlation with their weaker muscularity the first +leg-bearing segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present +and usually jointed in both sexes, are especially well developed +and forcipate in the female, and arise from a large ventral plate +resulting from the fusion of their coxae with the sternum of the +genital somite. The antennae are many-jointed, and there is a +single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli on each side of the head. The +coxae of the legs are large, and those of the last four or five pairs +usually contain glands opening by large orifices. The newly-hatched +young has only seven pairs of legs, the remaining pairs being successively +added as growth proceeds.</p> + +<p>The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the +<i>Lithobiidae</i> (<i>Lithobius, Bothropolys</i>), <i>Henicopidae</i> (<i>Henicops, Haasiella</i>), +the <i>Cermatobiidae</i> (<i>Cermatobius</i>). <i>Cermatobius</i>, based upon a +single species, <i>martensii</i>, from the isl. of Adenara, is of peculiar +interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length and +multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it approaches +more nearly to <i>Scutigera</i> than does any other pleurostigmous Chilopod. +It is also stated that the spiracles have assumed a more dorsal +position, thus foreshadowing the completely dorsal situation they +have taken up in the Notostigma. The <i>Henicopidae</i>, containing +centipedes of small size, attains its maximum of development in +the southern continents and islands, more particularly Australia, +New Zealand, South Africa and South America. One genus (<i>Lamyctes</i>) +however, occurs in Europe. The <i>Lithobiidae</i>, on the contrary, are +almost exclusively northern in range, being particularly abundant and +of large size individually in Europe, extra-tropical Asia, and North +and Central America. In habits the <i>Lithobiidae</i> closely resemble the +<i>Scolopendridae</i>. They are, however, comparatively far more agile +with their shorter, more compact bodies and stronger legs. They +are mostly of small size, the largest species, <i>Lithobius fusciatus</i>, of +south Europe measuring only 2 in. in length of body. The females +do not guard their eggs, but coat them with soil and leave them to +their fate.</p> +</div> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:276px" src="images/img674a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—A, <i>Scutigera rubrolineata</i> (after Buffon). B, Tergum and +part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of the +stigmata <i>o, o; p</i>, hinder margin of tergum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:328px" src="images/img674b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p class="f80">After Latzel, <i>Die Myr öst-ung. Mon.</i> vol. i. +“Chilopoda,” Vienna, 1880.<br /><br /></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Gnathites of <i>Scutigera</i>.</p> + +<p>I. Mandibles.</p> +<p>II. Maxillae.</p> +<p>III. Palpognaths.</p> +<p>IV. Toxicognaths.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Subclass 2, Notostigma</span>.—Chilopods with a series of median +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +dorsal tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the +pericardial blood space, and opening each by an unpaired +spiracle upon the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing +somites. This characteristic is accompanied by the +complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th, either by +fusion with that of the 8th or by excalation, and by the evanescence +of the terga of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and 13th +pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not +strongly reflexed inferiorly, and the eyes are large and compound. +The maxillae are long and have a sensory organ, the palpognaths +are long, spiny and composed of five segments, like the primitive +Chilopod leg, and the toxicognaths have their basal segments +disunited and independently movable. Gonopods duplicated +in the male.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the +family <i>Scutigeridae</i>. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs +of legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young +is hatched with only seven +pairs of legs. The legs and +antennae in the adult are +extremely long and many +jointed. In habits as well as +in structure the <i>Scutigeridae</i>, +of which <i>Scutigera</i> is the best-known +genus, differ greatly +from other centipedes. +Although they hide under +stones and logs of wood like +<i>Lithobius</i>, they are not lucifugous +but diurnal, and may +be seen chasing their foes in +the blazing sun. They run +with astonishing speed and +have the power of dropping +their legs when seized. South +of about the 40th parallel of +north latitude they are universally +distributed in suitable +localities. In most +species the body only reaches +a length of about 1 in.; but +twice that size or more is +reached by examples of the +Indian species <i>Scutigera +longicornis</i>.</p> + +<p>Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda +by Scudder, who refers them to two families, <i>Gerascutigeridae</i> and +<i>Eoscolopendridae</i>. But until the specimens have been examined by +zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken +seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to +existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. I. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (c. 1667-1723), English dramatic +writer and actress, was born about 1667, probably in Ireland, +whither her father, a Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman, +had been forced to flee at the Restoration on account of his +political sympathies. When sixteen she married the nephew of +Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year she married +an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in +poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and +some of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she +married Joseph Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who +survived her. Her first play was a tragedy, <i>The Perjured +Husband</i> (1700), and she herself appeared for the first time at +Bath in her comedy <i>Love at a Venture</i> (1706). Among her most +successful comedies are—<i>The Gamester</i> (1705); <i>The Busy Body</i> +(1709); <i>A Bold Stroke for a Wife</i> (1718); <i>The Basset-table</i> (1706); +and <i>The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret</i> (1714), in which, as the +jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots, +verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing, +though coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue +fluent. She never seems to have acted in London, but she was +a friend of Rowe, Farquhar and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on +the 1st of December 1723. Her dramatic works were published, +with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTO,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, +18 m. S.E. direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-level; +it is reached by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station +of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m. S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a +steam tramway (18 m. N.) from Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on +the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 4307 (town), 19,078 +(commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with Ferrara. +It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco Barbieri +(Guercino). The communal picture-gallery and several churches +contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A +statue of him stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Governativo. +The town was surrounded by walls, the gates of which +are preserved. The origin of the name is uncertain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTO<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <i><span class="grk" title="kentrôn">κέντρων</span></i>, Lat. <i>cento</i>, patchwork), a composition +made up by collecting passages from various works. The +Byzantine Greeks manufactured several out of the poems of +Homer, among which may be mentioned the life of Christ by +the famous empress Eudoxia, and a version of the Biblical history +of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the later empire and the +monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing poems out +of the verse of Virgil. Such were the <i>Cento Nuptialis</i> of Ausonius, +the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th +century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the +hymns in honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace +by Metellus, a monk of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the +12th century. Specimens may be found in the work of Aldus +Manutius (Venice, 1504; Frankfort, 1541, 1544). In 1535 Laelius +Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the dissolute +lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a <i>Petrarca +Spirituale</i>; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one +of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a <i>Virgilius Evangelizans, +seu Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et +versibus descripta</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL AMERICA,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> that portion of the American continent +which lies between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British +crown colony of British Honduras, and the six independent +republics of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa +Rica and Panama. These seven divisions are described in +separate articles. Central America is bounded towards the N. +by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific Ocean, +and extends between 7° 12′ and 18° 3′ N. and between 77° 12′ +and 92° 17′ W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and +stretches for some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of +three serpentine curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m., +between the Peninsula of Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras, +and diminishing to 35 m. in the Isthmus of Panama. The +eastern boundary of Central America was usually regarded as +identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903, when the republic +of Panama was formed out of the northern territories of Colombia; +and the more modern definition given above does not command +the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include +the whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west, +<i>i.e.</i> the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however, +the support of political and historical considerations, as well as +of common usage; and it may therefore be regarded as adequate, +although, in respect of climate and natural products, it would +be more accurate to define Central America as lying between +Tehuantepec and Darien.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The <i>Cordilleras</i>, or mountain chains of +Central America do not form a complete link between the western ranges +in the north and south of the continent, for their continuity is +interrupted by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine +basin of Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central +America from end to end, their main axis trending from north-west +to south-east. They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges +or series of volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras +are disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser +chains radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude +of 12,000 and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general +character of the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active. +Large tracts of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning +of the 20th century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical +climate, and the dense underwoods which impede exploration. +In the northern part of Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same +country, in British Honduras, along the Segovia river, on the Mosquito +Coast, and in the basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river, +there are broad stretches of comparatively flat country. The main +line of watershed is everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the +Atlantic, except in southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is +almost equidistant from the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers +of the Pacific seaboard are mostly short and swift,—mere mountain +torrents, in many instances, until they reach the sands and swamps +which border the sea. The rivers of the Atlantic littoral descend +more gradually, and by longer channels. The largest of them is the +Segovia, in Nicaragua and Honduras, which has a course of 450 m. +Lake Nicaragua, the largest inland sheet of water, has an area exceeding +3500 sq. m. There are also several mountain lakes of exceptional +interest and beauty, such as Atitlán and Amatitlán, in +Guatemala, besides two great land-locked salt-water lakes—the +Pearl Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the Carataska Lagoon +in Honduras.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:519px; height:422px" src="images/img675.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The neck of land which unites the continents of North +and South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of +either, but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were, +between the other two. The folds in the earth’s crust which form +the Andes and the Western ranges of North America, are not continued +along the connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the +strata are folded from west to east, obliquely across the trend of +the continent. It should, however, be noticed that the Andes, as +they approach the Caribbean sea, bend round towards the east; +and it is probable that the folds of the North American Cordillera +similarly bend eastward beneath the volcanic rocks of Mexico. +The folds of Central America are tangential to the two arcs thus +formed.</p> + +<p>By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered +by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic; +but the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From +the Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau +the existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet +unproved, but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico. +South of the plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges +composed of granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age, +begin to appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front +of the series of east and west folds which stand <i>en échelon</i> across +the Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels +of latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala, +there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists +with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear, +for the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be +Pre-Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at +least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British +Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also +in Costa Rica and perhaps in Panama; and wherever the strike +has been observed, it is approximately from west to east. The +presence of Palaeozoic rocks has been proved in Guatemala and +the adjacent state of Chiapas, where limestones have been found +containing many unmistakable Carboniferous fossils, and below +these is a considerable thickness of beds supposed to be Silurian. +Nowhere else in the Central American region is there any +palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks.</p> + +<p>The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow +clays containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but +the occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated +outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in +Central America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower +series of clays, sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably +by an upper series of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas, +Guatemala and Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The +upper series contains hippurites. The greater part of the eastern +half of the Mexican plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds.</p> + +<p>The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two +divisions. The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally +of sand and clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line. +The upper division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene +(which have not yet been clearly distinguished from each other), +is usually of shallow water origin; but in the northern part of +Yucatan it includes beds of chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles, +which may have been deposited in a deeper sea.</p> + +<p>It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological +epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved +in the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undisturbed, +and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the +Miocene period, which appears to have been a period of great +earth movement throughout the Caribbean region. From the +southern extremity of the Mexican plateau to the Colombian border, +the strike of the folds—of the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits, +as well as of the older rocks—is in general from east to west; but +there is one considerable exception. On both sides of the deep +depression which crosses Honduras from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of +Fonseca, the strike is commonly from north to south. The depression +is probably a “Graben” or trough formed by faulting.</p> + +<p>The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon +the Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land contracts +to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the +Caribbean shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great, +and over a wide area they entirely conceal the original structural +features of the country. The eruptions began towards the close +of the Cretaceous period and continue to the present day. The rocks +are lavas and ashes, chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition, +but rhyolites and trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met +with in one or two places.</p> + +<p>According to R.T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence +of any Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and +the Pacific, excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene +period. It should, however, be stated that all authorities are not +agreed upon this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones +which he believes to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally +at a height of about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Unfortunately +the fossils obtained from these beds were lost.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate of Central America is subject to the most +marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the +proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which +render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands +of British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike +the alpine regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may, +however, be roughly divided into a tropical zone (<i>tierra caliente</i>), +from sea-level to about 1500 ft.; a temperate zone (<i>tierra templada</i>), +from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (<i>tierra fria</i>), above 5000 ft. +These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it +often happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater +on the Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on +the Pacific slope varies in duration from four to six months, between +April and December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On +the coast, it corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west +monsoon, the tempestuous <i>Cordonazo de San Francisco</i>, or “Flagellation +of St Francis,” as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted +by an interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known +as the <i>Veranillo de San Juan</i>, or “Little summer of St John.” In +the rainy season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two +or three o’clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great +cumulus masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain +crashes down; and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North +winds are most usual during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast +the trade-winds may bring rain in any month, and, owing to the moist +atmosphere, the heat is more oppressive. The rainfall may vary +in successive years from less than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to +the occurrence of cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft., +but snow seldom falls.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The fauna of Central America is more closely connected +with the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +region is comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are +comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own. +It is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous +to man. Of felines it possesses the jaguar (<i>Felis onza</i>), popularly +called the tiger; the cuguar (<i>Felis concolor</i>), popularly called the +lion; the tigrillo (<i>Felis tigrina</i>), which is sometimes kept tame; +and other species. Several species of monkeys (<i>Mycetes</i> and <i>Ateles</i>) +are numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (<i>Cervus +mexicanus</i>) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands. +Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as +the marrano de monte (<i>Sus torquatus</i>) and the jabali or javali +(<i>Sus labiatus javali</i>). The <i>Edentata</i> are represented by a species +of armadillo, the honey-bear (<i>Myrmecophaga tomandua</i>), and the +<i>Myrmecophaga didactyla;</i> and among the rodents may be mentioned, +besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit-eating cotorra and tepes-cuinte +(<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i> and <i>Coelogenys paca</i>), and the troublesome +<i>Geomys mexicana.</i> The manatee is common in all the larger streams. +Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little marsupial +called the tacuacine, or the <i>Didelphys carcinora,</i> its allied species. +The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes had to be +left to their undisputed occupancy. In the south-east of Costa Rica +the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with all their +live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires which in +a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most of the +domestic animals—the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit, +common fowl, peacock and pigeon—are of European origin, and +are popularly grouped together as <i>animales de Castilla.</i> For the +bird collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National +Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica alone possesses more +than twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among +birds of prey it is sufficient to mention <i>Corogyps atratus,</i> the +commonest of the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger, +the <i>Cathartes aura,</i> the beautiful <i>Polyborus vulgaris,</i> and the king of +the vultures (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>). Neither the condor of the +southern continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known. +The parrot, macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow, +blackbird, Mexican jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker, +humming-bird and trogon are also widely distributed. A bird +of the last-named genus, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (<i>Trogon +resplendens</i>) is of special note, not only from the fact that its yellow +tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long, were formerly worn as insignia by the +Indian princes, but because it has been adopted as the emblematical +figure on the national arms of Guatemala. The gallinaceous order +is well represented, and comprises several peculiar species, as the +pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey (<i>Meleagris ocellata</i>), which has +a bronze sheen on its plumage; and aquatic birds, it is almost needless +to add, are unusually numerous in a region so richly furnished +with lagoons, rivers and lakes.</p> + +<p>Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost +endless varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless +boba or chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous +corali, taboba, culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great +size, scorpions, edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous. +In the rivers and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound; +turtles and tortoises are exported; and there are valuable pearl and +oyster fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the +<i>Coleoptera</i>, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and +the Chrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> +the prevalent genera are—<i>Ageronia, Papilio, Heliconia, Sphinx</i> +and <i>Bombyx</i>. There are five species of bees, and the European +honey-bee, known as <i>aveja de Castilla</i> or “bee of Castile,” has been +naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen marching +in a column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and +locust are unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but +their distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown +in parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the <i>Timetes +Chiron,</i> which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests +of Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine +to the tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another. +Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to those +of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is unsurpassed +for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic districts, the +soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated and irrigated, +magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, coffee, cocoa and +maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar yields two +or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal supplying +a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes, yams, +arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical +fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests +abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum +copal, vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods, +medicinal plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst +the forest trees are the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and the +splendid Coyal palm (<i>Cocos butyracea,</i> L.), with feathery leaves 15 +to 20 ft. long, golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fermented +produces the intoxicating <i>chicha</i> or <i>vino de Coyol.</i> In Guatemala +occurs the remarkable <i>Herrania purpurea,</i> a “Chocolate tree,” +whose seeds yield a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself. +The same country is famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arborescent +thistles, and a remarkable plant called by the Spaniards <i>Flor de +la Calentura</i>, “fever flower,” from the heat which it is said to emit +at the moment of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance +of medicinal plants, notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (<i>Myrospermum +salvatorense</i>); in Honduras there are immense forests +of conifers, resembling those of the Landes in France; in Nicaragua +a characteristic tree is the cortes (<i>Tecoma sideroxylori</i>) yielding +timber as hard as ebony, and noteworthy for the golden blossom +with which it is entirely covered after the leaves have fallen.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Inhabitants</i>—In 1905 the population of Central America +numbered about 4,750,000, and this total tends to increase, +despite the unhealthy climate of many districts, the terribly high +average of infant mortality, and the slow progress of immigration. +Some authorities estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of +the inhabitants are of mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the +Indian element predominates everywhere except in Costa Rica, +where the whites are exceptionally numerous. The Indian races +have not shown the same power to adapt themselves to modern +civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there are tribes +remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the +Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture +(see below under <i>Archaeology</i>). The density of population +throughout Central America is little more than 25 per sq. m.; +and it is clear that several large areas now thinly peopled once +maintained a far greater number of inhabitants. Such are parts +of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the flora consists in great +measure of plants that were formerly cultivated by the Indians. +The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by tribal +wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the +German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere, +the foreign population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other +centres of commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United +States being largely represented among the wealthier classes of +residents; while the foreign labourers are mostly Italians or +negroes, with a few Chinese on the Pacific coast.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—Central America was discovered by Columbus in +August 1502; and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica +was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after +1513. Between 1522 and 1525, the authority of Avila was +superseded, and his work of conquest completed by Hernando +Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama formed +part of a distinct Spanish government, “New Granada”; +British Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed, +in the 18th century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British +government exercised a nominal protectorate after 1665. Otherwise +the rest of Central America remained a Spanish dependency +bearing the general name of “Guatemala,” until 1821. It +ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a military +governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding +in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras, +Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it +was administered by Spanish officials, who almost invariably +devoted their whole energy to enriching themselves and the home +authorities. The old Indian civilization was swept away; the +native races were enslaved, maltreated and, for a time, +demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to that of the +West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced by +hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not +only survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro population, +but quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of +their masters, with whom they intermarried. By the close of +the 18th century, the majority had attained something like +uniformity of life and thought. Racial distinctions had been +obscured by intermarriage; even the term <i>Ladino</i>, or “Latin,” +came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish or Indian +blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured +race more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers; +but so gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost +unnoticed. Its result, the successful revolt of the Spanish +colonies—colonies mainly peopled by Indians or half-castes—was +no more a conflict of rival races or civilizations than the rebellion +of the British colonies in North America.</p> + +<p>“New Granada” attained its independence in 1819; and in +1821 “Guatemala” declared itself free. That the subsequent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +history of the Central American republics has been largely a +record of civil war, maladministration and financial dishonesty, is +perhaps due in part to racial inferiority. In part, however, it may +be explained by the absence of any tradition of good government; +perhaps also by the brevity and artificiality of the evolution +which converted a debased slave-population into the citizens of +modern democratic states. The five divisions of “Guatemala” +were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican empire during +1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras, +Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a +Mexican republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the +Republic of the United States of Central America. The Liberal +or Federalist party, which was supreme in Honduras, found itself +opposed by the Conservatives, including the clergy and former +Spanish officials, who were very influential in Guatemala. A +bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In 1837-1839 a Conservative +rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of Guatemala, +resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General Francisco +Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to +restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A +fresh union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in +1842, and dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the +conclusion, on the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty +(<i>q.v.</i>) between Great Britain and the United States, which was +designed to facilitate the construction of an interoceanic canal. +The history of this project is given in detail under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panama +Canal</a></span>. One important result of the treaty was the abandonment, +in 1860, of the British protectorate over the Mosquito +Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political +disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had +combined to restore federal unity; but their allied armies were +defeated by the Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the +American adventurer, William Walker, endeavoured to usurp +the government of Nicaragua; in 1860 he invaded Honduras +and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the slave-holders +of the United States by adding new slave-states to the +Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885, +and its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala, +lost his life. In 1895 the Greater Republic of Central America was +formed by the union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras; +and a constitution was framed providing for the admission of +Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December 1898 it was dissolved, +as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of November 1903 +Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia, declared +itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immediately +recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards +by the European powers. The United States also forbade the +landing of any Colombian force on the territories of Panama, +and thus guaranteed the security of the new state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For a general description of Central America, +and especially of its physical features, the following monographs by +K. Sapper are of prime importance:—<i>In den Vulcangebieten Mittelamerikas +und Westindiens</i> (Stuttgart, 1905); <i>Mittelamerikanische +Reisen und Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bis 1900</i> (Brunswick, 1902), +and <i>Das nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dem +Hochland von Anahuac</i> (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many +useful illustrations and maps. See also <i>Central America and the +West Indies</i>, by A.H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London, +1901, 2 vols., with maps and illustrations); <i>Central and South +America</i>, by H.W. Bates (London, 1882); <i>The Spanish American +Republics</i>, by T. Child (London, 1892); and <i>Expedition nach Zentral +und Sudamerika</i>, by P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see +“The Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portions +of Costa Rica,” by R.T. Hill, in <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard</i>, +vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the following by K. Sapper:— +“Grundzüge der physikalischen Geographic von Guatemala,” in +<i>Petermann’s Mitt.</i> Ergänzungsheft, No. 113 (1894), “Über Gebirgsbau +und Boden des nördlichen Mittelamerika,” ibid., No. 127 (1899), +and “Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des südlichen Mittelamerika,” +<i>ibid</i>., No. 151 (1905). <i>The States of Central America</i>, by E.G. Squier +(New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are others of the numerous +essays, pamphlets, &c., on Central American affairs left by this +author; see the bibliography of his writings published in New +York in 1876. The <i>Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics</i> +(Washington, from 1893) give ample information on commerce and +industry. See also <i>History of Central America</i>, by H. Bancroft +(San Francisco, 1881-1887. 3 vols.).</p> +</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Archaeology of Central America</p> + +<p>Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th +century have thrown much light on the splendid past of Central +America. The still extant ruins of great buildings, unlike anything +which is known in the old world, testify to the high culture +attained in pre-Columbian days by several native peoples differing +greatly from one another in speech and racial affinities. As a +science the archaeology of Central America has scarcely yet +emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly +uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await +solution must still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscriptions, +which hitherto has not progressed beyond the discovery +of calendar systems and the relative datings involved in such +systems.</p> + +<p>For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it +has been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central +America, properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican +territories south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The +peoples inhabiting Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas +and Oaxaca present at the first view striking ethnical differences. +On a linguistic basis, however, they may be united into several +large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater part of Guatamala +are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included the still +savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically +are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels +in Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam, +Pokoman, Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these +there are patches of country in which dialects of the Mexican are +spoken. In Oaxaca there is an extraordinary mixture of languages, +some of which, like that of the Huave of Tehuantepec, +are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the population, +however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the +Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects +also occur in isolated parts of Oaxaca.</p> + +<p><i>Mayan Culture.</i>—The civilization of the Mayas may well have +been reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of +which the ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than +500 years. The date of its extinction is unknown, but in +certain places, notably Mayapan and Chichenitza, the highest +development seems to be synchronous with the appearance of +foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below). This quite +distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question +played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which +the scanty documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other +hand the Mayan culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate +heterogeneous elements, obliterating racial distinctions and +imposing its own dominant character over a wide area. Oaxaca, +the country of the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, became, as was natural +from its geographical position midway between Yucatan and +Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological traditions +which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united.</p> + +<p>Central American architecture is characterized by a fine +feeling for construction, and the execution is at once bold and +aesthetically effective. Amongst the various ruins, +some of which represent the remains of entire cities, +<span class="sidenote">Architecture</span> +while others are no more than groups of buildings or +single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The commonest +of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are +occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with +a covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top +from one or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps. +Usually the platform on the top of a pyramid is occupied by +buildings, the typical distribution of which is into two parts, +viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion with the pyramid +there are various subsidiary structures, such as altars, pillars, +and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of ritual and +worship, besides habitations for officials and “tennis-courts” +for the famous ball-game like that played by the Mexicans. +The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the +buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation +to particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +constitute one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure, +within which are contained other pyramids, altars or other +buildings of various dimensions.</p> + +<p>The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which +the front facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors. +These divide it into a series of rooms, behind which again there +may be a second series. Occasionally the rooms are distributed +round a central apartment, but this is ordinarily done only when +a second storey has to be placed above them. The gallery-buildings +may rise to as much as three storeys, the height, size +and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies of +vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the +vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls +being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so +narrow a space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At +Mitla, where the material used in the construction of the buildings +was timber instead of stone, the larger rooms were furnished with +stone pillars on which the beams could rest. The same principle +recurs in certain ruins at Chichenitza. The tops and sides of +the doors are often decorated with carved reliefs and hieroglyphs, +and the entrances are sometimes supported by plain or carved +columns and pilasters, of which style the serpent columns of +Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its external +front one of these galleries may have a cornice and half-pillars. +Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze which +generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole +building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic, +serpents’ heads and human masks. The corners of the wall +terminate in three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the +frieze frequently show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated +into trunks. The roof of the gallery is flat and occasionally +gabled.</p> + +<p><i>Principal Sites.</i>—Such are the general characteristics of Central +American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every +site exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the +ruined settlements even as at present known is very large. The +most considerable are enumerated below.</p> + +<p><i>Yucatan</i>.—Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed +over Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still +await exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted +to one or two sites in the centre of the peninsula which have +already become famous. At Uxmal the buildings consist of five +considerable groups, viz.—the Casa del Adivino, which is a step-pyramid +240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide and 80 ft. high, crowned by +a temple 75 ft. long by 12 ft. wide; the Casa de Monjas, a striking +erection of four oblong buildings on an extensive terrace; the +Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa de Palomas, +the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a court. +At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite +insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate +importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist +of eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The +Casa de Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to +several distinct periods; the Caracol, a round structure with +dome in imitation of a snail-shell, showing evident traces of +Mexican influence; El Castillo, a large temple standing on a +base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached by staircases on all +four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a kind unknown +anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an +unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of +caryatid figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple, +which contains marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures +of warriors and place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively +Mexican style. Yet another evidence of Mexican influence at +Chichenitza is to be noted in five figures of the so-called Chac-mol +type, that is to say, horizontal figures in which the arms are +extended to the navel which is indicated by a cup-like depression. +This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such sites as Tlascala +and Cempoallan.</p> + +<p>Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine +wall-paintings; Tantah, with remarkable pillared facades; the +ruins of Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and +Xlabpak de Santa Rosa, where there is a three-storeyed temple +palace. Two sculptured reliefs are of great interest; they +represent a person holding a staff on which is a figure of the +god Ah-bolon-tzacab.</p> + +<p><i>Guatemala</i>.—The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide +area. The most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta +river. The most important sites in that district are Piedras +Negras, and Yaxchilan or Menche Tinamit, where there are +temples covered with sculptured reliefs and hieroglyphic inscriptions, +and stelae and slabs carved with human figures placed in +niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its splendid +sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near +the modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-Mixco. +Chacujál, which Cortes visited on his expedition of +1524-1525 is very possibly to be identified with the modern +Pueblo Viejo on the river Tinaja. Chaculá and Quen-Santo +between the headwaters of the Rio de Chiapas and the Rio +Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local character. +Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two settlements, +as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms. +Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character, +which proves that Mayan science had penetrated into what was +probably the home of an old Lacantun culture.</p> + +<p>Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras, +is a very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settlement +which had already been deserted before Alvarado’s +expedition of 1522. The sculptures of gods, goddesses and +other figures, executed on enormous blocks of stone, show a distinctively +Mexican character, with which, however, various Mayan +features are blended. They may perhaps be attributed to some +offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil Indians, which +developed on lines of its own in this remote corner.</p> + +<p>Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of +Quirigua, which rival Copan in importance and have suffered +less from the ravages of the climate. The ruins of temples and +palaces contain gigantic stone stelae of very fine workmanship, +on which are sculptured human and animal figures representing +hieroglyphs of the calendar dates.</p> + +<p><i>Honduras</i>.—Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan +civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins +comprise great buildings, temples, pyramids, &c. and contain +sculptures of the highest interest. Especially noteworthy are +altars in the form of a turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs. +The hieroglyphs are of the kind usually found in such ruins, +the meaning of which is so far clear that it is known that the +commencement of an inscription records certain dates in the +complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of these +dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated +from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries. +From this it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization, +whether or not it was preceded by anything older, flourished for +only a comparatively short period, the beginning of which cannot +be placed many centuries before <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1000.</p> + +<p>According to Squier (<i>Honduras</i>, London, 1870, p. 75) the other +principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the +department of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and +in the ruined town of Cururu. They are “large, pyramidal, +terraced structures, often faced with stones, conical mounds of +earth and walls of stone.” Further ruins, such as those of Calamulla, +Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca and +Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in +the side valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting +and most extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo), +about 20 m. south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence +works, terraced stone mounds and numerous large pyramids +are to be found. Squier found further ruins in the west of +Honduras, which have also been described in part by Stephens, +and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de +Palacio (<i>Carta dirigida al Rei de España</i>, published by Squier, +New York, 1860).</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:775px; height:1077px" src="images/img678b.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img678a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2">At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a +large population in past days. Possibly they may be identified +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +with a site of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by +Bernal Diaz (<i>Histoire véridique de la conquête de la Nouvelle +Espagne</i>, translated by D. Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877, +ch. 178, p. 690).</p> + +<p><i>Chiapas</i> (Mexico).—The principal site is Palenque, the ruins +of which were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention. +The style of architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular +comb-shaped gables, distinguishes Palenque from Copan and +Quirigua, which it surpasses also in the unequalled magnificence +of its sculptures. Five out of the remarkably uniform series of +buildings may be specially mentioned. They are the Great +Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts commanded +by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the Cross, which are +galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known +reliefs, the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the +Temple of the Relief. The sculptured figures of Palenque are +familiar from many reproductions. The most characteristic +groups represent a deity standing between worshippers who hold +a staff surmounted by the water-god Ah-bolon-tzacab, the “god +of the nine medicines.” The inscriptions on the famous Cross +and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which are +remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and +hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere.</p> + +<p>A whole series of sites is included within the geographical +limits of Chiapas, which from the archaeologist’s standpoint +must be considered as belonging properly to Guatemala. The +country has been quite insufficiently explored.</p> + +<p><i>Oaxaca</i> (Mexico).—The bulk of the population of the province +of Oaxaca is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented +by the Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time +the intermediaries between the Nahua civilization of Mexico +on the west and the Mayan on the east. The influence of the +two separate currents may be detected in the bastard calendar +system no less than in the still undeciphered inscriptions. The +principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of the priests +and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite distinct +character, though presenting certain analogies with the Mexican. +One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three steps +to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides +these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented +necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and +of the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the +“palaces” are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that +the deities represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon.</p> + +<p>Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character +of its sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with +extensive ruins including a fine tennis court.</p> + +<p><i>British Honduras</i>.—The antiquities of British Honduras have +been but little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to +them a few accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style +these buildings closely resemble those of the neighbouring +Yucatan. The ruins in the colony New Boston, mentioned by +Froebel (<i>Central America</i>, p. 167), are of this kind. F. de P. +Castells (see <i>American Antiquarian</i>, Chicago, 1904, vol. xxvi. +pp. 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the colony, of +“Ixim chech,” supposed to be the Indian form of the English +name “Indian Church.” They are on the road to the Lake of +Yaxha (green water), where further ruins are to be found. +Thomas Gann gives detailed accounts of numerous mounds also +in the northern part of British Honduras (see <i>19th Annual Report +of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, Washington, 1900, part i. +pp. 661-692, with plates). The most interesting ruins are those +which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at the mouth of the +New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful wall +paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann +could only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by +Indians. It should be remarked that a number of the mounds +in Santa Rita were erected over ruins of buildings which must +therefore be of older date than the mounds.</p> + +<p><i>Salvador</i>.—Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls +this whole district <i>Cuscatan</i> (Mex. <i>Cozcatlan</i>), that is, “Land of +precious stones, of treasures, of abundance.” A further description +of the land is given by Palacio (l.c.) in 1576. Although +there are numerous relics of Mayan civilization buried in the +earth; few ruins are to be seen on the surface. Karl Sapper has +described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near the capital, Tehuacan +near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Güija in the extreme +north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct affinity +in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they +are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and +western districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the +same race of Mayas, and these tracts of country were later +settled by the Mexican-speaking Pipiles.</p> + +<p>A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is +that the pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which +are higher than they are broad, and this peculiarity may be +attributed to the influence of the Maya tribes, who are related to +the Mams of Guatemala.</p> + +<p><i>Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs.</i>—The key to the +decipherment, so far as this has progressed at present, was +furnished by the <i>Historia de las Cosas de Yucatan</i>, a work written +by Diego de Landa, the first bishop of the country. This professed +to give, with much other more or less doubtful information, +the full account of a calendar system analogous to that of the +Mexicans, which was said to have been used by the Mayas (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mexico</a></span>). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18 +weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to +compare these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the +few Mayan picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus, +Peresianus, Dresden Codex) which have survived the destructive +fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries. Förstemann’s acute +analysis detected that the bars and dots which occur along the +margin and in the body of the pictorial scenes represented +numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five, while for +five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in which +these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are +never more than five in a group. It was established that the +first sign in such a group is that for the numeral 1 (<i>Kin</i>), the next +that for 20 (<i>Uinal</i>), the third for 18×20 (<i>Tun</i>), the fourth for +18×20×20 (<i>Katun</i>), and the fifth for 18×20×20×20, that is to +say, a cycle.</p> + +<p>Had the available material for study been confined to the +manuscripts, little more progress would have been made beyond +establishing subsidiary details in the actual calendar. But +when a similar analysis was applied to the numerous monuments +discovered and figured by Maudslay and others, some important +results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found that +many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were +also of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that +they all referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-point +or zero is no doubt the mythological date at which, according +to Mayan cosmology, the world was created. It is placed at +nine or ten cycles before the time when Copan and Quirigua were +erected and the picture manuscripts made. And it is by reference +to it in the inscriptions that such students as Seler, Goodman +and others have been enabled, as already stated, to obtain a +record of the relative chronology of the most famous monuments, +to confine the period of their erection within the space of a few +centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity. +Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial +results which have already been won from the study of the +hieroglyphs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The <i>Antiquités mexicaines</i> of Dupaix (Paris, +1834), the <i>Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d’Yucatan</i> +of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the <i>Monuments anciens du +Mexique</i> of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are +quite out of date and superseded. Stephen’s <i>Incidents of Travel +in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan</i> (New York, 1841 and +1867), and B.M. Norman’s <i>Rambles in Yucatan</i> (New York, 1843), +are still of value, the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by +Catherwood. Among the earlier writers may also be mentioned +Charnay, <i>Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde</i> (Paris, 1885) and +<i>Cités et ruines américaines</i> (Paris, 1863), the latter written in collaboration +with Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily +bibliophiles will be content to study the following:—Maudslay (in +Godman and Salvin’s <i>Biologia Centrali-Americana</i>, sect. <i>Archaeology</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +London, 1889, &c.), a pioneer work containing the admirably presented +results of scientific exploration. Maler, in <i>Memoirs of the +Peabody Museum</i>, vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and 1903); +Holmes, <i>Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans</i> (Field +Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895); E. Seler, <i>Die alten Ansiedelungen +von Chacula</i> (Berlin, 1901), <i>Wandmalereien von Mitla</i> (Berlin, +1895), <i>Ges. Abhandlungen</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904), +<i>Fuhrer von Mitla</i> (Berlin, 1906). E. Förstemann has contributed +many valuable essays to <i>Globus</i> and the <i>Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie</i> +(Berlin); especially important are his commentaries to the <i>Dresden +Codex</i> (Dresden, 1901), to the <i>Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis</i> +(Danzig, 1902), and to the <i>Codex Peresianus</i> (Danzig, 1903). See +also “The Archaic Maya Inscriptions,” by F.T. Goodman (in +<i>Biologia Centrali-Americana</i>, section <i>Archaeology</i>, viii., 1897), and +<i>Report of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881</i>, by A.F. Bandelier +(Boston, 1884). Valuable bibliographies have been made by +Bandelier (<i>Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America</i>, +Worcester, U.S.A., 1881) and by K. Häbler (“Die Maya Literatur +und der Maya Apparat zu Dresden,” in the <i>Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekwesen</i>, +xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published +in facsimile as follows:—the <i>Dresden Codex</i> by Förstemann (Leipzig, +1880, and Dresden, 1892), and the <i>Codex Tro</i> by Brasseur de Bourbourg—<i>Manuscrit +Troano, étude sur le système graphique et la langue +des Mayas</i> (Paris, 1869-1870), the <i>Codex Cortesianus</i> by Léon de +Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and +F.L. de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the <i>Codex Peresianus</i> +by Duruy and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de +Rosny (Paris, 1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in +Salvador:—<i>La Universidad</i>, by D. Gonzalez, vol. ii. ser. 3, No. 6, +p. 283 (San Salvador, 1892-1893); <i>Le Salvador pré-Colombien, études +archéologiques</i>, by F. de Montcasus de Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25 plates; +Karl Sapper in <i>Arch. fur Ethnologie</i>, 9, p. 3 ff. (1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL FALLS,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, +U.S.A., on the Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence. +Pop. (1900) 18,167; (1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792 +were foreign-born, 4164 being French-Canadian, 1587 being English, +and 1292 being Irish; (1910) 22,754. It is served by the New +York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The Blackstone furnishes +good water-power, and the chief industry of the city is the manufacture +of cotton goods; other important industries are the +refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and +hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$5,090,984, being 12.9% more than in 1900. A settlement was +established here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield, +and then, after 1871, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill +was erected, and from then until 1827 the settlement was known +as Chocolateville. It was incorporated as the Central Falls Fire +District of Smithfield in 1847, and in 1895 was chartered as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTRALIA,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the +S. part of the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) +4763; (1900) 6721 (571 foreign-born); (1910) 9680. The city +is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois +Central, the Illinois Southern, and the Southern railways; the +first two have repair shops here. Centralia is situated in the +central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as “Egypt.” +Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars, +concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and +apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city +is a shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled +in 1853, and was first chartered as a city in 1859.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL INDIA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a collection of native states in India forming +a separate agency, which must not be confounded with the +Central Provinces. The Central India agency was formed in +1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was appointed agent to the governor-general. +It lies between 21° 24′ and 26° 52′ N. and between +74° 0′ and 83° 0′ E., and may be said to consist of two large +detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as a pivot, spread +outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching northward +to within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of the +Nerbudda and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area +is 78,772 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United +Provinces, on the W. and S.W. by Rajputana, some native states +of the Bombay presidency, and Khandesh. The Central Provinces +and the Bengal district of Chota Nagpur enclose it on the +S. and E., while the Jhansi district of the United Provinces +separates the two tracts.</p> + +<p>Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions: +the highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of +some 1500 ft. above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft. +above sea-level, comprising the greater part of the eastern section +of the agency; and the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south. +The Malwa plateau consists of great undulating plains, separated +by flat-topped hills, whose sides are boldly terraced, with here +and there a scarp rising above the general level; it is covered +with long grass, stunted trees and scrub, which owing to the +presence of deciduous plants is of a uniform straw colour, except +in the rains. The foundation of this plateau is a bed of sandstone +and shales belonging to the Vindhyan series. This bed, which +stretches east and west from Sasseram to Neemuch, and north +and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the whole of the +agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the +plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan +trap, a blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high +level tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows, +the valleys of Central India being merely “denudation hollows” +carved out by the action of rain and rivers. It is apparently +the northern limit of what was once a vast basaltic plain stretching +from Goona to Belgaum, “one of the most gigantic outpourings +of volcanic matter in the world.” The sandstone bed on +which it rests is visible at a point just north of Goona, and in a +small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those places freed +from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly that +part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and +comprises the greater part of the political divisions of +Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior. +The formation save in north Bundelkhand is sandstone of the +Vindhyan series, free as a rule from “trap.” In the north of +Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and quartz. The +quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in many +places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears +here and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly +to the south of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and +Kaimur ranges are met with. The country is rough forest and +jungle land little used for cultivation. The greater part of Central +India is covered with the well-known “black cotton soil,” +produced by the disintegration of the trap rock. It is a very +rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and an unusual power +of retaining moisture, which makes artificial irrigation little +needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown upon +it. The ordinary “red soil” covers a large part of northern +Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a +special feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as +climatically the differences between the plateau and the eastern +part of the agency are distinct and the languages markedly so. +The plateau is inhabited by pure-blooded Rajput races, whose +ancestry can be traced back for centuries, with all their numerous +offshoots. The inhabitants of the low-lying country are also +Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a rule the families +of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with them. +The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often +flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but +little affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of +the climate of the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the <i>Ain-i-Akbari</i>, +says: “The climate is so temperate that in the winter +there is no occasion for warm clothing, nor is it necessary in +summer to cool the water with saltpetre. But in the four rainy +months the night here is cold enough to render a quilt necessary.” +The rains of the south-east monsoon reach Central India as a +rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end of September.</p> + +<p><i>Administrative Divisions.</i>—The Central India agency is +divided for administrative purposes into eight units, two classed +as residencies and six as agencies. These are the residencies of +Gwalior and Indore, and the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal, +Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and Malwa. But these +divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the purposes of +the British government, the original native divisions consisting +of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 15 large states +are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia, +Orchha, Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch), +Dewas (junior branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +Pindari War in 1818 the whole country that is now under the +Central India agency was in great confusion and disorder, having +suffered heavily from the extortions of the Mahratta armies +and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of the great +Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into +complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands +they seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of +money. Many of these minor chiefs had been expelled from their +possessions, had taken refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated +upon the Mahratta usurpers by wasting the lands which they had +lost, until the Mahrattas compounded for peace by payment of +blackmail. In this state of affairs all parties agreed to accept +the interposition of the British government for the restoration +of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of pacification was +effected. The policy pursued was to declare the permanency +of the rights existing at the time of the British interposition, +conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust and +guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to +their superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or encroachments; +and to settle the claims of the ousted landholders, +who had resorted to pillage or blackmail, by fixing grants of +land to be made to them, or settling the money allowances to be +paid to them. The general result was to place all the +privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs under the +guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all +disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred, +and whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to +hereditary rights or rulership. The states have no general +ethnological affinity, such as exists in Rajputana. Their territories +are in many cases neither compact nor continuous, consisting +of a number of villages here and there, with a nucleus of more +or less importance round the chief town. Their relations to the +government of India and to each other present many variations. +Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government of +India; others are held under <i>sanads</i> and deeds of fealty and +obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states, +are held under agreements mediated by the British government +between them and their superior chiefs.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The total population of the Central India agency +in 1901 was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of +16.4%. Considerable losses were caused by the famines of +1897-1898 and 1899-1900, which were severely felt, especially +in Bhopal and Malwa. The greater part of the population of +Central India is of the Hindu religion, but a few Mahommedan +groups still exist, either traces of the days when the Mogul +emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the Deccan, +or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired +out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first +Bhopal is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable +instance of the other. Roughly there are four great sections of +the population: the Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling +circles; the Rajputs, who are also hereditary noblemen; the +trading classes, consisting chiefly of Marwaris and Gujaratis; +and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian stock. The Mahrattas +are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater part of Central +India, have no true connexion with the soil and are little met +with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and administrative +centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications form +a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have +so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost +part of the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically +all the trade of Central India, with the exception of the Bora +class of Mahommedans. They are either Vaishnavite Hindus +or else Jains. Their advent into Central India dates, except in +the case of one or two families, from the time of the Mahratta +invasion only. The Jain portion of this community is very +wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly +of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being +the modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants +of this country.</p> + +<p>The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore, +and there are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and +Nowgong. The whole country is fairly provided with railways, +largely at the expense of Sindhia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a province of British +India, which was formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation +of the Central Provinces and the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. +The total area of the provinces is 113,281 sq. m., and the population +on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325. As is shown by its name +the province is situated in the centre of the Indian peninsula, +comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of hill and plateau +country which separates the plains of Hindustan from the +Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India +states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the +United Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the +Khandesh district of Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the +large <i>zamindari</i> estates of the Madras presidency; and on the +E. by these latter estates and the tributary states of Bengal. +In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five Oriya-speaking +hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal, +while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were transferred +from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province, therefore, +now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore, Nerbudda, +Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into +the twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, +Seoni, Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, +Wardha, Nagpur, Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur, +Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur, Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen +tributary states of Makrai, Bastar, Kanker, Nandgaon, Kairagarh, +Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh, Sarangarh, +Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura +range of hills (<i>q.v.</i>), which runs south of the Nerbudda river from +east to west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of +districts north of the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura +<span class="sidenote">Central Provinces.</span> +plateau, and districts south of the Satpuras. North of +the Satpuras is the rich valley of the Nerbudda, which may be said +to begin towards the north of the Jubbulpore district and to extend +westward through the district of Narsinghpur as far as the western +limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of nearly 300 m. The elevation +of the valley above the sea varies from 1400 ft. at Jubbulpore +to 1120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about 30 m., extending +between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the Vindhyas. +This great plain, 10,613 sq. m. in extent, contains for the most +part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley west +of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of +Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district +of the Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts, +this tract of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the +base of the hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land +which is highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great +plain of Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft.; +it has an area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the +Mahanadi. Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the +great plain of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general +surface inclines towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at +Nagpur to 750 ft. at Chanda. To the south the province is shut in +by the wide mountainous tract which stretches from the Bay of +Bengal through Bastar to the Godavari, and west of that river is +continued onward to the rocky ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by +a succession of ranges that enclose the plain of Berar along its +southern border.</p> + +<p>Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura +range of mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south. +The Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura +mountains, form the northern border. On the east the +<span class="sidenote">Berar.</span> +frontier is marked by the Wardha river down to its confluence with +the Penganga, and on the south by the Penganga for about two-thirds +of the frontier’s length. The tract is half surrounded on the east, +north and north-west by the Central Provinces, with which it is +amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat mountain tract which +walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into two sections, the +Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north by the +Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the Ajanta +range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta ridge, +sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead +up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward +between this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from +40 to 50 m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It +contains all the best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black +alluvial soil, of almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates +sufficiently to maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is +nothing picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country. +The upland tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +plains, high plateaus, fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is +rendered picturesque by rivers and groves.</p> + +<p><i>Natural Features</i>.—The provinces may be divided into two tracts +of upland and three of plain, consisting of the Vindhya and Satpura +plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the +north the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary +of the Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks +are generally overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decaying +trap, which is principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring +crops, wheat and grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the +lighter and more sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of +the Nerbudda from Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep +alluvial deposits of extreme richness and excellently suited to the +growth of wheat. To the south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range +stretches across the province, containing the greater part of five +districts, its crystalline and sandstone rocks rising in places through +the superficial stratum of trap, and with large areas of shallow stony +land still covered to a great extent with forest interspersed by +black-soil valleys of great fertility. In the latter are grown wheat +and other spring crops, while the lighter kinds of rice and the hill +millets are all that the poorer land can bear. To the south of the +Satpuras and extending along its base from west to east lie successively +the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of +Berar is to a great extent a rich black vegetable mould; and where +this surface soil does not exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow +upper crust of inferior light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by +the Wardha and Wainganga rivers, contains towards the west the +shallow black soil in which autumn crops like cotton and the large +millet, <i>juar</i>, which do not require excessive moisture, can be successfully +cultivated. The eastern part of the Nagpur country and the +Chhattisgarh plain, comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great +rice tract of the province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil +rendering it excellently adapted for the growth of this crop.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—As regards climate the districts of the Central Provinces +are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division +are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh, +Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Satpura +districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy, +owing to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average temperature +than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is +from 3 to 4 degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in +a cooler district being about 105° as against 108° in the hotter ones +for the month of May, and 79° as against 83° for the month of +December. In the cold weather the temperature in Nagpur and the +other hot districts is about the same as in Calcutta and substantially +higher than that of northern India. The climate of Berar differs +very little from that of the Deccan generally, except that in the +Payanghat valley the hot weather may be exceptionally severe. +The rainfall of the province is considerably heavier than in northern +India, and the result of this is a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere +during the monsoon season. The average rainfall, before it was +affected by the abnormal seasons which followed 1892, was 51 in., +varying from 33 in. in Nimar to 65 in Balaghat. In the autumn +months malarial fever is prevalent in all thickly forested tracts and +also in the rice country; but on the whole the province is considered +to be healthy, and as the rains break fairly regularly in June and +produce an immediate fall in the temperature, severe heat is only +experienced for a period of from two to three months.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture</i>.—Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the province +produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and +grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the +decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan +and Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in +all the Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur. +Cotton and juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur, +Wardha and the southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter +also in Chanda. In the Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is +principally devoted to hill millets. Rice is an important crop in +Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief +staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and the two eastern districts of +Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of Berar are cotton and juar. +The succession of bad seasons which marked the end of the decade +affected the distribution of the principal crops, but with the advent +of more prosperous seasons things tend to return to their old level.</p> + +<p><i>Industries</i>.—The only important industries are connected with +cotton and coal. In 1904 the total number of factories was 391, +almost entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received +an immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a +brewery was established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are +worked in the Central Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each +of which there is a branch line of railway. In 1903-1904 there was +a total yield of 160,000 tons, valued at about £45,000. In connexion +with the Warora colliery there is a fire-clay business. The Mopani +colliery, which dates back to 1860, is worked by a joint-stock +company.</p> + +<p><i>Trade</i>.—The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly +by rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are +cotton piece goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway +materials, raw cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil. +The chief exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and +lac. The exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations, +especially during famine periods.</p> + +<p><i>Railways</i>.—Until recently, the only railway in the Central Provinces +was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one +terminating at Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was +continued by the East Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-Nagpur +line has now opened up the eastern portion of the country, +bringing it into direct connexion with Calcutta; and a new branch +of the Indian Midland, from Saugor through Damoh, has been partly +constructed as a famine work. Large portions, however, in the hilly +centre and in the south-east, are still remote from railways.</p> + +<p><i>Administration</i>.—The administration of the province is conducted +by a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India +in council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial +civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant superintendents +of police, and officers specially recruited for various departments. +The form of the administration of Berar was in 1903 +entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by the +treaties of 1853 and 1860 the revenues of the province were assigned +primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent, such +surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the nizam, +while the province itself was administered in trust by the government +of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November 1902 +a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in perpetuity +to the British government in return for an annual rental of 25 lakhs. +It remained under the administration of the resident until the 1st of +October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the Central +Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result of +this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except the +judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were +amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central +Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that +province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional +commissioner as its immediate head.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—The population of the Central Provinces and Berar +as now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and +is of very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by +immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There +are six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who +formerly held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the +north and north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley +and the open country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking +immigrants from Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of +Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking +immigrants from Bombay into Berar, the Mahratta districts and the +southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu castes in the Sironcha and +Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of Bastar; and the Hindu +immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed to have arrived +many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of Ratanpur rose +into power.</p> + +<p><i>Language</i>.—Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of language +is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six +dialects are found in the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight +languages and sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these +languages are Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi, +Oriya, Telugu and Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief +dialects are Gondi, Oraon or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of +which Gondi is by far the most important. There are also the +Munda languages, of which the chief are Korku, Kharia and Munda +or Kol. The chief languages of Berar are Marathi, Urdu, Gondi, +Banjari, Hindi, Marwari, Telugu, Korku and Gujarati.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The authentic history of the greater part of the +country embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till +the 16th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> By the people of northern India the +country was known as Gondwana, after the savage tribes of +Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman invaders +of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain +fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscriptions +show that parts of it had fallen from time to time under +the dominion of one or other of the great kingdoms of the north, +<i>e.g.</i> of Asoka, of the Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu +kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar); and inscriptions and numerous +discoveries of coins prove that, during the middle ages, the open +spaces were occupied by a series of Rajput dynasties. Of these +the most important was that of the Haihayas of Ratanpur, a +family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda +valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the +Pandava dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled, +though from the 16th century onwards over greatly diminished +territories, until its overthrow by the Mahrattas in 1745. The +second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja, was the founder of +Ratanpur.</p> + +<p>The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century, +and no more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +dynasties from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The first of these +is mentioned in 1398, when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said +by Ferishta to have ruled all the hills of Gondwana. He was +finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang Shah, king of Malwa. +The 16th century saw the establishment of a powerful Gond +kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th +of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his +dominions so as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan +plateau, Jubbulpore and Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley, +and Seoni on the Satpura highlands. Sangram Sah died in 1530; +and the break up of his dominion began with the enforced cession +to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of Saugor +and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which afterwards +formed the state of Bhopal.</p> + +<p>About 200 years after Sangram Sah’s time, Bakht Buland, +the Gond chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhindwara, +having visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization +he had there admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which +his successor made his capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its +widest extent, embraced the modern districts of Betul, Chhindwara, +Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara and Balaghat. +In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of another +Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th +century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deogarh +and Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul emperors. +In addition to the acquisitions made in the north at +the expense of Garha-Mandla, the Moguls, after the annexation +of Berar, established governors at Paunar in Wardha and Kherla +in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states, however, +they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over +them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical +independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful +rule their territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul +empire and the rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta +powers, with the organized forces of which their semi-barbarous +feudal levies were unable to cope, brought misfortune upon them.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived +the Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the +Nerbudda valley. In 1733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundelkhand; +and in 1735 the Mahrattas had established their power +in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa advanced to Mandla and exacted +the payment of <i>chauth</i> (tributary blackmail), and from this time +until 1781, when the successors of Sangram Sah were finally +overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a Mahratta +dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities +of Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla +of Berar established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had conquered +the territories of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh. +In 1741 Ratanpur had surrendered to the Mahratta leader +Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput dynasty +came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were +suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a +shadowy existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse +for avoiding the claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though +actually decisions in important matters were sought at Poona. +Raghoji died in 1755, and in 1769 his son and successor, Janoji, +was forced to acknowledge the peshwa’s effective supremacy. +The Nagpur state, however, continued to grow. In 1785 Mudhoji +(d. 1788), Janoji’s successor, bought from the Poona court the +cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and between +1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of Hoshangabad +and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II. +(d. 1816). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered +practically the whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar, +as well as Orissa and some of the Chota Nagpur states.</p> + +<p>In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the +result was the defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the +treaty of Deogaon, by which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack, +Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to this time the rule of the +Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant extraction, had been +on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat, Raghoji now +set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless exploitation +of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of the +British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of +oppression. After Raghoji II.’s death in 1816 his imbecile son +Parsaji was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa +Sahib. In spite of a treaty signed with the British in this year, +Mudhoji in 1817 joined the peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi +and forced to cede the rest of Berar to the nizam, and parts of +Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul, Seoni and the Nerbudda +valley, to the British. After a temporary restoration to the +throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild of +Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority, +which lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a +British resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without +heirs, Nagpur lapsed to the British paramount power. Until +the formation of the Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province, +which consists of the present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and +Chhatisgarh, was administered by a commissioner under the +central government.</p> + +<p>The territories in the north ceded in 1817 by the peshwa (parts +of Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820 +formed into the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent +to the governor-general, and in 1835 were included in the newly +formed North-West Provinces. In 1842, in consequence of a +rising, they were again placed under the jurisdiction of an agent +to the governor-general. Restored to the North-West Provinces +in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur province to +constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of +October 1903 Berar also was placed under the administration of +the commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berar</a></span>). +In 1905 the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory +states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were +transferred to Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang +Bhakar, Korea, Surguja, Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred +from Bengal to the Central Provinces.</p> + +<p>During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered +from famine more severely than any other part of India. The +complete failure of the rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity +to develop suddenly into famine, which lasted until the end of +1897. The total number of persons in receipt of relief reached +its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897. The expenditure +on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the total cost +of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly +twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole +province rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average, +while the birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The +Central Provinces were stricken by another famine, yet more +severe and widespread, caused by the complete failure of the +rains in 1899. The maximum of persons relieved for the whole +province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition, about 68,000 +persons were in receipt of relief in the native states. During the +three years 1899-1902 the total expenditure on famine relief +amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered +from the famines of 1897 and 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list +of authorities.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTUMVIRI<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (<i>centum</i>, hundred; <i>vir</i>, man), an ancient court +of civil jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius +Tullius.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Its antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula +used in its procedure, the lance (<i>hasta</i>) as the sign of true ownership, +the oath or wager (<i>sacramentum</i>), the ancient formula for +recovery of property or assertion of liberty. It is probably +alluded to in Livy’s account of the Valerio-Horatian laws of +449 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (Livy iii. 55, <i>Consules ... fecerunt sanciendo ut qui +tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris nocuisset, ejus +caput Jovi sacrum esset</i>). If the <i>judices</i> here mentioned are the +<i>centumviri</i>, it is clear that they formed a tribunal which represented +the interests of the <i>plebs</i>. This is in accordance with +Cicero’s account (<i>de Orat.</i> i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their jurisdiction. +He says this was mainly concerned with the property +of which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +their power to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided +questions concerning debt. Hence the <i>plebs</i> had an interest in +securing their decisions against undue influence. They were +never regarded as magistrates, but merely as <i>judices</i>, and as such +would be appointed for a fixed term of service by the magistrate, +probably by the <i>praetor urbanus</i>. But in Cicero’s time they were +elected by the <i>Comitia Tributa</i>. They then numbered 105. +Their original number is uncertain. It was probably increased +by Augustus and in Pliny’s time had reached 180. The office +was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and +plebeians. The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to +the municipal senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Tigerström, <i>De Judicibus apud Romanos</i> (Berlin, +1826); Greenidge, <i>Legal Procedure of Cicero’s Time</i>, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff., +182 ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, <i>Der romische +Civilprozess</i>, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, +iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. Cl.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mommsen (<i>Staatsrecht</i>, i³. 275, n. 4, ii³. 231, n. 1, 590 f.) believed +that the <i>Centumviri</i> were instituted about 150 <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTURION<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (Lat. <i>centurio</i>), in the ancient Roman army, an +officer in command of a <i>centuria</i>, originally a body of a hundred +infantry, later the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There +were therefore in the legion sixty centurions, who, though +theoretically subordinate to the six military tribunes, were the +actual working officers of the legion. For the most part the +centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were arranged +in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of the +legion (<i>primus pilus</i>) was an officer of very high importance. +Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were +“seconded” for various kinds of special service, <i>e.g.</i> for staff employment, +the command of auxiliaries. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Army</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTURIPE<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Centorbi</span>, anc. <span class="grk" title="Kentoripa">Κεντόριπα</span> or <i>Centuripae</i>), +a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated +2380 ft. above sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of +the railway station of Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m. +W. from Catania. Pop. (1901) 11,311. Thucydides mentions it +as a city of the Sicels. It became an ally of the Athenians at +the time of their expedition against Syracuse, and maintained +its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell under +the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero +describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the +largest and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of +10,000, engaged in the cultivation of an extensive territory. +It was granted Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears +to have suffered much in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and +not to have regained its former prosperity under the empire. +Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in 1233, but it was soon +rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city walls and of +buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and numerous +antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic <i>terra-cottas</i>, have been +discovered in casual excavations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Ansaldi, <i>I Monumenti dell’ antica Centuripi</i> (Catania, 1851); +P. Orsi in <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche</i> (Rome, +1904), v. 177.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CENTURY<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>centuria</i>, a division of a hundred men), +the name for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting +to one hundred men, and for one of the divisions into which the +Roman people was separated for voting purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>). +The word is applied to any group of one hundred, and more +particularly to a period of a hundred years, and to the successive +periods of a hundred years, dating before or after +the birth of Christ. The “Century-plant” is a name given to +the Agave (<i>q.v.</i>), or American aloe, from the supposition that it +flowered once only in every hundred years.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEOS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Keôs">Κέως</span>, mod. <i>Zea</i> or <i>Tzia</i>), an island in the Aegean +Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of +Syra, 14 m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about +15 m. and its breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the +centre, where it culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among +its natural productions are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and +honey; it also exports a considerable quantity of valonia. +There were formerly four towns of some importance in the +island:—Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore; Coressia, +the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the +neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of +Apollo; and Poieëssa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is +represented by the town of Zea, and Carthaea by the village of +’S tais Polais; traces of the other two can still be made out. +Iulis was the birthplace of the lyric poets Simonides and +Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and Ariston, and the physician +Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was so generally +recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a proverb. +One of them forbade a citizen to protract his life beyond sixty +years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at +Artemisium and Salamis; they joined the Delian League and +also the later Athenian alliance in 377 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> They revolted in +363-362, but were reduced again, and the Athenians established +a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth, which was one of the most +valuable products of the island. In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1207 it was divided +between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of the +duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566. +Silver coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating +from the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Greek</i>, “Cyclades +and Sporades”). The present population of the island is about +4000, of which the capital has about 2000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pridik, <i>De Cei Insulae rebus</i> (1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEPHALIC INDEX,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> the term in use by anthropologists to +express the percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The +principle employed by Retzius is to take the longer diameter of +a skull, the antero-posterior diameter, as 100; if the shorter or +transverse diameter falls below 80 the skull may be classed as +long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds 80 the skull is broad +(brachycephalic) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Craniometry</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEPHALONIA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Cefalonia</i>, ancient and modern official +Greek <i>Cephallenia</i>, <span class="grk" title="Kephallênia">Κεφαλληνία</span>), an island belonging +to the kingdom of Greece, and the largest of those known as the +Ionian Islands, situated on the west side of the mainland, almost +directly opposite the Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally +derived from Cephalus, the Attic hero who was regarded as +having colonized the island. The tradition, which is repeated by +Aristotle, is probably due solely to the similarity of the names +(see J.G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias</i>, i. 37, 6 note). Pop. (1907) 71,235. +Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies from about +20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the projecting +part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a distance +of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The +whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with +rocky hills of varying elevation, the main range running from +north-west to south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato, +Monte Negro, or the Black Mountain (5315 ft.), frequently retains +the snow for several months. It is not only the loftiest part of +the sierra, but also the highest land in the whole Ionian group. +The name “Black” was given from the darkness of the pine +woods which still constitute the most striking feature in Cephalonian +scenery, although their extent has been greatly curtailed +by fire. The summit is called Megálo Sorós. The island is ill +supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams +except the Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers. +In the western part of the island a gulf runs up from the south, +a distance of about 7 m.; on its east side stands the chief town +Argostoli, with about 10,000 inhabitants, and on its west side +the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000. About a mile west of the +town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea water running +down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels. About +5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of +Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island. +On an eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the +ancient Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale; +while on the other side of the island are the remains of Samos +on the bay of the same name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south +above the vale of Rakli and its blossoming oleanders, and of +an unknown city near the village of Scala. The ruins of this +city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple, rock-cut tombs, +and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos are +remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly +of the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost +unimpaired the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +of Cephalonia have all along been extremely active; and no +slight amount of toil has been expended in the construction of +terraces on the steep sides of the hills. Owing to the thinness +of the population, however, but a small proportion of the soil +is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain grown in the +island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant, in +the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit +is smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it +finds a market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The +grape vine also is grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising +industry. The olive crop is of considerable importance, and the +culture of cotton in the low grounds has been successfully +attempted. Manufactures are few and undeveloped, but lace +from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and basket-work are produced +by the villagers, and boats are built at both the principal +towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and Zante are +most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental +activity.</p> + +<p>In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to +be mentioned under the name of Same, and its inhabitants, +among the subjects of Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes +(see, however, under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ithaca</a></span>). In the Persian War they took but +little part; in the Peloponnesian they sided with the Athenians. +The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip of Macedon in +218 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In 189 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span> all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards +revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months. +The island was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears +again at a later date as “free and autonomous.” After the +division of the Roman empire, it continued attached to Byzantium +till 1082, when it was captured by Robert Guiscard, who +died, however, before he could repress the revolt of 1085. In +1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who accepted +the protection of Venice in 1215; and after 1225 it was held +along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of five counts +of the Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice +in 1350 by the prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured +by the Turks in 1479; but the Hispanico-Venetian fleet under +Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of Cordova effected their +expulsion in 1500, and the island continued in Venetian possession +till the fall of the republic. For some time it was administered +for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the +British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in +the hands of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who +displayed an industry and energy in the repression of injustice +and development of civilization only outdone by the despotic +vigour of Sir Charles Napier, who held the same office for the nine +years from 1818 to 1827. During the British protectorate the +island made undoubted advances in material prosperity, but +was several times the scene of political disturbances. It retained +longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence exerted +by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming +more democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight +districts, and an elaborate system of police was in force; since +its annexation to Greece it has been broken up into twenty +demarchies, each with its separate jurisdiction and revenues, +and the police system has been abolished.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia +was written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland’s <i>Travels</i> (1815); +Ansted’s <i>Ionian Islands</i> (1863); Viscount Kirkwall’s <i>Four Years +in Ionian Islands</i> (1864); Wiebel’s <i>Die Insel Kephalonia</i>; parliamentary +papers. Riemann, <i>Recherches archéologiques sur les Iles +Ioniennes</i> (Paris, 1879-1880); Partsch, <i>Kephallenia und Ithaka</i> +(1890); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corfu</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian Islands</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEPHALOPODA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the fifth of the classes into which the +zoological phylum Mollusca is divided (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mollusca</a></span>). The +Cephalopoda are mainly characterized by the concrescence of the +foot and head. The foot grows forward on each side so as to +surround the mouth, the two upgrowths meeting on the dorsal +side of the head—whence the name Cephalopoda. The perioral +portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like processes; +these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or +hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of +muscular lobes right and left, which are bent round towards one +another so that their free margins meet and constitute a short +tube—the siphon or funnel. The hind-foot is either very small +or absent. A distinctive feature of the Cephalopoda is their +bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like the torsion of +the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median +line, is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is +deeply produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber +around the anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or +paired apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only +in <i>Nautilus</i>, in female Octopoda, female <i>Ommatostrephes</i> and male +<i>Eledone</i>), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is +elevated, and may be very much elongated in a direction almost at +right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot.</p> + +<p>A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral +hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or +lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming +habits of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is, +enclosed in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented +sacs, capable of expansion and contraction, and known as chromatophores, +are usually present in the integument. The sexes are separate.</p> + +<p>The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as +the efficient branchial organs (figs. 4, 24),</p> + +<p>The vascular system is very highly developed; the heart consists +of a pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts +are formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known +to what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or +whether there is a true capillary system.</p> + +<p>The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing +among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary +or testis—the viscero-pericardial sac—which opens to the exterior +either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion +with the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs, +the walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29). +They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in +<i>Nautilus</i>. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla. +Jaws (fig. 6, <i>e</i>) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws +have the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (<i>Nautilus</i>), +and are capable of inflicting severe wounds.</p> + +<p>Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives +are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic +region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are +developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits +a very special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a +remarkable archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in +all. The typical osphradium is not present, except in <i>Nautilus</i>, but +other organs are present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory +function is ascribed both in <i>Nautilus</i> and in the other Cephalopoda.</p> + +<p>Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female +individuals always being differentiated. The genital aperture and +duct is sometimes single, when it is the left; sometimes the typical +pair is developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all +Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar +modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot, connected +with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization +is applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate spermatophores +or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very +usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nidamental +glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fig. 4, <i>g.n.</i>). The +egg is large, and the development is much modified by the presence +of an excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm +of the egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development +are consequently not recognizable.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata +and Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen) +describe the number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are +several characters, of as great importance as those derived from +the gills, by which the members of these two orders are separated +from one another.</p> + +<p class="center ptb1"><span class="sc">Order 1. Tetrabranchiata</span> (= Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera).</p> + +<p><i>Characters</i>.—The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are +not fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circumoral +lobes of the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles, +not suckers (fig. 6). There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence +Tetrabranchiata), and two pairs of renal organs, consequently +four renal apertures (fig. 4). The viscero-pericardial chamber +opens by two independent apertures to the exterior, and not into +the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and left) in the +female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in both +sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or +straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the last-formed +of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the +hinder ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. 1). The +pair of cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14. A), opening to +the exterior by minute orifices (pin-hole camera), and devoid of +refractive structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base +of the gills (fig. 4, <i>olf</i>). Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac +is <i>not</i> present. Branchial hearts are <i>not</i> developed on the +branchial afferent vessels.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:576px; height:496px" src="images/img686.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus, contracted by spirit +and lying in its shell, the right half of which is cut away (from Gegenbaur, +after Owen).<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%;"> +<p>a, Visceral hump.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Portion of the free edge of the +mantle-skirt reflected on to the +shell,—the edge of the mantle-skirt +can be traced downwards +and forwards around the base +of the mid-foot or siphon i.</p> + +<p><i>l, l</i>, Superficial origin of the retractor +muscle of the mid-foot (siphon), +more or less firmly attached to +the shell, of which a small piece +(<i>s</i>) is seen between the letters +<i>l, l</i>.</p> + +<p><i>s</i>, (farther back) points to the siphuncular +pedicle, which is broken +off short and not continued, as +in the perfect state, through the +whole length of the siphuncle of +the shell, also marked s and s’.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p>o, points to the right eye.</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, is placed near the extremities of +the contracted tentacles of the +outer or annular lobe of the +fore-foot—the jointed tentacles +are seen protruding a little from +their long cylindrical sheaths.</p> + +<p><i>v</i>, The dorsal “hood” formed by +an enlargement in this region +of the annular lobe of the fore-foot +(<i>m</i> in figs. 2, 3).</p> + +<p>V, A swelling of the mantle-skirt, +indicating the position on its +inner face of the nidamental +gland (see fig. 4, <i>g.n.</i>).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Visceral Hump and Shell.</i>—The visceral hump of <i>Nautilus</i> (if +we exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which +it trails, as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the +coiled form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always +slips forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber +which is practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted +chambers thrown off instead of being accumulated behind the +inhabited chamber as a coiled series of air-chambers, we should +have a more correct indication in the shell of the extent and form +of the animal’s body. Amongst Gastropods it is not very unusual +to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as growth +advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the +shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied +cavity by a transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be +formed, but in no Gastropod are these apical chambers known to +contain a gas during the life of the animal in whose shell they +occur. A further peculiarity of the nautilus shell and of that of +the allied extinct <i>Ammonites</i>, <i>Scaphites</i>, <i>Orthoceras</i>, &c., and of +the living <i>Spirula</i>, is that the series of deserted air-chambers is +traversed by a cord-like pedicle extending from the centro-dorsal +area of the visceral hump to the smallest and first-formed +chamber of the series. No structure comparable to this siphuncular +pedicle is known in any other Mollusca. The siphuncle +does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple +vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous +sinus, and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial +artery. There appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers +of the nautilus shell contain in the healthy living animal a gas +which serves to lessen the specific gravity of the whole organism. +This gas is said to be of the same composition as the atmosphere, +with a larger proportion of nitrogen. With regard to its origin we +have only conjectures. Each septum shutting off an air-containing +chamber is formed during a period of quiescence, probably +after the reproductive act, when the visceral mass of the nautilus +may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from the dorsal +integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by the +animal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal +when no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the +loosening of the animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward +when a new septum is formed, as well as the mode in which the +air-chambers may be used as a hydrostatic apparatus, and the +relation to this use, if any, of the siphuncular pedicle, is involved +in obscurity, and is the subject of much ingenious speculation. +In connexion with the secretion of gas by the animal, besides the +parallel cases ranging from the protozoon <i>Arcella</i> to the physoclistic +fishes, from the hydroid <i>Siphonophora</i> to the +insect-larva <i>Corethra</i>, we have the identical phenomenon +observed in the closely allied <i>Sepia</i> when recently hatched. +Here, in the pores of the internal rudimentary shell, gas +is observable, which has necessarily been liberated by +the tissues which secrete the shell, and not derived from +any external source (Huxley).</p> + +<p>The coiled shell of <i>Nautilus</i>, and of the majority of +extinct Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the +body of the animal, inasmuch as the curvature of the +coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal area is towards the +head or forwards, instead of away from the head and +backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as +<i>Planorbis</i>; the coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the +two cases. Such a shell is said to be exogastric. But +in some extinct forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Phragmoceras</i>, <i>Cyrtoceras</i>, +<i>Ptenoceras</i>, the shell is coiled towards the ventral side, +when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct +allies of the nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of +a variety of shapes, open coils such as <i>Scaphites</i>, leading +on to perfectly cylindrical shells with chamber succeeding +chamber in a straight line (<i>Orthoceras</i>), whence again we +may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell +of <i>Turrilites</i>. In some extinct genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Gomphoceras</i>, +among the Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is contracted +and the edge of the aperture is lobed. In these +cases the animal was probably able only to protrude its +appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part +of the aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated +from the dorsal part by a constriction. Hence it is +possible to distinguish the ventral and dorsal sides of +the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or +endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be +determined by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses +the septa centrally, ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell +apertures occur also in Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching +an extreme in <i>Morphoceras</i>, where the original aperture is subdivided +by the ingrowth of the sides, so that only five small +separate apertures remain. Of these the central probably corresponded +to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the remaining +two to the pedal appendages.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Head, Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-pallial Chamber.</i>—In the pearly +nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free +flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, <i>d, e</i>). In the +antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a little +over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the postero-ventral +region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive sub-pallial chamber, +at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A view of the interior +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the mantle-skirt is retroverted +and the observer faces in the direction indicated by the +reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in fig. 4. With this +should be compared the similar view of the sub-pallial chamber of +the Dibranchiate <i>Sepia</i>. It should be noted as a difference between +<i>Nautilus</i> and the Dibranchiates that in the former the nidamental +gland (in the female) lies on that surface of the pallial chamber +formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, <i>g.n.</i>; fig. 1, V), whilst +in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the body-wall; in fact +in the former the base of the fold forming the mantle-skirt comprises +in its area a part of what is unreflected visceral hump in the latter.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:255px" src="images/img687a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus, removed from +its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn from nature +by A.G. Bourne).<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%;"><p><i>m</i>, The dorsal “hood” formed +by the enlargement of the +outer or annular lobe of the +fore-foot, and corresponding +to the sheaths of two tentacles +(<i>g, g</i> in fig. 6).</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Tentacular sheaths of lateral +portion of the annular lobe.</p> + +<p><i>u</i>, The left eye.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, The nuchal plate, continuous +at its right and left posterior +angles with the root of the +mid-foot, and corresponding +to the nuchal cartilage of +Sepia.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Visceral hump.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, The free margin of the mantle-skirt, +the middle letter <i>d</i> +points to that portion of the +mantle-skirt which is reflected +over a part of the +shell as seen in fig. 1, <i>b</i>; the +cup-like fossa to which b and +d point in the present figure +is occupied by the coil of the +shell.</p> + +<p><i>g.a.</i> points to the lateral continuation +of the nuchal plate +b to join the root of the mid-foot +or siphon.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:441px; height:267px" src="images/img687b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Lateral view of the same specimen as that drawn in fig. 2. +Letters as in that figure with the following additions—<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%;"><p><i>e</i>, points to the concave margin +of the mantle-skirt leading +into the sub-pallial chamber.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, The mid-foot or siphon.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, The superficial origin of its +retractor muscles closely +applied to the shell and +serving to hold the animal +in its place.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p><i>l</i>, The siphuncular pedicle of +the visceral hump broken +off short.</p> + +<p><i>v, v</i>, The superior and inferior +ophthalmic tentacles.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the viscero-pericardial +sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are shown in +position on the body-wall of the pallial chamber of <i>Nautilus</i> in +figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median (the anus) +and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice <i>two</i> pairs of +gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a short +papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior gill-plume +(see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in a +Dibranchiate, we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median +anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal +apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side) +except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts +and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are +present on the surface of the pallial chamber, since in the Dibranchiata +the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each nephridium +instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of ctenidia (gill-plumes) +is present instead of the two pairs in <i>Nautilus</i>. The existence +of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of renal sacs in <i>Nautilus</i>, +placed one behind the other, is highly remarkable. The interest +of this arrangement is in relation to the general morphology of the +Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this repetition of organs in a +linear series as anything else than an instance of metameric segmentation, +comparable to the segmentation of the ringed worms and +Arthropods. The only other example which we have of this metamerism +in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There we find +not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some species +more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal integument, +which carries eight shells. In <i>Chiton</i> the renal organs are +not affected by the metamerism as they are in <i>Nautilus</i>. It is impossible +on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their +importance demands the significance of these two instances among +Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be +wrong to pass them by without insisting upon the great importance +which the occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric segmentation +in a group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses, +and the light which they may be made to throw upon the nature of +metameric segmentation in general.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:497px" src="images/img687c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—View of the postero-ventral surface of a female Pearly +Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (<i>c</i>) being completely reflected so as to +show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber (drawn from nature +by A.G. Bourne).<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Muscular band passing from +the mid-foot to the integument.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, The valve on the surface of +the funnel, partially concealed +by the inrolled lateral +margin of the latter.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, The mantle-skirt retroverted.</p> + +<p><i>an</i>, The median anus.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, Post-anal papilla of unknown +significance.</p> + +<p><i>g.n.</i>, Nidamental gland.</p> + +<p><i>r.ov</i>, Aperture of the right oviduct.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p><i>l.ov</i>, Aperture of the rudimentary +left oviduct (pyriform sac +of Owen).</p> + +<p><i>neph.a</i>, Aperture of the left anterior +renal sac.</p> + +<p><i>neph.p</i>, Aperture of the left posterior +renal sac.</p> + +<p>viscper, Left aperture of the +viscero-pericardial sac.</p> + +<p><i>olf</i>, The left osphradium placed +near the base of the anterior +gill-plume.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The foot and head of <i>Nautilus</i> are in the adult inextricably grown +together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the +head which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot +or front portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying +tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The +epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an +incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and +rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The +epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in +which this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the +mantle and the foot.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:366px; height:348px" src="images/img688a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—View of the postero-ventral surface +of a male Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (<i>c</i>) +being completely reflected so as to show the +inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the +four ctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from +nature by A.G. Bourne). <i>pe</i>, Penis, being the +enlarged termination of the right spermatic +duct; <i>l.sp</i>, aperture of the rudimentary left +spermatic duct (pyriform sac of Owen). Other +letters as in fig. 4.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The lobes of the fore-foot of <i>Nautilus</i> and of the other Cephalopoda +require further description. It has been doubted whether these +lobes were rightly referred (by T.H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and +it has been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenadier, H. von +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +Jhering) that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to +be impossible to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion +of the foot, when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further, +when the fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal +ganglion. The fore-foot of <i>Nautilus</i> completely surrounds the buccal +cone (fig. 6, e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded +tentacles similar to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (<i>Actinia</i>). +A.G. Bourne, of University College, prepared from actual specimens +the drawings of +this part in the +male and female +<i>Nautilus</i> reproduced +in fig. 6, +and restored the +parts to their +natural form when +expanded. The +drawings show +very strikingly the +difference between +male and female. +In the females +(lower figure), we +observe in the +centre of the disk +the buccal cone e +carrying the beak-like +pair of jaws +which project +from the finely +papillate buccal +membrane. Three +tentaculiferous +lobes of the fore-foot +are in immediate +contact +with this buccal +cone; they are the +right and left (<i>c, c</i>) +inner lobes, and +the inferior inner +lobe (<i>d</i>)—called +inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth. This +inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right +and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated organ +on its surface, known as Owen’s organ, probably olfactory in +function (<i>n</i>), marks the separation of the constituent halves +of this double lobe. Each half carries a group of fourteen +tentacles. The right and the left inner lobes (<i>c, c</i>) each carry twelve +tentacles. External to these three lobes the muscular substance of +the mouth-embracing foot is raised into a wide ring, which becomes +especially thick and large in the dorsal region where it is notably +modified in form, offering a concavity into which the coil of the shell +is received, and furnishing a protective roof to the retracted mass +of tentacles. This part of the external annular lobe of the fore-foot +is called the “hood” (figs. 2, 3, <i>m</i>). The median antero-posterior +line traversing this hood exactly corresponds to the line of concrescence +of the two halves of the fore-foot, which primitively grew forward +one on each side of the head, and finally fused together along this +line in front of the mouth. The tentacles carried by the great annular +lobe are nineteen on each side, thirty-eight in all. They are +called “digital,” and are somewhat larger than the “labial” +tentacles carried on the three inner lobes. The dorsalmost pair of +tentacles (marked <i>g</i> in fig. 6) are the only ones which actually belong +to that part of the disk which forms the great dorsal hood m. The +hood is, in fact, to a large extent formed by the enlarged sheaths of +these two tentacles. All the tentacles of the circumoral disk are set +in remarkable tubular sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The +sheaths of some of those belonging to the external or annular lobe +are seen in fig. 3, marked n. The sheaths are muscular as well as the +tentacles, and are simply tubes from the base of which the solid +tentacle grows. The functional significance of this sheathing arrangement +is as obscure as its morphological origin. With reference to the +latter, it appears highly probable that the tubular sheath represents +the cup of a sucker such as is found on the fore-foot of the Dibranchiata. +In any case, it seems to the writer impossible to doubt +that each tentacle, and its sheath on a lobe of the circumoral disk of +Nautilus, corresponds to a sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate. +W. Keferstein follows Sir R. Owen in strongly opposing this identification, +and in regarding such tentacle as the equivalent of a whole +lobe or arm of a Decapod or Octopod Dibranch. The details of these +structures, especially in the facts concerning the hectocotylus and +spadix, afford the most conclusive reasons for dissenting from +Owen’s view. On the ventral side an extensive part of the internal +surface of the muscular ring is laminated, forming the so-called +“organ of Valenciennes,” peculiar to the female and serving for the +attachment of the spermatophores. We have so far enumerated +in the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four more remain which +have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to the suggestion +that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These remaining tentacles +are placed one above (before) and one below (behind) each eye, and +bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. 3 <i>v, v</i>).</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:458px; height:699px" src="images/img688b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of <i>Nautilus +pompilius</i> as seen in the expanded condition, the observer looking +down on to the buccal cone <i>e</i>; one-third the natural size linear. The +drawings have been made from actual specimens by A.G. Bourne, +B. Sc., University College, London.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, The shell.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, The <i>outer</i> ring-like expansion +(annular lobe) of the circumoral +muscular mass of the +fore-foot, carrying nineteen +tentacles on each side—posteriorly +this is enlarged to +form the “hood” (marked +<i>v</i> in fig. 1 and <i>m</i> in figs. 2 +and 3). giving off the pair +of tentacles marked <i>g</i> in the +present figure.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, The right and left inner lobes +of the fore-foot, each carrying +twelve tentacles in the +female, in the male subdivided +into <i>p</i>, the “spadix” +or hectocotylus on the left +side, and <i>q</i>, the “anti-spadix,” +a group of four +tentacles on the right side—it +is thus seen that the subdivided +right and left inner +lobes of the male correspond +to the undivided right and +left inner lobes of the female.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, The inner inferior lobe of the +fore-foot, a bilateral structure +in the female carrying two +groups, each of fourteen tentacles, +separated from one another +by a lamellated organ +<i>n</i>, supposed to be olfactory in +function—in the male the +inner inferior lobe of the +fore-foot is very much reduced, +and has the form of +a paired group of lamellae +(<i>d</i> in the upper figure).</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, The buccal cone, rising from +the centre of the three inner +lobes, and fringing the protruded +calcareous beaks or +jaws with a series of minute +papillae.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, The tentacles of the outer +circumoral lobe or annular +lobe of the fore-foot projecting +from their sheaths.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, The two most posterior tentacles +of this series belonging +to that part of the annular +lobe which forms the hood +(<i>m</i> in figs. 2 and 3).</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, Superior ophthalmic tentacle.</p> + +<p><i>k</i>, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle.</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, Eye.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, Paired laminated organ on +each side of the base of the +inner inferior lobe (<i>d</i>) of the +female.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Olfactory lamellae upon the +inner inferior lobe (in the +female).</p> + +<p><i>o</i>, The siphon (mid-foot).</p> + +<p><i>p</i>, The spadix (in the male), the +hectocotylized portion of the +left inner lobe of the fore-foot +representing four modified +tentacles, eight being left +unmodified.</p> + +<p><i>q</i>, The anti-spadix (in the male), +being four of the twelve +tentacles of the right inner +lobe of the fore-foot isolated +from the remaining eight, +and representing on the right +side the differentiated spadix +of the left side. The four +tentacles of the anti-spadix +are set, three on one base +and one on a separate base.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span></p> + +<p>In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differences +in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see +upper drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary, +and carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae +(<i>d</i>), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left +inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows +a larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached +groups (<i>q</i>) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united +whilst one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the +“anti-spadix.” The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion +carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it corresponding +to the anti-spadix. This is the “spadix.” It carries no +tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae +appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right +internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that +modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate +Siphonopods to which the name “hectocotylus” is applied. The +spadix is in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the +male nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata +is connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus +the spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible +to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe that +the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with the +female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix. The +anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also male +peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not differ +from that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each side. +The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male +nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two +additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelliform +structures.</p> + +<p><i>Musculature, Fins and, Cartilaginous Skeleton.</i>—Without entering +into a detailed account of the musculature of <i>Nautilus</i>, we may point +out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the mid-foot +(siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass of +muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the integument +on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the free flap of the +mantle-skirt (fig. 1, <i>l</i>, <i>l</i>, and fig. 3, <i>k</i>). These muscular areae have a +certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to hold the animal in +its shell and as the fixed supports for the various movements of the +tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be identified with +the ring-like area of adhesion by which the foot-muscle of the limpet +is attached to the shell of that animal. In the Dibranchs a similar +origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot and mid-foot from the +sides of the shell—modified, as this is, in position and relations—can +be traced.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:292px" src="images/img689a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> + +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Minute structure of the +cartilage of <i>Loligo</i> (from Gegenbaur, +after Furbringer)<br /><br /></p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Simple cells.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Dividing cells.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Canaliculi.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, An empty cartilage capsule with its +pores.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, Canaliculi in section.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> there are no fin-like expansions of the integument, +whereas such occur in the +Decapod Dibranchs along +the sides of the visceral +hump (figs. 15, 16). As an +exception among Octopoda +lateral fins occur in <i>Pinnoctopus</i> +(fig. 38, A), and +in <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i> (fig. 38, D).</p> + +<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> there is a +curious plate-like expansion +of integument in the mid-dorsal +region just behind +the hood, lying between +that structure and the portion +of mantle-skirt which +is reflected over the shell. +This is shown in fig. 2, <i>b</i>. +If we trace out the margin +of this plate we find that +it becomes continuous on +each side with the sides of +the funnel. In <i>Sepia</i> and +other Decapods (not in +Octopods) a closely similar +plate exists in an exactly +corresponding position (see +<i>b</i> in figs. 10, 26). In <i>Sepia</i> a +cartilaginous development +occurs here immediately below +the integument forming +the so-called “nuchal plate,” drawn in fig. 8, D. The morphological +significance of this nuchal lamella, as seen both in <i>Nautilus</i> +and in <i>Sepia</i>, is not obvious. Cartilage having the structure shown +in fig. 7 occurs in various regions of the body of Cephalopoda. In +all Glossophorous Mollusca the lingual apparatus is supported by +internal skeletal pieces, having the character of cartilage; but in +the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a wider range.</p> + +<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming +the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into +the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (<i>a</i>), whilst +its two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In <i>Sepia</i>, +and Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as +shown in fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identified +in any way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of <i>Nautilus</i>. +The lower larger portion of this cartilage in <i>Sepia</i> is called the cephalic +cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it completely +invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the nerves +from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage. The +outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to form +a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing right +and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8, C) are the +“pre-orbital cartilages”; in front of these, again, there is seen a +piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base of the +“arms” of the fore-foot, and is the “basi-brachial” cartilage. +The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the “nuchal cartilage” +already mentioned, and in <i>Sepia</i>, a thin plate-like “sub-ostracal” +or (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and +fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no +nuchal cartilage, but two band-like “dorsal cartilages.” In Decapods +there are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the funnel—“siphon-hinge +cartilages”—into which fleshy knobs of the mantle-skirt +are loosely fitted. In <i>Sepia</i>, along the whole base-line of each +lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a “basi-pterygial cartilage.” +It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in Dibranch +Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton than +is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other +instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the +Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage +forms a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids +(<i>Mygale</i>, <i>Scorpio</i>) and in <i>Limulus</i> a large internal cartilaginous plate—the +ento-sternite—is developed as a support for a large series of +muscles.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:427px; height:312px" src="images/img689b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after Keferstein.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Capito-pedal cartilage of +<i>Nautilus pompilius.</i></p> + +<p><i>a</i> points to the ridge which +supports the pedal portion +of the nerve-centre.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>B, Lateral view of the same—the +large anterior processes +are sunk in the muscular +substance of the siphon.</p> + +<p>C, Cephalic cartilages of <i>Sepia +officinalis</i>.</p> + +<p>D, Nuchal cartilage of <i>Sepia +officinalis</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Alimentary Tract.</i>—The buccal cone of <i>Nautilus</i> is terminated by +a villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-like +jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are +very strong and dense in <i>Nautilus</i>, being calcified. Fossilized beaks +of Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In +Dibranchs the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of +<i>Nautilus</i>. They resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower +beak being the larger and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak. +The lingual ribbon and odontophoral apparatus have the structure +which is typical for Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is represented +a single row of teeth from the lingual ribbon of <i>Nautilus</i>, +and in fig. 9, B, C, of other Cephalopoda.</p> + +<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, <i>cr</i>) +passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral +hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard +of a bird (fig 10, <i>gizz</i>). A nearly straight intestine passes from the +muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small +caecum. In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower +and the muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important +feature in the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all +but <i>Nautilus</i> the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very +capacious—much larger than the stomach in <i>Loligo vulgaris</i>—or +elongated into a spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the +alimentary tract, as seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which +it exhibits in the Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of +<i>Nautilus</i> are compacted into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +membrane, as also is the case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has +four paired lobes in <i>Nautilus</i>, which open by two bile-ducts into the +alimentary canal at the commencement of the intestine. The bile-ducts +unite before entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two +large lobes of the liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell +in Decapoda), and the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the +bile-ducts in Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diverticula, +which are known as “pancreas,” though neither physiologically +nor morphologically is there any ground for considering +either the so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly +equivalent to the glands so denominated in the Vertebrata. In +<i>Nautilus</i> the equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the +Dibranchs can be traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:350px" src="images/img690a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single row of +lingual teeth of <i>Nautilus pompilius</i> (after Keferstein). B, Two +rows of lingual teeth of <i>Sepia officinalis</i> (after Troschel). C, Lingual +teeth of <i>Eledone cirrhosa</i> (after Loven).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:443px; height:347px" src="images/img690b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Diagram representing a vertical approximately median +antero-posterior section of <i>Nautilus pompilius</i> (from a drawing by +A.G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut muscular +surfaces of the foot and buccal mass.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, The shell.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, The nuchal plate, identical +with the nuchal cartilage of +<i>Sepia</i> (see fig. 2, <i>b</i>).</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, The integument covering the +visceral hump.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, The mantle flap or skirt in the +dorsal region where it rests +against the coil of the shell.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, The inferior margin of the +mantle-skirt resting on the +lip of the shell represented +by the dotted line.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, The pallial chamber with two +of the four gills.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, The vertically cut median portion +of the mid-foot (siphon).</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, The capito-pedal cartilage (see +fig. 8).</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, The valve of the siphon.</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, The siphuncular pedicle (cut +short).</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, The hood or dorsal enlargement +of the annular lobe of +the fore-foot.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Tentacles of the annular +lobe.</p> + +<p><i>p</i>, Tentacles of inner inferior +lobe.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>q</i>, Buccal membrane.</p> + +<p><i>r</i>, Upper jaw or beak.</p> + +<p><i>s</i>, Lower jaw or beak.</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, Lingual ribbon.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, The viscero-pericardial +sac.</p> + +<p><i>n.c</i>, Nerve-collar.</p> + +<p><i>oe</i>, Oesophagus.</p> + +<p><i>cr</i>, Crop.</p> + +<p><i>gizz</i>, Gizzard.</p> + +<p><i>int</i>, Intestine.</p> + +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p> + +<p><i>nept</i>, Aperture of a nephridial +sac.</p> + +<p><i>r.e</i>, Renal glandular masses on +the walls of the afferent +branchial veins (see fig. +11).</p> + +<p><i>a.b.v</i>, Afferent branchial vessel.</p> + +<p><i>e.b.v</i>, Efferent branchial vessel.</p> + +<p><i>vt</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Posterior salivary glands are not developed in <i>Nautilus</i>, but on +each side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding +to the anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is +present in <i>Nautilus</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:358px" src="images/img690c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Diagram to show the relations of the four nephridial +sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large vessels in +<i>Nautilus</i> (drawn by A.G. Bourne).<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>neph</i>, <i>neph</i>, on the right side +point to the two nephridia +of that side (the two of +the opposite side are not +lettered)—each is seen to +have an independent +aperture.</p> + +<p><i>x</i> is the viscero-pericardial sac, +the dotted line indicating +its backward extension.</p> + +<p><i>visc. per. apert</i>, marks an arrow +introduced into the right +aperture of the viscero-pericardial +sac.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>r.e</i>, <i>r.e</i>, point to the glandular enlarged +walls of the afferent +branchial vessels—two +small glandular bodies of +the kind are seen to project +into each nephridial +sac, whilst a larger body of +the same kind depends from +each of the four branchial +afferent vessels into the +viscero-pericardial sac.</p> + +<p><i>v.c</i>, Vena-cava.</p> + +<p><i>vent</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p> + +<p><i>ao</i>, Cephalic aorta (the small +abdominal aorta not +drawn).</p> + +<p><i>a.b.v</i>, Branchial vessel.</p> + +<p><i>e.v.b</i>, Efferent branchial vessel.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Coelom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs.</i>—<i>Nautilus</i> and +the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters +in regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a +lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with +the trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the +original coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan +pericardium is shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and +communicates, directly in <i>Nautilus</i>, in the rest through the renal +sacs, with the exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized pericardial +cavity is particularly large, and has been recognized as +distinct from the blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who +have not considered the pericardial space of other Mollusca to be +thus isolated. The enlarged pericardium, which may even take the +form of a pair of sacs, has been variously named, but is best known +as the viscero-pericardial sac or chamber. In <i>Nautilus</i> this sac +occupies the whole of the postero-dorsal surface and a part of the +antero-dorsal (see fig. 10, <i>x</i>), investing the genital and other viscera +which lie below it, and having the ventricle of the heart suspended +in it. Certain membranes forming incomplete septa, and a curious +muscular band—the pallio-cardiac band—traverse the sac. The +four branchial afferent veins, which in traversing the walls of the four +renal sacs give off, as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs, +also give off at the same points four much larger glandular masses, +which hang freely into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, <i>r.e</i>). +In <i>Nautilus</i> the viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior +directly by a pair of apertures, one placed close to the right and one +close to the left posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, <i>visc. per</i>). This direct +opening of the pericardial sac to the exterior is an exception to what +occurs in all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial +sac opens into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal +organ to the exterior. In <i>Nautilus</i> there is no opening from the +viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external +pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a shifting +of the reno-pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the renal +sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of such shifting +are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the ink-bag in +Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of Mollusca, which +in some few cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Spondylus</i>) open into the renal organs, whilst +in other cases they open close by the side of the renal organs on the +surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac of the Dibranchs +is very large also, and extends into the dorsal region. It varies in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +shape—that is to say, in the extensions of its area right and left +between the various viscera—in different genera, but in the Decapods +is largest. In an extension of this chamber is placed the ovary +of <i>Sepia</i>, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the branchial hearts +and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable that water is +drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since sand and other +foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into the pair of renal +sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from the external +orifice (fig. 29, <i>y, y</i>′). There does not seem any room for doubting that +each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial orifice which we have +seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in the Lamellibranchia.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:189px" src="images/img691.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Diagram to show the relations of the heart in the +Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Part of the dorsal vascular +trunk and transverse trunks +of a worm.</p> + +<p>B, Ventricle and auricles of +<i>Nautilus</i>.</p> + +<p>C, Of a Lamellibranch, of <i>Chiton</i>, +or of <i>Loligo</i>.</p> + +<p>D, Of <i>Octopus</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>E, Of a Gastropod.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Auricle.</p> + +<p><i>v</i>, Ventricle.</p> + +<p><i>ac</i>, Arteria = cephalica = (aorta).</p> + +<p><i>ai</i>, Arteria abdominalis. The +arrows show the direction +of the blood-current.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of <i>Nautilus</i> do +not differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the +heart is a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent +vessel (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta +anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram, +fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to the +dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple +flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one +auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain +the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda +(excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart +is seen in <i>Octopus</i>, and is to some extent approached by <i>Nautilus</i>, +the median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is +shown in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented +by the heart of <i>Nautilus</i> is the possession of four instead of two +auricles, a feature which is simply related to the metamerism of +the branchiae. By the left side of the heart of <i>Nautilus</i>, attached +to it by a membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial +chamber, is the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be +the rudimentary left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be +(E.R. Lankester and A.G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and +its duct being attached by a membrane to the opposite side of the +heart.</p> + +<p>The cephalic and abdominal aortae of <i>Nautilus</i> appear, after +running to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal respectively, +to open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera, +muscular masses, &c. These spaces are not large, but confined and +shallow. Capillaries are stated to occur in the integument. In the +Dibranchs the arterial system is very much more complete; it +appears in some cases to end in irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other +cases in true capillaries which lead on into veins. An investigation +of these capillaries in the light of modern histological knowledge is +much needed. From the sinuses and capillaries the veins take origin, +collecting into a large median trunk (the vena cava), which in the +Dibranchs as well as in <i>Nautilus</i> has a ventral (postero-ventral) +position, and runs parallel to the long axis of the animal. In <i>Nautilus</i> +this vena cava gives off at the level of the gills four branchial afferent +veins (fig. 11, <i>v.c.</i>), which pass into the four gills without dilating. +In the Dibranchs at a similar position the vena cava gives off a right +and a left branchial afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall +of the corresponding renal sac and receiving additional factors, +dilates at the base of the corresponding branchial plume, forming +there a pulsating sac—the branchial heart. Attached to each +branchial heart is a curious glandular body, which may possibly be +related to the larger masses (fig. 11, <i>r.e.</i>) which depend into the +viscero-pericardial cavity from the branchial afferent veins of +<i>Nautilus</i>. From the dilated branchial heart the branchial afferent +vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial face of the gill-plume. +From each gill-plume the blood passes by the branchial efferent +vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed by the dilatation +of these vessels.</p> + +<p>The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused +colouring matter—the haemocyanin of Fredericque—which has +been found also in the blood of <i>Helix</i>, and in that of the Arthropods +<i>Homarus</i> and <i>Limulus</i>. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the +deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent.</p> + +<p>The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected +with the branchial advehent vessels in <i>Nautilus</i> and in the other +Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical +relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance +with the metamerism of <i>Nautilus</i> already noticed, there are two +pairs of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a +pore to the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a +non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac; these portions, +however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other cases, +but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The glandular +renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending along that part +of the sac’s wall which immediately invests the great branchial +afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly from its wall +a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and anastomose +with one another, and are clothed by the glandular epithelium of the +renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac and passed by its +aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous excretory product +is very rapidly discharged; in <i>Nautilus</i> a pink-coloured powder +is found accumulated in the renal sacs, consisting of calcium phosphate. +The presence of this phosphatic calculus by no means proves +that such was the sole excretion of the renal glandular tissue. In +<i>Nautilus</i> a glandular growth like that rising from the wall of the +branchial vessel into its corresponding renal sac, but larger in size, +depends from each branchial afferent vessel into the viscero-pericardial +sac and forms the pericardial gland—probably identical with +the “appendage” of the branchial hearts of Dibranchs.</p> + +<p>The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal +organs of the Dibranchs and those of <i>Nautilus</i>, is the absence of the +accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just +mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of +a pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac +(<i>y</i>, <i>y′</i> in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also +more prominent in Dibranchs than in <i>Nautilus</i>, being raised on +papillae (<i>np</i> in fig. 29; <i>r</i> in fig. 25). In <i>Sepia</i> the two renal sacs give +off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow and +forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral +portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber. +In <i>Loligo</i> the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still +more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In <i>Octopus</i> the +renal sacs are quite separate.</p> + +<p><i>Gonads and Genital Ducts.</i>—In <i>Nautilus</i>it has been shown by +E. Ray Lankester and A.G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both +sexes are paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and +forming the “pyriform appendage,” described by Sir R. Owen as +adhering by membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart, +and shown by W. Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the +exterior. The ovary (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies +in <i>Nautilus</i>, as in the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from +the other viscera, near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is +formed by the coelomic or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is +originally part of the coelom, and in <i>Sepia</i> and <i>Loligo</i> is, in the adult, +part of the viscero-pericardial chamber. In <i>Octopus</i> it is this genital +chamber which communicates by a right and a left canal with the +renal sac, and is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary +or testis is itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which +it only partly fills. In <i>Nautilus</i> the right genital duct, which is +functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal +surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary +or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to represent +a single median or bilateral organ.</p> + +<p>The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and +the coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the +gonad, so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the +coelom by a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium, +migrate below it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian +cavity, pushing the epithelium before them. Each ovum is surrounded +by a follicular epithelium which is nourished by numerous +blood-vessels, and which penetrates into the surface of the ovum +in numerous folds. When mature, the ovum is contained in a membrane +or chorion with a micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the +follicle into the genital coelom and duct. In its passage to the exterior +the ovum passes a glandular structure on the wall of the +genital capsule, which probably secretes the gelatinous substance +enclosing the eggs. In addition to this internal gland there are +other accessory glands, which are not related to the genital duct +or sac but are differentiations of the wall of the pallial cavity, and +occur on the inner wall of the pallium in <i>Nautilus</i>, on the somatic +wall in Dibranchiata. In <i>Nautilus</i> they form a continuous mass. +These produce the external envelopes of the eggs.</p> + +<p>In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the +genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary. +The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis +to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermiduct +is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal +reservoir known as Needham’s sac or the spermatophore sac. The +function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an +elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into +itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part +is called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the +connective is extended and evaginated, and the sac containing the +sperms bursts. In <i>Nautilus</i> the spermatophore when uncoiled is a +little over 30 mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat +similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods.</p> + +<p>The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In <i>Nautilus</i> they are +laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two +thick shells, the outer of which is partly open.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:179px; height:425px" src="images/img692a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Nervous +system of <i>Nautilus pompilius</i> +(from Genebaur, +after Owen).<br /><br /></p> + +<p><i>t, t</i>, Ganglion-like enlargements +on +nerves passing from +the pedal ganglion +to the inner series +of tentacles.</p> + +<p><i>t′</i>, Nerves to the tentacles +of the outer +or annular lobe.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Pedal ganglion-pair</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, Cerebral ganglion-pair.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Pleuro-visceral ganglionic +band (fused +pleural and visceral +ganglion-pairs).</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, Genital ganglion +placed on the course +of the large visceral +nerve, just before +it gives off its branchial +and its osphradial +branches.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, Nerves from the +pleural ganglion to +the mantle-skirt.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—<i>Nautilus</i>, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits +a great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown +in fig. 13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little +differentiated from their commissures and +connectives—an archaic condition reminding +us of <i>Chiton</i>. The special optic outgrowth +of the cerebral ganglion, the optical +ganglion (fig. 13, <i>o</i>), is characteristic. The +cerebral ganglion-pair (<i>a</i>) lying above the +oesophagus is connected with two suboesophageal +ganglion-pairs, of band-like +form. The anterior of these is the pedal +<i>b, b</i>, and supplies the circumoral lobes and +tentacles, and the funnel, a fact which +proves the pedal origin of these organs. +The hinder band is the visceral and +pleural pair fused; from its pleural portion +nerves pass to the mantle, from its +visceral portion nerves to the branchiae +and genital ganglion (fig. 13, <i>d</i>), and in +immediate connexion with the latter is a +nerve to the osphradium or olfactory +papilla. A labial commissure arises by a +double root from the cerebral ganglia and +gives off a stomatogastric commissure, +which passes under the pharynx immediately +behind the radula and bears a buccal +ganglion on either side.</p> + +<p><i>Special Sense-Organs.</i>—<i>Nautilus</i> possesses +a pair of osphradial papillae (fig. 4, +<i>olf</i>) corresponding in position and innervation +to Spengel’s organ placed at the +base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all +classes of Mollusca. This organ has not +been detected in other Cephalopoda. +<i>Nautilus</i> possesses other olfactory organs +in the region of the head. Just below the +eye is a small triangular process (not seen +in our figures), having the structure of a +shortened and highly-modified tentacle +and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is +followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded +as an olfactory organ. The large nerve +which runs to this organ originates from +the point of juncture of the pedal with +the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ +upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe +of <i>Nautilus</i> is possibly also olfactory in +function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is +a pit or open canal supplied by a nerve +corresponding in origin to the olfactory +nerve of <i>Nautilus</i> above mentioned. Possibly +the sense of taste resides in certain +processes within the mouth of <i>Nautilus</i> +and other Cephalopoda.</p> + +<p>The otocysts of <i>Nautilus</i> were discovered +by J.D. Macdonald. Each lies at the +side of the head, ventral to the eye, resting +on the capito-pedal cartilage, and +supported by the large auditory nerve +which apparently arises from the pedal +ganglion but originates in the cerebral. +It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and contains +whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the otoliths +of other Mollusca.</p> + +<p>The eye of <i>Nautilus</i> is among the most interesting structures of +that remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk +and general elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that +of <i>Nautilus</i>. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no +transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly +projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in +diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument, +whilst in the middle of the drum-membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3, <i>u</i>). +Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered +this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by +him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that +the hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which +is accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric +apparatus in <i>Nautilus</i>, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we +have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the +principle of “the pin-hole camera.” There is no other eye known +in the whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall +of the eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked +retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives +the fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other +Cephalopods (<i>e.g.</i> fig. 33, <i>Ri, Re, p</i>), the retina consists of two layers +of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most interesting +consideration connected with this eye of <i>Nautilus</i> is found when the +further facts are noted—(1) that the elaborate lens-bearing eyes of +Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development in which they have +the same structure as the eye of <i>Nautilus</i>—namely, are open sacs +(fig. 34); and (2) that amongst other Mollusca examples of cephalic +eyes can be found which in the adult condition are, like the eye of +<i>Nautilus</i> and the developing eye of Dibranchs, simple pits of the integument, +the cells of which are surrounded by pigment and connected +with the filaments of an optic nerve. Such is the structure +of the eye of the limpet (<i>Patella</i>), and in such a simple eye we obtain +the clearest demonstration of the fact that the retina of the Molluscan +cephalic eye, like that of the Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that +of the vertebrate myelonic eye, is essentially a modified area of the +general epiderm, and that the sensitiveness of its cells to the action +of light and their relation to nerve-filaments is only a specialization +and intensifying of a property common to the whole epiderm of the +surface of the body. What, however, strikes us as especially remarkable +is that the simple form of a pit, which in <i>Patella</i> serves to +accumulate a secretion which acts as a refractive body, should in +<i>Nautilus</i> be glorified and raised to the dignity of an efficient optical +apparatus. In all other Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from +the follicular or pit-like condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire +the form of a <i>closed</i> sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then +filled partially or completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by +its walls (fig. 14, B). This is the condition attained in most Gastropoda. +It presents a striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye, +where, in consequence of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the +eye does not form a vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:523px; height:281px" src="images/img692b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, <i>Nautilus</i> (and <i>Patella</i>).</p> + +<p>B, Gastropod (<i>Limax</i> or <i>Helix</i>).</p> + +<p>C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod +(Oigopsid).</p> + +<p><i>Pal</i>, Eyelid (outermost fold).</p> + +<p><i>Co</i>, Cornea (second fold).</p> + +<p><i>Ir</i>, Iris (third fold).</p> + +<p><i>Int</i> 1,2,3,4, Different parts of the +integument.</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, Deep portion of the lens.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Outer portion of the lens</p> + +<p><i>Co.ep</i>, Ciliary body.</p> + +<p>R, Retina.</p> + +<p><i>N.op</i>, Optic nerve.</p> + +<p><i>G.op</i>, Optic ganglion.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, Inner layer of the retina.</p> + +<p><i>N.S.</i>, Nervous stratum of the +retina. (From Balfour, after +Grenacher.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">The development of <i>Nautilus</i> is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur +Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts +to obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native +fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in captivity, +but without success.</p> + +<p><i>Phylogeny and Classification.</i>—As <i>Nautilus</i> is the only living genus +of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based upon +the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of shell +similar in structure to that of <i>Nautilus</i> are known, chiefly from +Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two +sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial +chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse +cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated +dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle, +which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter +its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial +chamber is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape, +with no cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a +constriction. The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation +which deeply indents the front wall of the initial chamber, called +the protoconch, but does not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-Chalmas +has shown that the cavity of the protoconch is traversed +by a tubular organ, the “prosiphon,” which does not communicate +with the true siphuncle, the place of which it is supposed to take in +the early life of the animal. It is generally held, as suggested by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial chamber of the Nautiloidea corresponds +not to the protoconch of the Ammonoids, but to the second +chamber of the latter, and that there existed in the young Nautiloids +a true initial chamber, a protoconch which was either uncalcified or +deciduous. The shell of the living nautilus does not decide this +question, as its early stages are unknown, and there is a little vacuity +in the centre of the spirally coiled shell which may have been originally +occupied by the true protoconch.</p> + +<p>The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the +aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards +(fig. I); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is +usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed +forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united +to the shell are known as “sutures,” and these in the Nautiloidea +are simply curved or slightly lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea +they are folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections +of the suture towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those +in the opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the <i>Nautilus</i> +pierces the centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually +central or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that +case may be external, <i>i.e.</i> ventral, or internal, <i>i.e.</i> dorsal. In Ammonoids +the siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its +walls in the living <i>Nautilus</i> are strengthened by the deposit of calcareous +granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely +calcified. But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from calcareous +tubes surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from +the septa. In the pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged backwards +at the point where it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming +a shelly tube somewhat like the neck of a bottle. In many fossil +forms these septal necks are continued from the septum from which +they arise to the next, so that the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete +secondary calcareous tube. In the majority of Nautiloids the septal +necks are directed backwards, and they are said to be retrosiphonate. +In the majority of the Ammonoids the septal necks are continued +forwards from the septa to which they belong, and such forms are +termed prosiphonate.</p> + +<p>The Tetrabranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and +Mesozoic periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing +first in the Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the +Palaeozoic period, and comparatively few surviving into the Secondary. +On the other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic +formations, being represented in deposits earlier than the Carboniferous +only by comparatively simple types, such as <i>Clymenia</i> and +<i>Goniatites</i>. In the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abundant, +both in genera and species and in individuals, and with few local exceptions +none are known to have survived even to the commencement +of the Tertiary. In the widest sense the genus <i>Nautilus</i> has existed +since the Ordovician (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not +properly to be placed in the same genus as the existing form. Even +with this qualification the genus is very ancient, shells very similar +to those of the living <i>Nautilus</i> being found in the Upper Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea +were Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the +shell was, therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed +with the Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the +possession of an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be +little doubt that they gave rise to the Dibranchiata.</p> + +<p>About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only +a few species of the genus <i>Nautilus</i> survive. Some of the fossil forms +are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6 in. +Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described, +and some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in +diameter.</p> + +<p>Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been +found peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within +the body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The +most typical form of these structures has been named <i>aptychus.</i> +It consists of two bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semicircular +shape, and attached to one another by their straight inner +margins, like a pair of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and +horny, but more often it is thick and calcified, in which case the +principal layer has a peculiar cellular structure. The surface may +be smooth or sculptured, and one side is usually marked by concentric +lines of growth. Another type is similar, except that the +two halves are united in the middle line; bodies of this character are +called <i>synaptychus</i>; they occur in the body-chamber of species of +<i>Scaphites</i>. Another form called <i>anaptychus</i> consists of a thin horny +undivided plate which is concentrically striated. This is associated +with species of <i>Ammonites</i> and <i>Goniatites</i>.</p> + +<p>Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these structures. +According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an operculum +developed in a part of the body corresponding to the hood +of <i>Nautilus</i>. E. Ray Lankester suggested that the double plate was +borne on the surface of the nidamental gland, with the form and +sculpturing of which in <i>Nautilus</i> it closely agrees. On this view the +aptychus would occur only in females. The most recent view is that +these structures could not have been opercula because of their constant +position inside the body-chamber, and that they were not external +secretions at all, but a calcified internal cartilage situated at the +base of the funnel.</p> + +<p><i>Classification of Tetrabranchiata.</i>—Cephalopoda in which the +mantle is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell, +which may or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the +shell occupied by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles +around the mouth, which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of +the funnel not united. Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of +renal tubes without reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens +directly to exterior. Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic +vesicles with apertures, without crystalline lens.</p> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Sub-order</i> 1. <i>Nautiloidea</i>.—Initial chamber not inflated, with +dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Orthoceratidae</i>. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a +simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical +siphuncle. <i>Orthoceras</i>, Silurian to Trias. <i>Baltoceras</i>, Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2. <i>Actinoceratidae</i>. Shell straight or slightly curved, with +wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. <i>Actinoceras</i>, +Silurian to Carboniferous. <i>Discosorus</i>, Silurian. <i>Huronia</i>, +Silurian. <i>Loxoceras</i>, Silurian to Carboniferous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3. <i>Endoceratidae</i>. Shell straight, with wide margina +siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another. +<i>Endoceras</i>, Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4. <i>Gomphoceratidae</i>. Shell globular, straight or arcuate, +aperture contracted. <i>Gomphoceras</i>, Silurian. <i>Phragmoceras</i>, +Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5. <i>Ascoceratidae</i>. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit +truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of +shell ventrally. <i>Ascoceras</i>, Silurian. <i>Glossoceras</i>, Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6. <i>Poterioceratidae</i>. Shell straight or curved, fusiform, +aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. <i>Poterioceras</i>, +Silurian to Carboniferous. <i>Streptoceras</i>, Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7. <i>Cyrtoceratidae</i>. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple, +siphuncle wide, septa approximated. <i>Cyrtoceras</i>, Devonian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8. <i>Lituitidae</i>. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal +part uncoiled, aperture contracted. <i>Lituites</i>, Silurian. <i>Ophidioceras</i>, +Silurian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 9. <i>Trochoceratidae</i>. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or +sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. <i>Trochoceras</i>, +Devonian. <i>Adelphoceras</i>, Devonian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 10. <i>Nautilidae</i>. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide +and simple, siphuncle central. <i>Nautilus</i>, recent. <i>Trocholites</i>, +Silurian. <i>Gyroceras</i>, Silurian to Carboniferous. <i>Hercoceras</i>, +Silurian. <i>Ptenoceras</i>, Devonian. <i>Discites</i>, Carboniferous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 11. <i>Bactritidae</i>. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow +and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating. +<i>Bactrites</i>, Silurian and Devonian.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Sub-order</i> 2. <i>Ammonitoidea</i>,—Initial chamber spheroidal; +siphuncle narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture; +sutures complex.</p> + +<p><i>Tribe</i> 1. <i>Retrosiphonata</i>.—Siphuncular necks projecting behind +the septa as in Nautiloidea. Sutures form simple undulations. +Occur exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Goniatitidae</i>. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and +ventral siphuncle. <i>Goniatites</i>, Devonian and Carboniferous. +<i>Anarcestes</i>, Devonian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2. <i>Clymeniidae</i>. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures, +siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. <i>Clymenia</i>, Upper Devonian.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Tribe</i> 2. <i>Prosiphonata.</i>—Siphuncular necks projecting in front +of the septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Arcestidae</i>. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth, +with reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an +aptychus present. <i>Popanoceras</i>, Permian. <i>Cyclolobus</i>, Permian, +<i>Arcestes</i>, Trias. <i>Lobites</i>, Trias.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2. <i>Tropitidae</i>. Shells globular, but having radiating and +tuberculated costae. <i>Thalassoceras</i>, Permian. <i>Tropites</i>, Trias. +<i>Sibirites</i>, Trias.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3. <i>Ceratitidae</i>. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus, terminal +chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. <i>Trachyceras</i>, +Upper Trias. <i>Ceratites</i>, Trias. <i>Dinarites</i>, Trias.</p> +</div> + +<p>Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled +forms, viz. <i>Cochloceras</i>, Trias; also some straight forms, <i>e.g. Rhab-doccras</i>, +Trias.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 4. <i>Pinacoceratidae</i>. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal +chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. <i>Pinacoceras</i>, +Trias.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5. <i>Phylloceratidae</i>. Shell coiled, the whorls overlapping +each other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles. +<i>Phytloceras</i>, Jurassic.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6. <i>Lytoceratidae</i>. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or +uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles +and lobes. <i>Lytoceras</i>, Jurassic and Cretaceous. <i>Macroscaphites</i>, +Cretaceous. <i>Reunites</i>, Cretaceous. <i>Ptychoeeras</i>, Cretaceous. +<i>Turrilites</i>, Cretaceous. <i>Baculites</i>, Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7. <i>Ammonitidae</i>. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which +do not embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anaptychus +present. <i>Ammonites</i>, Jurassic. <i>Arietites</i>, Jurassic. +<i>Aegoceras</i>, Lias.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8. <i>Harpoceratidae</i>. Shell discord and flattened, with a +carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +a calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. <i>Harpoceras</i>, +Jurassic. <i>Oppelia</i>, Jurassic. <i>Lissoceras</i>, Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 9. <i>Amaltheidae</i>. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina +continued anteriorly into a rostrum. <i>Amaltheus</i>, Lias. <i>Cardioceras</i>, +Jurassic. <i>Schloenbachia</i>, Cretaceous.</p> + +<p>Fam. 10. <i>Stephanoceratidae</i>. Shell not carinated, but with radiating +costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with +lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two +pieces. <i>Stephanoceras, Morphoceras, Pensphinctes, Peltoceras</i>, +Jurassic. <i>Hoplites</i>, Cretaceous. <i>Acanthoceras</i>, Cretaceous. +<i>Cosmoceras</i>, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are +related to this family, viz. <i>Scaphites, Crioceras</i>, Cretaceous.</p> +</div></div> + +<p class="center ptb1"><span class="sc">Order 2. Dibranchiata</span> (= Holosiphona, Acetabulifera)</p> + +<p><i>Characters</i>.—Cephalopoda in which the inflected margins of +the epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon +(fig. 24, <i>i</i>). The circumoral lobes of the fore-foot carry suckers +disposed upon them in rows, <i>not</i> tentacles (see figs. 15, 24). +There is a single pair of typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills +(hence Dibranchiata), and a single pair of renal organs, opening +by apertures right and left of the median anus (fig. 25, <i>r</i>) and by +similar internal pores into the pericardial chamber, which consequently +does not open directly to the surface as in <i>Nautilus</i>. +The oviducts are sometimes paired right and left (Octopoda, +Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed (Myopsida). +The sperm-duct is always single except, according to +W. Keferstein, in <i>Eledone moschata.</i></p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:679px" src="images/img694a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—<i>Sepia officinalis</i>, L., about ½ natural size, as seen when +dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the pouches +at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life when +not actually in use. <i>a</i>. Neck; <i>b</i>, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; +<i>c</i>, the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; <i>d</i>, the two long prehensile +arms; <i>e</i>, the eyes.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the +mantle (figs 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none, +and in <i>Spirula</i> (fig. 17, D) and the extinct <i>Belemnitidae</i>, &c., +which have a small chambered shell resembling that of <i>Nautilus</i> +with or without the addition of plate-like and cylindrical accessory +developments (fig. 17, A, C, fig. 19).</p> + +<p>The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a +refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds,—the vesicle being +in the embryo, an open sac like that of <i>Nautilus</i> (fig. 34). Osphradia +are not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recognized. +One or two pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are +present. An ink-sac formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and +opening near the anus is present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, <i>t</i>), +and has been detected +even in the fossil <i>Belemnitidae.</i> +Branchial +hearts are developed on +the two branchial afferent +blood-vessels (fig. +28, <i>vc′</i>, <i>vi</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:480px; height:582px" src="images/img694b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Decapodous Cephalopods.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><p>A, <i>Cheiroteuthis Veranyi</i>, d’Orb. (from the Mediterranean).</p> +<p>B, <i>Thysanoteuthis rhombus</i>, Troschel (from Messina).</p> +<p>C, <i>Loligopsis cyclura</i>, Fér. and d’Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:308px" src="images/img694c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Internal Shells of Cephalopoda.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, <i>Conoteutliis dupiniana</i>, d’Orb. (from +the Neocomian of France).</p> + +<p>B, Shell <i>Sepia orbigniana</i>. Fér. (Mediterranean).</p> + +<p>C, Shell of <i>Spirulirostra Bellardii</i>, d’Orb. +(from the Miocene of Turin). The +specimen is cut so as to show in +section the chambered shell and the +laminated “guard” deposited upon +its surface.</p> + +<p>D, Shell of <i>Splrula laevis</i>, Gray (New Zealand).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">In the Dibranchiata +the shell shows various +stages of degeneration, +culminating in its complete +disappearance in +<i>Octopus</i>. As in other +Mollusca, there is a tendency +in Cephalopods for +the mantle to extend +over the outside of the +shell from its edges, and +when these secondary +mantle-folds entirely +cover the shell and meet +or fuse together the shell +is surrounded by the +mantle both externally +and internally, and is +said to be internal, +though it remains always +a cuticular structure external +to the epidermis. This procebs is generally accompanied +by a reduction of the size of the shell in comparison with +that of the body, so that the relations of the two are gradually +reversed, the body outgrows its house and instead of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +mantle being enclosed by the shell, the shell is enclosed by +the mantle. The earliest stage of this process is shown in +the recent <i>Spirula,</i> +though it is perhaps +not impossible that in +some of the later fossil +Ammonoids the shell +was becoming more +and more internal. +The shell of <i>Spirula</i> +(fig. 18) is coiled +somewhat like that of +<i>Nautilus</i>, but the coils +are not in contact, the +direction of the coil is +endogastric or ventral +instead of exogastric, +and the shell is very +much smaller than the +body. Like that of +<i>Nautilus</i> it is divided +by septa and traversed +by a siphuncle. The +relation of the animal +to the terminal +chamber is as in <i>Nautilus,</i> +but the body +extends far beyond +the aperture, and folds +of the mantle grow up over the shell +and cover it everywhere except part +of the dorsal and ventral surfaces.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:325px; height:405px" src="images/img695a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Chun, from Lankester’s <i>Treatise an Zoology</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—<i>Spirula.</i></td></tr></table> + +<div class="f90"> +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">A, Dorsal aspect.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>pa</i>, Mantle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">B, Ventral aspect.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>po</i>, Posterior fossa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>a</i>, Arms.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>sh</i>, Shell.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>e</i>, Eyes.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>te</i>, Tentacular arms.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>fi</i>, Fins.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>td</i>, Terminal pallial disk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>fu</i>, Funnel.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:186px; height:662px" src="images/img695b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Digram of shell +Belemnite (after Phillips). +<i>r</i>. Horny pen or “proostracum”: +A, conical +cavity or “alveolus,” in +which the chambered +“phragmacone” (<i>p</i>) is +contained: <i>g</i>, “guard,” +or “rostrum.”</td></tr></table> + +<p>The next modification in the enclosed +shell is the addition to it +of secondary deposits of calcareous +matter, by the inner surface of the +shell-sac. Successive layers are deposited +on the posterior part of the +original shell, whether coiled or straight, +and these layers form a conical mass, +which may attain great thickness. A +somewhat coiled shell with such a +deposit is seen in <i>Spirulirostra</i> (fig. +17, C) of the Miocene. In the next +stage of modification secondary secretion +forms a long and broad +projection of the dorsal lip of +the aperture; this is well +developed in the belemnites +(fig. 19). Thus in these modified +shells three parts are to +be distinguished: the original +septate shell, which has been +called the phragmacone; the +posterior conical deposit, called +the rostrum or guard; and the +anterior somewhat flat projection, +called the proostracum. +In the living Dibranchiata +other than <i>Spirula</i> the phragmacone +and rostrum have become +very rudimentary. The +shell of <i>Sepia</i> (fig. 20) consists +almost entirely of the proostracum, +the little ventral +hollow posteriorly representing +the phragmacone, and the posterior +pointed projection, the +rostrum. In the <i>Oigopsida</i> the +shell is represented by a proostracum +which is no longer calcified by forms a chitinous +plume or gladuius, and a similar rudiment occurs in <i>Loliginidac</i> +(fig. 21) and <i>Sepiolidae</i>. Lastly, in the Octopoda the shell is +represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the +retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are +paired in <i>Octopus</i>, unpaired in other cases as in <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i>.</p> + +<p>The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which +the shell is enclosed has led to an erroneous identification +of this sac with the primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of +the Molluscan embryo. The first appearance of the shell-sac +in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36. Its formation +as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and +the fact that it appears and disappears without closing in +<i>Argonauta</i> and <i>Octopus</i>, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:356px; height:519px" src="images/img695c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" style="padding-left: 20%;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—The calcareous internal shell of <i>Sepia officinalis,</i> the so-called +cuttle-bone, <i>a</i>, Lateral expansion; <i>b</i>, anterior cancellated +region; <i>c</i>, laminated region, the laminae enclosing air.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of <i>Lohgo</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:576px; height:421px" src="images/img695d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers) <i>Tr</i>. Float: +<i>Br.a</i>, anterior arms: <i>Br.p</i>, posterior arms: V, the expanded portion of them, +once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; <i>En</i>, the Funnel.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">In <i>Argonauta</i> (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses +a shell, in which the body is contained; but this is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +homologous with the true shell in other cases; it is a structure <i>sui +generis</i> secreted by the expanded arms of the dorsal pair which +are closely applied to it on either side (fig. 22).</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:216px; height:881px" src="images/img696a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:210px; height:506px" src="images/img696b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—Head and circumoral processes of the fore-foot +of <i>Onychoteuthis</i> (from Owen).<br /><br /></td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Male of <i>Ocythoe catenulata</i>, Steenstrup +(<i>Octopus carena</i>, Ver.), showing the hectocotylized +arm. (From Gegenbaur.)<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Neck.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Eye.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, The eight short arms.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, Long prehensile arms, the clavate extremities of +which are provided with suckers at e, and with a +double row of hooks beyond at f. The temporary +conjunction of the arms by means of the suckers +enables them to act in combination.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>t<span class="sp">1</span>, t<span class="sp">2</span>, t<span class="sp">3</span>, t<span class="sp">4</span></i>, The first, second, +third and fourth arms or processes of the fore-foot.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, The third arm of the right side hectocotylized.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, The apical sac of the hectocotylized arm.</p> + +<p><i>y</i>, The filament which issues from the sac when development is complete.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, The siphon.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Head, Foot, Mantle and Mantle-cavity.</i>—If we now compare the +fore-foot of the Dibranchiata with that of <i>Nautilus</i>, we find in the +first place a more simple arrangement of its lobes, which are either +four or five pairs of tapering processes +(called “arms”), arranged in a series +around the buccal cone, and a substitution +of suckers for tentacles on +the surface of these lobes (figs. 15 +and 24). The most dorsally placed +pair of arms, corresponding to the two +sides of the hood of <i>Nautilus</i>, are in +reality the most anterior, and are +termed the first pair. In the Octopoda +there are four pairs of these arms +(fig. 38), in the Decapoda five pairs, +of which the fourth is greatly elongated +(figs. 15, 16). In <i>Sepia</i>, <i>Sepiola</i> +and <i>Rossia</i>, each of these long arms is +withdrawn into a pouch beside the +head, and is only ejected for the +purpose of prehension. In <i>Loligo</i> they +are completely retractile, very slightly +so in the majority of the Oigopsida, and in <i>Rhynchoteuthis</i> they +are united to form a beak-like appendage. A gradual reduction +of the tentacular arms can be seen in the Decapoda, leading +to their total absence in Octopoda; thus in <i>Leachia</i>, <i>Chaunoteuthis</i> +and others these arms are reduced to mere stumps. In some +<i>Cheiroteuthidae</i> and <i>Cranchiidae</i> the ordinary or sessile arms, +especially the dorsal pairs, are reduced. In the Octopoda they +are not unfrequently connected by a web, and form an efficient +swimming-bell, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i> and <i>Amphuretidae</i>. The +suckers are placed on the adoral surface of the arms, and may be in +one, two or four rows, and very numerous. In place of suckers in +some genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Veranya</i>, we find on certain arms or parts of the +arms horny hooks; in other cases a hook rises from the centre of +each sucker. The hooks on the long arms of <i>Onychoteuthis</i> are drawn +in fig. 23. In various species of <i>Cheiroteuthis</i> the suckers on the +tentacular arms are very feeble, but the bottom of the cup is covered +by a number of anastomosed epithelial filaments which are used as +a fishing-net. The fore-foot, with its apparatus of suckers and +hooks, is in the Dibranchiata essentially a prehensile apparatus, +though the whole series of arms in the Octopoda serve as swimming +organs, and in many (<i>e.g.</i> the common octopus or poulp) the sucker-bearing +surface is used as a crawling organ.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:561px" src="images/img696c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.—View of the postero-ventral surface of a male <i>Sepia</i>, +obtained by cutting longitudinally the firm mantle-skirt and drawing +the divided halves apart. This figure is strictly comparable with +fig. 4. (From Gegenbaur.)<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>C</i>, The head.</p> + +<p><i>J</i>, The mid-foot or siphon, +which has been cut open +so as to display the valve <i>i</i>.</p> + +<p><i>R</i>, The glandular tissue of the +left nephridium or renal-sac, +which has been cut +open (see fig. 29).</p> + +<p><i>P, P</i>, The lateral fins of the +mantle-skirt.</p> + +<p><i>Br</i>, The single pair of branchiae +(ctenidia).</p> + +<p><i>a</i>, The anus—immediately +below it is the opening of +the ink-bag.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Cartilaginous socket in the +siphon to receive <i>c′</i>, the +cartilaginous knob of the +mantle-skirt—the two constituting +the “pallial hinge +apparatus” characteristic +of Decapoda, not found in +Octopoda.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>g</i>, The azygos genital papilla +and aperture.</p> + +<p><i>′i</i>, Valve of the siphon (possibly +the rudimentary hind-foot)</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, Muscular band connected +with the fore-foot and +mid-foot (siphon) and +identical with the muscular +mass <i>k</i> in fig. 3.</p> + +<p><i>r</i>, Renal papillae, carrying the +apertures of the nephridia.</p> + +<p><i>v.br</i>, Branchial efferent blood-vessel.</p> + +<p><i>v br′</i>, Bulbous enlargements of +the branchial blood-vessels +(see figs 28, 29).</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, Ink-bag.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>In the males of the Dibranchiata one of the arms is more or less +modified in connexion with the reproductive function, and is called +the “hectocotylized arm.” This name is derived from the condition +assumed by the arm in those cases in which its modification is +carried out to the greatest extent. These cases are those of the +Octopods <i>Argonauta argo</i> and <i>Ocythoe catenulata</i> (fig. 24). In the +males of these the third arm (on the left side in <i>Argonauta</i>, on the +right side in <i>Ocythoe</i>) is found before the breeding season to be represented +by a globular sac of integument. This sac bursts, and from +it issues an arm larger than its neighbours, having a small sac at +its extremity in <i>Ocythoe</i> (fig. 24. <i>x</i>), from which subsequently a long +filament issues. Before copulation the male charges this arm with +the spermatophores or packets of spermatozoa removed from its +generative orifice beneath the mantle-skirt, and during coitus the +arm becomes detached and is left adhering to the female by means +of its suckers. A new arm is formed at the cicatrix before the next +breeding season. The female, being much larger than the male, +swims away with the detached arm lodged beneath her mantle-skirt. +There, in a way which is not understood, the fertilization of the eggs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +is effected. Specimens of the female <i>Ocythoë</i> with the detached arm +adherent were examined by Cuvier, who mistook the arm for a parasitic +worm and gave to it the name <i>Hectocotylus</i>. Accordingly, the +correspondingly modified arms of other Cephalopoda are said to be +hectocotylized. J.J.S. Steenstrup has determined the hectocotylized +condition of one or other of the arms in a number of male +Dibranchs as follows:—in all, excepting <i>Argonauta</i> and <i>Ocythoe</i> +and <i>Tremoctopus</i>, the modification of the arm is slight, consisting +in a small enlargement of part or the whole of the arm, and the +obliteration of some of its suckers; in <i>Octopus</i> and <i>Eledone</i> the third +right arm is hectocotylized; in <i>Rossia</i> and <i>Sepiola</i> the fourth left +arm is hectocotylized along its whole length, and the fourth right +arm also in the middle only; in <i>Sepia</i> the fourth left arm is modified +at its base only; in <i>Sepioteuthis</i>, the same at its apex; in <i>Loligo</i>, the +same also at its apex; in <i>Loliolus</i>, the same along its whole length; +in <i>Ommatostrephes</i>, <i>Onychoteuthis</i> and <i>Loligopsis</i> no hectocotylized +arm has hitherto been observed. Thus, speaking generally, it is +one or both of the fourth pair of short arms which are modified in the +Decapoda, of the third pair in the Octopoda. In the pallial cavity +are situated one pair of gills in the Dibranchiata (fig. 25), attached +dorsally along the whole of their afferent borders. On each side of +the branchia is a series of lamellae, least in number in the Octopoda. +Each lamella is transversely folded, and the folds are in turn folded, +so that the respiratory surface is increased. On the somatic wall +of the pallial cavity, between and ventral to the gills, are the following +apertures: the anus and opening of the ink-sac, close together in +the median line; a pair of apertures of the renal sacs, on either side +of the median line; external to the renal orifice, on the left side, +the genital aperture in <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i> and Myopsida. In other +Octopoda, and in nearly all the Oigopsida among the Decapoda, the +genital ducts are paired in the female, but only the left is developed +in the male. The funnel forms a complete tube in the Dibranchiata, +and in the majority of the Decapoda, as in <i>Nautilus</i>, it is provided +with an internal valve projecting from its somatic surface, which +allows water to pass outwards but prevents it passing inwards. The +mantle performs rhythmical respiratory movements of expansion and +contraction, the water entering between funnel and mantle and +passing out through the funnel. In Decapoda the edge of the mantle +bears internally on each side a cartilaginous projection which fits +into a corresponding depression on the external surface of the +funnel; this is called the “resisting apparatus,” and serves to make +the union of mantle and funnel firmer during expiration. More +powerful expiratory movements are used for sudden retrograde +locomotion through the water.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:438px; height:256px" src="images/img697a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—Diagram representing a vertical approximately median +antero-posterior section of <i>Sepia officinalis</i> (from a drawing by A.G. +Bourne). The lettering corresponds with that of fig. 10, with which +this drawing is intended to be compared.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Shell (here enclosed by a growth of the mantle).</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, The nuchal plate (here a cartilage).</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, (The reference line should be continued through the black area + representing the shell to the outline below it), the integument covering + the visceral hump.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, The reflected portion of the mantle-skirt forming the sac + which encloses the shell.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt (mouth of the pallial + chamber).</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, The pallial chamber.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, The vertically cut median portion of the siphon.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, The valve of the siphon.</p> + +<p><i>m</i>, The two upper lobes of the fore-foot.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, The long prehensile arms of the same.</p> + +<p><i>o</i>, The fifth or lowermost lobe of the fore-foot.</p> + +<p><i>p</i>, The third lobe of the fore-foot.</p> + +<p><i>q</i>, The buccal membrane.</p> + +<p><i>v</i>, The upper beak or jaw.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>s</i>, The lower beak or jaw.</p> + +<p><i>t</i>, The lingual ribbon.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, The viscero-pericardial sac.</p> + +<p><i>n.c</i>, The nerve-collar.</p> + +<p><i>cr</i>, The crop.</p> + +<p><i>gizz</i>, The gizzard.</p> + +<p><i>an</i>, The anus.</p> + +<p><i>c.t</i>, The left ctenidium or gill-plume.</p> + +<p><i>vent</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p> + +<p><i>a.b.v</i>, Afferent branchial vessel.</p> + +<p><i>e.b.v</i>, Efferent branchial vessel.</p> + +<p><i>re</i>, Renal glandular mass.</p> + +<p><i>n.n.a</i>, Left nephridial aperture.</p> + +<p><i>visc.per.apert</i>, Viscero-pericardial aperture (see fig. 29).</p> + +<p><i>br.b</i>, Branchial heart.</p> + +<p><i>app</i>, Appendage of the same.</p> + +<p><i>i.s</i>, Ink-bag.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Luminous Organs.</i>—In certain Oigopsida living in deep water, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Histioteuthis, Calliteuthis, Histiopsis, Pterygioteuthis</i>, the +surface of the skin bears photogenous organs directed towards the oral +extremity. Anatomically these consist of a deeper photogenous +layer and a more superficial refracting layer. In some cases, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>Pterygioteuthis</i>, they occur even within the mantle-cavity.</p> + +<p><i>Fins.</i>—In the majority of the Decapoda and in the <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>, +the mantle is produced into lateral symmetrical expansions which +have the function of fins. They originate at the aboral extremity +where they remain in <i>Spirula</i> (fig. 18). In most other Oigopsida they +are terminal, but more dorsal than ventral, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Loligopsis</i> (fig. 16), +and there may be two on each side, as in <i>Grimalditeuthis</i>. In other +cases they extend laterally along a greater length of the body, as in +<i>Sepia</i> (fig. 15). In <i>Ctenopteryx</i> they have a superficial +resemblance to the fins of fishes, consisting of a thin membrane supported +by a series of muscular rods.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:393px" src="images/img697b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—Alimentary canal of <i>Loligo sagittata</i> (from Gegenbaur). +The buccal mass is omitted.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>oe</i>, Oesophagus.</p> +<p><i>v</i>, The stomach opened longitudinally.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Probe passed through the pylorus.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Commencement of the caecum.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Its spiral portion.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Ink-bag.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Its opening into the rectum.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Chromatophores.</i>—These are characteristic of the Dibranchiata, +apparently absent in <i>Nautilus</i>. They are originally single cells of +ectodermic origin which sink below the epidermis and become +connected with radiating muscular fibres. The cells are single but +multinuclear. Different cells contain pigments of different colours, +yellow, brown, red or blue. Each cell in life is in constant tremulous +movement; under the influence of nervous +excitement the cells are suddenly expanded +or contracted, producing blushes of colour +and pallor. By reflex action of which the +afferent stimulus acts upon the eyes as in +fishes, the chromatophores assume a +condition which approximates the colour of +the animal to that of surrounding objects. +In the Decapoda there are also reflecting +elements which produce iridescent hues.</p> + +<p><i>Aquiferous Cavities.</i>—In addition to the +pockets into which the tentacular arms of +Decapoda are retracted, there are in several +Dibranchiata cavities in the integument +which open to the exterior by special pores +but have no communication with the vascular +system or other internal cavities of +the body. In <i>Ocythoe</i> there are such pores +on the back of the head and at the base of +the funnel; buccal pouches on the ventral +side of the mouth, internal to the arms, +occur in some genera, one in <i>Loligo</i>, two in +<i>Sepia</i>. In some species of <i>Sepia</i> there are +pouches in the mantle.</p> + +<p><i>Alimentary Tube.</i>—The principal differences +from <i>Nautilus</i> are the following:—the +mandibles are similar in shape, but are +chitinous, not calcified. In the radula there +are three teeth on each side of the median +tooth in each row, except in <i>Gonatus</i>, in +which there are only two lateral teeth, and +the <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>, in which the radula has +entirely disappeared. In front of the radula +is the so-called tongue, a fleshy projection +corresponding to the sub-radular organ of +other Mollusca.</p> + +<p>In most of the Dibranchiata there are two +pairs of salivary glands. In the Decapoda +the ducts of the posterior pair unite into a +median duct which opens on the surface of +the sub-radular organ. The anterior pair +is but slightly developed except in the +Oigopsida. In the Octopoda there are also +two pairs, but the posterior pair, except +in <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i> where they are absent, +are large and displaced backwards, being +situated near the oesophageal proventriculus. Connected with the +intestine immediately beyond the pylorus is a thin-walled caecum, +spherical in <i>Rossia</i> and <i>Leachia</i>, elongated in <i>Loligo</i>, +but usually coiled into a spiral (fig. 27). The hepatic ducts open into +the caecum. The liver is developed as a paired gland, more or less +fused into one in the adult, but the ducts are always paired. The +ducts are covered by a number of glandular follicles forming what +is called the pancreas.</p> + +<p>The ink-sac, absent in <i>Nautilus</i>, is a rectal caecum developed from +its dorsal wall. It is present in all Dibranchiata except <i>Octopus arcticus, +O. piscatorum</i> and <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i>. It consists of a deeper part +or gland proper and a reservoir. It extends to the posterior extremity +of the body in <i>Sepia</i>, but in <i>Octopoda</i> is usually embedded +in the surface of the liver. The pigment of the secretion is melanin, +and its function is to produce a dense opacity in the water, which +conceals the animal.</p> + +<p><i>Vascular System</i> (fig. 28).—The ventricle lies in the pericardial +cavity, except in Octopoda where this cavity is much reduced. The +auricles, one pair, are contractile expansions of the efferent branchial +vessels. The heart gives off an anterior or cephalic and a posterior +or abdominal aorta. The vascular system is almost perfect, arteries +and veins being united by capillaries. The principal vein is a vena +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and +dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a +pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial +vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered +externally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of +the “kidney” (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a +contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular +appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which +are attached to the afferent branchial veins in <i>Nautilus</i>, and +to the pericardial glands of other Molluscs.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:348px; height:350px" src="images/img698a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.—Circulatory and excretory organs of <i>Sepia</i> (from Gegenbaur, +after John Hunter).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>br</i>, Branchiae (ctenidia).</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anterior artery (aorta).</p> +<p><i>a</i>′, Posterior artery.</p> +<p><i>v</i>, The right and left auricles (enlargements of the efferent branchial veins).</p> +<p><i>v</i>′, Efferent branchial vein on the free face of the gill-plume.</p> +<p><i>v.c</i>, Vena cava.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>vi, vc</i>′, Afferent branchial vessels (branches of the vena cava, see fig. 29).</p> +<p><i>vc</i>″, Abdominal veins.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Branchial hearts and appendages.</p> +<p><i>re, e</i>, Glandular substance of the nephridia developed on the + wall of the great veins on their way to the gills. The + arrows indicate the direction of the blood-current.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:437px; height:463px" src="images/img698b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.—Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins which run +through them, in <i>Sepia officinalis</i> (after Vigelius). The +nephridial sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>v.c</i>, Vena cava.</p> +<p><i>r.d.v.c</i>, Right descending branch of the same.</p> +<p><i>r.s.v.c</i>, Left descending branch of the same.</p> +<p><i>v.b.a</i>, Vein from the ink-bag.</p> +<p><i>v.m</i>, Mesenteric vein.</p> +<p><i>v.g</i>, Genital vein.</p> +<p><i>v.a.d</i>, Right abdominal vein.</p> +<p><i>v.a.s</i>, Left abdominal vein.</p> +<p><i>v.p.d</i>, Right pallial vein.</p> +<p><i>v.p.s</i>, Left pallial vein.</p> +<p><i>c.b</i>, Branchial heart.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>x</i>, Appendage of the same.</p> +<p><i>c.v</i>, Capsule of the branchial heart.</p> +<p><i>np</i>, External aperture of the right nephridial sac.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Reno-pericardial orifice placing the left renal sac or + nephridium in communication with the viscero-pericardial + sac, the course of which below the nephridial sac is + indicated by dotted lines.</p> +<p><i>y</i>′, The similar orifice of the right side.</p> +<p><i>a.r</i>, Glandular renal outgrowths.</p> +<p><i>w.k</i>, Viscero-pericardial sac (dotted outline).</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:469px; height:260px" src="images/img698c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" style="padding-left: 20%;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>30.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>31.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 30, 31.—Nerve-centres of <i>Octopus</i>. Figure 30 gives a +view from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral aspect.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>buc</i>, The buccal mass.</p> +<p><i>ped</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>opt</i>, Optic ganglion.</p> +<p><i>cer</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural ganglion.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>visc</i>, Visceral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>oes</i>, Oesophagus.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Foramen in the nerve-mass + formed by pedal, pleural + and visceral ganglion-pairs, + traversed by a blood-vessel.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:505px" src="images/img698d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.—Lateral view of the nervous centres and nerves of the +right side of <i>Octopus vulgaris</i> (from a drawing by A.G. Bourne).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>bg</i>, Buccal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>cer</i>, Cerebral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>ped</i>, Pedal ganglion.</p> +<p><i>pl</i>, Pleural, and visc., visceral region of the pleuro-visceral ganglion.</p> +<p><i>gang. stell</i>, The right stellate ganglion of the mantle connected by a + nerve to the pleural portion.</p> +<p><i>n.visc</i>, The right visceral nerve.</p> +<p><i>n.olf</i>, Its (probably) olfactory branches.</p> +<p><i>n.br</i>, Its branchial branches.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Coelom.</i>—The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction +between the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or +genital division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which +contain the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial +division is suppressed and the genital division communicates by +long ducts with sacs containing the appendages of the branchial +hearts. The renal sacs communicate with the pericardium by pores +near the external renal apertures; in the Octopoda the +reno-pericardial openings are in the capsules of the branchial +hearts. The genital ducts pass from the genital coelom to the +exterior. They are paired in female Oigopsida and Octopoda +except <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>, but only the left persists +in the males of all Dibranchiata, and in the female Myopsida.</p> + +<p>In the oviduct is a glandular enlargement, and in addition +to this the females are provided with the so-called +nidamental glands which are developed on the somatic wall of +the pallial cavity, one on each side of the rectum, except in +certain Oigopsida (<i>Enoploteuthis, Cranchia, Leachia</i>) and in +the Octopoda, in which these organs are absent. The latter +fact is related to the habit of the majority of the Octopoda +of guarding or “incubating” their eggs, which have little +protective covering. In the other cases the eggs are surrounded +by a tough gelatinous elastic material secreted by the +nidamental glands.</p> + +<p>The vas deferens is at first narrow and convoluted, then +dilates into a vesicula seminalis at the end of which is a +glandular diverticulum called the prostate. By the vesicula +and the prostate the spermatophores are formed. These +have a structure similar to those of <i>Nautilus</i>, and in the +Octopoda may be as much as 50 mm. in length. Beyond the +prostate the duct opens into a +large terminal reservoir which has been called Needham’s sac, and +in which the spermatophores are stored.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System and Sense-Organs.</i>—The figures (30, 31, 32) representing +the nerve-centres of <i>Octopus</i> serve to exhibit the disposition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span> +of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more distinctly +swollen than in <i>Nautilus</i>. In <i>Octopus</i> an infra-buccal +ganglion-pair are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair of +Gastropoda. In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with these +are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial nerves +of <i>Nautilus</i>, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right and left) +a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of the pleuro-visceral +ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form the stellate +ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to supply the +powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate ganglia are +connected, except in <i>Sepiola</i>, by a transverse supra-oesophageal +commissure, which represents the pallial cords united by a commissure +above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves from the +visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the same course +as in <i>Nautilus</i>, but no osphradial papilla is present. An enteric +nervous system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata, connected with the +somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia, as in the Arthropoda +through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and anastomozing with deep +branches of the visceral nerves of the viscero-pleural ganglion-pair. +It has been especially described by A. Hancock in <i>Ommatostrephes</i>. +Upon the stomach it forms a single large and readily +detected gastric ganglion.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:431px; height:465px" src="images/img699a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.—Horizontal section of the eye of <i>Sepia</i> (Myopsid). +(From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.)<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>KK</i>, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8).</p> +<p><i>C</i>, Cornea (closed).</p> +<p><i>L</i>, Lens.</p> +<p><i>ci</i>, Ciliary body.</p> +<p><i>Ri</i>, Internal layer of the retina.</p> +<p><i>Re</i>, External layer of the retina.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pigment between these.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>o</i>, Optic nerve.</p> +<p><i>go</i>, Optic ganglion.</p> +<p><i>k</i> and <i>k</i>′, Capsular cartilage.</p> +<p><i>ik</i>, Cartilage of the iris.</p> +<p><i>w</i>, White body.</p> +<p><i>ae</i>, Argentine integument.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:189px" src="images/img699b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.—Diagrams of sections showing the +early stage of development of the eye of +<i>Loligo</i> when it is, like the permanent eye of +<i>Nautilus</i> and of <i>Patella</i>, an open sac. (From +Lankester.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-like +upgrowth.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to +form a sac, the primitive optic vesicle of +<i>Loligo</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest +elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that +we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development +of the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the +lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate’s eye is shown in +section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34 and +37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate +closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or +primitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, <i>poc</i>). The lens forms as a structureless +growth, secreted by both the internal and external surfaces of +the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, <i>l</i>). The integument +around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the surface +now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the iridian +folds (<i>if</i> in B, fig. 37; <i>ik</i> in fig. 33; <i>Ir</i> in fig. 14), and then secondly +an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and completely closes over +the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive vesicle (fig. 33, C). +This covering is transparent, and is the cornea. In the oceanic +Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but leaves a central +aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are termed +Oigopsidae by C. d’Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed cornea +are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and +there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding +the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over +the surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an +adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of +Vertebrates. <i>Sepia</i> and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower +eyelid, that is to say, only one-half of the sphincter-like fold of +integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventrally +between the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed +in the cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small +blind process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of +the vesicle with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at +the anterior end of +the vesicle forming a +macula acustica, and +in the cavity is a +single otolith, partly +calcareous and partly +organic except in +<i>Eledone</i>, in which it +is entirely organic. +The nerve arises +from the cerebral +ganglion on each +side and passes +through the pedal +ganglion.</p> + +<p>There is no branchial +osphradium +in the Dibranchiata +corresponding to +that of <i>Nautilus</i>, but +the olfactory organ +or rhinophore near +the eye is present. +In <i>Sepia</i> and the +majority of the Dibranchiata it is a simple pit, in some of the +Oigopsida it is a projection which may be stalked.</p> + +<p><i>Reproduction and Development.</i>—The modification of one or a +pair of the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already +been described. In many genera the sexes differ from one another +in other characters also. As a rule the males are more slender or +smaller than the females. The maximum degree of sexual dimorphism +occurs in <i>Argonauta</i> among the Octopods; in this genus +the female may be fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar +modification of the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs +in the female only, no shell being formed in the male. In most +cases the females are much more numerous than the males, but the +opposite relation appears to exist in those Octopoda in which the +hectocotylus is autotomous, for as many as four hectocotyli have been +found in the pallial cavity of a single female. When the hectocotylus +is not detached it is usually inserted into the pallial cavity +of the female so as to deposit the spermatophores in or near the +aperture of the oviduct, but in <i>Sepia</i> and <i>Loligo</i> they are merely +deposited on the ventral lobes of the buccal membrane.</p> + +<p>The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and +in <i>Sepia</i>, <i>Sepiola</i> and <i>Rossia</i>, each egg has a separate envelope continued +into a long stalk by which it is attached with several others +in a cluster. In <i>Argonauta</i> the eggs are carried by the female in the +cavity of the shell. In <i>Loligo</i> the eggs are very numerous, and are +enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united at one +end into a cluster.</p> + +<p>The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which +the egg is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This +is the result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the +latter assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca +the segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal. +In the egg of <i>Loligo</i>, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the +protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation +is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From +one part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes +place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole +surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side +of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline +membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the +first stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast +cells or their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm +forms another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a +continuous sheet below the ectoderm.</p> + +<p>The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and +extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm. +After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon +and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle +ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and +the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomodaeal +invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short proctodaeal +invagination.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:460px; height:899px" src="images/img700a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.—Development of <i>Loligo</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. View of the cleavage of the egg during the first formation +of embryonic cells.</p> + +<p>2. Lateral view of the egg at a little later stage. <i>a</i>, Limit +to which the layer of cleavage-cells has spread over the egg; +<i>b</i>, portion of the egg (shaded) as yet uncovered by cleavage-cells; +<i>ap</i>, the auto-plasts; <i>kp</i>, cleavage-pole where first cells were formed.</p> + +<p>3. Later stage, the limit (<i>a</i>) now extended so as to leave but +little of the egg-surface (<i>b</i>) unenclosed. The eyes (<i>d</i>), +mouth (<i>e</i>) and mantle-sac (<i>u</i>) have appeared.</p> + +<p>4. Later stage, anterior surface, the embryo is becoming +nipped off from the yolk-sac (<i>g</i>).</p> + +<p>5. View of an embryo similar to (3) from the cleavage-pole +or centro-dorsal area.</p> + +<p>6. Later stage, posterior surface.</p> + +<p>7. Section in a median dorso-ventral and antero-posterior +plane of an embryo of the same age as (4).</p> + +<p>8. View of the anterior face of an older embryo.</p> + +<p>9. View of the posterior face of an embryo of the same age as (8).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>Letters in (3) to (9):—<i>a</i>, lateral fins of the mantle; +<i>b</i>, mantle-skirt; +<i>c</i>, supra-ocular invagination to form the “white body”; +<i>d</i>, the eye; <i>e</i>, the mouth; <i>f</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">3</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">4</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">5</span>, the +five paired processes of the fore-foot; g, rhythmically +contractile area of the yolk-sac, which is itself a hernia-like +protrusion of the median portion of the fore-foot; +<i>h</i>, dotted line showing internal area occupied by yolk +(food-material of the egg); <i>k</i>, first rudiment of the epipodia +(paired ridges which unite to form the siphon or funnel); <i>l</i>, sac +of the radula or lingual ribbon; <i>m</i>, stomach; <i>n</i>, rudiments of the +gills (paired ctenidia); <i>o</i>, the otocysts—a pair of invaginations +of the surface of the epipodia; <i>p</i>, the optic ganglion; +<i>q</i>, the distal portion of the ridges which form the siphon, +<i>k</i> being the basal portion of the same structure; <i>r</i>, the vesicle-like +rudiment of the intestine +formed independently of the +parts connected with the +mouth, <i>s</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>m</i>, and without +invagination; <i>s</i>, rudiment +of the salivary glands; <i>t</i> in +(7), the shell-sac at an earlier +stage open (see fig. 36), now +closed up; <i>u</i>, the open shell-sac +formed by an uprising +ring-like growth of the centro-dorsal +area; <i>w</i> in (5), the +mantle-skirt commencing to +be raised up around the area +of the shell-sac. In (7) <i>mes</i> +points to the middle cell-layer +of the embryo, <i>ep</i> to +the outer layer, and <i>h</i> to the +deep layer of fusiform cells +which separates everywhere +the embryo from the yolk or +food-material lying within it.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The external changes of form are as follows:—The mantle is the +middle of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland, +which, however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other +Molluscs. Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form +the shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in <i>Argonauta</i> and other +Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other +forms except <i>Spirula</i> it closes completely and the shell develops +within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the +foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become +the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely posterior +to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms +gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +Between the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the +funnel, and their position shows them to be the epipodia. The +otocysts and eyes are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the +former behind the eyes, at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-centres, +cerebral, visceral, pedal and optic, are formed as proliferations +of the ectoderm. At the sides of the optic ganglia a pair of +ectodermic invaginations are formed, which in the adult become the +white bodies of the eyes, surrounding the optic ganglion. These are +vestiges of lateral cerebral lobes which degenerate in the course of +development.</p> + +<p>The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in +the mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out +the genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from +the wall of the coelom.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:185px" src="images/img700b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.—Section through aboral end of +embryo of <i>Loligo</i> showing shell-sac still open. +<i>ep</i>, ectoderm; <i>m</i>, mesoderm; <i>m′</i>, endoderm; +<i>shs</i>, shell-sac; <i>y</i>, yolk.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Phylogeny and Classification.</i>—The order is divided into two sub-orders, +Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the +tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming +than the Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In +the former also there is generally an internal shell of considerable +size, often calcined, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges +of a shell remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were +derived from the Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal +structures fossil remains +of Octopods +are almost entirely +unknown. <i>Palaeoctopus</i>, +however, +occurs in the Cretaceous, +while shells +of <i>Argonauta</i> do not +appear before the +Pliocene. The Decapoda +are abundantly +represented in +the Secondary formations +by the +<i>Belemnitidae</i>, whose +shell (fig. 19) consists +of a straight +conical phragmacone +covered posteriorly by a very thick rostrum, and produced +anteriorly into a thin long proöstracum which is only occasionally +preserved. In certain cases remains of the arms provided with +hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been recognized. The <i>Belemnitidae</i> +appear first in the Upper Trias, attain their maximum development +in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued into the Tertiary period, +though represented in the Eocene by a few allied forms.</p> + +<p>There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda +from <i>Belemnitidae</i>, and many of the extinct forms may have been +directly ancestral. Chitinous “pens” like that of <i>Loligo</i>, however, +begin to appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this +case as in many others the parent form and the modified form +existed contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived. +The oldest shells of the <i>Sepia</i> type are from the Eocene, and it is +perhaps possible that the <i>Sepiidae</i> arose separately from the Belemnites.</p> + +<p>It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus <i>Spirula</i> +have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only +in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of +<i>Spirula</i> has lost a rostrum and a proöstracum; its characters must +be regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the +protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of +<i>Spirula</i> agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position +is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric +the ventral side is the convex or external, while in <i>Spirula</i> the shell +is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell +is not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character.</p> + +<p>With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is +difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as well +as a pair of genital ducts in <i>Nautilus</i> with the view that the original +Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of coelomoducts. +Considering the great specialization, however, and high degree of +organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the earliest +Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long +evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may +have been developed in the course of its own history. In the other +direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with +only two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span></p> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Suborder 1. Decapoda</span>.—Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile +arms which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular +arms, situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each +side and retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated +and provided with horny rings, on the tentacular arms confined +usually to the distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal +shell, and lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic +cavity; nidamentary glands usually present.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:441px; height:488px" src="images/img701a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.—Right and left sections through embryos of <i>Loligo</i>. +(After Lankester.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Same stage as fig. 35 (4).</p> + +<p>B, Same stage as fig. 35 (8); +only the left side of the +sections is drawn, and the +food-material which occupies +the space internal to +the membrane <i>ym</i> is +omitted.</p> + +<p><i>al</i>, Rectum.</p> + +<p><i>is</i>, Ink-sac.</p> + +<p><i>ep</i>, Outer cell-layer.</p> + +<p><i>mes</i>, Middle cell-layer.</p> + +<p><i>ym</i>, Deep cell-layer of fusiform +cells (yolk-membrane).</p> + +<p><i>ng</i>, Optic nerve-ganglion.</p> + +<p><i>ot</i>, Otocyst.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>wb</i>, The “white body” of the +adult ocular capsule forming +as an invagination of +the outer cell-layer.</p> + +<p><i>mtf</i>, Mantle-skirt.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, Gill.</p> + +<p><i>ps</i>, Pen-sac or shell-sac, now +closed.</p> + +<p><i>dg</i>, Dorsal groove.</p> + +<p><i>poc</i>. Primitive optic vesicle, now +closed (see fig. 34).</p> + +<p><i>l</i>, Lens.</p> + +<p><i>r</i>, Retina.</p> + +<p><i>soc</i>, Second or anterior optic +chamber still open.</p> + +<p><i>if</i>, Iridean folds.</p> + +<p>C, The primitive invagination +to form one of the otocysts, +as seen in fig. 35 (5) and +(6).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">Tribe 1. <i>Oigopsida</i>.—A wide aperture in the cornea. Two oviducts +in the female. In fossil genera and <i>Spirula</i>, shell has a multilocular +phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular +and larger than the second chamber. The most ancient forms characterized +by the small size of the rostrum and proöstracum, and large +size of the phragmacone. In the living genera, except <i>Spirula</i>, the +shell is a chitinous gladius.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Belemnoteuthidae</i>. Extinct; shell with well-developed +phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope; +siphuncular necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten +equal arms provided with hooks. <i>Phragmoteuthis</i>, Trias. <i>Belemnoteuthis</i>, +Jurassic and Cretaceous. <i>Acanthoteuthis</i>, Jurassic.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2. <i>Aulacoceratidae</i>. Extinct; phragmacone with widely +separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform. +<i>Aulacoceras</i>, Trias. <i>Atractites</i>, Trias and Jurassic. <i>Xiphoteuthis</i>, +Lias.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3. <i>Belemnitidae</i>. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral +siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proöstracum; rostrum +large and cylindrical. <i>Belemnites</i>, 350 species from Jurassic and +Cretaceous. <i>Diploconus</i>, Upper Jurassic.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4. <i>Belopteridae</i>. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone +well developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber +small. <i>Beloptera</i>, Eocene. <i>Bayanoteuthis</i>, Eocene. <i>Spirulirostra</i>, +Miocene.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5. <i>Spirulidae</i>. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior extremity +of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or proöstracum; +shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and sipnunculated; +fins posterior. <i>Spirula</i>, three living species known, +abyssal.</p> + +<p>Fam. 6. <i>Ommatostrephidae</i>. Shell internal and chitinous, ending +aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short and +thick; suckers with denticulate rings. <i>Ommatostrephes</i>, fins +aboral, simple and rhomboidal, British. <i>Ctenopteryx</i>, fins +pectinate, as long as the body; <i>Bathyteuthis</i>, fins terminal, +rudimentary; tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. <i>Rhynchoteuthis</i>, +tentacular arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage. +<i>Symplectoteuthis. Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis</i>; this +is the largest of Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including +arms.</p> + +<p>Fam. 7. <i>Thysanoteuthidae</i>. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows +of suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole +length of body. <i>Thysanoteuthis</i>, Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>Fam. 8. <i>Onychoteuthidae</i>. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long; +suckers with hooks. <i>Onychoteuthis</i>, hook-bearing suckers on +tentacular arms only. <i>Enoploteuthis</i>, hook-bearing suckers +on all the arms. <i>Veranya</i>, body very short, tentacular arms +atrophied in the adult, Mediterranean. <i>Chaunoteuthis</i>, body +elongated, tentacular arms atrophied. <i>Pterygioteuthis. Ancistroteuthis. +Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidoteuthis.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 9. <i>Gonatidae</i>. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula +with only two lateral teeth. <i>Gonatus</i>.</p> + +<p>Fam. 10. <i>Cheiroteuthidae</i>. Tentacular arms long, not retractile; +resisting apparatus well developed. <i>Cheiroteuthis</i>, suckers +along the whole length of the tentacular arms. <i>Doratopsis</i>, +body very long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very +short. <i>Histioteuthis</i>, six dorsal arms united by membrane, +photogenous organs present. <i>Histiopsis</i>, membrane of dorsal +arms only half-way up the arms, photogenous organs present. +<i>Calliteuthis</i>, no brachial membrane, photogenous organs present. +<i>Grimalditeuthis</i>, two fins on each bide, no tentacular arms.</p> + +<p>Fam. 11. <i>Cranchiidae</i>. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes +prominent; fins small and terminal. <i>Cranchia</i>, body short, +purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. <i>Loligopsis</i>, +body elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. <i>Leachia</i>, +tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. <i>Taonius</i>, body +elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:573px" src="images/img701b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.—Octopodous Cephalopods.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>A, <i>Pinnoctopus cordiformis</i>, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand).</p> + +<p>B, <i>Tremoctopus violaceus</i>, Ver. (from the Mediterranean).</p> + +<p>C, <i>Cranchia scabra</i>, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean; one of the +Decapoda).</p> + +<p>D, <i>Cirrhoteuthis Mulleri</i>, Esch. (from the Greenland coast).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">Tribe 2. <i>Myopsida</i>.—No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct +only developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phragmacone, +calcified or simply chitinous.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Sepiidae</i>. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending +the whole length of the body; shell calcareous and laminated. +<i>Belosepia</i>, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in +shell, Eocene. <i>Sepia</i>, shell with a rostrum, British. <i>Sepiella</i>, +shell without a rostrum.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p> + +<p>Fam. 2. <i>Sepiolidae</i>. Body short, rounded at the aboral end; fins +rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous, +small or absent. <i>Sepiola</i>, head united to mantle dorsally, +British. <i>Rossia</i>, head not united to mantle, British. <i>Stoloteuthis</i> +and <i>Inioteuthis</i>, without shell. <i>Heteroteuthis. Euprymna.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 3. <i>Idiosepiidae</i>. Body elongated, with rudimentary terminal +fins; internal shell almost lost. <i>Idiosepius</i>, 1.5 cm. long, +Indian Ocean.</p> + +<p>Fam. 4. <i>Sepiadariidae</i>. Body short; mantle united to head +dorsally; no shell. <i>Sepiadarium</i>, Pacific Ocean. <i>Sepioloidea</i>, +Australian.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5. <i>Loliginidae</i>. Body elongated and conical; fins extending +forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous, +well developed. <i>Loligo</i>, fins triangular, aboral, British. <i>Sepioteuthis</i>, +fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length. +<i>Loliolus. Loliguncula.</i> The following fossil genera, known only +by their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near <i>Loligo</i>:—<i>Teuthopsis, +Beloteuthis</i> and <i>Geoteuthis</i>, Lias; <i>Phylloteuthis</i>, +Cretaceous; <i>Plesioteuthis</i>, Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Suborder 2. Octopoda</span>.—Only four pairs of arms, all similar +and longer than the body. Body short and rounded aborally. +Suckers sessile. Heart not contained in coelom. No nidamentary +glands.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:458px; height:840px" src="images/img702.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.—<i>Palaeoctopus Newboldi</i>, the oldest Octopod known. From +the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tribe I. <i>Leioglossa</i>.—No radula. Arms united by a complete +membrane. Fins on sides of body.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>. Tentacular filaments on either side of +the suckers. <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i>, pallial sac prominent, fins large, +pelagic. <i>Opisthoteuthis</i>, body flattened, with small fins, deep-sea. +<i>Vampyroteuthis</i>, four fins. <i>Palaeoctopus</i>, fossil, Cretaceous.</p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 2. <i>Trachyglossa.</i>—Radula present. No fins.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Fam. 1. <i>Amphitretidae</i>. Arms united by membrane; funnel +attached to mantle, dividing the pallial aperture into two. +<i>Amphitretus</i>, pelagic.</p> + +<p>Fam. 2. <i>Alloposidae</i>. All arms united by membrane; mantle +joined to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures. +<i>Alloposus</i>, pelagic.</p> + +<p>Fam. 3. <i>Octopodidae</i>. Arms long and equal, without membrane; +hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores. +<i>Octopus</i>, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. <i>Eledone</i>, +single row of suckers on each arm. <i>Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus. +Cistopus. Japetella.</i></p> + +<p>Fam. 4. <i>Philonexidae</i>. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal +in size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. <i>Tremoctopus</i>, +two dorsal pairs of arms united by membrane. <i>Ocythoë</i>, without +interbrachial membrane.</p> + +<p>Fam. 5. <i>Argonautidae</i>. Hectocotylus autotomous; no interbrachial +membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female +expanded and secreting a shell; males very small, without +shell. <i>Argonauta</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Use has been freely made above of the article by +E. Ray Lankester, on <i>Mollusca</i>, in the 9th edition of this Encyclopedia. +For the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, “Notes +on Living Nautilus,” <i>Amer. Nat.</i> xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey, +“Contribution to the Natural History of the Pearly Nautilus,” +A. Willey’s <i>Zoological Results</i>, pt. vi. (1902); Foord, <i>Cat. Fossil +Cephalopoda in British Museum</i>; Alpheus Hyatt, “Fossil Cephalopods +of the Museum of Comp. Zoology,” <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.</i> +(Cambridge, U.S., 1868); Jalta, “I Cefalopodi viventi nel golfo di +Napoli,” <i>Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel</i>, xxiii. (1896); +Joubin, “Céphalopodes de l’atlantique nord,” “Céph. de la Princesse +Alice,” <i>Camp. sci. Albert I<span class="sp">er</span> de Monaco</i>, ix. (1895), xxii. (1900); +Paul Pelseneer, “Mollusca,” in the <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>, edited by +E. Ray Lankester.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEPHEUS,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda +(<i>q.v.</i>); in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, +mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and Aratus (3rd +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in this constellation, +Tycho n, and Hevelius 51. The most interesting star in it is +δ <i>Cephei</i>, a remarkable double star, the brighter component of +which is a short period variable (5.37 days), with a range in +magnitude of 3.7 to 4.9; it is also a spectroscopic binary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CEPHISODOTUS,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name of the father and of the son of +Praxiteles, both sculptors like himself. The former must have +flourished about 400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> A noted work of his was Peace bearing +the infant Wealth, of which a copy exists at Munich. Peace is a +Madonna-like figure of a somewhat conservative type; the child +Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus also made, like his son, +a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus, unless indeed +ancient critics have made two works of one. He made certain +statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Of the +work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no +remains; he was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the +orator Lycurgus, and others (see J. Overbeck, <i>Antike Schriftquellen</i>, +p. 255).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERAM<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (<i>Sirang</i>), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the +Molucca group, lying about 3° S., and between 127° 45′ and 131° +E. Its length is a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about +50 m., and its area, including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m. +It consists of two parts, Great Ceram and Little Ceram or +Huvamohel, united by the isthmus of Taruno; and, for administrative +purposes, is assigned to the residency of Amboyna, +being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai and Amahai, +the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and Waru +or Eastern Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches +west and east through the island, but near the north coast hills, +rising 2300 to 2600 ft., slope steeply to the shore. Near the south +coast, west of the Bay of Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains +forms a colossal pyramid, with peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft. +The isthmus connecting the two parts of the island is very +narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490 ft. The chief rivers +flow north and south into bays, but are navigable only for a few +miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very heavy, +amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the +north coast the bays of Savai and Waru are accessible for small +vessels. The geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive +rocks and crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern +Amboyna. In the eastern section the prevailing rock is crystalline +chalk, similar to that of Buru. Several hot springs occur, +and earthquakes are not infrequent. About 4000 persons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +perished in the earthquake of 1899. A large part of the interior is +covered with dense forests, and except along the coast the population +is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is without much +interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of specimens. +The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer; +there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are +mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the +swallows that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are +to be found in the various rivers; and as early as 1860 no fewer +than 213 species were described. The most valuable timber tree +is the iron-wood. Rice, maize, cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a +variety of fruits are grown; and some tobacco is exported to +Europe; but by far the most important production is the sago +palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts, especially +of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not only +to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch +have established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points. +The coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay population, +Buginese, Macassars, Balinese and other races of the +archipelago. The interior is occupied by the aborigines, a people +of Papuan stock. They are savages and head-hunters. The +introduction of Christianity was hampered by the baneful +influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which +pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached +themselves; and it has several times cost the Dutch authorities +considerable efforts to frustrate their machinations (see +<i>Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind.</i>, fifth year). The total population is +estimated at 100,000, including 12,000 Christians and 16,000 +Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at the north +and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno. +There was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little +Ceram, as early as 1646.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CERAMICS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Keramics</span> (<span class="grk" title="keramos">κἐραμος</span>, earthenware), a general +term for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this +purpose both in French (<i>céramique</i>) and in German (<i>Keramik</i>), and +thus has its convenience in English as representing an international +form of description for a study which owes much to the +art experts of all nations, though “ceramic” and “ceramics” +do not appear in English as technical terms till the middle of the +19th century.</p> + +<p>The word “pottery” (Fr. <i>poterie</i>) in its widest sense includes +all objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though +there is a growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner +articles of this great class and to apply the word “porcelain” to +all the finer varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is +founded on a misconception; the word “porcelain” should only +be applied to certain well-marked varieties of pottery. The very +existence of pottery is dependent on two important natural +properties of that great and widespread group of rocky or earthy +substances known as clays, viz. the property of plasticity (the +power of being readily kneaded or moulded while moist), and +the property of being converted when fired into one of the most +indestructible of ordinary things.</p> + +<p>The clays form such an important group of mineral substances +that the reader must refer to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clay</a></span> for an account of +their occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we +shall only deal with the various clays as they have affected the +problems of the potter throughout the ages. The clays found on +or close to the earth’s surface are so varied in composition and +properties that we may see in them one of the vital factors that +has determined the nature of the pottery of different countries +and different peoples. They vary in plasticity, and in the hardness, +colour and texture of the fired product, through an astonishingly +wide range. To-day the fine, plastic, white-burning clays of +the south of England are carried all over Europe and America +for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of affairs +which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to +the 18th century, the potters of every country could only use on +an extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and +the influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone +centuries has never yet received the attention it deserves.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>General Evolution of Pottery.</i>—The primitive races of mankind, +whether of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as +they found on the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and +with the rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone +slab if necessary and picking out any rocky fragments of appreciable +size, then beating it with the hands, with stones or boards, or +treading it with the feet to render it fairly uniform in consistency, +proceeded to fashion it into such shapes as need or fancy dictated. +Fired in an open fire, or in the most rudimentary form of potter’s +kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab, brown or red—and these +from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or black. How many +generations of men, of any race, handed on their painfully +acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was passed, +we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances +were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can +trace in the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually +advancing skill based on increased technical knowledge. For +ages tools and methods remained of the simplest—the fingers +for shaping or building up vessels, a piece of mat or basket-work +for giving initial support to a more ambitious vase,—until +some original genius of the tribe finds that by starting to build up +his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he can turn his support +so as to bring every part in succession under his hand, and lo! +the potter’s wheel is invented—not brought down from heaven by +one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the older +civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian, +and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of +man struggling to fulfil his allotted task.</p> + +<p>Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to +imagine that the very rudest pottery must have been the invention +of Egyptian, Chinese or some other distinct race from which +the knowledge radiated to all the other races of the prehistoric +world. No conception could be more erroneous. Since the +middle of the 19th century research has established beyond doubt +that wherever clay was found men became potters of a sort, just +as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &c., by sheer force of +need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded view +that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that +the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from +such a parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable +evidence that pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of +what we now call Greece, Italy, Spain and other countries, long +before they were aware that any other peoples lived on the earth +than themselves.</p> + +<p>For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by +drying in the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried +grain, &c., but the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the +amazing fact that a baked clay vessel became as hard as stone. +Then, too, came the knowledge that even in one district all the +clays did not fire to the same colour, and colour decoration arose, +in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay or earth (a ruddle or +bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright red or buff colour +on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay—most precious of all +were little deposits of white clay which kept their purity unsullied +through the fire,—and by these primitive means the races of the +dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery +of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all +Egyptian, Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive +foundations.</p> + +<p>We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the +great nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each +develop the potter’s art in an individual way. The Egyptians +evolve schemes of glowing colour—brilliant glazes fired on +objects, shaped in sand held together with a little clay, or actually +carved from rocks or stones; the Greeks produce their marvels +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +of plastic form, and then, excited by their growing skill in metal +work, turn the plastic clay into imitations of metal forms. These +nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some knowledge—only +a tincture, it must be confessed—over all the lands they +hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt +to the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters’ fires that have +never since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and +over Europe its pottery is forgotten along with its greater +achievements; yet still pottery-making goes on in a very simple +way, to be slowly revived and modified once more by the communities +of monks, who, in later centuries, replace the Roman +legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe. Meantime +Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the +splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery +was still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine +civilization and the Persians played during this obscure time, we +are only just beginning to realize; but we now know that many +interesting kinds of decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at +Alexandria, at Damascus, in Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on +which the later Moslem potters founded their glorious works), +at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple red or drab clay, +covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were the sole +evidence of the potter’s skill. What the Arab conquests destroyed, +and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess; +but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan conquests +there came a time when the potter’s art of the Occident +reached its highest expression, and when methods and knowledge +hitherto confined to Egypt, Syria and Persia were spread from +Spain and the south of France to India—even, it may be, into +China.</p> + +<p>Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese—the greatest race +of potters the world has ever seen—were quietly gathering +strength, until from their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged +the marvellous, white translucent porcelain, one of the wonders +of the medieval world.</p> + +<p>With the dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of +affairs was practically this:—In European countries proper we +find rudely fashioned and decorated wares in which we can trace +the slow development of a native craft from the superposition +of Roman methods on the primitive work of the peoples. The +vessels were mostly intended for use and not for show; were +clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at all then only +with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no case +above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or tile-maker. +The finest expression of this native style is to be found +in the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England, +where all the colours are due to the clays and there is no approach +to painting. In the Moslem countries—including the greater +part of Spain and Sicily, Egypt and the nearer East, probably +even to the very centre of Asia—pottery was being made either +of whitish clay and sand, or of a light reddish clay coated with a +white facing of fine clay or of tin-enamel, on which splendid +decorative patterns in vivid pigments or brilliant iridescent +lustres were painted.</p> + +<p>As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic +pottery of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of +Europeans as an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may +well believe the traditional accounts that Saracen potters were +brought into Italy, France and Burgundy to introduce the +practice of their art, while Italian potters certainly penetrated +into the workshops of eastern Spain and elsewhere, and gathered +new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the south of France +probably, efforts were continuously in progress to improve the +native wares by coating the vessels with a white “slip” and +drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and +purplish black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war +and peace, also introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion +of the famous Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the +14th century a knowledge of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy +and paved the way to the glorious painted majolica of the 15th +and 16th centuries. From Italy and Spain, France and Holland, +Germany, and finally, though much later, England learnt this art, +and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern Europe, so +largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the direct +offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also +began to find its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its +substance and its marvellous translucence excited the attention +of the Italian majolists and alchemists. The first European +imitation of this famous oriental porcelain of which we have +indubitable record was made at Florence (1575-1585) by alchemists +or potters working under the patronage, and, it is said, with +the active collaboration of Francesco de’ Medici. This Florentine +porcelain was the first of those distinctively European wares, +made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connecting +link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered +either as pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered +opaque by shaping and firing a mixture containing a large +percentage of glass with a very little clay. After the cessation of +the Florentine experiments we know of no European porcelain +for nearly a century, though the importation of Chinese porcelain +had largely increased owing to the activity of the various “India” +companies. The next European porcelain, made like the +Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St +Cloud (1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy +porcelain was made in France and England largely, and in other +countries experimentally. German experimenters worked in +another direction, and the first porcelain made in Europe from +materials similar to the Chinese was produced at Meissen by +Böttger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not only was +there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese +porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain +manufacture in Europe; and in every country factories were +established, generally under royal or princely patronage, for the +manufacture of artificial porcelain like the French, or genuine +porcelain like the German. The English made a departure in +the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either, through +adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this +English bone-porcelain—a well-marked species—is now largely +made in America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in +England.</p> + +<p>By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant +on the manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its +abandonment, and a porcelain made from natural materials like +the Chinese has since been generally made on the continent of +Europe.</p> + +<p>The older tin-enamelled wares—derived from the Hispano-Moresque +and the Italian majolica—so largely made in France, +Holland, Germany and elsewhere during the 17th and 18th +centuries, met with a fate analogous to that of the French +porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a brittle +substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the +middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a +serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior +durability and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience +gradually disappeared between the upper millstone of European +porcelain and the nether millstone of English earthenware.</p> + +<p>The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the +output of porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the +United States. Mechanical methods were largely called in to +supplement or replace what had hitherto remained almost pure +handicraft. The English methods of preparing and mixing the +materials of the body and glaze, and the English device of replacing +painted decoration by machine printing, to a large extent +carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical aspects of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its artistic +spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely +affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the +painting, gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the +first half of the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and +hackneyed. During the latter half of the 19th century another +influence was fortunately at work. Side by side with the increasing +mechanical perfection of the great bulk of modern pottery +there grew up a school of innovators and experimentalists, who +revived many of the older decorative methods that had fallen +into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in certain +directions even beyond, the achievements of the past. The 20th +century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe +and America. In every country men were striving once again to +bring back to their world-old craft something of artistic taste +and skill.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:211px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:211px; height:233px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Potter moulding +a vessel on the wheel +(from a painting in a tomb +at Thebes about 1800 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). +Compare the wheel on the +left in fig. 5.</td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Potter’s wheel of +the time of the Ptolemies, +moved by the foot (from a +wall-relief at Philae). Compare +fig. 5, the wheel on the +right.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt1"><i>Technical Methods.</i>—All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or +of modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay, +dug from the earth’s surface, was or is prepared by beating and +kneading with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood; +stones and hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well +tempered with water, was used without any addition. From this +clay, vessels were shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump +or ball, by building up piece by piece and smoothing down one layer +upon another or by squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object +or prepared mould or form. The potter’s wheel, though very +ancient, was a comparatively late invention, arrived at independently +by many races of men. In its simplest form it was a heavy +disk pivoted on a central point to be set going by the hand, as the +workman squatted on the ground; and it may be seen to-day in +India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive simplicity (see +fig. 1). This form of potter’s wheel was the only one known until +about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently, the improvement +was introduced of lengthening the spindle which carries the +throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much larger disk +which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have both hands +free for the manipulation of the clay (fig. 2). No further advance +seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the wheel +was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a +steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century, +this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery.</p> + +<p>A prevalent misconception with regard to the potter’s wheel +needs correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is +impossible to carry the work to completion on the wheel at one +operation as is generally imagined. All that the potter can do while +the clay is soft enough to “throw” on the wheel is to get a rough +shape of even thickness. This operation completed, the piece is +removed from the wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about +leather-hard, it may be re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old +practice), or placed in a horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and +turned down to the exact shape and polished to an even, smooth +surface. The Greek vase-makers were already adepts in what is +often reckoned a modern, detestable practice. Many Greek vases +have obviously been “thrown” in separate sections, and when these +had contracted and hardened sufficiently they were luted together +with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed and turned down +on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of mechanical +finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the Chinese; +many of their forms have been made in two or three portions, subsequently +joined together and finished on the outside as one piece. +Indeed it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered +for themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held +up to opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age. +Always it should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by +“pressing” cakes of clay into moulds is much older than the potter’s +wheel, and has always been the method of making shapes other than +those in the round. The modern method of “casting” pottery by +pouring slip, a fluid mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds +seems to have originated in England about the middle of the 18th +century; and this too is a genuine potter’s method which does not +merit the disapproval with which it has been generally regarded +by writers on the potter’s art.</p> + +<p>In all ages the work of the “thrower” or “presser” has been +largely supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape, and +applies to it handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:455px" src="images/img705c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Early Greek pottery-kiln, +about 700-600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (from a painted +votive tablet found at Corinth, now in +the Louvre). The section shows the +probable construction of the kiln.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Firing.</i>—The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a +specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be +referred here to the technological works mentioned in the bibliography +at the end of this +article. It is, however, +necessary that we should +briefly describe the earlier +forms of potters’ kilns +used by the nations whose +pottery counts among the +treasures of the collector +and the antiquary. Here +again we now know that +the primitive types of kiln +used by the potters of +ancient Egypt or Greece +have not vanished from +the earth; it is only in +the civilized countries of +the modern world that +they have been replaced +by improved and perfected +devices. The potters of +the North-West Provinces +of India use to-day a kiln +practically identical with +that depicted in severest +silhouette on the rock-tombs +of Thebes; and the +skilful Japanese remain +content with a kiln very +similar to the one shown +in fig. 3. This Greek type +of kiln was improved and +enlarged by the Romans, +and its use seems to have +been introduced wherever +pottery was made under +their sway, for remains of +Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4). With the +end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their technical +methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter of the +period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his methods +afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of +medieval potter’s kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an +Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria +and Albert Museum<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal +reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-fired pottery of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &c.), as well as for Chinese porcelain +and the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery +as a factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were introduced, +and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries +is practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section, +from 10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore, +of containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would +have formed the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every +device that can be thought of for the better utilization of heat and +its even distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experimented +with; and, though the results have been most successful +from the point of view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired +ovens remain very wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of +available heat being relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-fired +kilns and ovens are now being used or experimented with in +every country, and their perfection, which cannot be far distant, +will improve the most vital of the potter’s processes both in certainty +and economy.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:324px" src="images/img705d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is for the +insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated floor, made +of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing,—it was probably a +dome.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:228px" src="images/img706.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Two forms of Italian potter’s wheels, about 1540.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Glazes.</i>—We are never likely to known when glaze (<i>i.e.</i> a coating of +fired glass) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of +knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed +objects we possess are those of ancient Egypt,<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> but the practice +may have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of +the elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes +were of the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass +before they can be applied to pottery.</p> + +<p>Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after +it was fired, in order to get a glossy surface; and in other cases the +surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with +waxy or resinous substances which were often coloured. It is +possible that the black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such +a method, and though that point is not settled, we have many types +of primitive pottery, both modern and ancient, which are coated in +this way. Such a coating is only a substitute for glaze in the work of +peoples who do not know or have not mastered the technical secrets +of true glazes. We can only consider as glazes those definite superficial +layers of molten material which have been fired on the clay +substance. Glazes are as varied as the various kinds of pottery, +and it must never be forgotten that each kind of pottery is at its +best with its appropriate glaze. The earliest known glazes (Egyptian +and Assyrian) were silicates of soda and lime containing very little +alumina and no lead. Such glazes are very uncertain in use, and +can only be applied to pottery unusually rich in silica (<i>i.e.</i> deficient +in clay). Consequently these alkaline glazes cannot be used on +ordinary clay wares, and when they have been used successfully, the +clay has always been coated with a surface layer of highly siliceous +substance (<i>e.g.</i> the so-called Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian +pottery of the early middle ages). The fact that glazes containing +lead-oxide would adhere to ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes +would not was discovered at a very early period; for lead glazes +were extensively used in Egypt and the nearer East in Ptolemaic +times, and it is significant that, though the Romans made singularly +little use of glazes of any kind, the pottery that succeeded theirs, +either in western Europe or in the Byzantine empire, was generally +covered with glazes rich in lead. Throughout Europe, and over the +greater part of the world, leaded glazes have been continuously used +and improved for all ordinary pottery, and it is only with certain +special hard-fired types of ware that they have yet been successfully +replaced. Chinese porcelain and all the European porcelains made +by analogous methods are fired at so high a temperature that a glaze +by felspar softened by lime and silica is found most suitable for them, +and the hard-fired stonewares, rich in silica, are often glazed with a +salt glaze, or a melted earth rich in oxide of iron.</p> + +<p>Every kind of potter’s clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &c., +from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze, +and from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could +produce in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him +by the clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay +which cannot be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have +always proved the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large +quantities of sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of +common salt; and mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European +porcelain, can be glazed by melting felspathic materials upon them. +Naturally those species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the +most durable—the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable +than lead glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes.</p> + +<p>The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (<i>e.g.</i> +Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &c.), the oldest and most uncertain; +(2) lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all +ordinary purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired +porcelains, generally unsuited to any other material; (4) salt glaze, +produced by vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares. +Many intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs, +but these remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this +important subject must be sought in the technical works.</p> + +<p><i>Colours.</i>—The primitive potters of ancient and modern times +have all striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest, +and therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in +natural earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition +that they fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream, +buff, red, brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One +clay daubed or painted upon another formed the primitive palette +of the potter, especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze +was used these natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths, +other than clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were +gradually discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some +of the very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or +iron (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians +and Assyrians). Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials, +but the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian, +Syrian and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time +the art of glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been +thoroughly learnt. Vases, tiles, &c., shaped in good plastic clay, +were covered with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive +glazes of this type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted +colours then known. With this rudimentary technique the potters +of the countries south and east of the Mediterranean produced, +between the 9th and 16th centuries of our era, a type of pottery +that remains ideal from the point of view of colour: for, with nothing +more than the greens given by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise +of pure copper, the deep yet vivid blue of cobalt, the beautiful uncertain +purple of manganese, and in certain districts the rich red of +Armenian bole, they achieved colour schemes that have never been +surpassed in their brilliant yet harmonious richness.</p> + +<p>When the coating of white siliceous clay was replaced by an +opaque tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &c., a +necessary change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the +copper-greens and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground; +the fine manganese purple turned to brown or black and the rich +iron-reds to filthy shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the +Spanish-Arab potters paid more attention to their lustre decoration, +for that was the natural thing to do. How strong and fine a palette +could be evolved for use on a tin-enamel ground was shown by the +Italian majolists of the 15th and 16th centuries; and when the +later developments of tin-enamelled pottery took place in France, +Holland, Germany, &c., their colour schemes are only echoes of +Italian majolica crossed with Chinese porcelain. Delft, Nevers, +Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with its individuality; +Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us that they +too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always go +back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian and +Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them.</p> + +<p>The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are +known as “under glaze” colours, because they were painted on the +pottery before the glaze was fired.</p> + +<p>The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been +white, but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of +coloured glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along +with the painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and +Persian potters. Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the +only artistic productions of the medieval European potters’ kilns, +and their use everywhere preceded the introduction of painted +pottery. The most extensive application of coloured glazes was, +however, that made by the Chinese, who developed this type of +colour decoration before they used painted patterns in underglaze +colour. The earliest Chinese porcelains, and the hard-fired stonewares +out of which their porcelain arose, were decorated in this way, +and the beauty of many of the early Sung coloured glazes has never +been surpassed.</p> + +<p>With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese +porcelain very few underglaze colours could be used; and the +prevalence of blue and white among the early specimens of Chinese +porcelains is due to the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance +known to the potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the +high temperature needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the +Chinese were driven to invent the method of painting in coloured +fusible glasses on the already fired glaze. They adopted for this +purpose the coloured enamels used on metal; hence the common +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +term “enamel decoration,” which is so generally applied to painting +in those colours which are attached to the already fired glaze by +refiring at a lower temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured +Chinese porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly +followed by our European potters, and a new palette of colours and +fresh styles of decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-glaze +colours, being executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass +painting, and it generally offers a striking contrast both in technique +and colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the +glaze. In the former the work can be highly finished and the most +mechanical execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich +nor so brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same +softness as is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour +when the glaze is melted over it.</p> + +<p>It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method +of pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at +which the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally +more limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in +their turn than the on-glaze colours.</p> + +<p>When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery +took on its modern form, of earthenware made after the English +fashion, and porcelain like the French and German, the lead or +felspathic glazes used brought about another revolution in the +potter’s palette. The growing ideal of mechanical perfection discounted +the freedom of the earlier brushwork, and printed patterns, +or painting that might almost have been printed, removed the mind +still farther from the richness of painted faience or majolica. It is +useless to look for the glorious colour of Persian faience, Italian +majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in modern wares produced by manufacturing +processes where mechanical perfection is demanded to a +degree undreamt of before the 19th century. The finest modern +pottery colour is only to be sought in the work of those enthusiasts +and experimenters who are striving to produce work as rich and free +as the best of past times.</p> + +<p><i>Metals</i>.—The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver, +have, since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as +adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white earthen-wares +and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the gold was +applied with a kind of japanner’s size and was not fired to the glaze, +but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally been +fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing the +metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass. There +can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia, Syria and +Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their decorative +effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been. The +early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to +have been “sized” or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable +that the use of “fired” gold was taught to the Oriental by the +European in the 18th century. To-day “liquid” gold is exported +to China and Japan from Europe for the use of the potter.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Primitive Pottery</p> + +<p>We can group together that great and widely-spread class of +vessels made by the primitive races of mankind, whether before +the dawn of civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting +to note that many modern races still make pottery by the same +rude method as the Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with +striking similarity of result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods +and practices of the primitive potters of our own time furnishes +the best possible guide to the methods of fabrication and ornamentation +of the ancient specimens that are dug up from barrows, +grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only natural that the materials +and methods of such pottery are always of the simplest. The clay +is used with very little preparation, and it is no unusual thing to +find bits of stone, gravel, &c., embedded in the paste of such +wares, though at a later stage of development they would have +been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of +potters practised the art for long without discovering that their +vessels were not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in +firing, if fine sand or pounded “potsherds” were mixed with the +clay; and when we are dealing with the work of races that have +passed beyond the Stone Age and have learned the use of metals +we find this custom universal.</p> + +<p>There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common +to almost every primitive race:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p>1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay.</p> + +<p>2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or +matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and +smoothing down successive layers of clay.</p> + +<p>3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and +these are coiled round and round upon each other and +smoothed down with the hands and with simple tools of bone, +wood or metal.</p> +</div> + +<p>The use of the potter’s wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable +how beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery +is. The primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders +Petrie in Egypt, and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric +date from Spain, are remarkable instances of this. Some primitive +races leave their pottery without decoration, especially +when they have a fine red-burning clay to work in, but, generally +speaking, primitive pottery of every race and time is elaborately +decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such decorations +consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions arranged +in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. All +this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it +is fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so +obviously been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the +neck or bowl of a vase; though the thong may have been used in +the first instance merely to serve as a support while the vessel was +dried. At a later stage the ornament is generally obtained by +scratching with a tool, by pressing the end of a hollow stick into +the clay to form rows of circles, by using a stick cut at the end +into the shape of a half-moon, or other equally simple decorative +device. In certain tropical countries this rudimentary pottery +becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when merely +dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries +it must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an +open fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into +the ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imperfect +the firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke. +In those countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired +the pieces naturally become buff, drab, brown or red.</p> + +<p>The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-mounds +of England and the northern countries generally have +received a number of fanciful names for which there is very little +warrant except in the case of the cinerary urns. These are +generally the largest vessels of this class, and as they were used +to contain burnt bones there seems sufficient warrant for the supposition +that they were made for this and for no other purpose.</p> + +<p>Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved +during recent years by the labours of a number of American +students connected with the United States Geological Survey, +who have carefully recorded the present-day practices of those +native tribes who make and use pottery in various parts of North +America and Mexico; while, in the same way, Peruvian, Brazilian +and other South American pottery has been as closely +investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no +primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze, +though much of it has been highly polished after firing, and in +some cases a varnish has been applied which may perhaps be +regarded as the earliest kind of “glazing” ever applied to pottery +vessels.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—On primitive pottery the following works may be +specially mentioned. W. Greenwell, <i>British Barrows</i> (1877); Boyd-Dawkins, +<i>Early Man in Britain</i> (1880); Mortimer, <i>Forty Years’ +Researches in British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire</i> +(1905); Abercromby, “The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in +Britain,” <i>J. Anth. Inst.</i> vol. xxxii. (1902), 373; <i>Guide to Antiquities +of the Bronze Age</i> (British Museum, 1904); Koenen, <i>Gefässkunde +der vorrömischen, römischen und fränkischen Zeit in den Rheinländern</i> +(1895); Wosinsky, <i>Der inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-zeit</i> +(1904); Walters, <i>History of Ancient Pottery</i> (Greek and Roman) +(1905); Holmes, <i>Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States</i> +(Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1899); also Holmes and Cushing +in <i>Report</i> of Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; Wiener, <i>Pérou et +Bolivie</i> (1880); Von der Steinen, <i>Natur-Völkerei Central Brasiliens</i> +(1894); Hartman, <i>Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica</i> (1905); +Strebel, on “Mexican Pottery” in <i>Publications</i> of Museum für +Völkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6, 1899); Werner, <i>British Central Africa</i> +(1907); Füllborn, <i>Deutsche Ost-Afrika</i>, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer, +“Kabyle Pottery,” <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> vol. xxxii. p. 245, and “Upper +Egypt,” <i>ibid</i>. xxxv. p. 20; Myres, “Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia +Minor,” <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, <i>Notes +analytiques sur les collections ethnographiques du Congo</i>, tome ii. (1907); +Cupart, <i>Debuts de l’art de l’ancienne Égypte</i> (1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Egypt and Western Asia</p> + +<p><i>Egyptian Pottery</i>.—Egypt affords us the most striking instance +of the development of the potter’s art. As in other countries +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +pottery was made even in Neolithic times, for the Nile mud forms +a fine plastic clay and sand is of course abundant. With these +materials various kinds of pottery, often extremely well made +and of good form, have been continuously produced for common +domestic requirements, but such pottery was never glazed.</p> + +<p>The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a +special preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all, +it contained so little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty +the Egyptians had learnt to shape little objects in this tender +material and cover them with their wonderful turquoise glazes. +We have therefore to study the development of two independent +things: (1) the ordinary pottery of common clay left without +glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be special +to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the +technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the +nearer East.</p> + +<p>We probably do not possess any specimens of the most +primitive Neolithic pottery; the oldest type known to us, the +black and red ware of Ballas and Nagada (<b>1</b>), dates from the later +Neolithic age, when copper was just beginning to be used. This +ware is very hard and compact and the face is highly burnished. +The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red clay; the +black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of air +in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie +suggests, by placing the pot’s mouth down in the kiln, and +leaving the ashes over the part which was to be burnt black. +Both red and black colour go right through in every case. All-red +and all-black vases are occasionally found, the red with geometrical +decorations in white colour, and the black with incised +decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at the same +time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it +is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the +wheel. Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete +in 1905 during the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hierapetra. +The general appearance of the Cretan pottery is much +the same as that of the Egyptian, and the duller red and black +decoration (which here has a spotted or mottled appearance) was +probably obtained in the same way, the black spots being due to +the action of separate fragments of the baking material. This +discovery is important in view of the probable early connexion +of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres.</p> + +<p>A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and +harder make, and often with a brighter surface, was introduced +into Egypt at a later date (XIIth Dynasty), probably by Nubian +tribes who were descended from relatives of the Neolithic +Egyptians. From their characteristic graves these people are +called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known by the +same name.</p> + +<p>Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares, +but by no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of +primeval Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface +decorations in red. These decorations are varied in character, +including ships, birds and human figures; wavy lines and +geometrical designs commonly occur. The whole <i>facies</i> of this +ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been compared with +the decorated “Kabyle pottery” of modern times. To call the +people who made this ware “Libyans” on the strength of this +resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six +thousand years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric +Egyptians were not Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the +peculiar decoration of their pottery, which seems so strangely +barbaric, is in reality merely the most ancient handiwork of the +Egyptian painter, and marks the first stage in the development +of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (<b>2</b>). Other types of +pottery (<b>3</b>), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also in use at +this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase with +a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed +out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This +cylindrical type outlived the red and black and the red and buff +decorated styles (which are purely Neolithic and predynastic) +and continued in use in the early dynastic period, well into +the Copper age. The other unglazed pottery of the first three +dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty of form or colour, +and is indeed of the roughest description (<b>4</b>), but under the +IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and +vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (<b>4</b>). This fine ware continued +in use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though +the forms of course differed from age to age. Under the XIIth +Dynasty, and during the Middle Kingdom generally, either this +or a coarser unpolished red ware was in use. The forms of this +period are very characteristic (<b>5</b>); the vases are usually footless, +and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape—some small +ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign “Pan-Grave” +black and red pottery was also in use (see above).</p> + +<p>The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy +body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been +known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period +immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). Under +the XIIth Dynasty pottery made of this characteristic Egyptian +faience seems to have come into general use, and it continued +in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor of the +glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (<b>6</b>). +The oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape +of beads, plaques, &c.—rarely in the form of pottery vessels. +The colour is usually a light blue, which may turn either white +or green; but beads of the grey-black manganese colour are +found, and on the light blue vases of King Aha (who is probably +one of the historical originals of the legendary “Mena” or +Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have the king’s +name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the blue-white +glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid. This +style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue +continued till the end of the “New Empire” shortly before the +XXVIth (Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the +decoration before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light +blue glaze was used well into the time of the XIIth Dynasty +(British Museum, No. 36,346), but was then displaced by a new +tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on which the black decoration +shows up in sharper contrast than before. This blue, and a +somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the time +for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of +scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite +—not faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of +glazed stone begins about this period, and not only steatite or +schist was employed (on account of its softness), but a remarkably +brilliant effect was obtained by glazing hard shining white +quartzite with the wonderfully delicate XIIth Dynasty blue. +A fragment of a statuette plinth of this beautiful material was +obtained during the excavation of the XIth Dynasty temple at +Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948). Vessels of +diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the blue +glaze. A good specimen of the finest XIIth Dynasty blue-glazed +faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) +in the Cairo Museum (No. 3666) (<b>6</b>). The blue-glazed hippopotami +of this period, with the reeds and water-plants in purplish +black upon their bodies to indicate their habitat, are well known. +Fine specimens of these are in the collection of the Rev. Wm. +MacGregor at Tamworth (<b>8</b>).</p> + +<p>The blue glaze of the XIIth Dynasty deepened in colour under +the XIIIth, to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the +manganese black) of fish and lotus plants belong (<b>8</b>) (British +Museum, Nos. 4790, &c.). The finest specimens of XVIIIth +Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir el-Bahri, in the +neighbourhood of which place there may have been a factory +for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &c., of this +fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor +(good collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this +dynasty polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and +dark blue, violet, purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other +tints were used, not only for smaller objects of faience, such as +rings, scarabs, kohl-pots, &c., but also for vases, <i>e.g.</i> No. 3965 of +the Cairo Museum (Amenophis III. wine-bottle), the ground colour +of which is white with a decoration of flower wreaths in blue, +yellow and red, with an inscription in delicate blue (<b>6</b>). This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +polychrome faience was also now used for the <i>ushabti</i> figures +which were placed in the tombs; hitherto they had been made +exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery; +henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the +polychrome glazes (<i>e.g.</i> British Museum, Nos. 34,180, 34,185) +were soon abandoned, and the plain blue and black of the +ordinary vases was adopted. The <i>ushabtis</i> of King Seti I. +(British Museum, No. 22,818, &c.) (<b>9</b>) are fine specimens of this +type. Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and became +weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used +for their <i>ushabtis</i> a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary +colour which at once distinguishes the faience of this period +from that of all others (<b>9</b>). The same brilliant glaze was used +for vases of various kinds as well. The polychrome ware had +developed into a style of inlaying with glazed faience, which we +see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty (1400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) +(<b>10</b>), and at Tel el-Yahūdīya under the XXth (1200 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), +used for wall decoration. After this time polychrome ceramic +decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained +in Asia (see below).</p> + +<p>The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by +such a remarkable object as the gigantic <i>Uas</i>-sceptre of blue +glazed faience, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (<b>12, 8</b>). +This is the largest known piece of Egyptian glazed faience; +really large vases of faience are not found. Faience vases were +very commonly built up or carved out of a ball of the dried +material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous substance +—it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have been +fashioned on the wheel. Sometimes even small vases were made +of separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (<b>6</b>). +Under the XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of +deities or animals in relief became common; these were made in +moulds (<b>6</b>). In the matter of form the faience pottery of the +New Empire follows the lead of the new earthenware types. +Forms had altered considerably from those of the XIIth Dynasty. +In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we now find +egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without +handles, great <i>amphorae</i> with almost pointed bases, sometimes +with the handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-tipped, +squat jugs; little handleless vases somewhat resembling +the modern <i>kulla</i>, “<i>mit mehrfach eingezogenem Bauch</i>” (V.B.), +and the common flat flask-like type known as the “pilgrim +bottle” (<b>6, 13, 14, 15</b>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:118px" src="images/img709a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Egyptian pottery made of fine blue paste.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time, +imported vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean +<i>Bugelkannen</i> and Cypriote black “base ring” jugs, have been +found in the tombs and deposits of this age (<b>14</b>). Imitations of +foreign forms, especially the <i>Bugelkannen</i>, are found<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> chiefly in +faience (British Museum, 22,731, is an imitation of a Minoan jug +from Crete). The faience forms of +the XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties +include also the <i>kulla</i> shape, the +pilgrim bottle, miniature <i>amphorae</i>, + &c. (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous +forms not found in common pottery, +imitating metal and stone vases, <i>e.g.</i> +the blue-green ribbed pots of the +XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze +originals, and the <i>alabastron</i> of the XVIIIth; these last go +back to the XIIth Dynasty. Very pretty cups in the shape of +lotus flowers (see fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are +of the XIXth Dynasty, and mostly came from Tuna (<b>6, 8</b>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 358px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:308px; height:135px" src="images/img709b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth +Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth +Dynasty has already been mentioned. Characteristic of the latter +period of this ware are long jugs with attenuated body and single +handle, which, because they have been found with Mycenaean +objects in Cyprus, have +been considered to be +of foreign, probably of +Syrian origin. They +may, however, be Egyptian. +Vases of the same +ware in the shape of men +and animals are not uncommon (<b>17</b>). +Another +ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face, sometimes +becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in +this ware the pilgrim bottles are common. An unpolished, +brittle, and thin yellow ware was also used largely for wine-vases. +The rougher, commoner red and brown ware at this +period became decorated with designs, chiefly of lily wreaths, +&c., in paint of various colours (<b>13</b>). This new development hid +the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply +obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of +the period (see fig. 8). This painted pottery continued in use +until about the time of the XXIInd Dynasty. From this time +onwards, till the Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a +red ware, usually covered with a white slip. Under the XXVIth +Dynasty a finer homogeneous white ware occurs, usually for +vases with a rude representation of the face of the god Bes on their +bodies.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:229px; height:184px" src="images/img709c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Egyptian pottery with painted ornament and sham marbling.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The XXVIth Dynasty marks a new period of development in +the history of Egyptian faience. The old deep blue colour had +gradually deteriorated into an ugly green (British Museum, +No. 8962), which was replaced by the Saite potters with a new +light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in accordance with the +archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light blue of the earliest +Dynasties. The glaze itself is very thin and “sugary” in +texture. The old decoration of the blue with designs and inscriptions +in manganese-black is abandoned; on the <i>ushabtis</i> the +inscriptions are now incised. Side +by side with this light blue glaze +was used an unglazed faience, a +sort of composition paste with the +colour going right through.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> It +has more variety of colour than +the glazed faience, light green and +a dark indigo blue being found as +well as the Saite light blue. Sometimes +it is of a very soft, almost +chalky consistency. It was used +for vases, but more generally for +small figures and scarabs (<b>6</b>). The +commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim bottle, now +made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with inscriptions +on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the +possessor. These flasks appear to have been common New +Year’s gifts.</p> + +<p>Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further +new development of glaze began, of a more radical character than +ever before. The colour deepened, and the glaze itself became +much more glassy, and was thickly laid on. The new glaze was +partly translucent, and differed very greatly from the old opaque +glaze. It first appeared on <i>ushabtis</i> at the end of the Saite period. +A curious effect was obtained by glazing the head-dress, the +inscription &c., of the <i>ushabtis</i> in dark blue, and then covering +the whole with translucent light blue glaze. This method was +regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman +periods, when the new style of glaze came into general use. A +yellowish green effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body +of the vases in yellow and covering this with the translucent blue +glaze. This method was used to touch up the salient portions of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +the designs in relief, imitated from foreign originals, a style +which now became usual on vases. The usual decoration is +mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally predominating. +A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue, blue-green, +grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found. The glaze +is very thickly laid on, and is often “crazed” (<b>6, 8</b>). A remarkable +instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the +god Bes in the British Museum (No. 35,028). A hard, light blue, +opaque glaze like that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally, +but rarely, met with in the case of vases (British Museum, +Nos. 37,407, 37,408).</p> + +<p>We know something of the common wares in use during this +period from the study of the <i>ostraka</i>, fragments of pottery on +which dated tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written. +From the <i>ostraka</i> we see that during the Ptolemaic period the +commonest pottery was made of red ware covered with white +slip, which has already been mentioned. At the beginning of the +Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar light pink ware +with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark brown +ware. About the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> horizontally ribbed or fluted +pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use. +These were often large-sized <i>amphorae</i>, with very attenuated +necks and long handles (see fig. 9). During the Byzantine +(Coptic) period most of the pottery in use was ribbed, and usually +pitched inside to hold water, as +the ware was loose in texture and +porous.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:227px; height:277px" src="images/img710a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Egyptian pottery under the Ptolemies, showing +Greek influence in the shapes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>During the Coptic period, a +lighter ware was also in use, decorated +with designs of various kinds +in white, brown or red paint on +the dull red or buff body. In +Nubia a peculiar development of +this ware is characteristic of the +later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712).</p> + +<p>A polished red ware of Roman +origin (imitation Arretine or +“Samian”) was commonly used as +well.</p> + +<p>The heavily glazed blue faience +continued in use until replaced in +the early Arab period by the well-known +yellow and brown lead-glazed +pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds +of Fostat (Old Cairo).</p> + +<p><i>Western Asia.—Palestine</i>. The most ancient Palestinian +pottery is the rough “Amorite” ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi) +which sometimes has wavy handles like the prehistoric Egyptian +(<b>18</b>). Later we find actual Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (<b>19</b>), +an interesting testimony to the truth of the legend which brings +the Philistines from Crete; the fourth and fifth cities of Lachish +(1200-1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) show us the first ordinary Phoenician or Israelite +pottery—buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter with the handles +sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong Egyptian +influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found +as in Egypt.</p> + +<p>The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery +is the Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite +period, of which the characteristics are well known. Some of +this may actually have been made in Egypt.</p> + +<p>The course of the potter’s art in Mesopotamia and Persia +appears to have run on lines of development parallel with the +art in Egypt, for the country between the Tigris and the +Euphrates is rich in good clays, and, wherever the invention of +glass arose, its application to pottery decoration was certainly +developed at an early period in Egypt and in Mesopotamia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed +out, though they have nothing to do with vase-making.</p> + +<p>1. The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets, +cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the +literature of the time. The cylinders and prisms were thrown on +the potter’s wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form +was then sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform +inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried +and fired.</p> + +<p>2. The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs. While the +Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application +of their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished +objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture +decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork. The bricks were of +very open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects +were obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which +formed a kind of <i>cloison</i> or boundary, the shallow cells between being +filled in with coloured clays—yellow, red or white—or with coloured +glazes of turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown. These +glazes are obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely +prepared and are always full of bubbles and consequently more or +less opaque. Yet the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid +colour effect, strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to +a very high rank among all the world’s work in clay and glaze. +The “Frieze of the Archers” now in the Louvre may be mentioned +as one of the finest productions of its kind, and the Louvre and +British Museum possess the finest collections of this early architectural +use of glazed and coloured clay. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mural Decoration</a></span>)</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:217px" src="images/img710b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Assyrian biscuit pottery.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-formed +vases made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were +made. Small figures of deities made of the same clay are often +found. It is practically the same terra-cotta as that of the +inscribed tablets. None of the forms are particularly distinctive +(see fig. 10). The excavations of the French in Persia have +brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely interesting +painted ware, which belongs to a very early period. The decoration +is usually geometrical. The technique seems to be analogous +to the Mycenaean-Greek (<i>Firnismalerei</i>), and the whole effect +is very like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon +pottery. The ware is buff in colour and fine in texture, with a +polished surface. The decoration is sometimes in polychrome, +but usually in the grey-brown iron-glaze (?) alone. This pottery +degenerates later and finally disappears (<b>20</b>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:177px" src="images/img710c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.</td></tr></table> + +<p>During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) we +find a polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown) +obviously of Egyptian origin. It was used, not for vases, but +architectonically for friezes, ornamental bosses, &c. Its origin +may be found in Egypt under the XVIIIth Dynasty, when +Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and Babylonia had +regular diplomatic relations with Egypt In Asia this polychrome +decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had ceased +to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick +decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay +decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik. +In the Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see fig. 11) +which are probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imitations +of Egyptian faience.</p> + +<p>Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed +pottery of which the slipper-shaped coffins, of the time were made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +(British Museum, Nos. 1645-1647) (<b>21</b>). This glaze possibly contains +a small amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the +contemporary translucent blue glaze of Egypt. The Egyptian +glaze certainly spread into western Asia, and we find the last +specimens of it in the tiles from the destroyed city of Rhagae +in Persia, which may be as late as the 13th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> The +lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman period, may +be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no means +clear.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—(1) Petrie-Quibell, <i>Ballas and Nagada</i> (date +erroneous); (2) Jacques de Morgan, <i>L’ Âge de la pierre et des métaux</i>; +(3) Petrie, <i>Diospolis Parva</i>, frontispiece (also for “sequence-dates” +of pottery); (4) Garstang, <i>Mahâsna and Bêt Khallâf</i>, pls. xxix.—xxxii.; +(5) Petrie, <i>Illahûn</i>, pl. xii. (corr. by V. Bissing in (14)); +(6) V. Bissing, <i>Catalogue générale du musée de Caire,</i> “Die Fayencegefässe”; +(7) Petrie, <i>Abydos</i>, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry Wallis, +<i>Egyptian Ceramic Art</i> (Macgregor Collection); (9) <i>Guide to Third +and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum</i>, p. 252 ff.; (10) +Petrie, <i>Tel-el-Amarna</i>; (11) <i>Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian +Rooms</i>, p. 261; (12) Petrie, <i>Nagâda</i>, pl. xxviii.; (13) Petrie, <i>Illahûn</i>, +pls. xx., xxi.; (14) V. Bissing, <i>Strena Helbigiana</i>, p. 20 ff.; (15) +Garstang, <i>El Arábah</i>, pls. xviii.-xxi., xxviii., xxix.; (16) Hall, +<i>Oldest Civilization of Greece</i>, p. 143 ff. ibid. figs. 29, 30, 69; (17) +<i>Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms</i>, pl. viii.; (18) Petrie, +<i>Tell-el-Hesy</i>, pl. v.; (19) Welch, <i>Ann. Brit. Sch. Ath</i>. vi.; (20) de +Morgan, <i>Délégation en Perse</i>, viii. (1905); (21) <i>Brit. Mus.: Guide +to Babylonian and Assyrian Room</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. R. H.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Greek, Etruscan and Roman</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Greek</span>. <i>Study of Greek Vases</i>.—It is not so many years since +an account of Greek pottery would naturally have followed +chronologically the history of Egyptian pottery with little overlapping; +but recent discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and, +while up to the end of the 19th century the earliest remains to be +traced on Greek soil could be assigned at the furthest to the +period 2500-2000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, it is now possible not only to show that at +that period technical processes were highly developed, but even +to trace a continuous development of Greek pottery from the +Neolithic age. This result has been mainly brought about by +Dr Arthur Evans’s researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of +similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece. +Whether the race which produced this pottery can strictly be +called Greek may be open to question, but at all events the ware +is the independent product of a people inhabiting in prehistoric +times the region afterwards known as Greece; its connexion with +the pottery of the historic period can now be clearly traced, and +in its advanced technical character and the genuinely artistic +appearance of its decoration even this early ware proclaims +itself as inspired by a similar genius.</p> + +<p>The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional +impetus from the light that it throws on the early civilization of +the country, and its value for the student of ethnology. But it +has always appealed strongly to the archaeologist and in some +degree also to the artist or connoisseur, to the former from its +importance as a contribution to the history of Greek art, mythology +and antiquities, to the latter from its beauty of form +and decoration. Attention was first redirected to the painted +vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time they +served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur +or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the +18th century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of +more than merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted +to the elucidation of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive +at a chronological classification. Two facts must, however, +be borne in mind: firstly, that down to the middle of the 19th +century the great majority of painted vases had been found only +in Italy; secondly, that these vases were mostly of the later and +more florid styles, which, if artistically advanced, are now known +to represent a decadent phase of Greek art.</p> + +<p>From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were +the product not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the +term “Etruscan vase” arose and passed into the languages of +Europe, surviving even at this day in popular speech in spite of +a century of refutation. Meanwhile, the study of the subjects +depicted on the vases passed through the successive stages of +allegorical, historical and mystical interpretation, until a century +and more of painstaking study led to the more rational principles +of modern archaeologists.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:340px" src="images/img711a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Jug from Cyprus of Oriental style, 10 in. high</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:276px" src="images/img711b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Pottery from Cyprus with geometrical ornament.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Sites and Discoveries</i>.—The sites on which Greek vases have been +found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from +the Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt. By far the great +majority, at all events of the finer specimens, have been extracted +from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the +later period or decadence have been found in large numbers on +various sites in southern Italy, such as Capua, Curnae and Nola in +Campania, Anzi in Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia. In the western +Mediterranean, Sicily has also been a fruitful field for this pottery, +early varieties being found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti +and elsewhere. Painted vases have also come to light in Sardinia +and in North Africa, especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds +mostly belong to the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> In Greece proper the most +prolific site has been Athens, where the finds extend from the +Dipylon vases of the 8th century +<span class="sc">b.c.</span> down to the decadent +productions of the 4th century; +one group, that of the white +funeral <i>lekythoi</i>, is almost +peculiar to Athens. Next to +this city, Corinth has been +most productive, especially in +pottery of the archaic period +and of local manufacture. +Large quantities of pottery of +all periods have been yielded +by Thebes, Tanagra and other +sites in Boeotia, and remains +of the “Mycenaean” period at +Mycenae, Argos and elsewhere. +But on the whole painted pottery +is rare in other parts of +the mainland. Among the +western islands of the archipelago, +Aegina and Euboea +have proved fruitful in vases +of all periods; Thera, Melos +and others of the Cyclades are +remarkable for pottery of the +prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all +Crete is now famous for the wondrous series of painted and ornamented +pottery of pre-Mycenacan date, which can be traced back +even to the Neolithic period, and the discovery of which has entirely +revolutionized the preconceived theories on the appearance of +painted pottery in +Greece. This has been +found in the recent excavations +at Cnossus, +Palaeokastro and elsewhere. +In Asia Minor +there have been some +important finds on the +mainland, but only +along the coast; some +of the islands, more +especially Samos and +Rhodes, have been more +fruitful in this respect. +At Kertch and elsewhere +in the Crimea, +large numbers of fine +but somewhat florid +vases of the 5th and +4th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span> have +come to light. Cyprus +has long been known as +a rich field for pottery of all periods, from the Mycenaean onwards, +the later varieties being marked by strong local quasi-oriental +characteristics, with little development from the more primitive +types (figs. 12 and 13). The principal sites are Salamis, Amathus, +Marion (Poli) and Curium. Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two +sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have yielded results of considerable +importance for the history of early Greek vase-painting.</p> + +<p>The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs; +but some important discoveries have been made on the sites of +temples and sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Naucratis. +In such cases the vases are seldom complete, having been +broken up and cast away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments +have remained undisturbed. The tombs vary greatly in form, those +of Greece being usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy +often fine and elaborate chambers with architectural details, and +the manner in which the vases are found in these tombs varies +greatly. Plain unornamented pottery is almost universal, and may +be considered to have formed the “tomb-furniture” proper—the +painted vases being as in daily life merely ornamental adjuncts.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span></p> + +<p><i>Shapes and Uses of Greek Vases</i>.—The enormous number of +painted vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence +of the important part they must have played in the daily life, of the +Greeks, and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows +the high estimation in which they were held. It is, however, remarkable +that, with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its +use in daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical literature +which throw light on the purposes for which these vases were +used. Where any are described at full length there is always evidence +that metal vases are intended. Athenaeus and the lexicographers +have indeed put on record a long list of names of shapes, but +it is only in a few cases that we can be certain what forms they +describe, or whether any of the typical forms of existing vases can be +identified with the literary descriptions.</p> + +<p>We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly, +the uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly, +the classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery +which have come down to us.</p> + +<p>As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been discovered +in tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were +made principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had +their uses in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware +cannot be doubted. They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the +commoner wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us, +being largely ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on +special occasions for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at +banquets or in religious ceremonies.</p> + +<p>Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled +cup in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (<i>Cythera</i>) and +inscribed with the word <span class="grk" title="hêmikotylion">ἡμικοτύλιον</span> or “half-kotyle,” equivalent +to about one-fourth of a pint. Another vase found at Athens is +supposed to represent the official <span class="grk" title="choinix">χοῖνιξ</span> or quart, having a capacity +of 0.96 litre; it is inscribed <span class="grk" title="dêmosion">δημόσιον</span> or “official measure,” and bears +the official stamp of the state. Conversely many names of vases, +such as the <i>amphora</i> or the <i>kotyle</i>, were adopted to indicate measures +of capacity for liquid or dry commodities. Earthenware vessels were +used for storing both liquids and food, for the preparation of foods +and liquids, and for the various uses of the table and the toilet. +That the painted ware was used at banquets or on great occasions +we learn from scenes depicted on the vases themselves, in which +vases painted with subjects appear in use. In connexion with +athletics, they were given as prizes, as in the case of the Panathenaic +<i>amphorae</i>, a class of vases given for victories in the games held at +Athens at the Panathenaic festivals, where, however, they do not +represent prizes so much as marks of honour corresponding to modern +racing cups. Vases were also used as toys for children, as is proved +by the discovery of many diminutive specimens, chiefly jugs, in the +tombs of children at Athens, on which are depicted children playing +at various games. They also served a purely decorative use as +domestic ornaments, being placed on columns or shelves; or, in the +case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the wall. Many of the +later Greek and Italian painted vases are very carelessly decorated +on the one side, which was obviously not intended to be seen.</p> + +<p>We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory, +sacrificial or funerary. Of all these uses, especially the last, there +is ample evidence. That vases were often placed in temples or shrines +as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature of +the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that +painted pottery served the same purpose for those who could only +afford the humbler material. Of late years much light has been +thrown upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis +of Athens, at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta, +where numerous fragments have been found bearing inscriptions +which attest their use for such purposes. It was a well-known +Greek custom to clear out the temples from time to time and form +rubbish-heaps (<i>favissae</i>) of the disused vases and statuettes, which +were broken in pieces as useless, but it is to this very fact that we +owe their preservation. At Naucratis many of the fragments bear +incised inscriptions, such as <span class="grk" title="Apollônos eimi">Άπόλλωνός εἰμι</span>, “I am Apollo’s” +(possibly a memorandum of the priest’s, to mark consecrated +property), or <span class="grk" title="ho deina anethêke tê Aphroditê">ὁ δεῖνά με ἀνέθηκε τῇ Άφροδίτῃ</span>, “So-and-so dedicated +me to Aphrodite.” Fig. 14 gives another example with a dedication +to Apollo. At Penteskouphia, near Corinth, a large series of painted +tablets (<span class="grk" title="pinakes">πίνακες</span>), dating from 600 to 550 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, with representations of +Poseidon and dedicatory inscriptions to that deity, were found in +1879. Votive offerings in this latter form were common at all +periods, and tablets painted with figures and hung on trees or walls +are often depicted on the vases, usually in connexion with scenes +representing sacrifices or offerings.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones) +must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of +the Greeks. We read of them in connexion with the Athenian +festival of the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis. +They were also used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured +cup in the British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to +Dionysus. In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (<i>phiale</i>) +is invariable.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:310px" src="images/img712.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication to Apollo.</td></tr></table> + +<p>But their most important use, and that to which their preservation +is mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies. They were +not only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the +tombs to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the ashes +of the dead or as “tomb-furniture,” in accordance with Greek +religious beliefs in regard to the future life. Several classes of vases +are marked out by their subjects as exclusively devoted to this +purpose, such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at +Athens, which were placed outside the tombs, the white Athenian +<i>lekythoi</i> of the 5th and 4th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and the large <i>krateres</i> and +other vases of the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> found in the tombs of Apulia +and other parts of southern Italy. Their use as cinerary urns was +perhaps more restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases, +though the custom is well known and is referred to in literature +from Homer downwards. In “Mycenaean” times coffers (<span class="grk" title="larnakes">λάρνακες</span>) +of clay were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine +painted examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the +best periods there are but isolated instances.</p> + +<p>The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of +Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of form +was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest nomenclature; +each form has its conventional name appended. These +shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in +which food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids +were mixed or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids +were poured out or food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other +vases for the use of the table or toilet. Thus we have the <i>pithos</i> +and <i>amphora</i> for storing wine, the <i>krater</i> for mixing it, the <i>psykter</i> +for cooling it, the <i>kyathos</i> for ladling it out, and the <i>oinochoe</i> or +<i>prochoos</i> for pouring it out; the <i>hydria</i> was used for fetching water +from the well. The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumerable, +the principal being the <i>kylix</i>, <i>kotyle</i>, <i>kantharos</i>, <i>rhyton</i> (drinking-horn) +and <i>phiale</i> (libation bowl). The <i>pyxis</i> was used by women +at their toilet, and the <i>lekythos</i>, <i>alabastron</i> and <i>askos</i> for oil and +unguents.</p> + +<p><i>Technical Processes</i>.—Though the Greeks succeeded in making +pottery of a very high order from the point of view of form and +decoration, the technical processes remained throughout of the most +elementary—for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the +simplest, and the temperature at which the ware was fired was not +high enough to introduce any serious difficulties. As we should +expect, it is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical +processes in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no +vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative +triumphs on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as +those that satisfied his predecessors. As in every other case technical +and artistic refinement went hand in hand. In the earliest times the +clay was used with very little preparation; at all events before the +introduction of the potter’s wheel the finish is not to be compared +with that of the early races in Egypt. As the practice developed +no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain districts, and +these became centres of manufacture or the clays were carried to +other established centres. The primitive wares usually exhibit the +natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other elementary +pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no gloss. +Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it becomes +finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the glowing orange, +inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> In +the vases of the later Italian centres the colour again reverts to a +paler hue.</p> + +<p>The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of +sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles. It was mixed +with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately +fine clay of two or three grades was obtained. Both red and whitish +clays were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that +mixtures of different clays gave the best results. The clay for the +Athenian vases was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica; and as it +did not burn to a very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (<i>rubrica</i>) was +added to it to produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes +the best vases. Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were +also famous for their clays, and at the first named tablets have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +been found bearing representations of the digging of clay for +pottery.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:795px; height:543px" src="images/img713a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Shapes of Greek Vases.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The improved manipulation of the clays, and the increasing +knowledge that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture +of other substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way +for what is known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This +delicate gloss, so thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called +glaze, but it cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of +finely-ground glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability, +as the Greek potter used finer and finer clays and so was enabled +to perfect his shapes, he found that after a vase had been “thrown” +he could get a closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer +clay material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the +wheel when sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for +such a purpose—of very siliceous clay and ochre—would, when +they were burnt in the Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright +colour, but also to a glossy surface, especially where the flames had +freely played about them; and it is more in accordance with our +knowledge to believe that the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest +Greek red vases was produced in this way, for it seems impossible +that it can have been a coating of any special glaze.</p> + +<p>In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is +always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic +sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of +about 900° C., which a modern potter would consider very low. +When broken the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and +is often yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The +material is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it +(another proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the +material of Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing +of the secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of +these analyses may be summed up as follows: silica, 52-60 parts; +alumina, 13-19 parts; lime, 5-10 parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts; +oxide of iron, 12-19 parts. Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple +red burning clays would give a similar result. It is to the glory of +the Greek potter that with such ordinary materials, by the exercise +of selection, patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results +we see. He did as much as can be done with natural clay materials, +but the glory of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or +Chinese, was not for him.</p> + +<p><i>Manufacture of Vases</i>.—The earliest Greek pottery is, like all +primitive pottery, hand-made. The introduction of the potter’s +wheel into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but +we now know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive +pottery of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, for instance, the +Bronze age tombs of 2500-1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> contain only hand-made pottery, +but in the next period (1500-1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) we find hand-made and coarse +vases side by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery—the +“Mycenaean”—obviously made on the wheel. It seems probable, +therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about +1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion +shows (<i>Il.</i> xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with +the hand, not the foot; representations of its use are seen on several +vases of the archaic period (fig. 16), and they further prove that the +vase was replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of +painting, polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as +for the original shaping or “throwing.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:365px; height:262px" src="images/img713b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Votive tablet from Corinth; a +potter applying painted bands while the vessel +revolves on the wheel.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same +as that still in use, need not be described in detail; the feet, necks, +mouths and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds, +and attached while +the clay was moist, +as is also indicated +on a vase. Large +and coarse vases, +such as wine casks +(<span class="grk" title="pithoi">πίθοι</span>), were always +modelled by hand +on a kind of hooped +mould (<span class="grk" title="kannabos">κάνναβος</span>).</p> + +<p>Parts of vases +were modelled by +hand at all periods +by way of decoration. +Even in the +geometrical period +we find horses +modelled in the +round on the +covers of vases and +later on handles +enriched with moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such +embellishments are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations +of metal forms, but the plastic principle is one which obtained in +Greek pottery from the very first, as for instance in the primitive +pottery of Troy, in which the vases are often modelled in human or +animal forms; and the same principle is involved in the common +practice of speaking of the “neck,” “shoulder” or “foot” of a +vessel. In the best period the practice of adding moulded ornaments +or of modelling vases in natural forms took a subsidiary place, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +examples occur from time to time, as in the beautiful <i>rhyta</i> or +drinking-horns of the red-figure period (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller +details such as are seen in handles enriched with heads in relief, a +favourite practice of the potter Nicosthenes. In the 4th-century +vases of southern Italy the handles are often much ornamented in +this fashion, as in the large <i>krateres</i>, where they are adorned with +masks in relief.</p> + +<p>The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with +designs in relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence +of the art, when imitations of metal were superseding the painted +pottery. Even then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a +mould, except in the case of those in the form of human figures or +animals (Plate II., figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the +heading of terra-cotta figures, except for the fact that they are +usually painted in the manner of the vases. But in southern Italy +the tendency to imitate metal led to the popularity of ornaments +made separately from moulds and attached or let in to vases otherwise +plain. Vases of this period, with reeded bodies, must also have +been made from moulds, as were a series of <i>phialae</i> or libation-bowls +associated with Cales in Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are +known to be direct imitations of metal.</p> + +<p>All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black +glaze or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of +those moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia +with opaque colouring laid on the varnish. Some of these plain black +vases of the 4th century are ornamented with <i>stamped</i> patterns made +with a metal punch impressed in the moist clay. This decoration is +confined to simple patterns.</p> + +<p>After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried +in the sun and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnishing +and painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought +out by a process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed +with a piece of wood or hard leather. On a vase in Berlin a boy is +seen applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably +for this purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has +evidently not been varnished. Many vases are varnished black all +over the exterior (whether decorated with designs or not) with the +exception of the foot and lip.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:210px" src="images/img714a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Model of Kiln found in Essex.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in +the potter’s art. It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-dried +vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have +come down to us have been baked. The amount of heat required +was regulated by the character of the ware, but was not very high. +Many examples exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected +to too much or too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish +or reddish hue. Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an +ashen-grey colour, the black +remaining unimpaired. +Other accidents were liable +to occur in the baking, such +as cracking under too great +heat, or the damaging of the +shape by vases knocking +against one another and so +being dented in or crushed. +The form of the oven was +of the simplest (fig. 17). No +furnaces have been found in +Greece, and only one or two +in Italy, but we have a +variety of evidence from +vase-paintings. They were +fed by fires from beneath, +and the vases were inserted with a long shovel. They were +heated with charcoal or wood fuel, and there are representations +of men poking or raking the fires with long-handled implements. +One vase-painting gives a bird’s-eye view, in horizontal section, of +the interior of an oven full of jugs of various forms. Others have +more complete presentations of potteries, with men engaged in the +different processes of vase manufacture, modelling, painting or +supplying the kilns with newly-made wares.</p> + +<p><i>The Painting of Vases</i>.—We may distinguish three principal +classes of painted pottery, of Which two admit of subdivision.</p> + +<p>1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly + linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush. + The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing + into black. The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse.</p> + +<p>2. Greek vases painted with figures. These may be subdivided as + follows:—</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground.</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of + shining black.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. Vases with polychrome decoration.</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in + various colours on white ground (these range from the + 6th to the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid + over a ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive + period to the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Of these the second group is by far the largest and most important, +including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek +vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the +technical processes by which the most successful results were obtained. +In both the classes (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>) the colouring is almost +confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black.</p> + +<p>This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies +under different circumstances according to differences of locality, +of manufacture or accidents of production. It is seen in its greatest +perfection in the “Nolan” <i>amphorae</i> of the earlier red-figure period, +at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Greek vases. +The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat, +<i>i.e.</i> stoving at a higher or lower temperature. It also varies in +thickness. At present no certainty has been attained as to its +composition—Brongniart’s oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted +—nor has any acid been found to have an effect upon it, though the +chemical action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear.</p> + +<p>The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the +black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the former +which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole vase +being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red to +receive the figures. It is obvious that the transition to merely +leaving the figures red is but a slight one. But in all black-figured +vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black +silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly indicated +by a pointed instrument making a faint line. The surface within +these outlines being filled in with black, details of anatomy, dress, +&c., were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed tool. +After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the +designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple +and white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in +their respective use. After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix +these colours the vase was complete.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:192px; height:264px" src="images/img714b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">(From a photo supplied by the Director of the Sèvres Museum)</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Fragment of unfinished red-figured vase.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background. +But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not +by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their +contours. Recent researches have attempted to show that the +instrument with which this was achieved may have been a feather +brush or pen, by which the lines were drawn separately, not concurrently. +The other tools used for painting would be an ordinary +metal or reed pen and a camel’s-hair brush, or at any rate something +analogous. Thus the outlines of the figures were clearly marked, +and the process is one of drawing rather than painting, but it was +in draughtsmanship that the best vase-painters excelled. The next +stage was to mark the inner details by very fine black lines or by +masses of black for surfaces such as the +hair; white and purple were also employed, +but more sparingly than on the +earlier vases. The main processes always +remain the same down to the termination +of vase-painting, though the tendency to +polychromy, which came in about the end +of the 5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, effected some +modifications. The blacking of the whole +exterior surface—a purely mechanical +process—took place after the figures +had been completed and protected from +accidents by the thick black border of +which we have spoken.</p> + +<p>A fragment of an unfinished vase preserved +in the Sèvres Museum gives a very +clear idea of the process just described, +the figures being completed, but the back +ground not yet applied (fig. 18). There is +also another vase in existence which gives +the interior of a vase-painter’s studio, in +which three artists are at work with their +brushes, their paint-pots by their side.</p> + +<p>In the class of vases (3 (<i>a</i>)), with polychrome figures on a white +ground, the essential feature is the white slip or <i>engobe</i> with which +the naturally pale clay is covered. In the archaic vases of the 7th +and 6th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, especially in the Ionian centres, as at Rhodes, +Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but with this, +difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary black-figure +method, the only additional colour being purple laid on the black. +We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or outline, +in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, +which technically are of a very advanced character. The colours +used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow, +crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were +not fired.</p> + +<p>In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in +the class of <i>lekythoi</i> or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral +uses. Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with +handles, &c., were covered with a coating of white clay. A second +coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration, +and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and +finally fired at a low temperature. The decoration was achieved as +follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines, +ignoring draperies, &c., and not always followed when the colours +were laid on. This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +being applied with a fine brush in monochrome—black, yellow or +red—following the lines of the sketch. For the drapery and other +details polychrome washes were employed, laid on with a large brush. +All varieties of red from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow, +blue, black and green. Hair is treated either in outline or by means +of washes.</p> + +<p>Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (<i>b</i>)) in which +opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with +which the whole vase is coated. This method is met with at three +distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long +distances of time.</p> + +<p>We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where +it seems to have been introduced not long after the close of the +Neolithic period, about 2500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and where it holds its own for about +a thousand years against the contrasted method of “dark on light” +painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of +“Mycenaean” civilization in Crete. The colouring is very varied, +orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed.</p> + +<p>The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a +small class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of +transition between the black-figured and red-figured. White and +orange-red are here employed, sometimes with accessory details in +purple and black and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually +black-figured, though the appearance of the vases is often red-figured. +Lastly, it appears in southern Italy as a final effort of +vase-painting to flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd +century. Some of these vases were made in Campania, where the +method resembles that of the Attic class just described, others in +Apulia, probably at Gnathia. The latter have feeble conventional +decoration in purple and white with details in yellow, confined to one +side of the vases, and are also distinguished by the use of ornaments +in relief. They were also occasionally made in Greece proper.</p> + +<p>Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters, +especially in the best periods. The deep purple used for accessory +details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on +the white <i>lekythoi</i> is an ochre (<span class="grk" title="miltos">μίλτος</span>, <i>rubrica</i>). The white also used +for accessories is an earth or clay; in the slip coating of the white +ground vases it assumes the consistency of pipe-clay. Yellow, +where used for details on the later vases, is an ochre, and blue and +green are produced from artificial compounds containing copper. +A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and green, used by the +polychrome painters, are obviously artificial pigments which have +not been fired. When gilding was employed it was laid on over a +raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool or brush, +and was attached by varnish, not by fire.</p> + +<p><i>Potters and Inscriptions</i>.—The potters who made these vases were +mostly—at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, <span class="sc">b.c.</span>—<span class="grk" title="metoikoi">μἐτοικοι</span>, +or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply. We have an +Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and a +Scythes. The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases +seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities +may be merely due to the use of a vernacular. They formed a gild +or fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less +division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of slaves. +This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing the +interior of potteries. Others again “specialized” in different shapes, +and were known as <span class="grk" title="chutroplathoi">χυτροπλάθοι</span>, <span class="grk" title="lêkuthopoioi">ληκυθοποιοί</span>, and so on.</p> + +<p>Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five +hundred vases. They go back to about 700 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the earliest names +being found on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority +of the signatures are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares. +Some, such as Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are +combined. The best known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs +eighty times. The ordinary forms of signature are four—(1) <span class="grk" title="ho deina +epoiêsen">ὁ δεῖνα ἐποίησεν</span> ; +(2) <span class="grk" title="ho deina hegrapsen ">ὁ δεῖνα ἔγραχεν</span>; +(3) <span class="grk" title="ho deina hegrapse kahi epoiêsen">ὁ δεῖνα ἔγραχε καὶ ἐποίησεν</span>; (4) +A <span class="grk" title="hegrapse">ἔγραψε</span>. B <span class="grk" title="epoiêsen">ἐποίησεν</span>. Where <span class="grk" title="epoiêse">ἐποίησε</span> alone occurs (as in a signature +of Euxitheus), it probably refers to the master of the pottery +who designed the vase and superintended its production; in other +cases the share of the actual artist is clearly indicated. Some +artists, such as Duris and Makron, sign <span class="grk" title="hegrapse">ἔγραψε</span> alone; in all cases, +the form of signature affords us a useful guide to their style.</p> + +<p>Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases, +which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations +uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the <span class="grk" title="kalos">καλός</span> names +discussed below; all these are painted on the designs themselves. +There is also another class of <i>graffiti</i> inscriptions, which includes those +incised by the owners with their names and memoranda scratched +under the foot, probably made by the potter or his workmen relating +to the number of vases in a batch or “set” and their price.</p> + +<p><i>Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares</i>.—In Greek tombs a class of +pottery is often found which approximates, more in appearance to +porcelain, but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porcelain +at all, but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which +it is in point of fact an imitation. It is distinguished by the white +gritty material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and +forming what is sometimes known as “frit” from its semi-vitreous +consistency. The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale +blue or cream colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple +or brown are sometimes found. Some of the earliest examples of +this ware have been found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus, +in the form of vases moulded in the shape of human or animal heads. +These exhibit a remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more +like Greek work of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Apart from the technique +they have nothing in common with the Egyptian importations so +often found in Mycenaean tombs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:141px; height:180px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Enamelled +pottery from tombs in +Rhodes, made under +Egyptian influence.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In a subsequent period (8th-7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) Egyptian objects +in faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those +of Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy, +through the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of +faience occur in the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and +similar vases with a pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs +of the same date. In Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found ornamented +with friezes of men and animals in relief, or imitating in +colour and design the glass vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems +probable that the Greeks of Rhodes and +other centres attempted the imitation of +this ware (see fig. 19), for we find faience +<i>aryballi</i> or globular oil-flasks modelled in +the form of helmeted heads or animals, +which are purely Greek in style.</p> + +<p>In the Hellenistic period the fashion was +revived at Alexandria, and under the +Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled +faience with figures in relief and bearing +the names of reigning sovereigns were +made and exported to the Cyrenaica and +to southern Italy. Two of these are in the +British Museum (Egyptian department). +The same collection includes a very beautiful +glazed vase in the form of Eros riding +on a duck, found in a tomb at Tanagra, +but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a head of a Ptolemaic +queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze.</p> + +<p>Subsequently in the 1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, this so-called porcelain ware +was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly +coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often indicated. +This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus in Asia +Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was +probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not +confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures; +the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal +(Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green +to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different +tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with +figures or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of +these glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and +oxide of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the +green and yellow glazes of medieval Europe.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Historical Account of Greek Vase-painting</span>.—It has been +indicated in the section dealing with technical processes that +Greek vases may be classified under four headings according to +the character of the decoration, and this classification may with a +slight modification be adopted as a chronological one, the history +of the art falling under four main heads, under which it will be +convenient to describe its development from the earliest specimens +of painted pottery down to the period when it was finally +replaced by other methods of decoration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>These four classes and their main characteristics may be summarized +as follows:—</p> + +<p>I. <i>Vases of the Primitive Period</i> from about 2500 or 2000 to 600 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages +of historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated +in polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining +black on a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown +or black (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying +from white to pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked +by its naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the +latter the ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals; +human figures and mythological scenes being very rare.</p> + +<p>II. <i>Black-figured Vases</i> from about 600-500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; figures painted +in shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to +bright orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for +details; subjects mainly from mythology and legend.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:378px" src="images/img716a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80"><i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i>.</span><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Minoan or “Kamares” ware, from Crete.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:215px; height:221px" src="images/img716b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—Primitive black pottery from the Troad.</td></tr></table> + +<p>III. <i>Red-figured Vases</i>, from 520 to 400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; figures drawn in +outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining +black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple +and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are +included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In +these, which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of +vase-painting is reached between 480 and 450 <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p> + +<p>IV. <i>Vases of the Decadence</i>, from 400 to 200 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; mostly from +southern Italy, technique as in Class III., but the drawing is free +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal, +theatrical and fanciful. At the end of this period vases are largely +replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms, +or with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal +vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation +of the Hellenistic world.</p> +</div> + +<p>I. <i>Vases of the Primitive Period</i>.—It has been noted in the +introductory section that it is possible to trace the development +of pottery in Greece as far +back as the Neolithic period, +owing chiefly to the light +recently thrown on the subject +by the excavations in +Crete. These have yielded +large quantities of painted +pottery of high technical +merit, usually with decoration +in polychrome or white on a +dark ground, in what is known +as the Kamares ware, covering +the period 2500-1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +(fig. 20). This was gradually +superseded by painting in dark +shining pigments on a light +glossy ground during the later +Minoan period (1500-1000 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span>), forming what is known +as the “Mycenaean” style. +The subjects, though chiefly +confined to floral ornaments or +aquatic plants and creatures, +are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their treatment, +often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East. +In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread +all over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found +in Greece, especially at Mycenae, in +Rhodes and other Greek islands, and +in Cyprus, where a series of vases +with animals, monsters, and even +human figures shows what is probably +the latest development of the +pure Minoan or Mycenaean style.</p> + +<p>Outside Crete the earliest Greek +pottery has been found in Cyprus +and at Troy, with simple incised or +painted patterns on a black polished +ground, the vases being all hand-made, +and often treated in a plastic +fashion with rude modelling of +human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22); these cover the period +2500-2000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Early painted pottery, parallel with the +Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important +cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos. But until the general spread +of Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second +millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and +successful development can be studied.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:208px" src="images/img716c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—Primitive red pottery from the Troad.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:331px" src="images/img716d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—Vase with bands +of animals, Oriental in style, +(British Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by +the Dorian invasion (1100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) the then decadent Mycenaean +civilization was replaced by a new one much more backward in +development, making pottery of a far simpler and more conventional +type, the decoration being largely confined to geometrical +patterns to the exclusion of motives derived from plant +forms. This is usually known as the geometrical style, and the +pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> It is +found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits +a certain development towards a more advanced stage. The +patterns include the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander, +and the circle, in various combinations, painted in dull black on +a brown ground. In most places the art advanced no further, +but in Boeotia, and still more at Athens, we can trace the gradual +growth of decorative skill, first in +the introduction of animals, and +then in the appearance of the +human figure. In the Athenian +cemetery outside the Dipylon gate +a series of colossal vases has come +to light, on which are painted such +subjects as sea-fights and funeral +processions. The human figures +are exceedingly rude and conventional, +painted almost entirely in +silhouette, but there is a distinct +striving after artistic effect in the +composition and arrangement. In +Boeotia the vases do not advance +beyond the animal stage, and +many exhibit a tendency to decadence +in their carelessness, as +contrasted with the painstaking +helplessness of the Athenian +artists.</p> + +<p>In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the +art of vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean +tradition, and was distinguished by its naturalism and originality, +and by the bold and diverse effects produced by variety of colour +or novelty of subject. The ornamentation is at first elementary, +consisting of friezes of animals, especially lions, deer and goats +(figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand out sharply in black +against the creamy buff ground which is characteristic of nearly +all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out by means of engraved +lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by drawing +parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the clay +ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments +such as rosettes and crosses in great variety of form to cover +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +the background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek +artist abhorred. The system of decoration has been thought to +owe much to Assyrian textile fabrics.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:372px; height:491px" src="images/img716e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles and Hera, +and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.</td></tr></table> + +<p>One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic +pottery is a <i>pinax</i> or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum, +on which is represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over +the body of Euphorbus (fig. 25); their names are inscribed +over the figures, and this is almost the earliest known instance +of a mythological subject, the date of the painting being not later +than 600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> To a slightly later date belongs another remarkable +group of cups with figures on a white ground, probably +made at Cyrene in North Africa. Of these the most famous has +a painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Cyrene from +580 to 550 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, weighing goods for export in a ship. Others have +mythological subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus, +Cadmus and Pelops.</p> + +<p>But these vases, though still retaining the older technique, +really belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases, +and they belong to a time when in all Ionian centres this method +was being superseded by the new technique which Corinth had +introduced and Athens perfected, to the consideration of which +we must return.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:471px" src="images/img717a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.—Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest of +Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For some 150 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry +of pottery on the west of the Aegean. Large numbers of examples +have been found in or near the city itself, many bearing inscriptions +in the peculiar local alphabet. They show a continuous +progress from the simplest ornamentation to fully-developed +black-figured wares. In the earliest (Plate I. fig. 52) oriental +influence is very marked, the surface being so covered with the +figures and patterns that the background disappears and the +designs are at times almost unintelligible. The general effect is +thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely +chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian +art, such as the sphinx and gryphon. The vases are mostly +small, the ground varies from cream to yellow, and the figures +are painted in black and purple.</p> + +<p>Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th +century the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a +unification of styles under the growing influence of Athens. +In Ionia (see above) figure subjects become more common, and +the technique approaches gradually nearer to the black-figure +method. Similarly at Corinth the ground ornaments diminish +and disappear, the friezes of animals are restricted to the borders +of the designs, and human figures are introduced, first singly, +then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged in some definite +action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last stages +Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new development, +traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of +Athens, was the distinguishing of female figures by the use of +white for flesh tints. A somewhat similar development was in +progress at Athens, though represented by comparatively few +vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian and Ionian technical +improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th century the +fully developed black-figure style which by degrees supplanted +or assimilated all other schools.</p> + +<p>II. <i>Black-figured Vases</i>.—At the head of this new development +stands the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi +in 1844 (Plate I. fig. 53). Its shape is that of a <i>krater</i> or mixing-bowl, +and it bears the signatures of its maker and decorator in +the form “Ergotimos made me, Klitias painted me.” It might +be described as a Greek mythology in miniature, with its +numerous subjects and groups of figures all from legendary +sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager, or +the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their +names inscribed.</p> + +<p>The general technique of the black-figured vases has already +been described. It may be noted as a chronological guide that +the use of purple for details is much commoner in the earlier +vases, white in the later, but towards the end of the century +when the new fashion of red figures was gaining ground, both +colours were almost entirely dropped. The drawing of the +figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and conventional, +though it advanced considerably in freedom before the style +went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully and +delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and +affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias +(Plate I. fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication +of date, ranging from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing +lines of angular falling folds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:249px; height:368px" src="images/img717b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—Panathenaic amphora.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters +of this period are the <i>amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe</i> and <i>lekythos,</i> +the first-named being the most popular. A special class of +<i>amphorae</i> is formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given +as prizes in the Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure +of the patron goddess Athena on one side and a representation +of the contest in which they were +won on the other (fig. 26). They +usually bear the inscription <span class="grk" title="tôn +Athênêthen athlôn eimiruv">τῶν Άθηνῆθεν ἄθλων εἰμί</span> “I am +(a prize) from the games at +Athens.” Some of these can be +dated by the names of Athenian +archons which they bear, as late +as the 4th century, the old +method of painting in black +figures with a stiff conventional +pose for the goddess being retained +for religious reasons.</p> + +<p>The chief interest of the black-figured +vases is really derived +from their subjects, which range +over every conceivable field, the +proportion of myth and legend +to scenes from daily life being +much greater than in the succeeding +period. They include +groups of Olympian and other deities, and the various scenes +in which they take part, such as the battle of the gods and giants, +or the birth of Athena (treated in a very conventional manner, +as on a fine <i>amphora</i> in the British Museum); Dionysus and his +attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits of +Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy +and other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life, +battle scenes, athletics, the chase and so on. The same classification +of course holds good for the later periods of vase-painting, +with some exceptions. The proportion of genre-scenes subsequently +becomes greater, and some myths disappear, others rise +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +into prominence, new deities such as Eros (Love), and Nikē +(Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally speaking, the +later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or tendency +to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional stereotyped +compositions of the 6th century artist.</p> + +<p>A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is +that a stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted +at least for the principal figures, but minor variations are generally +to be found, as, for instance, in the number of bystanders; +and it is almost an impossibility to find any two vase-paintings +which are exact duplicates. The form of the composition, was +partly determined by the field available for the design; when +this took the form of a long frieze the space was filled up with a +series of spectators or the repetition of typical groups, but when +the design is on a framed panel or confined by ornamental borders +the method of treatment is adapted from that of a sculptured +metope, and the figures limited to two or three. In many cases +it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether or +no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological +types are over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary +life, even to the divine attributes or poses of certain figures.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:848px; height:274px" src="images/img718.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Vase by Andocides. Black figures on obverse.</td> +<td class="caption">Vase by Andocides. Red figures on reverse.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the artists of the period who have left their names on +the vases, besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous +is Nicosthenes, a potter of some originality, from whose hand +we have over seventy examples, a few being in the red-figure +method. He is supposed to have introduced at Athens a revival +of the Ionic fashion of painting on a cream-coloured ground +instead of on red, of which some very effective examples have +been preserved. He was always a potter rather than a painter, +and most of his vases are remarkable for their forms—introducing +plastic imitations of metal vases—rather than for their +painted decoration. Most of the artists of this period, as in the +succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (<i>kylikes</i>), but +this form did not receive so much attention from the painter +as at a later period, and many of these examples bear only +inscriptions and no painted decoration.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Red-figured Vases.</i>—The sudden reversal of technical +method involved in the change from black figures on a red ground +to red figures on black is not at first sight easy of explanation. +Some artists, like Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods, +sometimes on the same vase, and there is no doubt that the two +went on for some years concurrently. As, however, no intermediate +stage is possible, there is no question of development or +transition. The new style was in fact a bold and ingenious +innovation. It may possibly have been suggested by a small +class of vases in which the figures are painted in the black-figure +<i>method</i>, but have the converse appearance, that is to say they are +painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black. +It may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could +obtain the same effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted +on the red clay and surrounding them with the black. The +change, must, however, be closely associated with the career of +the artist Andocides, who not only produced vases in each +method, but also several in which the two are combined (fig. 27). +In two or three cases the subject is actually the same on each +side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the colouring +is reversed.</p> + +<p>The date at which the change took place was formerly placed +well on in the 5th century, on account of the great advance in +drawing which most of the red-figured vases show, as compared +with the black. They were thus regarded as contemporary +with the painter Polygnotus, if not with Pheidias. But the +excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many fragments +in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier +than 480 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, that it has become necessary to find an earlier +date for its appearance. This is now usually placed at about +520 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, overlapping with the preceding period.</p> + +<p>The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking +the chief stages of development, and known respectively as the +“severe,” “strong,” “fine,” and “late fine” periods. Their +principal characteristics and representative painters may be +briefly enumerated.</p> + +<p>In the <i>severe</i> period there is no marked advance on the black-figured +vases as regards style. The figures are still more or less +stiff and conventional, and some vases even show signs of an +analogous decadence. The real development is partly technical, +partly in the introduction of new subjects. Although the change +of style probably had its actual origin in the <i>amphora</i>, as treated +by Andocides, the new developments are best seen in the <i>kylix</i>, +a form of vase which now sprang into popularity and called +forth the chief efforts of the principal artists. Its curved surface +gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and decorative +arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their attention +to perfecting it as a work of decorative art. For other shapes, +such as the <i>hydria</i>, and <i>lekythos</i>, the old method was for a time +preferred.</p> + +<p>The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other +famous cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias. +The earliest cups are decorated in a quite simple fashion like +those of the black-figure period, often with a single figure each +side between two large “symbolical” eyes, and a single figure +in a circle in the interior. To the latter the artist at first devoted +his chief efforts, though even here his scope was at first limited. +But although he had not yet attained to skill in composition, +he did discover that the circular space was well adapted for +exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a draughtsman and +for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived attitudes. In all +cases the object was to fill the space as far as possible, a characteristic +of all the best Greek art. By degrees more attention +was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single figures +were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form +of friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the +end of this period. Epictetus was throughout his career a +thoroughly “archaic” artist, but a considerable advance was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +made by Cachrylion, who stands on the verge of the succeeding +stage.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:720px; height:572px" src="images/img719a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.—Cup by Euphronius.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>strong</i> period centres round the name of Euphronius, the +author of a really great artistic movement. His capacity for +inventing new subjects or new +poses—or otherwise overcoming +technical and artistic difficulties—marks +a great advance on all +previous achievements, and he +seems to represent the stage of +development traditionally associated +with the painter Cimon of +Cleonae, the inventor +of foreshortening +and other +novelties. Thus +figures were no +longer represented +exclusively in profile, +as in the black-figured +vases which +had made no advance +beyond the +conventions of +Egyptian art. Ten vases signed +by him are in existence (though +it is not certain that all were +actually painted by him), most +of them having mythological subjects +(fig. 28).</p> + +<p>Of his contemporaries, Duris, +Hieron and Brygus take foremost +rank, all three being, like Euphronius, +essentially cup-painters, +though they use other forms at +times. For decorative effect and beauty of composition their +vases have never been surpassed. As an example we may quote +a <i>kotyle</i> or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with +a group of Eleusinian deities. +The larger vases of this period +are more rarely signed, but many +of them rival the cups in execution, +though the subjects are +characterized by greater simplicity +and largeness of style.</p> + +<p>In <i>the fine</i> style (460-440 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) +breadth of effect and dignity are +aimed at, and although cup-painting +had passed its zenith, +and signed specimens become +rarer, yet, considering the red-figured +vases as a whole, this +period exhibits the perfection +of technique and drawing. In +many of the larger vases the +scenes are of a pictorial character, +landscape being introduced, +with figures ranged at +different levels, and herein we +may see a reflection of the style +of the painter Polygnotus. One +of the finest cups in this style is +in the Berlin Museum, it is signed +by the artists Erginus and Aristophanes, +and the subject is the +battle of the gods and giants. +To the end of the period belongs +a beautiful <i>hydria</i> in the British +Museum by the painter Meidias +with subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29). +Generally speaking, there is a reaction in favour of mythological +subjects.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:569px" src="images/img719b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.—Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the <i>late fine</i> style, which begins about 440 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the pictorial +effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the compositions +deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once over-refined +and careless. The figures are crowded together without +meaning or interest. The fashion +also arose of enhancing the designs +by means of accessory +colours—almost unknown in the +previous stages—such as white +laid on in masses, blue and green, +and even with gilding. Athletic +and mythological subjects yield +place to scenes from +the life of women +and children or +meaningless groups +of figures (fig. 30).</p> + +<p>A good example +of this style is +an <i>amphora</i> from +Rhodes with the +subject of Peleus +wooing Thetis, in +which polychrome +colouring and gilding are introduced. +There are also many +imposing and elaborate specimens +found (and perhaps made) +in the colonies of the Crimea and +the Cyrenaica; in particular one +signed by Xenophantus with the +Persian king hunting, and another +representing the contest of +Athena and Poseidon for the soil +of Attica, both from the Crimea.</p> + +<p>Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the +figures are painted on a white slip or <i>engobe</i> resembling pipe-clay, +with which the whole surface was covered; the figures are +drawn in outline in red or black, +and partly filled in with washes +of colour, chiefly red, purplish +red, or brown, but sometimes +also with blue or green. This +style seems to have been popular +about the middle of the 5th +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> and was employed +for the funeral <i>lekythoi</i> which +came into fashion at Athens +about that time. These vases, +which form a class by themselves, +were made specially for +funeral ceremonies and were +painted with subjects relating to +the tomb, such as the laying-out +of the corpse on the bier, the +ferrying of the dead over the +Styx by Charon, or (most frequently) +mourners bringing offerings +to the tomb (fig. 31). They +continued to be made well on +into the 4th century, but the +later examples are very degenerate +and careless.</p> + +<p>Of other forms, especially the +<i>kylix</i> and the <i>pyxis</i> (toilet-box), +some exceedingly beautiful specimens +have come down to us, +which show a delicacy of drawing +and firmness of touch never +surpassed, although the lines were probably only drawn with a +brush. The technique of these vases may reflect the methods of +the painter Polygnotus and his contemporaries, who used a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +limited number of colours on a white ground. Among them no +finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum with +Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown +outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and +refinement.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:330px" src="images/img720a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.—Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis, showing +painted vases used to decorate a lady’s room. On the left is a gilt +pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right +two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated +with painted figures, and contain flowers.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:161px; height:528px" src="images/img720b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.—Funeral +lekythos showing +vases placed inside +tomb.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same +variety of choice as on the black-figured, but on the other +hand there is infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The +stereotyped form of composition is almost entirely discarded, +and each painter forms his own conception of his subject. The +class of slim <i>amphorae</i>, known as “Nolan” +from the place where they were mostly +found, are distinguished by having the +design limited to one or at most two +figures on each side, often on a large +scale; these vases are also famous for +the marvellous brilliance of their shining +black (fig. 32).</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the 5th century +the patriotism of the Athenian artist finds +expression in the growing importance +which he attaches to local legends, especially +those of Theseus, the typical Attic +hero. He seems to have been regarded +as the typical Athenian athlete or +<i>ephebus</i>, and his contests as analogous to +episodes of the gymnasium. Hence the +grouping on some vases of scenes from +his labours are like so many groups of +athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general +tendency of the red-figured vases, especially +the cups, to become a sort of +glorification of the Attic <i>ephebus</i>, the +representations of whom in all sorts of +occupations are out of all proportion to +other subjects.</p> + +<p>We find evidence of this, too, in another +form. Many vases, especially the cups of +the “severe” and “strong” periods, bear +names of persons inscribed on the designs +with the word <span class="grk" title="kalos">καλός</span>, “fair” or “noble,” +attached; sometimes merely, “the boy is fair.” The exact +meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evidence +seems to show that the persons celebrated must have +been quite young at the time, and were probably youths famous +for their beauty or athletic prowess. Some of the names are +those of historical characters, such as Hipparchus, Miltiades +or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be identified +with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been +obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases, +Further, the practice of the vase-painter of adopting his own +particular favourite name or set of names has enabled us to +increase our knowledge of the characteristics of individual +artists by identifying unsigned vases with the work of particular +schools.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:355px; height:498px" src="images/img720c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.—“Nolan” amphora by Euxitheus +(c. 450 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), figure of Briseis; the other side +has Achilles.</td></tr></table> + +<p>IV. <i>Vases of the Decadence</i>.—For all practical purposes the +red-figure style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the +city in 404 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Painted vases did not then altogether cease to +be made, as the Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral <i>lekythoi</i> +testify, but at the same time a rapid decadence set in. The +whole tendency of the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> in Greece was one of +decentralization, and the art of vase-painting was no exception, +for we find that there must have been a general migration of +craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and to North +Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief +centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and +flourishing Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Tarentum, +Paestum and Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an +addition to their many luxuries. In the character of the vases +of this period we +see their tendencies +reflected, +especially in their +splendid or showy +aspect; the only +aim being size and +gaudy colouring.</p> + +<p>The general +method of painting +remains that +of the Athenian +red-figure vases, +but with entire +loss of simplicity +or refinement, +either in the ornamentation, +the +choice of colours, +or the drawing of +the figures. Large +masses of white +are invariably employed, +especially +for the flesh of +women or of Eros, +the universally +present god of +Love, and for +architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair +or features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-purple +uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have +subjects, are devoid of all accessory colouring, and the figures +are drawn with the greatest carelessness, as if not intended to be +seen. There is throughout a lavish use of ornamental patterns +such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves, or ornaments strewn over +the field (a reversion to an old practice).</p> + +<p>The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the +opposite extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often +effeminate. The fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of +the figures and the frequent architectural settings seem to +indicate that theatrical representations exercised much influence +on the vase-painters. The great painters of the 4th century may +also have contributed their share of inspiration, but rather +perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to style; though +the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly pictorial, +they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic +themes.</p> + +<p>The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as +comedy plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others +indirectly, from the plays of Euripides, such as the <i>Medea</i>, +<i>Hecuba</i> (Plate II. fig. 60), or <i>Hercules Furens</i>, and the arrangement +of the scenes is essentially theatrical. The influence of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +comedy is seen in subjects derived from the <i>phlyakes</i>, a kind of +farce or burlesque popular in southern Italy, and here again +the setting is adapted from the stage, some vases having parodies +of myths, others comic scenes of daily life.</p> + +<p>Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were +expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear +representations of the underworld, with groups of figures undergoing +punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted—sometimes +containing effigies of the deceased, at which the +relatives make offerings—as on the Athenian <i>lekythoi</i>. But by +far the greater portion of the subjects are taken from daily life, +many of these being of a purely fanciful and meaningless character +like the designs on Sèvres or Meissen china; the commonest +type is that of a young man and a woman exchanging presents, +the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes of courtship.</p> + +<p>The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four +different types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania, +Campania and Apulia, each +with its special features of +technique, drawing and subjects. +In Lucanian vases the +drawing is bold and restrained, +more akin to that of the Attic +vases; in Campania a fondness +for polychromy is combined +with careless execution. +In Apulia +a tendency to magnificence +exemplified +in the great +funeral and theatrical +vases is followed +by a period +of decadence characterized +by small +vases of fantastic +form with purely +decorative subjects. +Besides these we have +the school of Paestum, represented +by two artists who +have left their names on their +vases, Assteas and Python. +A well-known example of the +work of the former is a <i>krater</i> in +Madrid with Heracles destroying +his children, a theatrical +and quasi-grotesque composition, +and there is a fine example of Python’s work in a <i>krater</i> +in the British Museum, with Alkmena, the mother of Heracles, +placed on the funeral pyre by her husband Amphitryon, and +rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig. 55).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:716px; height:570px" src="images/img721.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.—Cup with exploits of Theseus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>About the end of the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> the manufacture of +painted vases would seem to have been rapidly dying out in +Italy, as had long been the case elsewhere, and their place is +taken by unpainted vases modelled in the form of animals and +human figures, or ornamented with stamped and moulded reliefs. +These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and so-called +“Samian” red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we +see a tendency to the imitation of metal vases, which, with the +growth of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced +painted pottery both for use and ornament; the pottery of the +period is reduced to a subordinate and utilitarian position, merely +supplying the demands of those in the humbler spheres of life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt1"><i>Collections</i>.—The majority of the painted vases now in existence +are to be found in the various public museums and collections of +Europe, of which the largest and most important are the British +Museum, the Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come +the collections at Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and +St Petersburg; isolated specimens of importance are to be found +in other museums, as at Florence, Madrid or the Bibliothèque +Nationale at Paris. Most of the great private collections of the two +preceding centuries have now been dispersed. In recent years the +Boston Museum has raised America to a level with Europe in this +respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New York contains a +vast collection of Cypriote pottery.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Important original articles are to be found in +various archaeological journals such as <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> +(1885, &c); <i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i> (1894, &c.); +<i>Athenische Mitteilungen</i> (1876, &c.); <i>Bulletin de correspondance +hellénique</i> (1877, &c.); <i>Comptes rendus de la commission impériale +archéologique</i> (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); <i>Gazette archéologique</i> +(Paris, 1875-1889); <i>Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen archäologischen +Instituts, Berlin</i> (1886, &c.); <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> +(1880, &c.); <i>Monumenti antichi</i> (Milan, 1890, &c.); <i>Monuments +grecs</i> (Paris, 1872-1898); <i>Monuments Piot</i> (Paris, 1894, &c.); +<i>Revue archéologique</i> (Paris, 1844, &c.). The older works have been +recently superseded by important publications embodying the latest +views such as Hartwig, <i>Die griechischen Meisterschalen des strengen +rotfigurigen Stils</i> (1893); Louvre, <i>Catalogue des vases antiques de +terre cuite</i>, by E. Pottier (1896, &c.); S. Reinach, <i>Répertoire des vases +peints</i> (Paris, 1899-1900); H. B. Walters, <i>History of Ancient Pottery</i> +(Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with an excellent bibliographical +list; also art. “Hischylos” in <i>J.H.S.</i> xxix. (1909) p. 103.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Etruscan Pottery</span>.—Parallel +with the development of +the art of pottery in Greece runs +the course of the art in Etruria, +though with far inferior results; +in its later stages it is actually +no more than a feeble imitation +of the Greek. The period of +time which we must +consider extends +from the Bronze +age (1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> or +earlier) down to +the 3rd century +<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when Etruscan +civilization +was merged into +Roman.</p> + +<p>The earliest civilization +traced in +Italy is not, strictly +speaking, Etruscan, but may +perhaps be more accurately +styled “Umbrian.” It is +usually referred to as the +“Terramare” period from the +remains discovered in that district +in the basin of the +Po. These people were lake-dwellers, +barely removed from +the Neolithic stage of culture, +and their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and +roughly baked. Cups and pots have been found sometimes +with simple decoration in the form of knobs or bosses, and +many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a support for +the thumb.</p> + +<p>The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as +“Etruscan,” is known as the “Villanova” period, from a site +of that name near Bologna, or as the period of pit-tombs (<i>a +pozzo</i>), from the form of the graves in which the pottery has been +found (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villanova</a></span>). It begins with the 9th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs usually +contain large cinerary urns or <i>ossuaria</i> (containing the ashes of +the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic +clay known as <i>impasto Italico</i>. These vessels were irregularly +baked in an open fire, and the colour of the surface varies from +red-brown to greyish black. They appear to have been covered +with a polished slip, intended to give the vases a metallic appearance. +The shape of the urns is peculiar, but uniform; they have +a small handle at the widest part and a cover in the form of an +inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig. 63). Their ornamentation +consists of incised or stamped geometrical ornaments formed +in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body; more +rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery +is also found showing little advance on that of the Terramare +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +period except in variety of decoration. The technique and +ornament are the same as in the case of the urns. They correspond +in development, though not in date, to the early pottery +of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive pottery of other +races, but one marked difference is the general fondness of the +Italian potter for vases with handles.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (<i>tuguria</i>), +though these are more often found in the neighbourhood of +Rome. One of the best examples is in the British Museum; it +still contains ashes which were inserted through a little door +secured by a cord passing through rings. The ornamentation +suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the cover or roof +being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams. The +surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted +with patterns in white.</p> + +<p>In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs, +the pit being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known +as the “trench-tomb” or <i>a fossa</i> period, and extends from the +8th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of +Greek pottery now first make their appearance. The character +of the local pottery actually remains for some time the same as +that of the preceding period, but it improves in technique. By +degrees an improvement in the forms is also noted, and new +varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is, however, +no evidence that the wheel was used.</p> + +<p>Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri +(Caere) belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars +(<span class="grk" title="pithoi">πίθοι</span>) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while +the upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or +friezes. These designs were either produced from single stamps +or rolled out from cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The +subjects are usually quasi-oriental in character, and it is not +certain that this ware was made in Etruria, especially as similar +vases have been found in Rhodes and Sicily; either it was +imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek models.</p> + +<p>The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature +of the clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in +white outlines on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of +<i>impasto Italico</i>, was first hardened by baking, and then a mixture +of wax, resin and iron oxide was applied and polished; on this +the pigments, a mixture of chalk and earth, were laid. The +subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least Greek in +character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the drawing +is crude and un-Greek in the extreme.</p> + +<p>The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third; +but the difference is defined firstly by the appearance of a new +type of tomb in the form of a chamber (<i>a camera</i>), secondly, by +the all-pervading influence of oriental art, and to a less extent +of that of the Greeks. The period extends from about 650 to +550 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and is further marked by the general introduction of +the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance of inscriptions in +an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the earlier tombs +the typical local pottery is of hand-made <i>impasto Italico</i> resembling +that of the previous periods; in the later we find what is +known as <i>bucchero</i> ware—the national pottery of Etruria—which +is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked +tendency to imitate metal.</p> + +<p>To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or +Grotto d’lside at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the +British Museum and include some remarkable specimens of +pottery. It dates from about 620-610 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The most remarkable +of the vases is a <i>hydria</i>, of reddish-brown clay covered with a +lustrous black slip on which have been painted designs in red, +blue and a yellowish white. The colours have unfortunately now +almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had been fired. The +principal subject is from the story of Theseus and Ariadne. This +tomb also contained a large wheel-made <i>pithos</i> of red <i>impasto</i> +ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the Regulini-Galassi +tomb at Cervetri (about 650 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) large cauldrons of red +glossy ware were found, with gryphons’ heads projecting all +round, to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from +Falerii on a high open-work stand is now in the British Museum.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:249px; height:459px" src="images/img722.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.—Etruscan oinochoe, of +black bucchero ware, with figures +in relief. (British Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>We now come to the <i>bucchero</i> ware, which is characteristic of +the later portion of this period, though the earliest examples go +back to the end of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black +paste of which it is composed, covered with a more or less shining +black slip. Modern experiments seem to indicate that the clay +was smoked or fumigated in a closed chamber after baking, +becoming thereby blackened throughout, and the surface was then +polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware have proved +that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired. The +oldest <i>bucchero</i> vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with +incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like +metal-work. Oriental influence then appears in a series of +chalice-shaped cups found at Cervetri with friezes of animals. +From about 560 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> onwards the vases are all wheel-made, with +ornaments in relief either stamped from a cylinder or composed of +separate medallions attached to the vase. The subjects range +from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants making +offerings (fig. 34); in other cases we find meaningless groups of +figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern +Etruria, but at Chiusi (<i>Clusium</i>) +a more elaborate variety found +favour from about 500 to 300 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span> The shapes are very varied +and the ornament covers the +vase from top to bottom, the +covers of the vases being also +frequently modelled in various +forms. The figures are stamped +from moulds, incised designs +being added to fill up the spaces. +The range of subjects is much +widened, including scenes from +Greek mythology and oriental +types combining Egyptian and +Assyrian motives, which must +have been introduced by the +Phoenicians.</p> + +<p>Thus the technique of the +<i>bucchero</i> wares is purely native, +but the decoration is entirely +dependent on foreign types +whether Greek or oriental, and +throughout the whole series the +tendency to imitate metal-work +is to be observed in every detail, +both in the forms and in the +methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing +work in bronze.</p> + +<p>The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for +notice is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the +<span class="grk" title="kanôpoi">κάνωποι</span> in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their +mummies. They are rude representations of the human figure, +the head forming the cover, and in the tombs were placed on +round chairs of wood, bronze or terra-cotta. An example of such +a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be seen in the Etruscan Room +of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65). Their origin has been +traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest Etruscan tombs. +From these a gradual transition may be observed from the mask +(1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head +modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at +last the complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are +found in the “pit-tombs” of the 8th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and the latest +and most developed types belong to the 5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p> + +<p>The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-engraving +never extended to their pottery, which is always purely +imitative, especially when they attempted painted vases after +the Greek fashion. The kinds already described are all more or +less plastic in character and imitative of metal, except in the case +of the Cervetri and Polledrara finds, which have little in common +with anything Greek, and exhibit a quite undeveloped art. But +towards the end of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when Greek vases were +coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were made to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular class of +Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most +museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from +peculiarities of style, drawing and subject, as well as their +inferior technique (fig. 35).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:238px" src="images/img723.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.—Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting scene +of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.</td></tr></table> + +<p>At a later date (4th-3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) they began to copy red-figured +vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the +exception of a small class of a somewhat ambitious character +made at Falerii (Civita Castellana), of which there is a good +example in the British Museum with the subject of the infant +Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all marked by their +inferior material and finish and their bizarre decoration. The +style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as ineffective, +and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are generally +introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in the +Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate +into barbarism.</p> + +<p>Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the +extreme south of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous +races of the Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is +partly geometrical, partly in conventional plant forms, and is +the result of natural development rather than of imitation of +Greek types. Some of the shapes are characteristic, especially +a large four-handled <i>krater</i>. They cover the period 600-450 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, after which they were ousted by the Graeco-Italian productions +we have already described.</p> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Roman Pottery</span>.—Roman vases are far inferior to Greek; +the shapes are less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes +not without merits of its own, owes most of its success to the +imitation or adaptation of motives learnt from earlier Grecian, +Egyptian or Syrian potters. They required only the skill of +the potter for their completion, and, being made by processes +largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower scale of artistic +production.</p> + +<p>It has been noted that during a certain period—namely, the +3rd and 2nd centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>—ceramic art had reached the same +stage of evolution all round the Mediterranean, painted pottery +had been ousted by metal-work, and such vases as continued to +be made were practically imitations of metal both in Greece and +Italy. These latter we must regard as representing ordinary +household pottery, or as supplying to those who could not afford +to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in metal, +a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta +bowl of the 2nd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> in the British Museum which is +an exact replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same +collection, and may serve as an illustration of this condition of +things (Plate II. fig. 56).</p> + +<p>These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy, +a district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria, +and we have already seen that the same principle had long been +in vogue among the Etruscans. Hence it is not surprising that +an important centre of pottery manufacture should have sprung +up in Etruria, in the and century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, which for many years set +the fashion to the whole Roman world. But before discussing +such products it may be as well to say something on the technical +character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Technical Processes</i>.—Roman pottery regarded in its purely technical +aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek, +chiefly owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters’ apparatus +in western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which +only the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far +the greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull +earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red +shining wares, usually known to archaeologists as <i>terra sigillata</i>, +clay suited to receive stamps (<i>sigilla</i>) or impressions.</p> + +<p>For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in +different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to grey, +drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in quality; +most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from the +ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at St-Remy-en-Rollat +and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In Italy we find +a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being devoted to its +preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration and style +there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the Italian +and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is often +very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured where +they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of +manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have +been common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain +and Germany, and perhaps even to Britain.</p> + +<p>The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has +been a much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the +excavator of the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming +that it was a natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing +of the surface, by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now +generally agreed that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman +lamps and many of the commoner wares have a gloss produced by +polishing only, varying in colour and brightness with the proportion +of iron oxide in the clay and the degree of heat at which the pieces +were fired. But the surface finish of the finer or <i>terra sigillata</i> wares +is something quite distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully +uniform perfection.</p> + +<p>It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman +world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it +does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant +glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to leave +no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated attempts +have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but +chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that +it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body +than glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface +polish or than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have +to wait for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at +once a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. Whatever +its nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze +itself was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour +of the clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the +quality of red coral.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes +as the Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of +abnormal size, such as the large casks (<i>dolia</i>), which were built up +on a frame. Specimens of potters’ wheels have been found at +Arezzo and Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for +the pivot, and bearing small cylinders of lead round the circumference +to give a purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum +of the wheel. For the ornamental vases with reliefs an additional +process was necessary, and the decoration was in nearly all cases +produced from moulds. The process in this case was a threefold +one: first the stamps had to be made bearing the designs; these +were then pressed upon the inside of a clay mould which had been +previously made on the wheel to the size and shape required; +finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the vase was thus +produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare occurrence in +Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete, requiring +only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in various +materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64). The +moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired +when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in +clay. Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III. +fig. 61), and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo. +Those discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable +evidence as to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their +presence obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of +this evidence is increased when they bear potters’ names.</p> + +<p>Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> are very numerous +in western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are +at Lezoux near Clermont, at Châtelet in Haute-Marne, and near +Agen in Lot-el-Gäronne. In Germany good remains have come +to light at Heiligenberg in Baden, al Heddernheim near Frankfort, +Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In +England the best kilns are those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at +Castor in Northamptonshire (see fig. 4).</p> + +<p><i>Shapes</i>.—As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same difficulties +as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They may, +however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing +liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on. +In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of +archaic and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in +sacrifices.</p> + +<p>The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were:—The +<i>dolium</i>, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the <i>amphora</i>, a jar +holding about six gallons; and the <i>cadus</i>, a jar about half as large +as the <i>amphora</i>. The <i>dolium</i> had no foot, and was usually buried +in the earth; it was also used for purposes of burial. The <i>amphora</i> +corresponds to the Greek wine-jar of that name, and had, like its +prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii +stamped with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. <i>Od.</i> in. 21. I), or with +painted inscriptions relating to their contents. The <i>cadus</i> is mentioned +by Horace and Martial.</p> + +<p>Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and +flasks, the principal were the <i>urceus</i>, answering to the Greek <span class="grk" title="oinochoê">οἰνοχόη</span>, +the <i>ampulla</i>, a kind of flask with globular body, and the <i>lagena</i>, a +narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups the Romans had +almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great majority of the +ornamented vases preserved to the present day were devoted to this +purpose. The generic name for a cup was <i>poculum</i>, but the Romans +borrowed many of the Greek names, such as <i>cantharus</i> and <i>scyphus</i>. +The <i>calix</i> appears to have answered in popularity, though not in +form, to the Greek <i>kylix</i>, and is probably the name by which the +ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are +<i>lanx</i>, <i>patina</i> and <i>catinum</i>. Another common form is the <i>olla</i> (Greek +<span class="grk" title="chutra">χύτρα</span>), which served many purposes, being used for a cooking-pot, +for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn. The +form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or elliptical +body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases the +principal was the <i>patera</i> or libation-bowl, corresponding to the +Greek <span class="grk" title="phialê">φιάλη</span>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Arretine Ware</i>.—The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny, +mention numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere, +which were famous for the production of pottery in Roman times. +Pliny mentions with special commendation the “Samian Ware,” +the reputation of which, he says, was maintained by Arretium +(Arezzo). Samian pottery is also alluded to by other writers, +and hence the term was adopted in modern times as descriptive +of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs, whether found in +Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only accepted +with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840 +discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases +found there as a local product, now known as “Arretine” ware. +The name “Samian” has, however, adhered to the provincial +wares and at the present day is often used even by archaeologists. +But recent researches have shown that nearly all the provincial +wares can be traced to Gaulish or German potteries, and, since +it is implied by Pliny that “Samian” pottery is older than +“Arretine,” the name may now be fairly rejected altogether, +as we have rejected the name “Etruscan” for Greek pottery. +The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak +of “china,” and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later +Greek pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p> + +<p>There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery +centres in Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere, +as well as at Saguntum in Spain, but all were surpassed in +excellence by Arretium. In more modern times its pottery came +under notice even in the middle ages, and discoveries were made +in the time of Leo X (about 1500) and again in the 18th century. +The Arretine ware may be regarded as <i>the</i> Roman pottery <i>par +excellence</i>, and its popularity extended from about 150 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> down +to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height +in the 1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, after which it rapidly degenerated, and +its place was taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general +characteristics may be summed up as follows:—(1) The fine local +red clay, carefully levigated and baked very hard to a rich coral +red or a colour like sealing-wax; (2) the fine red glaze, which +has already been discussed; (3) the great variety of forms +employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work; (4) +the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters’ names. +The majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself, +but there was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing +pottery almost equal in merit, and it was also exported to central +and eastern Europe and Spain.</p> + +<p>The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red +appears to have been introduced by 100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when the first +potters’ stamps appear. These are usually quadrangular in +form, though other shapes are found, and are impressed in the +midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or on plain wares +on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters’ names +is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific +than others, and to have employed a large number of slaves, +whose names appear with their masters’ on the stamps. The +best known is Marcus Perennius, whose wares take highest rank +for their artistic merit, the designs being copied from good Greek +models. He employed seventeen slaves, of whom the best known +is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing as M·PEREN and +TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his finest +vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of +Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures +were designed by the masters, but that the vases were actually +moulded by the slaves. Other important artists are Calidius +Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P. Cornelius, who had no less +than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself A·TITI·FIGVL·ARRET; +the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus, +a degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish +wares.</p> + +<p>The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed +from metal shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37, +Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11). They are mostly of small size and devoid of +handles, but a notable exception is a bell-shaped <i>krater</i> or mixing-bowl, +of which there is a very fine example in the British Museum, +found at Capua and decorated with the four seasons (Plate +III. fig. 62). For the decoration and subjects the potters +undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the “new-Attic” reliefs +of the Hellenistic period, of which the <i>krater</i> just cited is +an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing maenads +or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes +which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others +again are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament, +figures when they occur being merely decorative. There is +throughout a remarkable variety both in the ornamentation +and in the methods of composition.</p> + +<p><i>Provincial Wares</i>.—The Arretine ware, as has been noted, +steadily degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and +the manufacture of ornamental pottery appears to have entirely +died out in Italy by the time of Trajan. Its place was taken by +the pottery of the provinces, especially by that of Gaul, where the +transference of artistic traditions led to the rise of new industrial +centres in the country bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine.</p> + +<p>As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is, +of the ornamented wares or <i>terra sigillata</i>, the clay is fine and +close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows +a light red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a +brighter yet darker red colour (<i>i.e.</i> less like coral) than that of +Arretine ware, but the tone varies with the degree of heat used. +The most important feature is the fine glaze with which it is +coated, similar in composition to that of the Arretine; it is +exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid equally over the +whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of the clay. +The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware, by +which, however, it is indirectly inspired.</p> + +<p>The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various +types of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are +preferred almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently +bear the stamp of the potter impressed on the inside or outside. +Although this ware is found all over the Roman world, by far +the greater portion comes from Gaul, Germany or Britain, and +evidence points to two—and only two—districts as the principal +centres of manufacture: the valleys of the Loire and the Rhine +and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> +Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and isolated +finds of it occur in Spain and other parts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:332px; height:191px" src="images/img725a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.—Bowl of Gaulish ware, with +moulded patterns in slight relief.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. Déchelette +have shown that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be +clearly traced, both in the shapes employed and in the method of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +decoration; and, further, that it is possible—at least as regards +Gaul—to associate certain potters’ names and certain types of +figures, though found in many places, with two centres in particular, +Graufesenque near Rodez (department of Aveyron) in +the district occupied by the Ruteni, and Lezoux near Clermont +(department of Puy-de-Dôme) in the country of the Arverni. +The periods during +which these potteries +flourished are consecutive, +or rather +overlapping, but not +contemporaneous, +the former being +practically coincident +with the 1st +century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, the +latter with the 2nd +and 3rd down to +about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 260, when +the manufacture of <i>terra sigillata</i> practically came to an end in +Gaul.</p> + +<p>There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a +transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north +of Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, <i>e.g.</i> St Remy-en-Rollat, +and others of later date, as at Banassac and Montans in +the latter district, but none of these produced pottery of special +merit or importance. The early Rhenish wares are, strictly +speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic character, while the later +German <i>terra sigillata</i>, for which the principal centres were +Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in Bavaria, are of +similar character but inferior to the 2nd-century pottery of +Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV. +fig. 66.</p> + +<p>The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we +have said, almost confined to two or three varieties, which +follow one another chronologically. A shape favoured at first is +the <i>krater</i>, which has been mentioned as one of the characteristic +Arretine forms; but this enjoyed but a short term of popularity. +Early in the 1st century we find a typical form of bowl in use, +which, following the numeration of Dr Dragendorff’s treatise, +is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is characterized by its +moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings, and by the +division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes for +the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative, +consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds +are introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular +panels or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a +second variety of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was introduced; +this is cylindrical in form, and, being found both at +Graufesenque and Lezoux, may be regarded as transitional in +character. In the latter half of this century a new form arises +(No. 37; fig. 37), a more or less hemispherical bowl which holds +the field exclusively on all sites down to the termination of the +potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new system of decoration +is introduced, the upper edge being left quite plain. The panels +and medallions at first prevail, but are then succeeded by arcading +or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and finally after the +end of the 1st century (and on form 37 only) we find the whole +surface covered with a single composition of figures unconfined by +borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze; this is +known as the “free” style (Plate IV. fig. 69).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:831px; height:466px" src="images/img725b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.—Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine; 18-65, Gaulish and German.</td></tr></table> + +<p>As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down +that the conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are +obvious imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the +absence of Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include representations +of gods and heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters +and animals, the two latter classes being pre-eminently +popular.</p> + +<p>The potters’ names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common +Roman type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux +are Gaulish in form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, Illixo or Laxtrucisa. +This seems to imply that Roman influence was still strong +in the earlier centre which drew its inspiration more directly from +Arretium. But even the purely Roman names are sometimes +converted into Gaulish forms, as <i>Masclus</i> for Masculus, or +<i>Tornos</i> for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form, +depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief; +on the plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but +on the ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the +figures. The usual formula is OF (for <i>officina</i>) or M (for <i>manu</i>) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +with the name in the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for <i>fecit</i> with the +nominative.</p> + +<p>Besides the ordinary <i>terra sigillata</i> with figures produced in +moulds we find other methods of decoration employed. In the +south of France, about Arles and Orange, vases were made with +medallions separately moulded and attached round the body; +these have a great variety of subjects, both mythological and +gladiatorial or theatrical, or even portraits of emperors. There +is a remarkable specimen in the British Museum with a scene +from the tragedy of the <i>Cycnus</i>, on which Heracles and Ares are +represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate IV. +fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ.</p> + +<p>Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux. +Here each figure is attached separately to the vase, and the +background is filled in with foliage produced by the method +known as <i>en barbotine</i> (slip-painting), of which we shall speak +presently. The effect of these vases, which are mostly large jars +or <i>ollae</i> (Plate IV. fig. 70), is often very decorative, and there is +a fine specimen in the British Museum from Felixstowe, on which +the modelling is really admirable. Other good examples have +been found in various parts of Britain.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:208px; height:214px" src="images/img726.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.—Jar of Castor +ware, with reliefs of a stag +pursued by a hound, executed +in semi-fluid slip. +6 in. high.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The “slip-decoration” process is practically unknown in Italy, +but it is found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany, +and appears to have originated in the Rhine district. It is not +confined to the red ware, but in the early German examples is +applied on a dull grey or black background. +On the continent its use is +almost limited to simple decorative +patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in +Britain it was largely adopted, as in +the well-known Castor ware made +on the site of that name (<i>Durobrivae</i>) +in Northamptonshire. Many of the +vases found or made here have +gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes, +or chariots executed by this method +(fig. 38). The decoration was applied +in the form of a thick viscous slip, +usually of the same colour as the +clay, but reduced to this consistency +with water, and was laid on by +means of a narrow tube or run from the edge of a spatula. The +Castor ware appears to date from the 3rd and 4th centuries <span class="sc">a.d.</span></p> + +<p>Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally +produced in Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such +ware seems to have been produced in the Rhine district, represented +by small jars covered with a glossy black coating, on +which are painted in thick white slip inscriptions of a convivial +character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or VIVAS +(Plate IV. fig. 68). A very effective ware, obviously imitating cut +glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux +in both the red and black varieties.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Dragendorff in <i>Bonner Jahrbücher</i>, xcvi. 37 ff.; +Déchelette, <i>Vases céramiques de la Gaule romaine</i> (1904); Walters, +<i>Ancient Pottery</i>, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii.; <i>British Museum Catalogue +of Roman Pottery</i> (1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. B. Wa.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Persian, Syrian, Egyptian and Turkish Pottery<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter’s art, it was +the custom to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman +empire and the appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian +pottery of the early middle ages, as if the intervening centuries +had produced nothing worthy of note. Even yet the successive +steps by which this beautiful art arose are largely matters of +inference and deduction, but it must be borne in mind that while +the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of glaze and +painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and +Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction. +In discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already +pointed out at what a very early period they had developed the +production of rich and beautiful coloured glazes—the Egyptians +as a jewel-like decoration of small pieces made in a very sandy +paste, or actually carved from stone, and the Assyrians, on a +bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured brickwork. Though +the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the peoples +of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried +on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There +is abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of +Roman times and later with rich turquoise blue and yellow +glazes, though the potters had learned to produce this glaze on +a material containing more clay and less sand than that used in +earlier days. We know also that they had learned that the +addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to be applied +on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to be +shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt, +but appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia +Minor; and throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of +pottery were made which were clearly the starting-points of +much of the fine pottery produced in Europe in later times. +We find, for instance, side by side, a manufacture of bowls, +dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of two distinct +materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise blue, +green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda +and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple +painted patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2) +similar vessels made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and +porous, coated with a white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin) +covered with a yellowish lead glaze. These vessels were +decorated in a variety of ways: (1) <i>Graffiati</i>; patterns cut or +scratched through the coating of white slip while it was still soft, +down to the red ground, so that when the vessel was glazed it +displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2) Yellow +and red ochre and copper scales were rudely “dabbed” over +the white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it +presented a marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red, +yellow, brown or green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the +section on <i>Egyptian pottery</i> above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron +were added to the lead glaze, and the resulting green or yellow +glazes were applied to plain vases or to vessels decorated with +moulded reliefs. In all these methods we see the continuation +of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall also see that these, +in their turn, became the starting-point of much of the medieval +pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other southern +countries.</p> + +<p>In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian +times seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters +of Assyria, just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian +device of raising strong brown outlines round a design to control +the flow of coloured glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze +of Archers in the Louvre, was carried on by them, for it appears +unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque of Mahommed I. built at +Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse between the Persian +and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to a general +diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of +the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean, +though our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient +data for any definite placing of the progress made. Our information +is mainly derived from the examination of the rubbish +mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and +by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat was built in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 640 +by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century; partially rebuilt, +it was given over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke sultan, and +all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the site +being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same +way Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the +site of which lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about +1220 by Jenghiz Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but +was destroyed again in the following century, so that its existence +practically ceased in the 14th century. Rhagae was once an +important centre of the ceramic industry, but this was transferred +to the neighbouring town of Veramin, in the 13th century. +Excavations have also been made on the site of Rakka, near +Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few others of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on +the development of the potter’s art in these countries during the +period between the 4th and 12th centuries. Yet, until systematic +excavations have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the +Delta, on the same scale as those which have proved so valuable +in Greece, Crete, Cyprus and the valley of the Nile, we cannot +hope to possess sound chronological data of the developments +of the arts in these countries. Meantime the exact share which +should be allotted to each district for its discoveries will remain +ground of contention for scholars of conflicting schools, though +there can be little doubt that Egypt and the southern part of +Syria played a more important part than has generally been +supposed in the development of the potter’s art at this period.</p> + +<p><i>Persian Pottery</i>.—The most important pottery of the nearer +East, whether considered on its own merits or from the influence +it has exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly +valued by collectors under the distinctive name of Persian; +though much that passes under that name may not have been +made in Persia. From the 10th to the 16th centuries the craftsmen +of Persia were perfect masters of decorative design and +colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of the forms +proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity ever +exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly +of metal than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling +for the material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are +not only true clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to +exhibit the qualities of the glaze and colour with which they +were to be decorated. Certainly from the 12th to the 16th +centuries the pottery of the Persians must rank among the +greatest achievements of the potter’s art. The ware was shaped +from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of—but +whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large proportion +of sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish +or red tint, and was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous +slip, or with a mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin, +which made it whiter still—the one aim was to produce a white +pottery. On this white ground—with a coarsish absorbent +surface—beautiful patterns, in conventional floral or animal +forms, were deftly painted in cobalt-blues, manganese-purples, +copper-greens and turquoise, with mixtures for intermediate +tints; while a strong brownish-black outline colour was compounded +by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be turned +into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and +later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour, +often used in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze, +generally of considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused; +and the resultant effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour +relieved on a ground of slightly toned white. Judging from +fragments which have been found at Rai, and which can scarcely +therefore be later than the 13th century, we find the characteristic +Persian style of ornament already developed; dumpy little +figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between cypress +trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with conventional +borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known +type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral ornament +which often runs to a beautiful tracery of “arabesque” +lines. The drawing is generally finely outlined with brown +or black (a survival of the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the +earliest pieces the flat washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-blue, +turquoise or green from copper, and shades of purple and +brown from manganese. From the 16th century onwards +Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the designs and in the +colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted with patterns +in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the imitation of +Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks. Finally, +Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number +of Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan, +and we find that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-tê-Chên, +with blue decorations in the Persian taste, so that we +cannot be surprised at the growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style +of decoration. From this period, however, Persian pottery +deteriorated both in its technical and artistic aspects. Crudely +moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with an opaque +yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and turquoise, +began to make their appearance, especially on the famous +Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black +outlines of the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource) +vanish, and we get brighter and more glittering, yet poorer +colours, including a rose-red enamel fired over the glaze, evidently +imitated from the Chinese <i>famille-rose</i> porcelains of the 18th +century.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:457px" src="images/img727.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.—Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria and +Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The finest work appears to have been produced from the +11th to the 14th centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge +of what is truly Persian, Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced +to accept many conventional names that have perhaps little but +custom to recommend them. There is, for instance, an important +class of pottery known, until recently, only from a few remarkably +handsome vases, and once called “Siculo-Arab” because +these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware +is characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished ornament—leaf-shaped +panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns; +striped and dotted bands; friezes of animals or birds amidst +flowers and foliage, inscriptions, &c.; all strongly and firmly +drawn in black or brown outlines and washed in with a very pure +cobalt-blue or with turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of +these pieces to the oldest Persian wares, we know that bowls, +dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of the same kind have been dug up +on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar ware has been found +at Fostat, together with evidences of local manufacture, and +occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so that +probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria +between the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards +made by Syrian potters both in Persia and Egypt.</p> + +<p><i>Other Persian Wares</i>.—We have already spoken of the prevalent +use of coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer +East—from Egypt to Persia—from remote times, either as the +sole colour decoration or in conjunction with modelled or painted +ornament. The fragments from Rai and Fostat include rich +turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient Egyptian), deep and +light-green glazes containing lead and copper, imitations of +ancient Chinese céladon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a coffee-brown +glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze.<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a> All these may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled ornament; +or covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted +in white slip or incised in the paste. Sometimes, even at this +early period, there are traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but +not fired, to the glaze.</p> + +<p>At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls, +dishes and vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque +patterns in a singularly still underglaze black, and covered with +the blue turquoise or green copper glazes. This characteristic +and beautiful ware is common to Persia, Syria and Egypt in +Saracen times, and it was soon prized in Europe, as is shown by +the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury Fortnum built +into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was apparently +placed in the 12th century.<a name="fa11b" id="fa11b" href="#ft11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p> + +<p>At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance, +and in the 13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there +is a comparatively modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces +bearing patterns modelled in low relief.</p> + +<p><i>Persian Porcelain</i>.—This beautiful and somewhat mysterious +ware—often called “Gombroon” ware—apparently made its +appearance in the 13th century, though the bulk of the known +examples are not earlier than the 17th or 18th century. The +ware is quite translucent and is of soft and delicate texture. +Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture of pipe-clay +and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a +fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary +porcelain oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes, +bowls (often mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are +generally very thin and are either perfectly plain or bear flutings +or simple wavy patterns incised in the paste. Most characteristic +and beautiful is the decoration by means of delicate perforations +either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the finest pieces the +perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form a decoration +analogous to the well-known “rice-grain” decoration of the +Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour, +either a delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright +céladon, or the well-known Persian blue ground; and this is +sometimes decorated with lustre patterns. Nowhere can this +rare and delicately beautiful ware be so well studied as in the +Victoria and Albert Museum.</p> + +<p><i>Lustred Ware</i>.—The decoration of pottery with iridescent +metallic films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inventions +ever made by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only +coloured clays, coloured glazes, or colours fired under the glaze, +but we are now brought face to face with a colour effect produced +by refiring the finished glazed pieces, at a lower temperature, +with pigments painted upon the glaze (fig. 40; see also Plate V. +13th-century Persian lustre). How such a practice originated +is probably an idle speculation, but it may have come through +repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold was +painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably +vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver, +applied over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make +it adhere, may have given the first films of iridescent colour. +We know certainly that before the 13th century the elements of +the process had been mastered, and that the potters of the nearer +East had learnt that by mixing some compound of silver (doubtless +the sulphide) with clay, and painting the mixture on the +finished vase, which was refired in such a way that the pieces +were only raised to a dull red heat and were then exposed to the +vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were left +on the ware that looked like metal—but metal shot over with +all the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green. +Numerous fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred +from the site at Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the +beautiful process was of Persian origin, particularly as most of +the examples then known bore designs of distinctly Persian style. +We are now inclined to think that the process really arose in +Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward to Persia, just as it +was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In support of this +view there is the written record of the Persian traveller Nasiri +Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the 11th century (1035-1042). +He was apparently familiar with the pottery of his own country, +and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of +Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the +traffic of East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He +mentions, specially, certain translucent bowls of earthenware +decorated with colours resembling a stuff called “bougalemoun,” +“the tints changing according to the position which one gives +to the vase.” Such a description could only apply to “lustred” +pottery, and it would seem as if this process must have been +known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia (see +Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret +was soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it +was practised at Rhagae in the next century.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:416px" src="images/img728.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.—Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in brown +copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting +is gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-shaped +tile of the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1217 (<span class="sc">a.h.</span> 614), decorated with +spotted hares, heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre +relieved by dots and curls, and surrounded by an inscribed +border. A vase in the Godman collection bears the date <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1231 +(<span class="sc">a.h.</span> 629), and some of the well-known “star and cross” tiles +from Veramin belong to the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1262. The early Persian +lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles with which the +walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the more +ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller +numbers and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives +of decoration were animals and birds (sometimes showing +Chinese influence), the hare and the deer being favourites; +roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and women, mounted +or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend), conventional +foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in a +lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots +etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered +all over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out +of this when it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white +tin-enamel with which the early wares are generally coated. +The lustre itself when viewed directly may look like some golden +or deep chocolate-brown colour, but as the piece is turned to +catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to bear a thin iridescent +film, which glows with golden, green, purple or ruby-red metallic +<i>reflets</i>. On the earliest examples the decoration is often entirely +in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a pattern +painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the +glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear +14th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decoration, +more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised +in low relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class, +belonging to the 14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +with designs in low relief, picked out with scrolls and arabesques +in white enamel or bold floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is +frequently found applied to the rich cobalt-blue ground, and +there are still existing a few magnificent vases which show the +artistic possibilities of this scheme of decoration. It should be +noted that when the pieces are in the round, the pattern is +usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre ground as +on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was +replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration continued +in use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I. +(1587-1629). To the last period belong many charming bowls, +narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown lustre, with ruby <i>reflets</i>, +on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware is pure white in substance +and generally translucent, and the pieces are occasionally +signed (see <i>Persian porcelain</i> above).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:448px" src="images/img729a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 41.—Lamp from the Mosque of +Omar.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Damascus Ware</i>.—This time-honoured name (for “Damas +Ware” was often mentioned in medieval inventories, and +appears to have included many varieties of oriental pottery +which were highly prized in Italy, France and England in the +middle ages)<a name="fa12b" id="fa12b" href="#ft12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> forms rather a puzzle nowadays for the archaeologist, +for many diverse wares have been included under this +title, some of which were +not made at Damascus. +Yet Damascus is one of +the oldest cities in the +world, and has seen +unnumbered dynasties +come and go around its +desert-fringed oasis. An +important centre of caravan +traffic, a nexus of +palpitating life from east +and west, north and +south, we cannot wonder +if it developed a special +pottery of its own, tinged +with something of a cosmopolitan +spirit. Formerly +the Damascus +wares were treated as a +variety of the Persian +pottery we have just described, +but the best examples +of the class now +known under this name +exhibit a mingling of +various influences such as +we might expect, and have well-marked affinities both with the +Persian wares and those brilliant productions now commonly +recognized as Syrian and Turkish, while even far-off echoes of +Chinese decorative mannerisms are not wanting. The characteristic +Damascus ware of the collector is marked by its quality; the +ground is of very clear white, the colours are pure and brilliant, +and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made. The +decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more +formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish +pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay +pigment of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably +occur in the design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple +made from manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in +quality. Fine examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the +British Museum and in the Louvre; its characteristic style of +pattern is well shown in the 16th-century Damascus piece +reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid example is the lamp +from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the British +Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the +Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong +rather to Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears +a dated inscription, “In the year 956 in the month <i>Jemazi-l-oola</i>. +The painter is the poor and humble Mustafa.” This is reckoned +as June <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1549. It may be remarked that our difficulties of +identification are increased by the fact that, under Arab rule, +Syrian and Persian potters were at work in Damascus, in Old +Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments classified +by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian workmen. +In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese +blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the +nearer East, and quantities of fragments have been found at +Fostat, Ephesus and elsewhere.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:456px" src="images/img729b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—Rhodian Jug.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Turkish Pottery</i>.—This beautiful and striking ware, formerly +called Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a +known centre of manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in +all the countries overrun by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th +century, so that the name “Turkish,” in spite of some opposition, +is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42; and the 16th-century +Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine white body +of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash of +pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly +blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped +up in palpable relief—the whole of the ornament being outlined +with black or dark green. +The ware was glazed +with an alkaline glaze of +great depth, so that the +colours soften and sometimes +run, producing one +of the most brilliant and +attractive of all the +oriental wares. In certain +districts the white +ground was not used, +but over it a slip of the +red colour (Armenian +bole), varying in strength +from bright red to pale +salmon, was laid over +the piece, reserving the +pattern only in the white +slip, which consequently +lies lower than the red +ground. Other examples +are known where the +ground has been covered +with lavender, blue, +sage, apple and turquoise +greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect +of the whole was often increased by the application of gold-leaf +over the fired glaze. The decorative motives are distinguished +from those of the Persian wares by a breadth and +boldness which are in keeping with the brilliant, and not +always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is true, the +Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the thistle-bloom +and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment +which permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish +flowers such as the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, cornflower +and lily (some of which were imported into Europe by +the Turks), is as original and distinctive as the arrangement of +the different elements of the design is artistic and charming. +Other styles of design include formal patterns and diapers, rarely +human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial devices +and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining +the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile +hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic +articles, dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers, +sprinklers, jugs, tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls +and mosque lamps are also plentiful. The tiles are found in all +parts of the Turkish empire, though they were probably made at +certain centres, such as Nicaea (which gave its name to the ware +in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many of the mosques +in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other +centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and +Kutaia. A small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian +inscription stating that it was made by “Abraham of Kutaia” +in the 16th century. A few fine bowls and vases, painted in +a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and rosette scrolls, +recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but of very +characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place; and +later, in the 18th and up to the end of the 19th century, an +inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware +usually takes the form of small objects—plates, cups, jugs, +egg-shaped ornaments, &c.—with a thin, well-potted, white +body and slight patterns of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &c., +in blue, black and yellow. Turkish pottery was at its best in +the 16th and the early part of the 17th century, and though good +tile work of later date exists, the general pottery deteriorated +before the 18th century. An inferior ware of poor colour is +still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some attempt +has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration, +but the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old +times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Collections</i>.—The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest +collection of the medieval pottery of the nearer East—the British +Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent +examples. The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten +collection of Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The +museums of the Louvre and of Sèvres have also many beautiful +examples. Berlin, Frankfort and other German towns have collections, +but much smaller in extent. Private collectors in England and +France own many fine specimens, and mention may be made particularly +of those owned by Mr Ducane Godman and Mr George +Salting.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Fortnum, <i>Majolica</i> (1896) (also in South Kensington +Museum Handbook); Falke, <i>Majolica</i> (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet, +<i>Contributions a l’étude de la céramique orientale</i> (Cairo, 1900); Karabacek, +“Zur muslimischen Keramik,” in <i>Monatsschrift fur den Orient</i> +(1884); Lane-Poole, <i>Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i> (1886); Migeon, +<i>Manuel de l’art musulman</i>, vol. ii. (1907); Sarre, <i>Persische Keramik</i>; +and <i>Jahrbuch der koniglichen preussichen Kunstsammlung</i> (1905), +part ii.; H. Wallis, <i>The Godman Collection</i> (1) <i>Lustred Vases</i> (London, +1891); (2) <i>The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles</i> (1894); <i>Notes on +some Early Persian Lustre Vases</i> (1885); <i>Egyptian Ceramic Art</i> +(1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L. H.; W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Hispano-Moresque Pottery</p> + +<p>With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round +the eastern Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting +to follow the westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see +how in their wake there also sprung up in Spain a ware of high +distinction and beauty. The Iberian peninsula had been the +scene of pottery-making from prehistoric times—a red unglazed +ware was made before the dawn of civilization as finely finished +as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: +<i>Art and Archaeology</i>), and the Romans had one of their great +provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when +a great part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and +distinctive pottery was produced. What is by no means clear +is how it came to pass that when the traditional methods, learnt +by the Arabs in Egypt and Syria, were carried westward they +should have undergone such a radical change. Oxide of tin, +the opacifying and whitening material in glazes <i>par excellence</i>, +was certainly known and used in the East from at least the 6th +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of +white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and +it was similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and +not general in those countries, where we find instead a consistent +development of the pottery made with a white slip-coating and +a clear alkaline glaze. Perhaps it was that at this period tin +was almost as costly as gold, and it was only when potters with +an oriental training brought their skill to Spain, where tin +abounded, that the relative cheapness of the material led them +to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There is a wide +distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced wares, +glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental +type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is +finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or +no lead: in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for +the addition of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense +coating of white enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color +of the clay beneath.) Such colours as were used for painted +patterns were painted over this enamel coating before it was fired, +so that they became perfectly incorporated with it, and then this +ground furnished a splendid medium for the development of +those thin iridescent metallic films that we call “lustres.” The +knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from the East +also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing +use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver—until +the red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter +silver lustres—we get the simple technique of one of the most +distinctive kinds of pottery known.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:469px" src="images/img730.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43.—Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and copper lustre.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Briefly, the wares were “thrown” upon the wheel or +“pressed” on modelled forms—handles, ribs and dots of clay, +or strongly incised patterns were often added by hand—and they +were then fired a first time. A coating of the tin-enamel (rich +in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this coating designs +were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these colours +were only used as masses to break up the background. Then +the second firing took place and the piece came from the firing +all shining and white, except where the blue or brownish purple +had been painted (see fig. 43). The lustre pigments, a mixture of +sulphide of copper or sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre +or other earth, was then painted over the glazed surface with +vinegar as a medium. The repainted piece was fired a third time +to a dull red heat, and smoked with the smoke from the wood +used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent ochre and +metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent films in +all their beauty.</p> + +<p>The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the composition +of the lustre pigments are given in Cocks’s account of +the processes followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises +receipt of 1785 gives:—copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver +1 peseta piece, sulphur 3 oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped +off the pots after lustring 36 oz.<a name="fa13b" id="fa13b" href="#ft13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Interesting documents have +recently been published concerning the works executed by the +“Saracen,” John of Valencia, at Poitiers in 1384, and it is certain, +from the list of materials supplied to him, that he made there +tiles that were enamelled and lustred.</p> + +<p>The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer +Edrisi’s mention of the manufacture of “golden ware” then +carried on at Calatayud in Aragon in 1154. Ibn Sa‘id (1214-1286) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +speaks of the glass and the golden pottery made at Murcia (city), +Almeria and Malaga. From the 4th century the notices which have come +down to us divide themselves into two main groups relating to the +industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at various localities, but especially +Manises in Valencia.</p> + +<p><i>Malaga</i>—Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom of Granada, +which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century, the last remnant of +Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under the art-loving Nasride dynasty, +Mussulman arts and learning flourished to an unprecedented degree. In +1337 Ahmed ben-Yahya al-Omarí enumerates, among the craft productions of +Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not to be +met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta mentions (1350) +the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada, +in his description of Malaga. The principal monument of the period is +the royal palace of Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th +century, from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases +were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the “Alhambra +vase,” is admittedly the most imposing product of Hispano-Moresque +ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped body (4 ft. 5 in. high) is +encircled by a band of Arabic inscription, above which are depicted +gazelles reserved in cream and golden lustre upon a blue field; the rest +of the body and the prominent handles are covered with compartments of +arabesques and inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck, +divided by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques. Vases +similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic characters and +arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in the museums at St +Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to the exact date of these, +experts are not agreed. Though presenting all the characteristics of the +14th-century Hispano-Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were +produced at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in +the Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which is +by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1409-1418), not to Yusuf +I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a dish (Sarre collection, +Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon its back, in Arabic, the word +Malaga; it is ornamented with eight segmental compartments filled +alternately with strap-work designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was +reconquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its +industry probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in +1539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished.</p> + +<p><i>Valencia.</i>—The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by Aragon in 1238. +The history of its lustred ware is known from 1383, when Eximenes (whose +evidence has been erroneously held to date from 1499) mentions the +golden ware (<i>Obra dorada</i>) of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind +was an offshoot of the Malagan industry, as in documents lately +published (ranging from 1405 to 1517) it is repeatedly designated Malaga +ware (<i>Obra de Malaga</i>). Its decorative qualities became famous +throughout the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly +manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl or Boil +family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output of the kilns, +and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is distinguished as regards +its ornamentation from the pottery of Malaga by the adoption of a more +natural rendering of plant form motives and by the use of armory. The +ware consists of drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates, +aquamaniles, vases, &c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed +during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic +inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the vine, +bryony, &c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently bear the +arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of Manises, or other +Valencian or Italian families for whom they were made. Great dexterity +is shown in the execution of minute and complicated schemes of ornament +and in the richness of the colour schemes; golden lustre of various +hues, with blue and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the +ruby, violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours a +wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and manganese was +gradually discontinued and the ornament quickly became nondescript, but +the brilliancy of the lustre pigment nevertheless obtained a wide +popularity for the ware, as is attested by Marineo (1539), Viciana +(1564) and Escolano (1610). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609) +the industry was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by +Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their productions +can be summed up in the word “decadence.” In the course of the 15th +century the manufacture of lustred pottery was carried on at various +other small towns near Valencia; in 1484 it was produced at Mislata, +Paterna and Gesarte. It is known to have flourished at Calatayud in +1507, and at Muel, also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district +much pottery for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also +produced.</p> + +<p><i>Majorca.</i>—Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was +imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these +imitations “majolica,” changing the letter in the name of the islands +(then called Majorica) where they originated. The truth would appear to +be that Valencian wares, being exported in Balearic vessels that called +at Majorca on the voyage to Italy, acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin. +There is extant a potter’s petition praying for permission to establish +himself in Majorca (1560), in which he states that “Manises ware,” &c., +had to be imported, as it was not made there.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Collections.</i>—In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British +Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny Museum +collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains many fine +typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the archaeological +museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg museums, the Metropolitan +Art Museum at New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain +good specimens. The private collections of England, France and Italy +are rich in these wares, among the finest being those of Mr F.D. +Godman (Horsham), and of Don G.J. de Osma (Madrid).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—A. Van de Put, <i>Hispano-Moresque Ware of the 15th +Century</i> (1904); F. Sarre, “Die spanisch-maurischen Lusterfayencen des +Mittelalters,” &c. (in <i>Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen</i>, +xxiv. (1903); G.J. de Osma, “Apuntes sobre cerámica morisca: textos y +documentos valencianos,” No. 1, 1906, and “Los Letreros ornamentales +en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv.” (in the review <i>Cultura +Española</i>, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Gumá, <i>Rajolas valencianas y +catalanas</i> (1905); J. Tramoyeres Blasco, “Cerámica valenciana del +siglo xvii.” (in the <i>Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico Las +Provincias de Valencia</i>; J. Gestoso y Pérez, Historia de los barros +vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J.C. Davillier, <i>Histoire des +faiences hispano-moresques à reflets metalliques</i> (1861).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. v. de P.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Medieval And Later Italian Pottery<a name="fa14b" id="fa14b" href="#ft14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>Little is known of the potter’s art in Italy after the fall of the Roman +empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the Roman potters appear +to have been gradually lost, leaving behind only sufficient skill to +make rude crocks for domestic use and to coat them, if required, with a +crude yellowish lead glaze sometimes stained to a vivid green with +copper oxide. Applied ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched +designs were the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the +same class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of +Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with Asia +Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had been highly +developed in fresh directions, as we have seen, introduced into Italy as +well as the rest of Europe those superior wares characterized by a white +surface decorated with bright colours under a brilliant transparent +glaze, and glorified by metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not +long remain unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian +and Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the households +of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque wares from +which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for a new ware of their +own. The technique of a siliceous slip-coating with colour painted on +that and covered with a transparent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly +used, and then not very successfully; it is only the introduction of the +tin-enamel that was turned to fruitful account and led to the production +of the magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +In the same way the practice of lustre decoration might have been +learnt from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares (16th +century) and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain, rather +than to the earlier lustres of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are further +evidence that though oriental decorative motives gave the Italians +certain early types of design, it is the Hispano-Moresque potters from +whom the Italians learnt the art they were afterwards to develop so +splendidly in a new direction.<a name="fa15b" id="fa15b" href="#ft15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p> + +<p>All the Italian pottery above the level +of common crocks may be conveniently grouped into four classes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:411px" src="images/img732.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.—Italian +Graffiato Plate, 16th century. (South Kensington Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>1. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay, coated with +a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered with a crude lead +glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of rendering this ware +ornamental, and fitting it for more than vulgar use, led to a great +development of the <i>graffiato</i> process; where, while the vessel, with +its white clay coating was firm yet soft enough, patterns were scratched +or engraved through the white slip to the red body beneath. This +decorative method has been already mentioned several times, for it was +practised during the early middle ages in all the countries from India +to Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor has its +practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times when painted +majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier and humbler pottery +was used by those who could not afford the former; and the +gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a fine decorative quality +of their own. From the depth beneath the present soil at which fragments +of this ware have been disinterred, it is obvious that the method was +widely practised in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known +except those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early +examples have been found all over northern Italy—in Faenza, Florence, +Pisa, &c., and particularly in Padua, where it seems to have been +extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its manufacture, even to +the end of the 17th century, and Citta di Castello must have been noted +for it in the 16th century, for Piccolpasso describes this ware as “alla +Castellana” (see fig. 44). Apparently in the latter half of the 15th +century a sudden advance takes place in the colouring of this +<i>graffiato</i> ware. Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of +the earlier productions, underglaze colours—green, purple, blue and a +brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black where +it is thick—were applied in bold splashes under the straw-coloured +glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very simple means. As +fine examples of this kind we may mention the dish with the mandoline +players, and one with cupids disporting themselves in a tree, in the +Victoria and Albert Museum; the tazza, supported by three modelled +lions, in the Louvre; and the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two +saints, in the museum at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite +erroneously, <i>mezza-majolica</i>. It had nothing to do with majolica, being +the natural development of a much older process; and its manufacture was +carried on all through the period of majolica manufacture and has never +ceased.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Mezza-Majolica</i>—This name is accurately applied to certain Italian +wares that made their appearance in the 12th century or even earlier, +when rude patterns—a clumsy star, a rude crossing of strokes or some +equally elementary work—are found painted on a thin white ground +covering a drab body. The pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms, +are uncouth in the extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and +then thinly coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first +to have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were added +to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the rude painting +were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese, and the final glaze, which +is generally thin and often imperfectly fused, seems to have been based +on the alkaline glazes of the nearer East. The specimens so assiduously +recovered by Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are to +be found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert museums, +are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller knowledge of +Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Majolica</i>—For the last three centuries the word majolica has been +used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but comparatively soft buff +body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel of varying degrees of whiteness +and purity, on which a painted decoration was laid and fired. In the +later pictorial wares, a fine coating of transparent alkaline glaze was +fired over the painting to soften the colours—really to varnish them. +The word itself appears to have been derived from the name of the island +Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the lustred wares +of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably arriving in +ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do not believe that +the ware was actually made in that island. That the secret of the +tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian majolica, was known +in Italy in the 13th century is practically proved; and there is both +literary and archaeological proof of its use there in the 14th. Mention +of it is made in the <i>Margarita Preciosa</i> published at Pola by Pierre Le +Bon in 1336, and the well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I., +discovered under the Manfredi palace at Faenza, must have been made +shortly after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of +the mezza-majolica, until it practically superseded the latter for +painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples have little +more than an archaeological interest, and it was only after the last +decade of the <i>quattrocento</i> or the first of the <i>cinquecento</i> that it +blossomed into an artistic creation. In its prime the production of +majolica was confined to a very small part of Italy. Bologna on the +north, Perugia to the south, Siena on the west, and the Adriatic to the +east, roughly enclose the district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini, +Pesaro, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena. +Towards the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and in +the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurian factories at Genoa, Albissola +and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent styles, while, at the +end of the 17th and in the early part of the 18th centuries, the +southern town of Castelli, near Naples, produced a ware which closes the +period of artistic majolica.</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate I</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:422px" src="images/img732a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:423px" src="images/img732b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.—CORINTHIAN JAR.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.—FRANÇOIS VASE.<br /> +<span class="f80">(From Furtwängler and Reichhold, <i>Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, by permission of F. Bruckmann.)</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:576px" src="images/img732c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:547px" src="images/img732d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54.—BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA BY EXEKIAS.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.—VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY.<br /> +<span class="f80">Signed by Python.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate II</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:467px; height:467px" src="images/img732e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" rowspan="5"><img style="width:374px; height:956px" src="images/img732i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 56.—BOWL MADE AT CALES IN IMITATION OF METAL. (2ND CENT. <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:155px; height:274px" src="images/img732f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:127px; height:158px" src="images/img732g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57.—VASE OF <span class="sc">5th</span> CENT. B.C., MODELLED IN FORM OF HEAD.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58.—VASE OF <span class="sc">6th</span> CENT. B.C., IN FORM OF HELMETED HEAD.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:461px; height:294px" src="images/img732h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59.—FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE. (ROMAN PERIOD.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 60.—AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH SCENE FROM EURIPIDES’ “HECUBA.”</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate III</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:368px" src="images/img732j.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:403px" src="images/img732k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 61.—MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 62.—JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:340px; height:533px" src="images/img732l.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:210px; height:567px" src="images/img732m.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:256px; height:530px" src="images/img732n.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 63.—EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR. (VILLANOVA PERIOD.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 64.—STAMP FOR ORNAMENTING ARRETINE VASE.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65.—ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC" JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate IV</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:536px; height:460px" src="images/img732o.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:227px; height:283px" src="images/img732p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 67.—MEDALLION FROM VASE MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE FROM TRAGEDY. (<span class="sc">3rd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:275px; height:282px" src="images/img732q.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 66.—MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE. (<span class="sc">2nd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 68.—JAR OF RHENISH WARE WITH INSCRIPTION. (<span class="sc">3rd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:385px" src="images/img732r.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:386px" src="images/img732s.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 69.—BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES IN “FREE” STYLE. (<span class="sc">2nd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70.—JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE. (<span class="sc">3rd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>4. <i>Lustred Majolica</i>—This brilliant species of Italian pottery (to +which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to have been +mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though experiments were made at +Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza and Siena. Considering how much the +Italian majolist owed to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable +that this beautiful method of decoration should have made so tardy an +appearance, for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently +abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of +Deruta, probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-marked +affinities with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier +examples are hardly to be distinguished from Spanish wares, +and to the last the ware remained technically like the earlier +ware, though with perfectly Italian decorative treatment. Yet +the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have a quality of tone +that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a wash of +very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the +most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us +through the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre +is a magnificent ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability +the lustre process was so quickly abandoned on the fine painted +majolica, because the increasing efforts to make a “picture” +were discounted by so uncertain a process. When one of the +later majolica painters had spent weeks on the decoration of +some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of carefully +drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose it +to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process +were inordinately great—Piccolpasso says, “Frequently only +six pieces were good out of a hundred”—so that its use was relegated +only to inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished +and forgotten until its rediscovery in the second half of the +19th century.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:304px; height:303px" src="images/img733a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.—Early Faenza plate, with +peacock-feather design, in blues, yellow +and orange-red. (Victoria and Albert +Museum.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:339px; height:81px" src="images/img733b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Early Faenza<br />Potter’s mark.</td> +<td class="caption">Late Faenza<br />Potter’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The history of the development of these noble wares is by +no means clear, nor is it always certain what part was played +by each town in the successive inventions of technical methods, +decoration and colouring, so that it is better, in such a general +sketch as this, to treat the subject in its broadest features only. +In the earlier painted wares the only colours used were +manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green as on the +mezza-majolica, but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was +added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate +of lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were +largely influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria, +Egypt and Spain, specimens of which were so prized as to be +used for the decoration of church fronts and the façades of public +buildings. The lustre of the Saracenic wares was not yet understood, +but its place was taken first by manganese and afterwards +by yellow. The designs were chiefly conventional flower-patterns +in the Persian or Moorish style, arabesques, and floral scrolls, +the ground being filled at times with those tiny spirals, scrolls +and dots to which the Eastern potters were so partial. Figures, +human and animal, were introduced either among the formal +ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the +outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see +the early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures +were, in fact, drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and +not the vessel made to display the figure-subject as in the majolica +of the succeeding century. The earliest dated example of this +period is the pavement laid down in the Caracciolo chapel in the +church of San Giovanni a Carbonara, in Naples, about 1440. +Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the British Museum, +and from their style it has been suggested that they were made +by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen +Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period +also have been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain +drugs or confections, and decorated with bold scrolls of formal +oak leaves enclosing spirited figures of men or animals, or heraldic +devices. These are characterized by a rich blue colour generally +piled up in palpable relief and sometimes verging on black; the +outlines are usually in manganese, and transparent green is used +for details and occasionally even as a ground colour. This ware +has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem very +inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as +Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert +itself, and it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that +he soon freed himself from repeating the styles of the wares from +which he obtained his methods, and produced a distinctive type +of ornament of his own. He revelled in patterns with bold floral +scrolls, or those based on peacocks’ feathers (see fig. 45), and +then he advanced to concentric bands of painted ornament, +borrowed from classic art yet breathing the true spirit of the +Renaissance; while cable +borders, chequer and +scale patterns, bands of +stiff radiating leaves, +festoons of fruit and +flowers, zigzags and +pyramidal scrolls occupied +nearly the whole +surface or framed an +armorial or emblematic +central subject. Figure-subjects +occur with increasing +frequency as +the century advanced; +Madonnas and other +sacred subjects, portraits, +and, occasionally, groups +of figures after the early +Italian masters, or scenes +borrowed from the first +illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the +conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface +of the piece. The provenance of these 15th-century pieces still +remains uncertain—Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other +places offering rival claims,—but there is no doubt that from +the earliest times +Faenza was the +most fertile centre +of their manufacture, +and almost all +the motives of the +<i>quattrocento</i> wares +are found on fragments discovered there or on examples that +can be traced to Faventine factories.</p> + +<p>It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca +della Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1399-1482), and his +followers, Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members +of the family, as belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than +of pottery, and this is right, for there is nothing certainly known +of the work of this great sculptor which connects it with painted +majolica. The old theory that Luca invented the tin-glaze is +long since exploded; what he did was to use coloured glazes +made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly modelled terra-cottas—a +very different thing,—and it is by no means certain +that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert +Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every +kind; and one may see there these beautifully modelled figures +in high relief covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a background +of slatey blue or rich manganese purple and framed in +wreaths of flowers and fruit which are coloured with blue, green, +purple and sometimes yellow. There are altar vases too, of +classic shape with low relief ornament, covered with the same +peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with modelled +fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of roundels +painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months; +but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method +is not that of painted majolica.</p> + +<p>A remarkable development took place at the beginning of +the 16th century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest +perfection of manipulative skill, both in potting and painting, +was attained. Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed +methods of painting then adopted are too much allied to fresco-painting +to be considered as fit treatment for enamelled clay; +but this view was certainly not accepted at the time, nor is it +subscribed to by many modern collectors; yet, regarded as +decorated pottery, the 15th-century majolica, simpler and more +conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable. +The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry +under their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite +view and spared no expense to provide subjects for their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +pot-painters. During the first two decades the influence of Faenza +was paramount, and though the encroachments of purely pictorial +motives are clearly indicated on the wares, room was still found +for ornamental patterns. The broad rims of the dishes were +covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently including +grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza +Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.). Sometimes reserved in the +white on a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and +yellow, sometimes traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze +(called <i>berettino</i>) or painted in darker tints on a ground of orange +or full yellow, the Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous +feature of the early wares of this century. Honeysuckle patterns +and interlaced lines drawn in pure white on a toned tin-enamel +(white on white or <i>sopra-bianco</i> decoration) commonly appear +on the sides of the deep wells of the dishes, while in the centre +is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a small figure-subject. A +similar treatment, without the <i>sopra-bianco</i>, was accorded to the +fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &c., with moulded +gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to +Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also +noted for delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a +rich brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too, +the “grotesque” decoration was practised with marked success. +Other developments of this style are the “<i>a candelieri</i>” designs, +in which grotesques were symmetrically arranged round some +central subject, such as a candelabrum or vase, and “<i>a trofei</i>” +in which trophies of arms, musical instruments, and other objects +were symmetrically disposed, or arranged in studied disarray +throughout the design; these patterns are generally associated +with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers’ gifts, +dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust +of a girl or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective +inscribed on a ribbon in the background, were common to +Faenza, Castel Durante and many other factories. Elaborate +figure-subjects also were attempted early in the century at +Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a dish in +the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of +the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schöngauer, +delicately painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500.</p> + +<p>In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are +almost always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the +grey-blue <i>berettino</i> ground, and blue was the prevailing colour +of the shading and details. In the third decade of the century +the style affected at Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The +majolica painter’s palette was now complete; in addition to the +primitive blue, manganese-purple, transparent green and yellow, +we find black, white, orange, greens of varying shades, brown, +and a great number of intermediate tints obtained by mixing +the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the best +periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing, +and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a +thing as painting in enamels on the finished ware and refiring +them at a lower heat was unknown before the end of the 17th +or beginning of the 18th century. A true red colour seems to +have been beyond the power of most of the Italian majolists, +and was only attained at Faenza, and with less complete success +at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery behaves +very indifferently on tin-enamel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:182px; height:160px" src="images/img734a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Urbino Potter’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Urbino style, which now became +general, the ware was given over +entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes +from history or romance, scriptural and +mythological, copied from the compositions +of the Italian painters and +usually set in a background of Italian +landscape. Guidobaldo II., duke of +Urbino, spared no pains to develop this +phase of the art; the cartoons of +Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others, were placed +at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the paintings of +Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi, +Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together +with engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico +and others, were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the +majolica. Some of the painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli, +were eclectic in their tastes and made up their subjects by taking +a figure here or there from various pictures. Thus of three +figures on a plate in the British Museum, painted with the Dream +of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and another from +Mantegna. These “<i>istoriati</i>” wares reached their zenith at +Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops +of the Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity +was very general, and skilful painters at many other towns +produced specimens that it is hard to distinguish from those of +Urbino. Baldasara Manara was a prolific painter in this style +at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel Durante were little behind Urbino +in the skill of their artists, the Lanfranchi family in the former +town having a well-deserved reputation, while the founders of +the Fontana factories learnt their art in the latter; and a few +pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini as their +place of origin.</p> + +<p>There will always remain a large number of specimens of +majolica which cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular +factory, partly because the same style of painting was in +vogue at many places at the same time, and partly because of +the itinerant propensities of many of the painters, whose signed +works prove that they moved from place to place to practise +their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists whose +touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear +their signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion +of the finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the +founder of the Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante +to Urbino in 1519, and worked at the latter place in the factory +of his son, Guido Fontana. There is little doubt that he was +the painter of the famous service in the Correr Museum at Venice, +which marks the transition from the style of Faenza to that of +Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces with strongly +marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the careful +landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily recognized +in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the +Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.). His pupil, who frequently signed +his name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost +Urbino painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring +and fine figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish +flesh tints. But Niccola’s grandson, Orazio Fontana (see +example, Plate VI.), was perhaps the most celebrated exponent +of the pure Urbino style, and his free drawing and soft harmonious +colouring, in which a brilliant blue is usually conspicuous, +are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the period.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:197px; height:247px" src="images/img734b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Venetian Majolica<br /> +Potter’s mark.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:85px; height:120px" src="images/img735a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Later Cafaggiolo<br /> +Potter’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been +noted. Those with the grey-blue (<i>berettino</i>) glaze were principally +made at the factory called Casa Pirota, +though inferior imitations were also +produced at Padua, and a blue glaze +of paler tint was largely used at +Venice. Dolphins are a frequent +motive in the arabesque ornaments +of the same Faventine workshop, and +many of the wares are marked with a +circle divided by a cross and containing +a dot in one of the quarters. A +capital P crossed with a line or paraph +is another Faventine mark, and a +somewhat similar monogram, with an +S added to the upper part, is found +in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has +already been stated that a red colour is peculiar to Faenza +and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo; it was +used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto +in the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici +family, many fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faventine +style; a deep blue, heavily applied and showing the +marks of the brush, was freely used in backgrounds, and +delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and reminiscent of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see example, +Plate VI). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the +reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and +Siena are richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric +bands; those of Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or +have one or two rings of yellow. A few pre-eminently +beautiful dishes, with central figure subjects +of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes +with poplar trees in a peculiar mannered style, +are probably the work of M. Benedetto of Siena. +Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange +ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps +decorated by the same hand. The dishes covered, +except for a few small medallions, with interlaced +oak branches (“<i>a cerquate</i>” decoration), are no +doubt the productions of Castel Durante; and a +certain class of large dishes with figure subjects in blue on a +toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal ornaments in relief, +are of undisputed Venetian origin.</p> + +<p>Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle +of the 16th century and synchronized with the decline of the +pictorial style. The figure subjects were relegated to central +panels or entirely replaced by small medallions, and the rest +of the surface covered with fantastic figures among floral scrolls, +inspired by Raphael’s grotesques painted on the walls of the +Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this ornament +was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is always +more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed +over with a pure milk-white, known as <i>bianco di Ferrara</i> or +<i>bianco allatato</i>, said to have been invented by Alphonso I., duke +of Ferrara, who took an active interest in his private factory +founded at Ferrara, and managed by potters from Faenza and +Urbino.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:265px; height:105px" src="images/img735b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Turin<br />Potter’s<br />mark.</td> +<td class="caption">Savona Potter’s marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara; +at the first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi +family, and lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica +was now in full decline, partly through the falling off of princely +patronage, and partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour +of Chinese porcelain, which was becoming more plentiful and +better known in Europe. The manufacture, however, never +entirely ceased, and revivals of the old style were attempted at +the end of the 17th century by Ferdinando Maria Campori of +Siena, who copied Raphael’s and Michelangelo’s compositions, +and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli. +The majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the +ware, good technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak +colouring; it continued into the 18th century. A coarse and +inferior ware was made at Padua and Monte Lupo; and the +factories of Faenza were still active, producing, among other +kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops and gadroons. +The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the north. +Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the +17th century, and at Savona +and Genoa blue painted ware +in imitation of Chinese blue +and white porcelain made +its appearance. In the 18th +century a new departure was +made in the introduction of +enamel painting over the +glaze, a method borrowed +from porcelain; but this process was common to all the faience +factories of Europe at the time, and though it was widely +practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any +particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th +century wares continue to be made in the factories of Ginori, +Cantigalli and others, not excepting the lustred majolica of +Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared with the old pieces, the +modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in drawing, suspiciously +wanting in the quality of the colours and the purity of the final +glaze which distinguish the work of the best period.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:461px; height:463px" src="images/img735c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46—Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre only, +made at Pesaro or Deruta, <i>c.</i> 1500. The motto on the scroll may be +Englished as follows: “He who steers well his ship will enter the +harbour.” (Louvre.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Lustred Wares.</i>—The lustred wares of Deruta have marked +characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from +the Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour +of such a derivation. The most characteristic examples are +large dishes and plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel +on the upper face only, the back having a lead glaze. They are +often decorated (see fig. 46) with a single figure or bust in the +centre (with or without an inscribed ribbon), which is usually +set against a dark blue background which covers only half the +field, while in the other half is a formal flower, and in the borders +are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with scale pattern, +or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic, the +designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a +greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent <i>reflets</i> recalling +mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this <i>madreperla</i> tint to +a brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes +modelled in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the +Deruta lustred wares are scarcely older than the 16th century, +and the style was continued as late as the second half of that +century. Deruta pottery was not always lustred, and some of +the pieces signed by the painter El Frate, who flourished between +1541 and 1554, are without the lustre pigment, though showing +the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares. The lustred +majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the work +of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from +Pavia, with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained +citizenship in 1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction +of sculpture, and some of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia +are still in existence; indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred +majolica attributed to him is a plaque of 1501, with the figure +of St Sebastian in relief, in the Victoria and Albert Museum. +It is not known whence he learnt the secret of the beautiful +transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or rosy +lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares, +and no doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter +and developed by Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden, +yellow, brown and opalescent lustres were also freely used at +Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly applied. Finished +painted pieces were sent from other factories to receive the +addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be +distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre +is an integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred +enrichment, the majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities, +for its styles were various and almost all borrowed (see fig 47). +The archaic taste of Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +Faenza and Castel Durante, and in a lesser degree the “<i>istoriato</i>” +style of Urbino, reigned in turn. Perhaps the most characteristic +paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the central medallions of cups +and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of a child or a cupid in +<i>grisaille</i>. Giorgio’s larger figure compositions, if indeed his +signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted the +designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising +to a very high standard—as the dish with “the Three Graces” +in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the “Bath of Nymphs” +in the Wallace collection—while in others the figure drawing is +quite inferior. The arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio +wares are usually of great merit. There are a few known pieces +of unlustred Gubbio wares with figure subjects, painted chiefly +in blue and in the style of the early Faventine artists. After +1517, when we may assume that the lustre process was thoroughly +mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed with the initials +or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly executed +scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of the +plates and dishes. The master’s latest signed work is dated 1541, +and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene +assisted him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor +of the lustre secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who +signed his wares with the initial N, but this conjecture rests +solely on the ingenious, but unsupported notion that N is a +monogram of the first three letters of the name Vincentio. +Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio plates, and the +latest dated example of the ware is signed by one “Mastro +Prestino” in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that it +is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely +disappear.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:404px" src="images/img736a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.—Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and blue outline. +(Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:120px; height:113px" src="images/img736b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:338px; height:98px" src="images/img736c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Gubbio Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows:—among the earliest +are small bowls (<i>scodette</i>), often with flattened sides; jugs (<i>boccali</i>) +with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil form; large +dishes with gradually shelving sides (<i>bacili</i>), or with flat broad rims +and deep centres; akin to these are the plateaux with a raised flat +disk in the centre; small dishes with broad flat rims and deep +though narrow central walls (<i>tondini</i>), suitable for handing a wine-glass +or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (<i>piatti</i> or <i>taglieri</i>); +saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with moulded sides +(<i>tazze</i> or <i>fruttieri</i>) suitable for holding fruit. Among the vase forms +ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat handles are common +in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars for confectionery, +drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form with graceful concave +sides known as the “<i>albarello</i>,” in shape of Eastern origin, and in +name perhaps derived from the Persian <i>el barani</i> (a vase for drugs, +&c.); other vase forms with spouts and handles were used for the +same purpose; ornamental vases after classical designs (<i>vasi a +bronzi antichi</i>); and in the best Urbino period a great variety of +fanciful forms—ewers, vases, cisterns, shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots, +&c., with applied masks and serpentine handles, were made in the +exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece of furniture for the +bedside of ladies in childbirth (<i>vaso puerperale</i>) consisted of a bowl +with a foot surmounted by a flat trencher on which fitted an inverted +drinking-bowl (<i>ongaresca</i>); and above this again a salt-cellar with +cover. Many of these shapes were suited to daily use, but the richly +decorated majolica was designed to adorn the walls, the <i>credenze</i>, +table-centres and cabinets of the rich. This alone could have been +the destination of the large dishes (<i>piatti di pompa</i>) with rim pieces +for suspension, and the smaller dishes (<i>coppe amatorii</i>) with portraits +of young men and girls and lovers’ symbols; and it is inconceivable +that the costly lustred wares of Gubbio or the fine <i>madreperla</i> dishes +of Deruta were designed for anything but decorative use. The ware +was in fact an article produced for the wealthy in the century of +Italy’s glory, and under no other conditions could such magnificent +and expensive pieces have been made.</p> + +<p><i>Technical Methods.</i>—This is a convenient place to give an account +of the methods used by the early medieval potters—(1) because they +represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th century, +and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because, +besides all that a potter could derive from an examination of the +wares, we have ample written accounts of the methods and processes +followed by the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published +an epitome of the account given in Biringuccio’s <i>La Pyrotechnica</i> +(Venice, 1540), and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a +potter of Castel Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and +Albert Museum, which, besides giving an account of the processes, +contains illustrations of kilns, mills, decorative motives, &c.<a name="fa16b" id="fa16b" href="#ft16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p>1. The potter’s clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds +prepared by (a) beating and picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing +with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic +clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the +potter’s clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish, +Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known geologically +as “marls,” which contain a large percentage of carbonate +of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and +give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other +kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see +Deck’s <i>La Faience</i>). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares +are useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery +bodies for such purposes.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Delia<br />Robbia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Majolica.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Delft.<br />Faience.</td> <td class="tccm allb">French</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.59</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.05</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.01</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.82</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxide of iron</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.82</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Carbonic Acid, water, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.58</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.46</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.09</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.27</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>2. <i>Shaping.</i>—The vessels were either “thrown” on the potter’s +wheel (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian +times), or they were formed by “pressing” thin cakes of clay into +moulds, made of a composition of plaster (<i>gesso</i>), bone-ash and +marble dust. In the latter way all shapes that were not circular +were made, as well as those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated +from embossed metal forms. It is interesting, though not surprising, +to note that for the fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when +sufficiently dry, were recentred on the wheel or were placed in a +joiner’s lathe and smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The +Greek potters did the same, and this practice must always be followed +where fine painting or gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the +later florid vases of the Urbino style the piece was built up of +thrown parts and moulded parts (handles, masks, spouts, &c.), +luted together with slip when they were dry enough to be safely +handled, and then retouched by the modeller or vase-maker, a +method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of pottery or +porcelain.</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 f90 sc">Plate V</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:170px; height:369px" src="images/img736d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:358px" src="images/img736e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Rhodian or Turkish: +16th century.</td> +<td class="caption">Syro-Persian: +13th century.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:361px" src="images/img736f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:366px" src="images/img736g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"> Rhodian or Turkish: +16th century.</td> +<td class="caption"> Rhodian or Turkish: +16th century.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:382px; height:370px" src="images/img736h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:371px; height:362px" src="images/img736i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Damascus: 16th century.</td> +<td class="caption">Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>3. <i>The Glaze.</i>—The white enamel which formed at first both the +glaze and the ground for painting upon—<i>bianco</i>, as it was called—was +prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (<i>marzacotto</i>) +was made by melting together clean siliceous sand (<i>rena</i>) and the +potash salt left as the lees of wine (<i>feccia</i>). This corresponds to +the alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash +for soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian +potter, and accordingly the <i>bianco</i> was made by melting together +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +thirty parts of <i>marzacotto</i> and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes. The +white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and +potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin.</p> + +<p>4. Pigments (<i>colori</i>) were compounded from metallic oxides or +earths; the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed +with oxide of iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper +(the turquoise tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide +of copper is impossible with a glaze of lead and tin); and the greens +were made by mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or +oxide of iron; blue, from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue +glass (<i>smalto</i>, or <i>zaffara</i>); brownish-purple, from manganese; black, +from mixtures of the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish +brown, of Faenza and Cafaggiolo was probably the same Armenian +bole that was used so magnificently by the makers of the Turkish +pottery, but on the white enamel ground this colour was most +treacherous and uncertain. It must be remembered that many of +these colours owe their tint to the lead used in their composition, or +to the grounds containing oxides of lead and tin on which they were +painted. Piccolpasso describes the preparation and composition of +the various colours used in his day.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Coperta</i>, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin +coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to give +a smooth bright surface. This <i>coperta</i> was a soft lead glass consisting +of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts; potash, 12 parts; +and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then finely ground +in water.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Methods of Glazing and Decorating.</i>—In the mezza-majolica and +the early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in +the white bath to give it an envelope (<i>invetriatura</i>) before it was fired +at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much +better to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and +brittle as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel, +by dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This +was the practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel, +the thickness of glove leather, having been obtained, the piece was +carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the +absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes, +&c., in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other +colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second +time to a heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted +on the vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the +same operation. This method of painting on the unbaked enamel +demanded a bold direct treatment—for alteration or retouching +was impossible—and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due +to this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was +felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface, and +so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of <i>coperta</i> and +fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother and +more glossy. Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs of +pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The +white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy +surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could +execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film +of <i>coperta</i> was then washed over the painting, and the piece was +fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances +it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method +has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally +we should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been +painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely +certain when delicate white patterns have been “picked out” in +a coloured ground.</p> + +<p>Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica +it indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final +firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those +used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an +otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were +placed in a special kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just +visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was +allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films +(silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze.<a name="fa17b" id="fa17b" href="#ft17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Collections.</i>—The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the +most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at +the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan +collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection +is valuable, being rich in “signed” pieces of the first quality. The +Wallace collection and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum +collection, &c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable +examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at +Sèvres have fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be +found in the Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum +at Brunswick contains one of the largest collections known, but many +inferior and doubtful examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St +Petersburg have noteworthy collections. In Italy, the Bargello at +Florence and the museums of Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, Pesaro, +Urbino, Rome and Naples all have collections, whilst interesting +examples of local manufactures are to be found in many of the +smaller Italian towns. The American museums, especially those in +New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine examples.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—F. Argnani, <i>La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine</i> +(Faenza, 1889 and 1903); D. Bonghi, <i>Intorno alle Majoliche di +Castelli</i> (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, “Siena,” in the <i>Nineteenth +Century</i>, September 1900; Hensel, <i>Essai sur la majolique</i> +(Paris, 1836); G.I. Montanari, <i>Majoliche dipinte nella collezione del +N.S.C. Domenico Mazza</i> (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, <i>Di un insigna +raccolta di majoliche</i> (Bologna, 1844); also <i>Di un pavimento in +majolica</i> (Bologna, 1853); J.C. Robinson, <i>Italian Sculpture of the +Middle Ages</i> (London, 1862); E. Darcel, <i>Musée du Louvre: Notice +des faïences peintes</i>; Drury E. Fortnum, <i>Contribution to the History +of Pottery</i> (London, 1868); Delange, <i>Recueil de faïences italiennes +du XV^e au XVII^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, <i>Italienische +Maiolika Fliesen</i> (Berlin); E. Molinier, <i>Les Majoliques italiennes en +Italie</i> (Paris, 1883), also <i>La Céramique italienne au XV^e siècle</i> (Paris, +1888); C. Piccolpasso, <i>I tre libri dell’ arte del Vasajo</i>, Castel Durante +1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris, 1841 and +1860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari, <i>Notizia +della raccolta Correr</i> (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, <i>A Descriptive +Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum</i> +(London, 1873); Beckwith, <i>Majolica and Faience</i> (New York, 1877); +G. Corona, <i>La Ceramica</i> (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, <i>Istoria delle +fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi</i> (Pesaro, 1879); A. Genolini, +<i>Majoliche italiane</i> (Milan, 1881); Mely, <i>La Céramique italienne</i> (Paris, +1884); J.E. Jacobsthal, <i>Süd-italienische Fliesen</i> (Berlin, 1886); +Bertolotti, <i>Figulini, fonditori, e scultori</i> (Milan, 1890); H. Wallis, +<i>Italian Ceramic Art</i> (1897), <i>The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic +Art of the Italian Renaissance</i> (1900), <i>The Art of the Precursors</i> (1901), +<i>The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century</i> (1902), <i>Oak-leaf +Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware</i> (1903), <i>The Albarello</i> (1904), +also <i>Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana</i> (1905), and <i>Italian Ceramic +Art: Figure Designs</i> (1905); Tesorone, <i>L’Antico Pavimento delle +Logge di Raffaello in Vaticano</i> (Naples, 1891); Columba, <i>Il “Quos +Ego” di Raffaello</i> (Palermo, 1895); Drury E. Fortnum, <i>Majolica</i> +(London, 1896); also <i>Fortnum Collection in the Oxford Museum</i> +(London, 1896); O. von Falke, <i>Majolika</i> (Berlin, 1896); also +<i>Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italienischen Majoliken</i> (Leipzig, +1899); Antaldi Santinelli, <i>Museo di Pesaro</i> (Pesaro, 1897); De +Mauri, <i>L’Amatore di Majolica</i> (Milan, 1898); E. Hannover, <i>De +Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence</i> (Copenhagen, +1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L. H.; W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">French Pottery from the 15th to the 19th Century</p> + +<p>The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here, +for it was, in the main, similar to that which was made generally +in Europe—rudely shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated +with modelled ornament and glazed with yellow or brown lead +glaze, or, if coated with white slip, decorated with bright green +glazes, and towards the end of the 15th century with greyish +blue. The later specimens of this simple ware—pronouncedly +Gothic in feeling—were often extremely decorative. Avignon, +Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly +national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work, +the reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumulates +that from time to time the princes and great nobles imported +Spanish or Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decoration +of their palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought +Jehan de Moustiers and Jehan-le-Voleur, “<i>ouvriers en quarrieaux +peints et jolis</i>,” in 1391, to paint tiles for his palaces at +Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we have already referred to +the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at Poitiers by John of +Valencia, the “Saracen,” in 1384 for Duke Jean de Berry.<a name="fa18b" id="fa18b" href="#ft18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign work +left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at +a later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia +from Italy to decorate his “Petit Château de Madrid” in 1529, +or when Masseot Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at +Rouen the painted tile pavements for the château of Ecouen, the +cathedral of Langres, and other places, nothing came of the +imported methods; the works were executed and left no traces +on the general pottery of the country. During the 16th century, +however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France +of distinctive quality, and both eminently French—the Henri-Deux +ware and the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:326px; height:419px" src="images/img738a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48.—Tazza of Oiron pottery. +(Louvre.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:90px" src="images/img738b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Oiron Potter’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Henri-Deux</i>, <i>Oiron</i> or <i>St Porchaire</i> ware, for all these names +have in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery, +specimens of which are now valued at more than their weight in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +gold, was once believed to have been made by the librarian +Bernard, and his assistant Charpentier, for their patroness +Helène de Hangest about 1529 at her château at Oiron, near +Thouars.<a name="fa19b" id="fa19b" href="#ft19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a> A few years ago this theory was discarded in favour +of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of St +Porchaire in the same region;<a name="fa20b" id="fa20b" href="#ft20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> but even of this theory there +is insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the +maker and the place of origin. All we know is that the ware +dates from the reign of Henry II., and that it was probably made +somewhere near Oiron, +as most of the specimens +have been found +in that district. The +work is <i>sui generis</i>, +for it had no direct +ancestry, neither did +it leave any mark on +contemporary French +pottery. Sixty-five +pieces of the ware (see +fig. 48) are known to +be in museums and +private collections; +the Louvre and the +Victoria and Albert +Museum have the best +collections of their +kinds, but the Rothschilds +still hold the +greater number of examples. +The ware is +fashioned in a simple +whitish pipeclay, and +ornamented with interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of +the period, inlaid in yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The +forms are generally graceful, but some examples are over-elaborate +and overloaded with modelled ornament. The pieces +were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas, ewers, +holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been +“thrown” and “turned” to a perfect shape, metal tools, such +as were used by the bookbinders and casemakers of that day, +were pressed into the clay, so as to form sunk cells of ornamental +tooling. These cells were carefully filled with finely-prepared +slips of other clays, that would burn yellow, buff or dark-brown; +and when the whole was dry the piece was carefully smoothed +again, and moulded reliefs were +attached, or touches of colour were +applied. After being fired the ware +was glazed, apparently with the +ordinary lead glaze of the time carefully +prepared and fired again. At +a later period the ornament was +not inlaid in this elaborate manner, but was simply painted, +as indeed it might all have been so far as decorative effect is +concerned.</p> + +<p><i>Palissy Ware.</i>—Bernard Palissy was a genius of original +talent, but, at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained +a legendary rank as one of the great potters of the world which +his pottery does not warrant. He is supposed to have spent +sixteen years in the search for the white enamel which was being +used all the time in Italy and Spain—probably he was searching +for the mystery of Chinese porcelain—and when he settled down +to make the “Palissy ware,” he did nothing more than carry to +perfection the methods of the village pot-makers of his own +district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed groups of moulded +plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with crude green, +brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a well-prepared +lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators, +like A. Cléricy and B. de Blémont, who executed works quite as +good as those of their master; but their works also vanished and +left no permanent impression on the general trend of French +pottery.</p> + +<p>Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed +over the French border and attempted to introduce the manufacture +of their tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works +of Gambin and Tardessir of Faenza, established at Lyons about +1556; of Sigalon at Nîmes in 1548; of Jehan Ferro at Nantes +about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed impetus +came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague, +became duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists, +working under princely patronage, planting their decadent art +in the centre of France. The first efforts met with little success +until, with the appearance of the Conrades from Savona, who +were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get the genuine ware of +Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of the Conrades +or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased +majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder, +the colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited. +The first departure from Italian traditions is seen in the ware +of the so-called “Persian style” of Nevers—probably adopted +from contemporary work in Limoges enamels on metal—where +conventional and fanciful designs of flowers and foliage, birds, +animals or figures were thickly raised in white enamel on a +ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the middle +of the 17th century the Italian style of design appears to have +been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in +blue or in polychrome, but really imitated from the “Delft” +copies of Chinese and Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and +Moustiers became famous for their distinctive wares Nevers +copied their designs also, and on a gradually descending scale +the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th century, when +France was flooded with the rude <i>Faiences patriotiques</i> from +this centre.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:473px" src="images/img738c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.—Dish of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in blues and +deep red.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:104px" src="images/img739.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Nevers Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces +of Italian influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the +famous Poterats in the later part of the 17th century. A new +scheme of ornamentation was gradually evolved in the daintily-designed +scalloped and radiating patterns adapted from oriental +fabrics, lace and needlework, and from the ornamental devices +of contemporary printers. These designs, having been skilfully +drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue, strong yellow, +light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief, applied as +flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and sparkling +ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian +majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that +rival factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +Quimper, Lille, and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and +Lille made fine pottery of this class at the end of the 17th and +in the early 18th century. It was imitated at Nevers, the +potters’ marks shown being those of J. Bourdu and H. Borne. +In the south of France, Pierre Clérissy established the industry +at Moustiers in 1686, and, though the early Moustiers ware bears a +strong resemblance to the debased Italian majolica of the time, +the Moustiers painters soon left that +behind, and on a glaze of inimitable whiteness and softness they +deftly pencilled blue patterns based on the engravings of designs +after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a later date Olerys, who had +been to Alcora to introduce the French faience into Spain, +returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale polychrome style +very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are covered with +patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale green +and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the +grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of +Callot. Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as +those at Apt, Ardus and Montauban, and even at Narbonne, +Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just as the northern factories +had sprung from Rouen.</p> + +<p>We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns +in the Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly +followed at all the French factories during the 18th century. +At Strassburg a fresh impetus was given in this direction when, +about 1721, Charles Hannong introduced the practice of painting +his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze colours used by +the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French potter +to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and +moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the +coveted porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe. +This new departure marks the end of the best period of French +faience, but so successfully did it meet the demands of the time +that it gradually displaced the old method of decoration where +the colours were painted on the raw glaze and fired along with +it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new ware +in the first half of the 18th century at Niederviller, Lunéville and +Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at +Rouen, Sinceny, Marseilles, &c. With its general adoption the +old French faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed, +to make way for a tin-enamelled imitation of <i>famille-rose</i> +porcelain. But this last style was not of long life. The wealthy +classes were no longer patrons of pottery but of porcelain, and +when, after 1786, the newly perfected English earthenware was +thrown upon the French market, the French faience-makers had +to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of this neater +and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery. +This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary +times, brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we +shall treat of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a +subsequent section.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Collections.</i>—The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British +Museum contain typical examples; but not such collections as are +to be seen in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sèvres, +or the French provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles, +Lille, St Omer, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Deck, <i>La Faience</i> (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and +Garnier, <i>French Pottery</i> (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks, +1884); Le Breton, <i>Le Musée céramique de Rouen</i> (Rouen, 1883); +Milet, (?) <i>Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen</i> (Rouen, +1898); Pottier, <i>Histoire de la faience de Rouen</i> (Amiens, 1870); +L’Abbé H. Requin, <i>Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers</i>, +tome I^er (Paris, 1903); M.L. Solon, <i>The Old French Faience</i> +(London, 1903)—the best survey of the whole subject, with a very +full bibliography. The various volumes of the <i>Gazette des beaux-arts</i> +contain many valuable original articles.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">German, Dutch and Scandinavian Pottery</p> + +<p>In northern Europe until the time of the Renaissance the +making of tiles is the only branch of the potter’s craft of artistic +rank. The pavement tiles of Germany of the Gothic period, +examples of which have been found in the valley of the Rhine +from Constance to Cologne, often bear designs of foliage or +grotesque animals full of character and spirit. Their decoration +is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood or clay, or +by “pressing” the tile in a mould to produce a design in relief. +The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze—green, +brown or yellow—but is generally left unglazed.</p> + +<p>Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as +the 14th century for the construction of stoves, such as have +continued in use in Germany to the present day. About 1500 a +development took place in the combination of glazes of different +colours on a single tile. In the middle of the 16th century +Renaissance ornament appears in place of Gothic canopies and +tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used in combination +with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the +costume of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches +are a favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares +of similar technique known as <i>Hafnergefässe</i>, which have been +wrongly attributed to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were +made not only in that city but also in Silesia and at Salzburg, +Steyr, and elsewhere in Upper Austria; their manufacture +continued into the 18th century.</p> + +<p>Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on +a white enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany +about 1525, and it is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel +should really be associated. The same style survived for more +than a century and a half in the stoves and pottery made by the +Pfau family at Winterthur in Switzerland, from the end of the +16th century onwards. An interesting development is exhibited +by certain rare productions, of Silesian origin, dating from about +1550, with decorations in coloured enamels which are prevented +from flowing together by a strong outline incised in the clay.</p> + +<p><i>Stoneware</i>.—The most important feature of the history of +German pottery is the development of stoneware along the +valley of the Rhine. This ware is of a highly refractory white +or grey body of intense hardness, glazed by the introduction of +salt into the kiln when the highest temperature was reached. It +was exported in large quantities through the markets of Cologne +and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England, France and other parts +of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in its decoration +of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the German +potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers.</p> + +<p>The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at +Siegburg near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to +the neighbourhood, made from local clay, must have been made +and exported in considerable quantities at least as early as the +15th century; plain beer-jugs of that date with cylindrical neck +and slightly swelling body have been unearthed in London and +the eastern counties of England. In the 16th century an artistic +development took place, and the potters were formed into an +exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture +lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent +attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a +creamy white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely +coloured by staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression +with small stamps or by the application of reliefs pressed from +separate moulds. The motives include sacred and classical +figure subjects, portraits of contemporary sovereigns, and +armorial bearings, with accessory foliage in which a survival +of Gothic feeling is often perceptible. Characteristic forms are +the high tankard (<i>Schnelle</i>) and the ewer with long spout (<i>Schnabelkrug</i>), +but the fancy of the potter also found expression in +various quaint or extravagant forms.</p> + +<p>At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained +importance about 1550, and was continued for over seventy +years; 1539 is the earliest date known to occur on this ware. +The pieces were of two kinds, brown-glazed and grey; the latter +usually decorated with blue. The favourite form is a baluster-shaped +jug with heraldic designs or a frieze of figures round the +middle. The subjects are from Scripture history or contemporary +peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham and the +German and French “Little Masters.” Examples are known +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +bearing dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among +them Ian Emens and Baldem Mennicken; but it must not +always be inferred that a piece is as old as the date introduced +in its decoration, for the same set of moulds might be used for +many years.</p> + +<p>Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen +near Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as <i>Bartmänner</i>, from +the bearded mask applied in front of the neck, covered with +a brown glaze, which in later examples is often coagulated +into thick spots, were first made here towards the end of the +15th century, and continued to be the staple product well into +the 17th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards or +Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England, +Scandinavia and the Low Countries, were mostly made here. +At Cologne itself there were also factories, probably before +the 16th century, the later productions of which resemble +those of Frechen.</p> + +<p>During the 17th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware +centre was the district surrounding Höhr-Grenzhausen in Nassau +known as the Kannebäckerländchen, where artistic ware was +being made before 1600. Soon after that date manganese +purple was first used in the decoration in addition to cobalt +blue, and henceforward colour in combination with impressed +and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede +decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes, +foliage on wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels +of large size and fantastic shape appear beside the standard +forms of the earlier factories. In the 18th century the forms +of beer-vessels became stereotyped in the globular jug with +cylindrical neck and the cylindrical tankard, while tea and +coffee pots, inkstands and other vessels, hitherto unknown, +began to be made. A stoneware manufacture dating back +to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria. The +productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries +consist of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red +body, covered with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently +painted after the first firing in brilliant enamel colours with +figures of the Apostles, the electors of the Empire, or other +oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the wares of Raeren and +Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi; other +minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near +Cologne and Bunzlau in Silesia.</p> + +<p>As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain +Delft potters) and in Germany, attempts were made with +some success, early in the 18th century, to imitate the Chinese +red stoneware, known as <i>boccaros</i>. The early efforts of Böttger, +the discoverer of the secret of true porcelain, at Meissen, belong +to this category. His red ware is of such hardness that it was +cut and polished on the lapidary’s wheel. For some time after +the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed +brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration +was made at Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories +of this class cannot now be identified.</p> + +<p>Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery, +such as the bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical +devices modelled in relief and applied. Slip-covered wares +with <i>graffiato</i> decoration, apparently of indigenous growth +and not inspired by foreign examples, were made well on into +the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in Germany, at +Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in Pennsylvania. +In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made +in the 18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling +the Dutch carved woodwork of the period.</p> + +<p><i>Delft.</i>—One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history +of pottery is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed +state, of the manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at +Delft. It was introduced in that town by Herman Pietersz +of Haarlem, but whence he learned his art is unknown. The +faience-makers (<i>plateelbackers</i>) were one of the eight crafts of +Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 1611. About +1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years +of the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more +serviceable wares of the English potteries, Delft remained +the most important centre of ceramic industry in northern +Europe. The ware is of fine buff-coloured clay, dipped after +the first firing in a white tin-enamel, which formed the ground +for painted decoration; after painting, this was covered with +a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that in its +technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian +majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly +ranked among the greatest achievements of the potter’s art.</p> + +<p>Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in +blue monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular +life in the style of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of +the oriental porcelain imported by the Dutch East India Company +were introduced about 1650 by Aelbregt de Keizer and continued +for some time among the finest productions. At the +same time the earlier tradition was developed in the finely +painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and +Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were +Lambartus van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the +large reeded vases with Chinese floral designs in polychrome, +Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale; +to the last are attributed the pieces with yellow decoration on +an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples with polychrome +decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese +lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker. With the 18th +century came a largely increased demand and a consequent +deterioration in artistic quality. The rise of the German porcelain +factories had its effect in the introduction of overglaze +painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified by the work of the Dextras, +father and son. This innovation, by which the Delft potters +attempted to compete with European porcelain, contributed +to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch required +for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but +not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory +(the rose, the peacock, the three bells, &c.), or the name or initials +of its proprietor.</p> + +<p>A small faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff +about 1755 at Arnhem; its productions were of good quality, +chiefly in the rococo style, marked with a cock.</p> + +<p>The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned +the rise of numerous factories in that country for making +faience in imitation of the Dutch. Among these may be named +Hanau (founded about 1670), Frankfort and Cassel. Others, +such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their inspiration from the +productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (<i>q.v.</i>). At Nuremberg +a factory was founded in 1712, which was but little affected +by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions +are dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs +with long necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted. +Similar wares were made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French +styles were carried by German potters into Scandinavia; factories +were established at Copenhagen in 1722, at Rörstrand +and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1728 and 1758, and at Herrebĝe +in Norway about 1759.</p> + +<p>At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported +English earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops +were established for painting the English cream-coloured ware +with subjects suited to the Dutch taste; and in Germany +cream-coloured wares and <i>steingut</i> in imitation of Wedgwood’s +productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau and elsewhere. +The “Delft” ware of Holland during the 17th century +was a beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters +caught successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value, +of Chinese blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over +the whole of Europe, and its styles were readily imitated by +the potters of all other countries who made a similar ware. +Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so beautiful as +the “blue and white,” is strongly decorative, and one sees in the +polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more +than a trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted +by English earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that +was technically superior displacing a more artistic product.</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 f90 sc">Plate VI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:362px" src="images/img740a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:362px" src="images/img740b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Calaggiolo: 16th century.</td> +<td class="caption">Faenza. Casa Pirota, 1525.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:253px; height:476px" src="images/img740c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Urbino. Decorated by Orario Fontana.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:363px" src="images/img740d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:361px; height:361px" src="images/img740e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Urbino. 1525 (?). A plate of the famous Gonzaga Este service.</td> +<td class="caption">Faenza: early 15th century.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Collections.</i>—For German wares the German museums are naturally +best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid +collections of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany. +Cologne has a wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and +Berlin and Hamburg have good general collections. Copenhagen +and Stockholm are especially good for Scandinavian wares, and +Zürich for Swiss. There are also good collections of German stoneware +in the Victoria and Albert and the British museums, and in the +Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum at Sèvres; but there +are no notable collections of the German tin-enamelled wares out +of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best studied in the +museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an interesting +collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchère in Delft. The +principal museums in England, France and Germany all have fair +to good collections of this renowned ware.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, <i>Geschichte +der europäischen Fliesen-Keramik</i> (Strassburg, 1900; chapters +on the Netherlands and Germany); Walcher von Molthein, <i>Bunte +Hafnerkeramik der Renaissance in Österreich ob der Enns und Salzburg</i> +(Vienna, 1906); Hafner, <i>Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Öfen +in Winterthur</i> (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, <i>Tulip-ware of the +Pennsylvania German Potters</i> (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware, +see Solon, <i>The Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Germany</i> +(London, 1892); Van Bastelaer, <i>Les Grès wallons</i> (Mons, +1885). For Böttger’s red ware, see Berling, <i>Das Meissner Porzellan</i> +(Leipzig, 1900), chap. iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, <i>Histoire +de la faïence de Delft</i> (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on +“La Faïence d’Arnhem” in <i>Gazette des beaux-arts</i>, 2nd series, +vol. xx. (1879). For German faience, see von Falke, <i>Majolika</i> +(Berlin, 1896), and articles by Stieda, “Deutsche Fayencefabriken +des 18. Jahrhunderts,” in <i>Keramische Monatshefte</i>, vols. ii. and iii. +For Scandinavian pottery, see Nyrop, <i>Danske Fajence og Porcellainsmaerker</i> +(Copenhagen, 1881); Strċle, <i>Rörstrand et Marieberg</i> (Stockholm, +1872); Grosch, <i>Herrebĝe-Fayencer</i> (Christiania, 1901). Excellent +accounts of most branches of the subjects are given by +Brinckmann, <i>Das hamburgische Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe</i> +(Hamburg, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(B. Ra.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Later Wares of Spain and Portugal</p> + +<p>We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds +of pottery that have exerted real influence on the historical +development of the art. Offshoots from the main stem that have +developed little or no individuality can only be briefly mentioned. +When the characteristic Spanish-Moorish lustre wares ceased +to be desired by the wealthy they rapidly sank into insignificance, +though as a decorative peasant pottery their manufacture never +really ceased and has been revived again in our day. The course +of pottery importation was changed and the now fashionable +Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and +17th centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the +opposite course two centuries earlier. Besides the influence +which these imported wares had on the Spanish potters, a number +of wandering Italian majolists found their way into Spain, so +that we find the use of painted colour, particularly blue, yellow, +orange, green and purple, making its appearance at various +centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville, &c., but the +most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of +the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian +majolica of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain designs, +probably filtered through to the Spanish potters by the +then popular enamelled Delft wares, is very apparent. The +potteries of Talavera are mentioned as early as 1560, and they +continued at work, with varying fortunes, down to the end of +the 18th century. Many and varied wares were produced, including +tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery +pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, <i>tinajas</i>, holy-water vessels, drug-pots, +and hanging flower vases, together with moulded and painted +snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind +of fruit. Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of +ornament also rendered the ware much inferior to that of Italy +or of France. The popular Talavera wares were imitated elsewhere +in Spain, and a number of factories existed at Toledo in +the 17th century, but their wares are very inferior. In the 18th +century, besides debased imitations of this ware, some coarse +but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo near +Toledo.</p> + +<p>An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be +found in the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from +the early 17th century. It is said that Spanish potters were +settled at this place by the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the +making of a debased form of Spanish majolica continued there +for nearly two centuries. See Barber’s “Tin-Enamelled Pottery,” +<i>Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum</i>, 1907. During the 18th +century determined efforts were made by King Charles III. and +by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery +wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain. +The efforts of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain +works at Buen Retiro near Madrid, which will be mentioned later, +and considerable success also attended the revival of strong +copper lustre, like that of the late Hispano-Moresque wares; +but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those made at Alcora +in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726, +which continued in operation down to the French wars. For +his purposes the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the +famous French pottery centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a +well-known pot-painter. He went to Alcora as chief draughtsman +and designer, having charge of a number of Spanish potters +and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of decoration, +and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best period +recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to add +that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow +and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to +France in 1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he +introduced this new style of delicate polychrome decoration at +Moustiers. The mixture of motives and ideas that animated the +duke and his potters may be seen by the following list of wares +produced about 1750. Vases of different shapes; small teapots; +teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and covers, Dutch +fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entrée dishes; salt-cellars, Chinese +style; <i>escudillas</i> (bowls) of Constantinople; <i>barquillos</i> (sauce-bowls), +Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of different +kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work, +and finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and +refrigerators. Later in the century the manufacture of +porcelain was introduced here, as well as white earthenware +made in imitation of the productions of Wedgwood, and the +tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also practised +in Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times; +but the ware never attained to any distinction and is little known +outside that country. The best-known specimens were made at +Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory was founded in 1767 under +the patronage of the court.</p> + +<p>Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain +and Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots, +and other domestic utensils are still made in these countries for +ordinary domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of +the most primitive kind. Many of these vessels, especially the +<i>tinajas</i> (wine-jars) and water-coolers, are based on ancient, +classical or Arab forms, and in every country market-place it is +still common to see groups of vessels, in unglazed pottery of fine +shape and finish, exposed for sale—a very different state of +things from what obtains in France, Germany, and particularly +in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are being +imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to +the 18th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known +as <i>buccaros</i> was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal. +The body of the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, according +to the special kind of clay. The curious point about this +ware is that, if we may believe contemporary documents, the +vessels were delicately scented, like a ware imported from Mexico; +and the soft vessels are said to have been eaten—a custom +common enough in certain parts of Central and Southern America. +(See M.L. Solon, <i>The Noble Buccaros</i>, 1896.)</p> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">English Pottery from the 16th to the 18th Century<a name="fa21b" id="fa21b" href="#ft21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:303px" src="images/img742a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50.—Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are shown.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:213px" src="images/img742b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.—Common forms of medieval +pottery; the upper part of the slender +jug is covered with a green vitreous lead +glaze; the other is unglazed with stripes +of red ochre.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The course of pottery manufacture in England followed, +generally rather in the rear, that of France, Germany and other +northern countries. Before the coming of the Romans much +pottery of the late Stone age and the Bronze age was made in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +Britain. The Romans introduced their more advanced technique, +and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery, they founded +numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch, +Castor, Uriconium, &c. With the departure of the Roman +legions their simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery +vanished, and Saxon and early Norman times have left us little +but wares resembling those of the Germanic and Frankish productions +(fig. 50). The early middle ages passed without much +improvement, and, though rare specimens—like the ewer in +the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum—proved +that glazed wares were made in this country, the general run +of our medieval pottery vessels never soared above the skill of +the travelling brick or tile maker.<a name="fa22b" id="fa22b" href="#ft22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> The monastic tile-makers, +with their strong, Gothic tile pavements, produced artistic +work of a very high order; but the patrons of the common +potter remained content with his rudely made and simply +glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even +in the 16th century the excellence of English pewter probably +acted as a barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it +was only the importation of foreign wares—Italian, German, +Dutch and French—that stirred up our native clay-workers +to the possibilities of their art. In early Tudor times there +was some importation of Italian majolica as well as of the +Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the +constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to +the eastern counties not +only the stonewares of +the Rhineland and the +“Delft” wares of Holland, +but also emigrant +potters from those +countries who tried to +practise their native +crafts amongst us. The +Civil War appears to +have been unable to +check this new spirit, for +we have the evidence of +dated examples to show +that various immigrants +went on quietly practising +their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the outskirts +of London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent +as well. It seems probable that the earliest influence was an +Italian one, but before this was firmly domiciled it was supplanted +by that of the Dutch and Germans. The first wares of +an improved kind that were made in England are so closely related +to the German stonewares and the “Delft” wares that it +is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of +English or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the +greatest, of English potters was John Dwight, an educated man, +who had held the office of secretary to three successive bishops +of Chester, and who obtained a patent in 1671 for the manufacture +of certain improved kinds of pottery. We have no +knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the potter’s art, +for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan +(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign +potters had settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory +at Fulham, where he resided till his death in 1703. He was +always an eager experimenter, and from his diaries it seems +certain that he was searching after the, then, mysterious Chinese +porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he ever attained +success in this search, for his known productions may +be grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stoneware—mostly +small vessels, teapots, mugs, &c., in imitation of +the Chinese buccaros.<a name="fa23b" id="fa23b" href="#ft23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a> (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed +stoneware made in imitation of, and often not to be distinguished +from, the wares of the Rhineland. But Dwight produced a +considerable number of modelled portrait-busts, statuettes, +&c., all in stoneware of various tints, which entitle him to a +place in the very first rank of potters. The portrait-bust of +Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of Meleager +(British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &c., are worthy of a +sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy +of Lydia Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the +most beautiful works ever executed by an English potter.</p> + +<p>Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style +of “Delft,” was prosecuted with increasing industry in London +on the south side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth. +By the end of the 17th century the same imitation “Delft” +wares were made at Bristol and Liverpool, continuing until, in +the closing years of the 18th century, tin-enamelled earthenware +was abandoned in favour of the perfected English cream-colour. +There is a strong family likeness in all this English “Delft,” +whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body of +the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares +of the continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose, +as it is generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually +painted in cobalt blue of good tone, though inferior in softness +and richness of tint to that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome +painting was not so common, and it differs from that of the +Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a pale yellow colour and +the general absence of any good red like that found on the polychrome +wares of Delft, Rouen, Sic.</p> + +<p>German stoneware also received a well-merited share of attention +long before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible +to distinguish the grey and brown ale-jugs, greybeards, &c., +presumably of English manufacture in the 17th and early 18th +centuries, from their German prototypes. Fulham remained an +important centre of this manufacture, and a fine brown stoneware +was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700; in each +case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to +this day.</p> + +<p>The development of a native English pottery took place in +North Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters, +who manufactured some strongly decorative English wares +by very simple means, was established here from the middle of +the 17th century. Rudely fashioned dishes, jugs, bottles, &c., +were shaped in the local red-burning brick clays, and, while the +pieces were still soft, simple but effective decorative patterns +were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip), trailed on +through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient +and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic +Egyptian, the Roman and the Byzantine potters) has furnished +the peasant potters of every European country with characteristic +wares, but nowhere was it used with greater skill than in +England. The English slip-decorated wares are often spoken +of as “Toft ware,” because Thomas Toft, living in what is now +Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his +pieces (1670, &c.); but similar wares were made at Wrotham +in Kent, in Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +the Staffordshire district must have spread by the time of +the Revolution, for soon after 1690 John Philip Elers, a +Dutchman of good family, settled there and began to make a +superior pottery to any previously made in the district. Elers +is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds +of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known +to have made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite +recently, records of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers +and some other Staffordshire potters with suborning his workmen +and infringing his patents have been brought to light. It +is certain that, from the time of Elers, the Staffordshire potters +made great advances in the fabrication of their wares, and during +the 18th century they evolved two distinctively English kinds of +pottery, (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English earthenware.</p> + +<p><i>Staffordshire Salt-glaze.</i>—It is uncertain when and how the +Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could +be glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height +of the firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland +more than a century before. Many writers have maintained +that the practice was introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain. +Early in the 18th century a fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware +was made in Staffordshire, in many quaint and fanciful forms +largely influenced by Chinese porcelain—still an object of wonder +and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies, plates, dishes, +bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great variety, +and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a +brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time, +a distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent +and to the American colonies.</p> + +<p><i>English Earthenware.</i>—The manufacture of tin-enamelled +pottery scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the +invention of the white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one +of the greatest revolutions in the potter’s art that the world +has ever seen. This was nothing less than the abandonment of +the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of white slip or of +tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white throughout its +substance, prepared by mixing selected white-burning clays +and finely-ground flint (silica).<a name="fa24b" id="fa24b" href="#ft24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The change has generally been +associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters, +but he really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the +Warburtons, Turners and others, the work of half a century’s +experiment and discovery. The ware compared most favourably, +from the point of view of serviceableness, neatness and +mechanical finish, with all that had gone before it, and as the tin-enamelled +wares had almost everywhere in Europe sunk to the +position of domestic crockery—for the Chinese, German, French +and English porcelains had displaced it with the wealthy—this +better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its final +death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be +met with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from +Cadiz to Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the +continental nations soon began a similar manufacture for themselves. +Everywhere this great change was encouraged by the +growing fondness for mechanical perfection, and it is not without +a sigh that a lover of pottery can witness the gradual disappearance +of the painted tin-enamelled wares—degenerate +survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French faience +and Dutch “Delft”—before the unconquerable advance of +another form of pottery which in its inception was based on +technical rather than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a +century passed before the new material was turned to artistic +account.</p> + +<p>By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been +pre-eminently associated with this great change, and with good +reason, for though he had many contemporaries who equalled +or even excelled him in certain kinds of pottery, no other potter +ever approached him in the range of his products and the varied +applications to which he turned the exercise of his remarkable +talents.<a name="fa25b" id="fa25b" href="#ft25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a> True, he soon abandoned the simple Staffordshire +wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to which the +names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the +varied productions of his factory united the best work of a +district fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial +to Wedgwood himself. Thus he adopted and improved the +green and yellow glazes which had come down from medieval +times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate X.), and gave a +new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert services, +candlesticks, &c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-fired +red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &c., +introduced by Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he +invented drab, grey, brown and other colours in similarly hard-fired +unglazed bodies. He neither invented nor alone perfected +the Staffordshire cream-coloured earthenware, but he made it +so well that his “Queen’s ware” was the best of its class. He +undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on grounds of +unglazed blue, green, black, &c., white figures and ornamental +motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and +other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to reproduce +the painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours +painted over a hard black body.</p> + +<p>Wedgwood’s “Jasper ware,” his most original production +(see Plate X.), differed both in nature and composition from all +the species of pottery that had preceded it. In an attempt to +obtain the qualities of the finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood +discovered, after years of experiment, that by mixing together +a plastic white clay and “cawk” or barytes he could obtain a +“body” which might be “thrown” on the wheel or “pressed” +in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and sub-translucent +pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual metallic +oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and black. +The ware resembled “biscuit” porcelain in that it needed no +glaze to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the +culmination of those “dry” or unglazed wares that had been so +largely made in China, Japan and Europe, where the quality +resides in the fired clay material without any adventitious aid +from a glaze. The general practice was to make the body of +the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this with +applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in “white” of the same +kind, “pressed” from intaglio moulds and then applied by wetting +the surface and squeezing—leaving the fire to unite the +vessel and its applied ornament into one piece. Sometimes the +ornament was in a coloured clay applied on a white body, and +we get in the same way black on red, buff on red or black, and +red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety of bodies +produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is exceedingly +great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of +their application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases, +plates, dishes, jardinières, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers, +inkstands, scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every +kind of thing that could be made in clay. Many of the applied +designs, whether of figures or ornament, were very beautiful in +a way, being copied or adapted from Greek and Roman gems, +vases, &c. At their best they are marvellous for the precision and +delicacy of their execution, and it is impossible to imagine that +anything better could have been done in this style. So perfectly +did they represent the taste of their period that attempts +were made at Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce +something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can +be compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great contemporary +Turner (see Plate X.), in beauty of colour or perfection +of workmanship.</p> + +<p>It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired +by mistaken motives; that it was founded on an imperfect +view of ancient art; and that it was marred by its mechanical +ideals; but it must be remembered that it was in perfect harmony +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +with the spirit of the times, and that while it emphasizes for us +the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th century, it marks an +advance in the technical skill of the potter, which is simply +astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone +further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally +supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances +were introduced for the performance of many portions of the +potter’s work that had hitherto been indifferently performed +by rude and exhausting manual toil; and while the application +of mechanism was pushed too far—so that in the first half of the +19th century we find the most inartistic pottery the world has +ever seen—we must regard this even more as a cyclic movement +of human feeling than as the work of any individual, or group +of men. The late 18th century marks the period when pottery +was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux +ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen, +Moustiers, Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the +wealthy, but when it was largely in demand by the poorer classes, +anxious in their turn to have a useful ware which should imitate +the more costly porcelain used by the great. France, Germany, +Sweden, Russia, and later the United States, all followed in the +wake of the English potters, and the printing-press was applied +in all countries to produce elaborate engraved patterns in blue, +brown, green, &c., in order to get an effective-looking ware in +harmony with the spirit of the times, and at the same time +cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the +vanquished tin-enamel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Collections.</i>—The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums +naturally contain the most representative collections of English +pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and +Nottingham, also have good collections, while Birmingham, Manchester +and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall +Museum, London, is rich in early wares found or made in London +and its vicinity. Continental collections of English pottery are +meagre in the extreme and badly described, even in the ceramic +museums at Sèvres and Limoges. The collection at Dresden is +interesting, as it was purchased from the collection made by Enoch +Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In America, the Boston Museum +of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and the Pennsylvania +Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia, contain interesting +examples of wares exported to America in the late 18th and early +19th centuries.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt’s <i>Ceramic +Art in Great Britain</i> (1878), and <i>Life of Josiah Wedgwood</i> (1865); +Chaffers, <i>Marks and Monograms</i> (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900); +Meteyard’s <i>Life of Wedgwood</i> (1865-1866), and Shaw’s <i>History of the +Staffordshire Potteries</i> (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always +be of interest as original sources of information; but the later works, +such as Church, <i>English Earthenware</i> (1884; new edition, 1906); +<i>Josiah Wedgwood</i> (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907); Solon, <i>Art of the Old +English Potter</i> (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, <i>Catalogue of English +Pottery in the British Museum</i> (1903); Burton, <i>English Earthenware +and Stoneware</i> (1904), are the best authorities.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Chinese Pottery and Porcelain<a name="fa26b" id="fa26b" href="#ft26b"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p> + +<p>In China, as in every other country where pottery-making +has been practised for centuries, we find a natural progression +from primitive pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture +to the pottery of other primitive races the world over. +We find too the early use of bricks, tiles, &c., as in Egypt and +Assyria; and then the usual succession of domestic utensils, +funeral vases, and vessels for religious ceremonials. There is +nothing to show that the potter’s wheel made its appearance in +China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese potters have used +the simple methods of carving and “pressing” from moulds +which preceded the use of the potter’s wheel, even more than +other nations. In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) +the difference between the processes of “throwing” and of +“pressing” from moulds is clearly described,<a name="fa27b" id="fa27b" href="#ft27b"><span class="sp">27</span></a> and it is instructive +to note that many early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery +are remarkably like their works in bronze. In the same way +there is no definite date to which we can refer the introduction +of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of glazed ware known +are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han dynasty +(206 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>-<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 220), a date much later than that of the earliest +glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the intercourse +between China and the West, at times historically remote, +it is not impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with +a glaze was carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any +case the Chinese developed the potter’s art on their own lines, +for we have ample evidence that from very early times they +fired their pottery to a much higher temperature than was +common in the west of Asia, and so discovered types of glaze +and of pottery that remained for centuries a mystery elsewhere. +The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned are +quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria, +Egypt or Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can +scarcely be scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze +has become iridescent by age as though it contained oxide of +lead. The easily-fired friable wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece +seem to have had no attraction for the Chinese, and the glazes +on their hard-fired wares were naturally different from those +already described. The Chinese appear to have been the first +potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high temperature +pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed +with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary +refractory clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this +technique lay the germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced +form of pottery the world has yet seen. It is necessary to consider +the pottery that preceded porcelain, for not only was it +the matrix out of which porcelain grew, but in certain districts +of China, where the necessary materials for porcelain are not +found, similar wares have been manufactured without intermission +to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the +technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by +developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the +shaping and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured +enamels or glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great +authority on the Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on +two outstanding types of Chinese pottery other than porcelain +which have exercised considerable influence on the doings of +European potters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1: <i>Yi-Hsing-Yao</i>.<a name="fa28b" id="fa28b" href="#ft28b"><span class="sp">28</span></a>—This is the pottery, generally of unglazed +fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the province +of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these fine-coloured +clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished +pieces, such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-bottles +and wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under +the Ming dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1368-1643) and later.<a name="fa29b" id="fa29b" href="#ft29b"><span class="sp">29</span></a> It was imported +into Europe by the Portuguese, who applied to it the name <i>boccaro</i>, +formerly given only to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico +and Peru.<a name="fa30b" id="fa30b" href="#ft30b"><span class="sp">30</span></a> This pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder +as the poles in nature as well as origin, but the potters of northern +Europe regarded every kind of pottery coming from the Far East +as a species of porcelain, and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs, +bowls, cups, &c., in imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread +during the late 17th and early 18th centuries under the name of red +porcelain. Dwight, Elers and Böttger are notable names in this +connexion.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Kuang-Yao</i>.—The name given by the Chinese to the pottery +made in the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of +manufacture in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this +article it is sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are +dense, hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured +grey, red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with +thick, variegated or opalescent glazes, grey, blue, green, yellow or +red, but flecked, veined and streaked with other tints. The wares +are so like the productions of the Sung dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 960-1279) +that modern pieces are often confounded with the more precious +productions of that epoch. One of the first lessons to be learnt by +the student of Chinese pottery is that, with great reverence for their +own antiquities, the Chinese of every period have endeavoured to +reproduce the famous wares of their ancestors, and often with such +skill as to deceive the most expert. Even when the manufacture +of porcelain was at its highest in King-tê-chên, the potters in other +parts of China carried on the production of glazed or unglazed +pottery in coloured clays, and, further, the directors of the imperial +factory from time to time strove to reproduce the most archaic wares +that could be found in the Empire.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate VII</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:475px" src="images/img744a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:317px; height:474px" src="images/img744c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:481px" src="images/img744b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chinese. Sang de Bœuf.</td> +<td class="caption">Chinese. Turquoise glaze “crackled.”</td> +<td class="caption">Chinese. Flambé.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="5"><img style="width:720px; height:262px" src="images/img744d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Purple Soufflé.</td> +<td class="caption">Coral red.</td> +<td class="caption">Peach blow.<br />Pigeon’s blood.</td> +<td class="caption">Lemon yellow.</td> +<td class="caption">Apple green.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span></p> + +<p><i>Porcelain.</i>—By this word we distinguish broadly all those +pieces of pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and +translucent, and also, broadly speaking, in which the material +is white throughout, unless minute quantities of metallic oxides +have been definitely added to colour it. It is impossible to +draw any hard and fast line between porcelain and stoneware, +for both may be thoroughly vitrified and translucent in thin +pieces—but generally the stonewares are drab, red or brown in +the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the precious +quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is not +even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or earthenware. +The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to +fire their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified +stonewares before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed +these stonewares with fusible mineral substances, and from that +stage the natural refinements of methods must necessarily have +produced porcelain. In regions where beds of primary clay +were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter than +elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic +rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance +and one that was more readily fusible and Would spread better +over the whole piece. How many centuries were needed before +a ware white enough and translucent enough to be now classed +as porcelain was produced we cannot know; but the process +was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some Chinese writers +in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote periods +the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens +are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution, +and literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle +such a difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present +time is that something worthy of the name of porcelain was +made during the Tang dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 618-907), but we have no +pieces earlier than the Sung dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 960-1259), and the +majority of these are perhaps more fitly described as stoneware +than as porcelain.</p> + +<p>Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, +and all the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery +of distinguished merit was made in many districts, and much +of it has been classified as porcelain because the body is whitish +and vitrified, though it is much inferior in finish and in translucence +to the perfect white porcelain of later times. It is +necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any pottery +with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th +century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs +incised or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration +is to be found in the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, +whether stoneware or porcelain, were covered. The glaze is +never clear and white as at later times; it is generally uneven, +imperfectly fused and presents all the marks of an imperfect +technique. The nearest approach to white is found in an opalescent +grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The +glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the <i>céladons</i>, +a family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth +and softness. Besides the <i>céladons</i> which are the most uniform +in tints of the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender, +brownish yellow and brownish black, but these are all subtly or +boldly mottled, splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones +of red, blue, purple, opalescent grey and black. The most famous +of these now very rare Sung wares were the stonewares of Chunchow, +remarkable for their rich and varied glazes, the black +variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province, “hare’s fur +cups” and “partridge cups” of collectors, and the four principal +wares that may be called porcelain, viz.—the <i>Ju-Yao</i>, made at +Ju-chow in Honan; the <i>Kuan-Yao</i> (Kuan = “official” or “imperial”), +made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; +the <i>Ko-Yao</i>, made at Liu-t’ien; and the <i>Ting-Yao</i>, made at +Tung-chow in Chih-li.</p> + +<p>This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known +beyond its native country, for the first mention of porcelain +outside China appears in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller, +Sulaiman, who visited China in the 9th century and wrote: +“They have in China a very fine clay with which they make +vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen through +them”;<a name="fa31b" id="fa31b" href="#ft31b"><span class="sp">31</span></a> and its first appearance in the west is always given +as <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty +pieces to the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an +export trade was developed, particularly in the <i>céladon</i> wares of +Lung-chüan, a city in the south-west of the province of Chehkiang. +This famous ware, the “green porcelain” of the Chinese, +probably made as an imitation of jade, exists mostly in the form +of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing incised or fluted +patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green glaze of +indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is +white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the +glaze have a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste, +and when the ware was reproduced in later times this reddish-brown +tint had to be imitated artificially. The ware was highly +prized both in China and Japan, in the islands of the East Indies, +and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia it was largely +used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the last +century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco. +“Archbishop Warham’s cup” at New College, Oxford, which +is the first specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that +we can now produce, is a <i>céladon</i> bowl with a silver-gilt mount +of the time of Henry VIII.<a name="fa32b" id="fa32b" href="#ft32b"><span class="sp">32</span></a></p> + +<p>The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai +Khan (grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in +Tatar hands until 1368, when the great native dynasty of the +Mings was established. During this period (Yuan dynasty), +roughly a century, one can say little of ceramic progress, for the +wares of the period are singularly like those of Sung times. But +two important changes took place which had a marked influence +on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain—(1) the +concentration of the industry at King-tê-chên, which was consummated +in the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the +introduction of painted decoration under a white transparent +glaze, the idea of which (and perhaps the necessary cobalt +mineral) was brought from Persia.</p> + +<p>King-tê-chên was already a pottery centre when its factories +were rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming +dynasty, who made it the imperial factory, so that the best +porcelain workers were attracted thither, and in the other old +centres the industry was abandoned or some earlier manufacture +was continued, as in the southern province of Kiang-su. In the +province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain manufacture has +also continued. We have already mentioned the black glazed +cups, “hare’s fur,” &c., made in this province in Sung times, +and, while King-tê-chên was to be the scene of the developments +of the coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien +perfected the manufacture of the famous and beautiful white +porcelain in bowls, dishes, cups and statuettes, best known +under its French title of <i>blanc de Chine</i>.</p> + +<p>The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to +the beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be +older, speak strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. +The pieces are massive both in form and substance, and the ornament, +consisting of figures mounted or on foot, animals, bands +of diaper or foliage, or pendant necklaces, is strongly silhouetted +by a raised outline recalling the decorative methods of the +Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also recall the +methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was +glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes, +similar in nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and +quite unlike the Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined +spaces and melted at a lower temperature. The Grandidier +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +collection in the Louvre, the Franks collection at the British +Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, as well as all the +great private collections of Chinese porcelain, contain samples +of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.</p> + +<p>The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to +take an entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with +its brilliant painted decorations in blue, green and purple on +a pure white ground, exercised its natural fascination over men +as keen in colour-sense as the Chinese potters. With the concentration +of the industry at King-tê-chên, and the rapid improvement +in technical skill and knowledge that followed, the +production of a fine porcelain with a transparent white glaze +was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian pot-painter +the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the Chinese +porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and +with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from +copper, the foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. +It would be idle to try and fix any specific date for this important +development, which took more than a generation to perfect, +but it is reasonably accurate to say that the blue and white +painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th century and were +fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century. Chinese +collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of +Suen-tê (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1426-1435), of Chêng-hwa (1465-1487), and next +of Yung-lo (1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour +used during these reigns is spoken of as “Mahommedan” blue, +so that it was evidently brought from some country to the west. +This 15th-century blue and white porcelain is admittedly the +finest of its class, and though the Chinese never abandon an old +method and have continued to make blue and white porcelain, +often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may be, +rarely equal these.</p> + +<p>The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already +been mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours +was largely used during the same period. At first it appears as +a general ground colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then +vessels were made in special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to +display its qualities, finally it was used either alone or in conjunction +with blue in painted designs under a white glaze of +exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the 15th century +describes one of his pieces as being decorated with “three red +fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly +outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as +to dazzle the eye.”</p> + +<p>Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in +Ming times are the marvellous “eggshell” porcelains, called +by the Chinese “bodyless” from their extreme thinness. As +early as the reign of Yung-lo (1403-1424) these delicate wares +were in high repute, and their manufacture has been continued +ever since with varying skill and success. In spite of their +extreme thinness the specimens have designs of dragons in the +midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c., engraved in the +paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is +so delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with +liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured +glaze which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized +of these are the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi +(1488-1505) and Chêng-tê (1506-1521).</p> + +<p>Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made +its appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, +commonly spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as +“grain of rice” porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited +consummate skill in the manufacture of perforated pieces of all +kinds. Sometimes the perforations are left clear, but in the +rice-grain pattern the incisions are generally filled up with the +melted glaze so that they become like so many windows in the +walls of the piece. We have already seen that the Persian +potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century, +but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated +in China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional +proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.</p> + +<p>It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find +the first examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired +over the glaze. It seems probable that the practice grew out of +the use of enamels on metal, which had spread from Byzantium +to China, and which the Chinese developed with remarkable +skill. It is important to remember that the very nature of the +glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high temperature +to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to cobalt-blue +and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the +rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some +other means must be found, and so the device was adopted of +taking a finished piece of blue and white and decorating it +further by very fusible colours painted over the fired glaze and +then attached to it by refiring at a lower temperature equal +only to that used by the enameller on metals. At first the +on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in the +Ming (<i>San ts’ ai</i>) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and +yellow. Then we get the Ming (<i>Wan-li Wu ts’ ai</i>) five-colour +scheme, in which the same three colours are combined with an +over-glaze red and all are painted over a skeleton pattern in +under-glaze blue. This development, as its name implies, only +took place in the reign of Wan-li (1573-1620).</p> + +<p>At this time King-tê-chên must have produced a very large +quantity of porcelain. The requirements of the court were +enormous, for in 1583 one of the supervising censors, remonstrating +with the emperor, declared that one year’s demands +comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell writes: “The +colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the abundance +of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present +day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection +of bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may +be seen with sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter, +or ladling syrup out of large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher’s +shop without a cracked Wan-li jar standing on the counter to +hold scraps of meat.”</p> + +<p>Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the +wares of this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship +to the wares of the preceding and also of later periods, but the +influence of the growing export trade doubtless told in the same +direction. For several centuries the native Chinese porcelain +had been exported to all the neighbouring countries, and through +Persia and Cairo to the West. No long time elapsed before +the Chinese adopted forms, colours and decorations for these +export wares, not in accordance with Chinese usage, but presumably +more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence the +Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the +15th and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries. +Now, for the first time, there came a direct European demand, +and cargoes of ware were brought to Europe by the Portuguese +and afterwards by the Dutch, which were increasingly decorated +in fashions foreign to Chinese taste. The production of these +export wares slowly modified the taste of the Chinese themselves +and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th and early +18th centuries.</p> + +<p>The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming +dynasty definitely separated the first great period of Chinese +porcelain from its second and culminating period. The works +at King-tê-chên were destroyed more than once in the 17th +century, but in spite of these difficulties the potters must have +remained, for the reigns of K’ang-hi (1662-1722), Yung-chêng +(1722-1735), and K’ien-lung (1736-1795) covered a century +and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic production +was reached and passed. It is only possible here to +sketch in broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which +has formed the subject of many learned works.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, +when a spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions +of their ancient kilns should receive no less attention than the +new methods of decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the +same time many of the discoveries of the later Ming days were +carried on to perfection. The first remarkable productions of +the reign of K’ang-hi, the famous green and blood-red <i>Lang-yao</i> +glazes, were made in the attempt to produce glazes like those +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +of old times. With the more carefully prepared body and glaze +the results are strikingly different and, as we think, superior, +for it is difficult to believe that any example of the “sacrificial” +red of the reign of Suen-tê can have been as glorious as the red +<i>Lang-Yao</i>, the crown of all that group of glazes known from +their general colour as <i>sang de boeuf</i> (see example, Plate VII.). +In the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming +period was continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue +pigment be not so pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative +effect of the blue and white of the reign of K’ang-hi (see example, +Plate VIII.) has never been equalled in Europe. The subjects of +the blue and white pieces of this period are very varied, including +religious, ceremonial, battle and hunting subjects, homely +scenes such as ladies and children amusing themselves in gardens, +or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous monsters disporting +themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called “hawthorn +ginger jars” form a class by themselves in the opinion of modern +collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen +being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility +of the painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and +white of this reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the +harmonious relation between the tones of the white and the blue, +especially when it is seen <i>en masse</i>, as in the famous Dresden +collection.<a name="fa33b" id="fa33b" href="#ft33b"><span class="sp">33</span></a></p> + +<p>The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that +the pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened +by the use of slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of +powder-blue appear to have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment +was not applied by a brush, but was blown on through +a tube, one end of which was covered with fine muslin, in a rain +of minute drops. This ground was either carried over the whole +piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating blue glaze—in which +case it was generally covered with conventional designs pencilled +in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze—or panels were reserved +in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in +on-glaze colours.</p> + +<p>In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived +or re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as +of so many others in our great European collections, date only +from the beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and +pierced or reticulated pieces were made to great perfection, and +the coloured glazes in light green, turquoise, purple and black +(see Plate VII.) reached their height. The early glazes of this +type appeared in Sung times (see above), but on the finely prepared +K’ang-hi wares much more striking and brilliant colour effects +were obtained. As in old times, for the production of some of +these glazes a departure was made from the general Chinese +methods. The vessels were first fired to the “biscuit” state, +and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese +were fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give +the “peacock-blue,” “kingfisher-green” and “aubergine-purple” +glazes. Many varieties of single-coloured glazes were +made by covering a white glazed piece with on-glaze colour, and +in this way new shades of coloured glaze, such as the coral-reds +(Plate VII.), were obtained. The various brown or bronze-coloured +grounds, so well known in the so-called “Batavian” porcelain, +were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of some ochreous +clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do not +exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for they +carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze +colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance +of a vivid green enamel (<i>famille verte</i>; see Plate VIII.), and finally, +in the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and +purple colours predominate (<i>famille rose</i>; see Plate VIII.). It +is probable that these latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, +were introduced into China from Europe, but the Chinese employed +them whole-heartedly, until in fact they largely ousted +all the earlier types of colour decoration.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Yung-Chêng (1723-1735) the diverse +styles seem to have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng +was an ardent collector of ancient Chinese porcelains, +and he sent to King-tê-chên specimens of the most ancient +wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to be reproduced, while +at the same time he and his court patronized the wares in foreign +styles and colours (Japanese and European.)</p> + +<p>The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th +century, but in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the +“iron-rust” and “tea-dust” glazes of the reign of K’ien-lung +in harmony with old Chinese effects, what we must regard as +the inferior decorative style triumphed, and we see the gradual +disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of (1) wares of +a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze colours, +principally those of the <i>famille rose</i>, and (2) a very large production +of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated +with on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste +of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>This “armorial” china, so much of which was once foolishly +ascribed to Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material +is seldom of the best quality, and the Chinese rendering of +European arms and crests, or stiff copies of European engravings +surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of diaper, &c., does nothing +to recommend it. A great deal of this ware, though manufactured +at King-tê-chên, was decorated at Canton, and the +school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this +export trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure +Chinese taste, especially some of the ruby-backed plates and +dishes and the small cups and saucers decorated with deftly-painted +designs of cocks, peonies, &c.</p> + +<p>It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the +replacement of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by +those painted in colours over the glaze profoundly influenced +the style of painting. In the earlier wares the treatment is +bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery colour, and the +softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the artistic +charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting +on glass—fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or +cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are +impossible or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering +takes the place of conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate +minuteness of finish supplants the broad freedom of direct +brushwork. During the 18th century the same leaven was at +work on the porcelains of China and of Europe, the East influenced +the West, and the West in its turn bore down the East. +If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European counterfeits, +it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter +and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.</p> + +<p>There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th +century. The European demand was practically killed by the +growth of porcelain works at home, and the imperial patronage, +so great a factor in the production of artistic wares, was fitful +and uncertain. Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) gave some attention +to porcelain, and the pieces made for him and marked “<i>Shen-te-t’ang</i>” +are valued by collectors. The so-called Peking bowls +of his reign (made of course at King-tê-chên) are also of repute. +But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for the +cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and +England served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past +(see the Musée Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign +of the next emperor Hien-fêng (1851-1861) the T’aipings overran +the province of Kiang-si and destroyed King-tê-chên and +its factories. Since then the town has been rebuilt and is once +again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless by the +high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the +Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the +single-coloured, <i>sang de boeuf</i>, <i>flambé</i> and other glazes are being +made, while the highly prized “hawthorn” jars and black-ground +vases are receiving the same undesirable attention.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt1"><i>Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain.</i>—For many +centuries after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from +every other known species of pottery both in its material and its +manufacture. While the pottery of all other countries was generally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +made of coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken “shards” +and fired at a comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain +was compounded from the purest white clays, sand and fusible +rock; it was glazed with fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that +the entire mass became vitrified and translucent. The germ of the +manufacture lay in the discovery of large masses of primary clay +(kaolin) mixed with finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of +which were carefully washed, levigated and purified. The body of +Chinese porcelain varied from time to time within wide limits, but, +broadly speaking, it always consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and +quartz (sand), mixed in various proportions, sometimes with additional +ingredients, according to the quality of ware desired. For the +glaze the purest and cleanest portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse) +were selected and mixed with lime—all being ground to fine powder. +The lime causes the glaze to melt at a lower temperature than would +be necessary for petuntse alone. The lime also gives the Chinese +glazes their luscious softness of aspect and the faint greenish or +bluish tone, while it enabled them to receive the later decorations in +piled-up enamels, impossible on the harder European porcelain +glazes of the 18th century. The finely-prepared glaze was applied +to the clay vessels, before they had been fired, either by dipping, +by painting, or by insufflation; and then glaze and body were +fired together at a very high temperature. For certain glazes—turquoise, +purple, &c.—which were not of the felspathic type, the +vessels were first fired to the “biscuit” state, and the glazes were +then applied and fired at a much lower temperature—the usual +practice of the potters of other countries. When painted wares in +blue and red were first introduced, the necessary pigments were +painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze was applied over them, +and then all was finished at one and the same firing. With the later +enamel colours the piece was first fired as above described, and the +fusible colours were then painted on the glaze, which was of course +like glass. A second firing at a lower temperature fused these on-glaze +colours to the ware. For information on Chinese materials +and methods the reader is referred to the letters of Père d’Entrecolles +in the collection of Jesuit letters known as <i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</i>. +The English reader will find reliable translations of the essential parts +in Bushell’s <i>Oriental Ceramic Art</i>, Dillon’s <i>Porcelain</i>, and Burton’s +<i>History of Porcelain</i>. Later information will be found in Brongniart’s +<i>Traité des arts céramiques</i>, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and +in an article by G. Vogt, <i>Bulletin de la Société d’encouragement pour +l’industrie nationale</i>, April 1900, pp. 530-612.</p> + +<p><i>Collections.</i>—The Franks collection in the British Museum; the +Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr +George Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections +belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at +the Louvre; the collection at the Musée Guimet; the Sèvres +Museum. Fontainebleau, the Musée Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain +Collection—the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of +Fine Arts. New York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the +Garland and other collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection; +as well as magnificent private collections, at the head of which +is that of the late W.T. Walters of Baltimore.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—The older European works on Chinese porcelain +have been superseded by the later books. The following list contains +the best recent books:—S.W. Bushell, <i>Oriental Ceramic Art</i> (New +York, 1897; text separately 1899); <i>Chinese Porcelain before the +present Dynasty</i> (Pekin, 1886); <i>Chinese Art</i>, vol. ii., Victoria and +Albert Museum Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, <i>Traité des arts +céramiques</i> (3rd edition, with valuable supplements by Salvétat, +1877); Dillon, <i>Porcelain</i> (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, <i>Catalogue of +Oriental Pottery and Porcelain</i> (1878); Grandidier, <i>La Céramique +chinoise</i> (1894); Griggs, <i>Examples of Armorial China</i> (1887); +Hippisley, <i>Ceramic Arts in China</i> (Smithsonian Institute, Washington, +1890); Hirth, <i>Ancient Chinese Porcelain</i> (Leipzig, 1888); +Julien, <i>Histoire et fabrication de la porcelaine chinoise</i> (Paris, 1856); +Meyer, <i>Lung-chuan Yao, oder alter Seladon Porzellan</i> (Berlin, 1889); +Monkhouse, <i>History of Chinese Porcelain</i> (1901); O. du Sartel, <i>La +Porcelaine de Chine</i> (Paris, 1881); Burton, <i>Porcelain</i> (1906); Bushell +and Laffan, <i>The Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of +New York</i> (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">European Porcelain to the end of the 18th Century</p> + +<p>Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the +white and translucent pottery <i>par excellence</i>, for when the first +specimens of Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps +as early as the 11th or 12th century, they excited the greatest +wonder and admiration. Cairo was at this time the great mart +for the exchange of the products of East and West, and from this +centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i Khosrau, +the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1035-1042, +was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also +speaks of a translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which +may well have been the progenitor of the glassy porcelains of +Persia, as well as of those made in Italy during the 15th and 16th +centuries. In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1171 the famous Saladin sent from Cairo a +present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain to the sultan of +Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent records +of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the treasuries +of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the +potter’s art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural +that efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious +and beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods +was <i>nil</i>, and for a further two centuries all that Europe manufactured +in the shape of translucent pottery was the artificial +porcelain made with glass, which can only be looked upon as a +substitute for true porcelain. In Italy during the 16th century, +and in France during the century from 1670 to 1770 roughly, +this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At Meissen in +Saxony the famous Böttger made a true porcelain from materials +analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture +was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe +(even in France, the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after +1770), so that by the end of the 18th century, when Chinese +porcelain had reached and passed its zenith, the manufacture of a +similar material was well established in Europe, and the glassy +porcelains had been generally abandoned. The only country +which offered any departure from this general rule was England. +The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French, +and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts +were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758-1781) to introduce +the manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German +counterparts, but these failed and the English potters finally +invented a third kind of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones +were added to the clay and ground rock to give a white translucent +porcelain capable of receiving any form of decoration. +This distinctively English porcelain, perfected about 1800, is not +only the principal kind made in England in our own times, but +its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France, +Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European +potters without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the +18th century all the three kinds of European porcelain were +struggling for supremacy. It is advisable, therefore, to keep +clearly in mind which kind of porcelain is in question, for many +problems of manufacture and decoration are absolutely determined +by the nature of the materials.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 155px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:104px; height:168px" src="images/img748.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Florentine Potter’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest +European porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again +in 1519; while we also read of its manufacture at Ferrara in +1561.<a name="fa34b" id="fa34b" href="#ft34b"><span class="sp">34</span></a> Unfortunately, documentary evidence alone is not +conclusive, and the first European porcelain, known from actual +specimens as well as by documentary evidence, was that made +at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de’ Medici, between +1575 and 1585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to be found +only in great museums and private collections, where they rank +among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the +Florentine potters never fully mastered their difficult material, +for the ware is always imperfect and compares indifferently in +whiteness and translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze +is neither smoothly melted nor free from defects. Obviously +the effect of Chinese blue and white porcelain was aimed at, the +decorations, reminiscent of the style of the Persian +pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone. +These rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive +marks; for at their period the use of painters’ +marks or monograms had become fairly general +on artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best +known marks is the “palle” or balls of the +arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters +“F M M E D II.” for “Franciscus Medici Magnus +Etruriae Dux II.”; while other pieces have a +rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence +and the letter “F.”</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate VIII.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:175px; height:490px" src="images/img748a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:173px; height:490px" src="images/img748b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:156px; height:485px" src="images/img748c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chinese. K’ang-hsi period.</td> +<td class="caption">Chinese. Black ground. K’ang-hsi period.</td> +<td class="caption">Chinese (<i>Famille Verte</i>). +K’ang-hsi period.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:325px; height:529px" src="images/img748d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:341px; height:510px" src="images/img748e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chinese (<i>Famille Rose</i>). Ch’ien-lung period.</td> +<td class="caption">Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K’ang-hsi period.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine +porcelain that have survived to our day a manuscript has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +found in the Magliabechian Library at Florence which states +that the paste was composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass +(powdered rock crystal 10 and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth +of Faenza. To 12 parts of this mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic +clay of Vicenza were to be added, and the pieces glazed with +a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of the Italian +faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a material +unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine porcelain +being the first of a long line of European porcelains the +artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large +quantity of glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they +may almost be regarded as a species of glazed and painted glass. +The technical methods used in their manufacture and decoration, +however, were those of the potter and not of the glass maker.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:88px" src="images/img749a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Paris Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>With the death of Francesco de’ Medici in 1587 it seems probable +that this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end, +and we hear no more of porcelain in Italy for more than a century. +During this century (1587-1687) there can be no doubt that +efforts were made all over Europe to discover the secret of +porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable date we can point +to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of Rouen, +obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture +of porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased +with the death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are +extant in the shape of salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few +vases, the latter of considerable size. The pieces are usually +decorated in blue with patterns in the Rouen style and were +evidently painted by an expert faience painter. In composition, +the porcelain of Rouen, like that of Florence, was of the +artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a similar ware +made its appearance at the faience +works of St Cloud near Paris, and at +various works in the city of Paris. +Well-known pieces, bearing the marks +here shown, formerly supposed to be +the earliest specimens of French +porcelain and the work of Poterat at +Rouen, are probably experimental pieces made in Paris after +the date of Poterat’s discovery, as they differ in important +particulars from his ware.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:95px; height:101px" src="images/img749b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">St Cloud<br />Potters’<br />marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under +the patronage of the French court or of some great French +noble, rapidly assumed a position of importance. The works +at St Cloud received letters-patent from Louis XIV. in 1696, +and the manufacture was continued there down to 1773. The +appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic, for +though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine +quality with a clear and brilliant glaze. The first +efforts appear to have consisted in frank imitations +of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces +decorated only with branches of flowering plum +in relief, or pieces modelled with imbricated or +scale pattern or with delicate flutings, were made. +The earliest colour decoration was naturally in +under-glaze blue, and while quasi-oriental designs +were largely used, the commonest feature is the prevalence +of painted borders like those used on the faience of Rouen +and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze colours +and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never +reached to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory +at Sèvres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most +distinctive French porcelains of the 18th century.</p> + +<p><i>German Porcelains.</i>—While the glassy porcelains of France +were being developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent +order was reached in Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector +of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed an extensive collection of +Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be seen in the Dresden +Museum, and he had established experimental pottery works, +bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief +investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Böttger, +both alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first +European to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the +nature of its materials, and in the appearance of its paste and +glaze. It may be surmised that Böttger was guided toward +this momentous discovery by information brought from China, +though such an idea is always stoutly denied by German +authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that Böttger at +the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European +experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the +problems offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production +was an extremely hard redstone-ware—often erroneously +called “Böttger’s red porcelain”—resembling the Chinese +“boccaros” or red teapots of the Yi-hsing potteries. He had +been anticipated in this direction by Dwight of Fulham, but +the red pottery of Böttger was so intensely fired that it became +dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were +a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the +Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity, +as well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At +the same time (1710) Böttger exhibited a few crude specimens +of greyish-white porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in +1713, and by 1716 its manufacture was definitely established, +though the pieces were still far from perfect. Böttger died in +1719, having had the rare fortune, in his short and eventful life, +to establish in Europe the manufacture of true porcelain.</p> + +<p>The life of Böttger reads like a page of romance, and the +story of the subsequent development of porcelain manufacture +throughout the German empire is hardly less romantic. When +the importance of Böttger’s discovery was recognized, he and +his workmen were removed from Dresden to the Albrechtsburg, +a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so that the +manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All +concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme +rigour doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped +from time to time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a +knowledge of the manufacture, found patrons among the German +princes all eager to gain reputation as experimenters in the new +art of porcelain. Some of these wandering “Arcanists,” like +Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt from them, travelled +all over the empire, and the following list of dates will show +how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent factory at +Meissen:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meissen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1710</td> <td class="tcl">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcc">1744</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Vienna</td> <td class="tcc rb">1718</td> <td class="tcl">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc">1750</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ansbach</td> <td class="tcc rb">1718</td> <td class="tcl">Nymphenburg</td> <td class="tcc">1758</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bayreuth</td> <td class="tcc rb">1720</td> <td class="tcl">Ludwigsburg</td> <td class="tcc">1758</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Meissen.</i>—Although the factory which was founded at Meissen +as a result of Böttger’s discovery remained on its old site until +1863, the porcelain made there has been commonly known as +Dresden porcelain; probably because Dresden was the seat of +the Saxon court, and the enterprise was conducted at the expense +of the electors of Saxony. So jealously were the secrets +of this factory guarded that when Napoleon, the master of +Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use at +Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer, +the director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain +the processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best +example by which we may follow the changes of fashion and +taste that governed the styles of porcelain decoration in Europe +during the 18th century. The early Meissen porcelain was made +from the kaolin found at Aue, near Schneeberg, and while there +is no mention of any other material, we may be sure that clay +and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese <i>kaolin</i> and <i>petuntse</i>, +were obtained from the same quarries, and were used +together. Until after the death of Böttger in 1719 it cannot +be said that the venture was more than a <i>succès d’estime</i>. The +specimens preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the +pieces were generally thick in substance and clumsy in shape, +being often made from the moulds that had been designed for +Böttger’s red-stoneware. Naturally enough these early examples +were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and decoration. +As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were +common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains, +the decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +blue colour being much run and blistered; and when attempts +were made at decoration in enamel colours (<i>i.e.</i> colours fired on +the finished glaze) the result was unsatisfactory, as, owing to +the refractory nature of the hard felspathic material, these colours +frequently scaled off. The later success of the Meissen factory +must be attributed to Herold or Höroldt (who joined the staff +in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to Kandler, a sculptor, +who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of these two men +the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese and +Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while +the composition of the body and the glaze, and the application +of colours and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was +appointed director of the works a few years after 1720, and +retained that post until 1765, while Kandler was chief modeller +from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730 (when the work definitely +emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775 (when +Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen +porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen +porcelain of this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples +of <i>Alt-Meissen</i> command high prices in the sale rooms, +especially in Germany. This appreciation was quite as apparent +in the 18th century, for by 1740 Meissen porcelain had won the +greatest renown in Europe, and was actually exported by way +of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries of the Nearer +East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers as +being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was +its vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen—a +large number for those days—were employed, and the industry +brought large profits as well as great reputation to the Saxon +court. Each year saw some fresh departure from the original +inspiration of the work, some fresh innovation of European +style in design. After 1730 the rude reproductions of Chinese +forms and decorations in white or blue and white were replaced +by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially those decorated +in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a race +with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations +in red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain +factories of Europe. Gradually European <i>motifs</i> became predominant. +The simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively +European shapes with architectural mouldings, +handles and feet. Instead of the dainty Japanese patterns, +we perceive the gradual introduction of “Rococo” scroll-work +(as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or border +for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins, figure-subjects, +hunting scenes, &c., executed in the limited palette of on-glaze +colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from +oriental influence is to be found in the numerous “armorial” +services produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same +period we find the first appearance of a style of decoration that +has persisted to our own times, as a means of passing off pieces +with small flaws in body or glaze, by hiding them among sprays +of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly or some other +winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the surface +of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used +at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general, +and a device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture +was elevated into a distinct style of decoration by later European +factories (<i>e.g.</i> Strassburg, Niederviller, &c.).</p> + +<p>The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory +attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve +apostles, an equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic +proportions, and many models of animals intended for the +decoration of the Japanese palace at Dresden. Many of these +latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and create an +unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame +of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the +little statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed +in a steady stream from his facile hand; for though these figures +have prettiness rather than grace, and <i>flair</i> rather than style, +they are instinct with the spirit of the middle 18th century, and +were eagerly imitated or boldly copied at every factory in Europe. +Only in the <i>biscuit</i> porcelain figures of Sèvres, and in some few +of the portrait figures of Derby, do we find anything artistically +superior. These Meissen statuettes look their best when they +are simply in white; many are grotesque and ugly, and the colour +decorations are usually in very poor taste, the harsh, shining +colours contrasting unpleasantly with the pronounced white of +the porcelain.</p> + +<p>Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at +Meissen. Originating in the simple application of modelled +branches of prunus, &c. in imitation of the white porcelains of +Fu-kien, the method developed until we get not only the +characteristic “May-flower” decoration (see example, Plate IX.), +but also independent sprays and bouquets modelled in porcelain +and coloured with the utmost mechanical precision. It is not +quite clear whether this production of porcelain flowers was +first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,<a name="fa35b" id="fa35b" href="#ft35b"><span class="sp">35</span></a> but it was largely +practised at both places.</p> + +<p>Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames +and clock cases were modelled in the most <i>outré</i> rococo forms +with applied scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their +modelled details picked out in gold and colours, while the success +of the French styles of decoration is still further shown by the +copies of Watteau figures and groups on the more important +vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the Great made sad havoc +with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven Years’ War. +He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on the +latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models, +working moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks +the end of the most distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this +time Sèvres became the most important porcelain factory in +Europe, and the later productions of Meissen were, for the most +part, German versions of the styles initiated at the French royal +factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was at the head +of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler. +They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like +a blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under +the directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen, +fallen from its high estate, was content to follow the lead of +Sèvres.</p> + +<p>After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of +Meissen. The old productions of the factory had become valuable, +and the custom of reproducing them, marks included, was adopted. +Such a practice was not likely to lead to further progress, and, +though the factory was removed from its old site in the +Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to have added anything +to the progress of European porcelain during +the 19th century.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:147px; height:91px" src="images/img750.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">“Dresden” Potter’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>During the initiatory period the “Dresden” +pieces bore the monogram “A.R.” interlaced +(Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716 +pieces intended for sale and not for the use +of the court were marked with the sign of +Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff). +From about 1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze, +with or without accompanying stars, crosses, &c., formed the general +mark, but the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that, +in itself, it is of slight value as a means of identification.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Vienna.</i>—The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in +Vienna occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier, +was granted a patent. He had secured two runaways from +Meissen, Stölzel and Hunger, yet little progress was made until +after 1744, when the factory was bought by the empress Maria +Theresa. At first the traditional styles of Meissen were continued, +but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was produced after +1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours and +elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner. +Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period, +succeeded in producing a more extensive and brilliant palette +of colours than was in use at any other European porcelain +factory in the last quarter of the 18th century; and the gilding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +was rich and elaborate. Apart from its technical merits the ware +has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of decoration showed +pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the saving merits +of the French work in the same style. The works was closed in +1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should +be reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small +Viennese factories, are to be found on the market.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:61px" src="images/img751.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Wegeli’s mark.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Berlin.</i>—The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper +Wegeli, aided by workmen from other German factories, as +early as 1750. This business was unsuccessful and +came to an end in 1757, but its productions are +highly prized on account of their rarity. Success +only came when Frederick the Great brought +workmen, moulds and materials from Meissen +in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works +in 1763, founded the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory. +Though Meissen workmen and methods had been imported, and +the Meissen style governed the earliest productions, Frederick’s +well-known <i>penchant</i> for French art was doubtless responsible +for the fact that the rococo style of decoration was more +determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The +colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being +seldom decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured +enamel, a favourite colour with the great Frederick, +is quite characteristic. The Royal Berlin Factory passed under +a cloud in the troubled condition of the Prussian monarchy +during the early years of the 19th century, and down to 1870 +it was content to follow in the wake of Sèvres like most of +the other European factories. Since about the year 1880, +however, it has developed into the most scientific of European +porcelain works, and it was here that Seger manufactured his +special porcelain, made to reproduce the qualities of the finest +Japanese wares. In spite of this scientific success it must be +remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is artistically disappointing, +being too exuberant for our taste and recalling anything +rather than porcelain in its treatment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Minor German Factories.</i>—It is unnecessary to describe the productions +of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for +not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at +producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin. +In every case the industry was established under the patronage or +at the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate +the success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and +generally the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron +or from his unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his +purse.</p> + +<p>The factory at Höchst was started about 1720 by wanderers from +Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the +patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The +general style of Höchst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary +wares of Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures +and groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780). +He modelled, at Höchst, more than three hundred figures, as well as +many portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end +during the French invasion of 1794.</p> + +<p>Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs +of Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector +palatine from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end +to its activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Höchst +after 1780, and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sèvres and +Dresden were made.</p> + +<p>Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal +factory in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of +fine quality, but without special distinction. Melchior came on here +about 1800, remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg +figures are as highly esteemed as those he modelled at Höchst and +Frankenthal. In the early years of the 19th century elaborate +painting became the rule here, as at the other royal factories, and +copies were made on porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the +Munich galleries. The works is still in existence, in the hands of a +private company, who unfortunately sell many reproductions of the +18th-century wares.</p> + +<p>Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory +from 1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Württemberg. +Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because +the ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been +called “Kronenberg” porcelain.</p> + +<p>Fürstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick. +Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced +before 1770. Fürstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known +styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its +“biscuit” statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in +operation until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction, +imitations of the old pieces are now common.</p> + +<p>Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth, +Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.</p> + +<p>Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous +decorators, like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both +German and oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim, +produced effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a +diamond and rubbing black colour into the lines.</p> +</div> + +<p>While France and Germany were each developing their own +particular type of porcelain, it was only natural that the +kings and princes of other countries should strive to emulate +them in the manufacture of this still rare and highly esteemed +form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the countries to the north +and east seem to have been influenced most by German methods, +whilst those to the south and west followed the French example.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Holland.</i>—The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as +1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude +Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L. +After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the +“Amstel” porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The +ware resembled the German both in material and decoration. The +best porcelain made in Holland was produced at a factory at the +Hague, founded some time after 1775. There is a choice collection +of this ware in the Gemeente Museum at the Hague. No porcelain +appears to have been made in Holland after about 1810 until 1890 +or later.</p> + +<p><i>Denmark.</i>—It has been stated that porcelain of the German type +was made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite +record of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when +potters, modellers and painters from some of the German works +founded the enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII. +in 1779 and converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king’s +patronage, fine porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely +made down to the end of the 18th century. The collection in the +castle of Rosenburg contains many examples of the work of this +period. In the early years of the 19th century the Empire style of +decoration was adopted, and the artistic influence of Sèvres became +paramount. Large sums of money were continually required from +the crown to maintain the establishment until, in 1867, it was sold +into private hands to get rid of an encumbrance. The subsequent +new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen porcelain works must +be noted in the next section.</p> + +<p><i>Sweden.</i>—The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is +connected with the factories at Rörstrand and Marieberg, both in the +environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both +these places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the +18th century, though the Rörstrand works was reopened some fifty +years ago and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains +were of two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the +German, and the other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at +Mennecy in France. It is interesting to note that the decorative +styles in both cases are distinctly French in character.</p> + +<p><i>Russia.</i>—Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain +factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony, +but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the +empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal +fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian +porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype. +In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian +factory followed the example of Sèvres in producing costly dinner +services and extravagant vases of large dimensions.</p> + +<p>Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of +Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and +another by A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these +Moscow factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes, +the most interesting being those representing Russian peasant types.</p> + +<p><i>Hungary.</i>—The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at +Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this +factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived +many collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the +word “Herend” in the paste.</p> + +<p><i>Switzerland.</i>—Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland, +and considering the geographical position of the country it seems +natural that porcelain of the German type should have been made at +Zurich and of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but +these productions are of no particular importance.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:271px; height:88px" src="images/img752a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Lille and Chantilly Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>French Porcelains.</i>—The beginnings of French porcelain at +Rouen and St Cloud have already been mentioned, as they +preceded Böttger’s discovery of true porcelain; but as nothing +was known in France of the methods and materials used by the +German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy porcelain held +sway in France through the greater part of the 18th century. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded +at Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince +de Condé, an enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese +porcelains. One distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain +is its imitation of the Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century, +especially those bearing delicate patterns in the Kakiemon +style. This imitation was not confined to the decoration +alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the delicious +tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the +body of the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel +used by the French faience makers. Similar imitation of the +Kakiemon style of decoration became the rage all over Europe, +and was largely followed at Meissen and in England as well as +in France; but no European imitations equalled those of the +famous Chantilly ware.</p> + +<p>Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy +and at Lille, but the most important French factory was that +founded at Vincennes about 1740, not only because of the many +beautiful pieces produced there, but also because the works +was taken under the direct patronage of the king in 1753 and was +transferred to Sèvres in 1756, becoming ultimately the most +important porcelain factory in Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition +of the artificial porcelain (<i>pâte tendre</i>) of Sèvres, and a +brief account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the +glassy porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by +preparing a glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt, +gypsum, soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered +and washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded +by adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or +marl and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in +water until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled +to a thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap +or parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for +the workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were +made from this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of +considerable thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and +were then either turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper +to reduce them to sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other +ornaments in relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary +with every other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then +fired into what is known as the “biscuit” condition; the most +difficult part of the whole process. During this firing the pieces +frequently went out of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of +the material and its tendency to soften as it approached the melting +point of the frit. Consequently an elaborate system of “propping” +the pieces had to be resorted to, and even then a very large proportion +became deformed. When the porcelain was drawn from the oven +after the first firing, the supports were removed and the pieces were +rubbed with sand to clean the surface, and were then coated with +glaze by sprinkling with a brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very +rich in lead. The glaze coat was melted by refiring the piece at a +lower temperature; and it was frequently necessary to repeat this +process several times in order to get a perfectly even and brilliant +result. The difficulties of such a process were enormous, and it +was only by the financial support of wealthy patrons, or of the state, +that such a method of manufacture was ever carried on for any length +of time. At its best the material is an exceedingly beautiful one, +lending itself especially to decoration in on-glaze colours, and the +pieces produced at Vincennes and at Sèvres, between 1745 and 1770 +or thereabouts, form a distinct class by themselves. Skilful chemists +like Hellot and Macquer were employed to direct the operations, +and many beautiful ground colours, such as the famous <i>gros-bleu, +bleu de roi, rose Pompadour</i>, pea-green and apple-green were invented.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:439px" src="images/img752b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.—Sèvres vase, <i>pâte tendre</i>; green +body and gilt imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Sèvres Porcelains.</i>—The forms of the Sèvres porcelain are +exceedingly varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by +Duplessis, the king’s silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are +more proper to metal than to pottery; but the French glassy +porcelain is such an artificial material in every respect that such +a point should not be strained too far. Owing to the want of +plasticity in the paste the pieces were always made in moulds +of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were moulded in +separate parts and these united together with metal screws or +mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for +actual use were usually painted on a plain white ground with +the full palette of on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich +gilding. The decorative pieces such as vases, candelabra, +jardinières, &c., were decorated in a much more sumptuous fashion +by covering the greater part of the piece with a ground of one +of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned, reserving only +panels in white on which delicate miniature-like decorations of +the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired (see +fig. 52; and examples of Sèvres, Plate IX.). Such collections as +the Wallace at Hertford House, or +the Jones Bequest in the Victoria +and Albert Museum, show at once +the variety and perfection to which +the work attained.</p> + +<p>This Sèvres porcelain is entirely +devoid of the broad decorative +treatment and rich full colour of +any of the great kinds of fine +pottery or porcelain. Artistically +considered, it has no place beside +the triumphs of the Chinese or +Persian potters, or of the Italian +majolists. Its shapes are too +formal, and are not sufficiently +imbued with a sense of the qualities +of the material. The ground +colours defy every natural tendency +of pottery colour for they +are even, flawless and mechanical, +with none of the palpitating richness +that comes so naturally from +the potter’s processes. The paintings, +whether of flowers, birds or +figure-subjects, are extraordinarily +skilful regarded as miniatures, but +as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to +the swift, apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters +of earlier times. So pronounced was the demand of the period +for smooth even finish that such ground colours as <i>gros-bleu</i> and +<i>bleu de roi</i>, where the colour naturally came varied and uneven, +were subsequently decorated with small diapers or lines of gold +in the form of <i>œil de perdrix</i> or <i>vermicelle</i>, so as to +produce a more regular and even effect. The most elaborate and costly of +all the varieties of old Sèvres is what is known as “jewelled Sèvres,” +which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such as turquoises, +pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones. These +imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased +mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found +examples of the punches and other tools used in making these +mounts. On account of the enormous expense involved in the +production of such costly triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled +Sèvres are rare even in the best collections, but the English +student is fortunate in the fact that the Wallace collection +contains a considerable number of them.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:245px; height:113px" src="images/img752c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Sèvres Potters’ marks, 1753 and 1772.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Many reasons—the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory, +the knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of +cost, the mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and +decoration, as well as the fact that the +glassy porcelain was abandoned +as too costly and risky after +about 1780—have all conspired +to raise the prices which modern +collectors are prepared to pay +for fine examples of <i>vieux +Sèvres</i>. It is doubtful whether +even the prices paid for paintings +by old masters have advanced so rapidly as those paid +for Sèvres porcelain of the best period. In the ’seventies +of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of remark that +a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction +for three old Sèvres vases; thirty years later one such piece +would probably fetch the same price. It should be added that +the extravagant prices now paid for Sèvres porcelain, which is +much more a triumph of technical than of artistic skill, have led +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +to an extensive system of “faking” and even forging specimens +which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.</p> + +<p>Beautiful as the old Sèvres porcelain was, those who were +responsible for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that +the porcelain made at Meissen and other German factories was +both harder and whiter in substance, more truly resembling +the oriental porcelain in every respect. It was also known that +these German porcelains were not so difficult, and therefore so +costly to manufacture as the French, and all these causes combined +to make the directorate of Sèvres unremitting in their +efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to +those used by the German and Chinese potters. Père d’Entrecolles, +the famous Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France +long before an account of the methods used by the Chinese, as +well as samples of the materials they employed; and after many +years’ research Millot and Macquer discovered the precious +materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, <i>History of +French Porcelain</i>, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of +this French porcelain, similar in material to the German and +Chinese, appear to have been made about 1769; but it was +some years after this before the manufacture of the new product +was firmly established, and then to the end of the 18th century +more and more of the hard porcelain and less of the glassy porcelain +was made at Sèvres. Speaking broadly, we might say that +after 1780 comparatively little of the original French porcelain +was made in France; and from that time to this practically all +French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain, +viz. made with china clay and felspathic rock. This +technical change in the nature of the materials had a profound +influence on the artistic qualities of French porcelain, and the +change was doubtless accentuated by the neo-classical rage +which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum and Pompeii. +The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern renderings +of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague, +and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter +of the 18th and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a +definite period in pottery design and decoration. The introduction +of hard-paste porcelain rendered the manufacture of +large vases and other pieces possible; and after 1780 we find +the manufactory at Sèvres engaged in the production of enormous +vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been continued +there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first +production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies +of well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The +earliest of these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this +material it was only possible to make them of quite modest +dimensions; with the introduction of hard-paste porcelain very +large slabs were manufactured, and a series of these are to be seen +in the museum at Sèvres.</p> + +<p>The most artistic of all the productions of Sèvres are undoubtedly +the “biscuit” figures and groups. These were +modelled with great skill by many of the best French sculptors +of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle, Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri, +Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The best of these Sèvres +“biscuits” have a real artistic value which places them in a +class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at +Meissen, Frankenthal and Höchst.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Paris</i>.—Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges +and prerogatives had been given to the Sèvres manufactory, such +as the exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the +breakdown of the monarchical régime, which was rapidly accelerated +after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris +and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of +hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal +manufactory of Sèvres. In order that the royal edicts might be +more easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the +patronage of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen +Marie Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of +these Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them, +such as those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king’s +eldest brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette); +Rue de Bondy (patronized by the duc d’Angoulême), compare +not unfavourably with those of Sèvres itself.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to do more than mention the other important +French factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg, +Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years +of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these +factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal +factory at Sèvres passing through a kind of lingering death between +1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the +glories of Sèvres that modern French porcelain really came into being.</p> +</div> + +<p>Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into +Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c., we find the manufacture +of a glassy porcelain analogous to the early French arising in +Belgium, Italy, Spain and England. The materials and methods +were so like those used in France that it would be ridiculous to +claim for them an independent origin, even were we unable to +prove by documentary evidence that workmen trained in the +French factories had migrated into those countries.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:219px; height:75px" src="images/img753a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Capo-di-Monte Potters’ +marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Italy</i>.—In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano +(1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese +Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and Capo-di-Monte +near Naples (1736-1820); with +minor factories like those at Vinovo, +Treviso, and the Volpato factory at +Rome. The most important of these +were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte. +The porcelain made at +Doccia was famous for its soft translucent +texture, so that it lent itself +beautifully to the production of white +glazed porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of +Fu-kien.</p> + +<p>The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of +Charles III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions +are in pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces, +though modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and +seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides +groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have +the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers, +plates, &c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high +relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly admired +because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period +the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but +after about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and +decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 265px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:215px; height:63px" src="images/img753b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Buen Retiro Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Spain</i>.—Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in +1759 and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the +Capo-di-Monte factory, as well as the best moulds and models. +He established a new china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a +palace outside Madrid. As long as Charles III. lived immense sums +were lavished on this factory, and the ware was not allowed to be +sold, but was either used for the decoration of the royal palaces or for +presentation to other European sovereigns. Enormous vases were +made, following the example of Sèvres, +and these were often filled with +bouquets of flowers modelled in porcelain. +The most famous productions +of this factory, however, were the +plaques and slabs of porcelain used +for lining the walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of +these rooms still remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish +<i>rococo</i> style. The factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the +French war, and since that date no porcelain of any importance has +been made in Spain.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>English Porcelains of the 18th century.</i>—There can be no doubt +that whatever experimental work may have been conducted +by our early English potters, such as the famous John Dwight +of Fulham, nothing like an established manufacture of porcelain +existed in this country prior to about 1740-1745. There are +records of many tentative experiments before this date, but no +real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important porcelain +works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby, +and when we examine the productions of these factories it is +impossible to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been +imported from France. The early English porcelains, like all the +French porcelains of that date, were composed of artificial or +glassy mixtures.</p> + +<p>We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as +typical of the earliest English porcelain of which there is any +definite record. The material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand +from Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, and glass, while the glaze +was a fusible English flint-glass rich in lead. It is obvious, +therefore, that we are dealing with substances very similar to +those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above), and such +mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to +great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on +at the expense of some royal or princely patron; in England, +however, the manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and +it is probably for this reason that at a very early date we find the +English porcelain-makers experimenting with other materials +than glass and clay in order to make their processes more certain. +In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas Frye of the Bow works +we find mention of the use of bone-ash—the material that was +to make English porcelain a distinct species by itself. From +1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large +proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the +English porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced +into the paste in order to obtain a more refractory material; +yet it was not until about 1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent +abandoned entirely the use of glass and composed his +porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic rock for the body, +glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the foundation of +distinctively English porcelain. The material has many merits +both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more +easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better +for ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it +permits the fullest range of decoration.</p> + +<p>Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English +factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the +various influences that were at work in determining what the +porcelain-maker should do, both in the way of shape and decoration. +The eyes of all men were, of course, turned first to the +porcelain brought from the far East; and in the early efforts of +the English factories, as of those of France and Germany, we +notice a predominance of white pieces or of pieces decorated +with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously inspired by +the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea produced +large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early +days of the Worcester factory little else was made there than +white, or blue and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese. +Another oriental influence was to be found in the Imari patterns +of Japan, particularly those in the style of Kakiemon. It has +been noted that Meissen, Chantilly and other continental factories +had already created a vogue for these reproductions of Japanese +decorations, and in our own country Bow, Chelsea and Worcester +followed suit. The later Imari patterns, heavily decorated with +blue and red and gold for the use of “the foreigner,” furnished +another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and the vogue +of these English “Japan” patterns, in the last quarter of the +18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great +that they represent a large proportion of the output of our +English porcelain works during that period. The productions +of the German and French factories also exerted a profound +influence on English potters; so that throughout the 18th +century English porcelains largely consisted of imitations of +the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.</p> + +<p>We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration +which undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of +transfer-printing, whereby patterns printed on paper from +engraved copper plates are transferred to porcelain or pottery +and subsequently fired, either under or on the glaze. At the best +these printed patterns are in no way superior to the stencilled +work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at the worst, European +and American printed patterns have been perhaps the most inappropriate +decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world. +It has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it +enables elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so +brings decorated pottery within the reach of the humblest. The +truer view is, that the simplest brushwork patterns, or even no +pattern at all, would be preferable to the tawdry results that the +cheapest forms of transfer-printing have rendered possible.</p> + +<p><i>Chelsea.</i>—Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was +the most important of all the English porcelain works, and fine +specimens of this period command high prices in the saleroom +to-day. We know little of the origin of this important factory, +though it is believed to have been in existence from some time +after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally demolished and some of +the workmen and part of the plant were removed to the then +important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles +Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750. +Sprimont retained possession of the works until 1769, and died +in 1771. It was during his management, from 1750 to 1770, +that the finest and most characteristic pieces of Chelsea porcelain +were made.</p> + +<p>Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely +varied, little was produced there that was really English in +character. The earliest pieces appear to have been either in +pure white or in white decorated with paintings in under-glaze +blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish salt cellars, the +shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats, small cups and +saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the decorations, +mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed +by reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain. +Afterwards we find the appearance of table wares modelled in +imitation of leaves, animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently +adopted from current French and German practice.</p> + +<p>In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown +by the production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.), +and of the small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of +which there is such a fine collection in the British Museum. In +the latter days of the factory (say after 1758) we find Chelsea +following in the wake of Sèvres in the production of large and +elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and covers, scroll-work +bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen in the +Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of +this elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine +blue, turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour, +while white panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and +painted in enamel colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects +in absolute rivalry with the pieces manufactured at Sèvres.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:207px; height:91px" src="images/img754.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chelsea Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the +ill-health of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury, +the proprietor of the Derby works. He carried on the establishment +from 1770 to 1784, but in this period a great change is +noticeable in the product of the factory. The “rococo” forms and +decorations of the true Chelsea porcelain were replaced by works +in the neo-classical style already rendered popular by the success +of Josiah Wedgwood, and the Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite +a distinct production from the early works of Chelsea. The most +distinctive mark of the Chelsea +porcelain is an anchor—either embossed +in the paste or painted in +gold or colour. Often the anchors +occur in pairs, and it is frequently +associated with other marks such +as a dagger or a cross. Some of +the Derby-Chelsea pieces are marked with a conjoined D and +an anchor.</p> + +<p><i>Bow.</i>—The date of the establishment of the factory at Stratford-le-Bow, +in what is now the East End of London, is quite uncertain, +but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected +with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture +of porcelain. The materials mentioned in this patent are not +such as would produce porcelain at all, and it appears likely +that the specification was made purposely defective. In 1748 +a further patent was applied for in which we get the first mention +of bone-ash, so that from the technical point of view the wares +made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance as indicating +the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain +in which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the +works at Bow belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and +was then known as “New Canton,” and as 300 workpeople were +employed, the operations must have been conducted on a large +scale; but ultimately, from causes that can only be surmised, the +partnership was dissolved and the business failed, so that in 1775 +the works was bought for a very small sum by the William +Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the +plant and moulds to his more prosperous works at Derby. It +would appear from what we know of the factory and its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +productions that the business was conducted on simpler lines than +at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no elaborate vases +in imitation of Sèvres, and no important groups of figures which +might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is common +with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the production +of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted +with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then +followed the well-known “Quail,” or “Partridge,” and “Wheat-sheaf” +patterns in red and green and gold in imitation of the +Japanese patterns; and the manufacture of table ware decorated +with these simple yet bright and pleasant devices seems to have +formed the greater part of the work at the factory. Many figures +and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but they are fewer in +number and less cleverly made and decorated than the contemporary +productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise +that there was considerable rivalry between these two works +situated on the outskirts of +the metropolis, for we find the +“anchor” mark, which is the +best recognized mark of Chelsea +porcelain, often occurring on +specimens that from internal +evidence or from the piece +itself we should rather attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are +not very certain, but some of the likeliest are here given.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:258px; height:103px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Bow Potters’ marks</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Worcester.</i>—The third of the early English factories, and +ultimately the most important of all, was that founded at +Worcester in 1751 by Dr Wall, a man of unusual attainments, +and a number of his friends. How Dr Wall came to learn the +secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown, but even +assuming that he acquired some information from wandering +workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon +developed on original lines. The nature of the paste and the +glaze of the early Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety +of their decorations, stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen +really developed a native porcelain. Between 1751 and +1770, the first period of Worcester porcelain, the prevalent +influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white, and the pieces of +that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for their artistic +quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in +England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied, +and a collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory +from the aesthetic point of view. The productions at +this time were tea and coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and +plates. The cups were usually made without handles in imitation +of the oriental practice, but large, two-handled covered cups +for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made during the early +period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed pattern +resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced +at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets +were also made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:183px; height:123px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Early Worcester Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was +introduced at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock, +an engraver, came from York House, Battersea, where the process +was first employed for the decoration of the Battersea enamels. +The early Worcester prints comprised portraits of celebrities of +the time (the Frederick the Great mug), or adaptations of the +works of great artists such as Gainsborough and Watteau, or +copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The first printing +was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the fired +glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of printing +in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to note +that for many years this process of transfer printing was +developed side by side with the older method of porcelain painting, +and until the end of the 18th century the processes appear to +have been used at Worcester quite independently. The closing +of the Chelsea factory in 1770 led to the migration of some of +the Chelsea painters to Worcester, and from about that date a +considerable amount of Worcester porcelain was decorated on +the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the styles that +had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only fair +to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always +distinguished by a certain English character both in the style +and the workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and +most artistic period of Worcester porcelain came to an end before +1783, when, after the death of Dr Wall, the works passed under +the control of Thomas Flight and his two sons, who had been +jewellers. The Flight influence was +soon noticeable from the fact that the +new shapes were more and more based +on those of Sèvres and Meissen, while +the decoration became more mechanical +and precise as befitted the work of +jewellers rather than potters. King +George III. and Queen Charlotte visited +the works in 1788 and bestowed upon +the firm the privilege of styling themselves “China Manufacturers +to Their Majesties,” since when the works has always +been known as the Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793 +Martin Barr was taken into partnership; the “Flight & Barr” +period, so well known to collectors, lasted until 1807.</p> + +<p>Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after +1784, viz. the Chamberlain factory, which was working in +rivalry with the original establishment; but its productions +are of no particular artistic merit, and in 1840 the two firms +became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the present Worcester +Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the productions +of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th +century were the “Armorial” services made for various royal +and noble families, and those adaptations of Imari patterns +known as “Old Japan.”</p> + +<p><i>Derby.</i>—Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear +to have been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee, +Andrew Planché; but the business, which was afterwards to +attain such a great development, was only founded in 1756 with +William Duesbury as its manager. Duesbury was originally a +decorator of china figures in London, and his career proves that +he was a man of great industry and energy, for within twenty-five +years he not only built up a large business at Derby, but he +absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in +the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important +china manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a +commercial success like this implied the absence of any distinct +artistic impulse. The porcelain produced at Derby is for the +most part only an echo of the successes of Meissen, Sèvres, or +the earlier English factories. It is only fair to remark that a very +deep and rich under-glaze blue was attained at the Derby works, +and that this was associated with very mechanical painting of +birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional quality. At +this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with +exceptional vigour, until “Crown-Derby Japan” became a +standard trade name for this clobbered oriental style.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:128px" src="images/img755c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Derby Potters’ marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Mention has already been made of the “biscuit” porcelain +figures made at Derby, which are superior in style to anything +else made in-Europe in the 18th century except the “biscuit” +porcelains of Sèvres. The Derby “biscuits” of the best type +range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest specimens have a “waxy” +surface, though there is little or no sheen and every detail remains +as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its maker. The most +famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and statuettes +of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an artist +named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups +adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a +workman named Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic +figures and animals.</p> + +<p><i>Plymouth and Bristol.</i>—The porcelain factories at Plymouth +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +and Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only +English factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous +to the Chinese was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a +Quaker druggist of Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting +to discover in Cornwall and Devonshire minerals similar to +those which were described in the letters of Père d’Entrecolles +as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain. After many years of +travel and research he ascertained the nature of the Cornish stone +and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at Plymouth +for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from these +native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise, +from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only +be referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the +factory was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards +transferred to Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant, +who had already been dabbling in the fashionable pursuit of +porcelain making. Champion’s Bristol factory lasted from 1773 +to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number of Staffordshire +potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed. The +Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true felspathic +porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the +china clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder +and whiter than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh, +glittering glaze marks it off at once from the wares of Bow, +Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.</p> + +<p>The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much +in its style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One +can point to nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens +now command very high prices in the salerooms it is on account +of their rarity rather than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that +they possess.</p> + +<p>Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the +production of the Bristol works, but a considerable number of +figures are known, in many cases obviously copied from those of +Meissen, and a few large hexagonal vases similar in style to +specimens produced at Chelsea and at Worcester. The most +distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are certain small +plaques or slabs in “biscuit” porcelain, usually bearing in the +centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by +a wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these +choice productions are to be seen in the British Museum.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:257px; height:123px" src="images/img756.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and +Swansea marks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its +general mark the alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was +also used to a limited extent at the Bristol factory, though the +general Bristol mark was +a cross or a copy of the +crossed swords of Meissen. +The Staffordshire potters +who bought the rights of +the Bristol porcelain factory +from Champion established +a works at Shelton, near +Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, +under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they +never manufactured anything of artistic account.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Minor English Factories.</i>—A number of other porcelain factories +were founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but +none of these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain +made at Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy +and ugly in form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic +of the factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by +William Duesbury.</p> + +<p>The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain +amount of porcelain, as well as “Delft” and other earthenwares, +and the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their +productions.</p> + +<p>A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th +century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because +certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of “Armorial” +porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China. +Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was +only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing +cheap wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the +more important English factories.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English +porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of +Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English +factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English +factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as +Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred +to the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.</p> + +<p><i>Collections.</i>—The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert +Museum contain the best general collections of English porcelain. +The museums at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local +wares; while the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works +has an admirable collection of the wares of that factory. Many +noteworthy private collections are in existence, of which we may +mention those of Mr Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Alex. Brongniart, <i>Traitié des arts céramiques</i> +(1844); Jacquemart, <i>Histoire de la céramique</i> (Eng. ed. 1873); +Jännicke, <i>Grundriss der Keramik</i> (1879); Dr Brinkmann, <i>Handbook +of European Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum</i>; Marryat, <i>History +of Pottery and Porcelain</i> (1857); Jewitt, <i>Ceramic Art of Great Britain</i> +(1878); Auscher, <i>A History and Description of French Porcelain</i> +(1905); Burton, <i>A History and Description of English Porcelain</i> +(1902); Dillon, <i>Porcelain</i> (1904); Solon, <i>Old English Porcelain</i> +(1903); Burton, <i>Porcelain</i> (1906); R. Almstrom, <i>Lervarorna och +deras Tillverkning</i> (1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Pottery and Porcelain during the 19th Century</p> + +<p>The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain +in Europe and America throughout the 19th century need not +be treated in such detail as the history of its growth up to that +period, for modern means of communication and the general +diffusion of knowledge have tended to destroy the individual +character which was so marked a feature of the pottery of +different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century was +distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it +witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those +methods of handicraft which made the older pottery individual +and interesting even in its simplest forms. Collectors are prepared +to pay very large sums for choice examples of the potter’s +art of bygone centuries, but it is doubtful if much of the pottery +of the 19th century will ever be collected for its intrinsic merits, +though it may be preserved as an illustration of the spirit of +the age.</p> + +<p>In preceding sections of this article the development of the +brightly painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated +porcelains of various European countries have been traced down +to the end of the 18th century, because that date marks, quite +distinctly, the period when the old handicraft of the potter was +for various reasons displaced by organized manufacture. The +disturbed economic condition of Europe in the last quarter of the +18th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century +proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain works +where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional +methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and +cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood +and his contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more +perfectly finished and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled +pottery of the continent. It vied in finish with the expensive +continental porcelains, and for nearly half a century it carried +all before it, not only in England, but throughout the world. +An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de Saint Fond, writing in the +beginning of the 19th century, remarks of English pottery that +“Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the advantage which +it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine glaze impenetrable +to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and +the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active +and so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg, +from Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from +Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France one is served at +every inn upon English ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are +supplied with it; and vessels are loaded with it for the East +Indies, the West Indies, and the continent of America.”<a name="fa36b" id="fa36b" href="#ft36b"><span class="sp">36</span></a> It +was calculated that at this time three-fourths of the pottery +manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of things +was not likely to continue, and in most of the European countries, +after the settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as had +survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose, +adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span> +experienced Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these +works, and so far as ordinary domestic pottery was concerned, +the first half of the 19th century witnessed the establishment in +every country of Europe and in the United States of America +of pottery works managed by Englishmen, where earthenwares +were made after the English fashion. We shall refer presently to +the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and porcelain, +but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one +or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England +itself witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture, +which became more and more aggregated in that district of North +Staffordshire designated emphatically “The Potteries,” where, +in spite of later developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters +of all the pottery and porcelain made in the British Isles is still +produced. This concentration of the industry in England has +resulted in a race of pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere +in the world, and while it was the supply of cheap coal and coarse +clay which first gave Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-eminence +is now retained as much by the traditional skill of the +workmen of the district as by the enterprise of its manufacturers.</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate IX</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:305px; height:526px" src="images/img756a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:299px; height:496px" src="images/img756b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin</td> +<td class="caption">Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pâte-dure</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:487px" src="images/img756c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:534px" src="images/img756d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pâte-dure</td> +<td class="caption">Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1756</td></tr></table> + +<p>While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the +methods of manufacture which have placed England in the first +rank as a pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have +brought within the reach of the humblest domestic utensils of +high finish and great durability, it is impossible to say much for +the taste or art associated with them. Neatness, serviceableness +and durability, English domestic wares undoubtedly possess in +a degree unknown to any earlier type of pottery, but the general +use of transfer-printing as the principal method of decoration, and +the absence of any distinctive style of ornament, must cause them +to take a low rank in comparison with the wares of past centuries, +when mechanical perfection was impossible and rich colour +and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of the +pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition +of 1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of +art as applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as +marking the period when many of the old handicrafts had been +extinguished by the use of mechanical appliances and the growth +of the factory system, and when the delight of men in these +current developments was so great that they were regarded as +triumphs in themselves, when they were only “means to an end.”</p> + +<p>Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain +has followed two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of +manufacturers to produce the most artistic results possible with +modern processes and methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable +efforts of those individual potters in every country with whom +art was the first consideration and commercial production was +disregarded.</p> + +<p>Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount +importance in the first half of the 19th century, it must be remembered +that some of the oldest factories in Europe were still +alive and active. The royal factories in Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin, +Vienna, St Petersburg and elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the +Napoleonic Wars, continued at the expense of their respective +states, to produce porcelains which were the legitimate development +of their work during the 18th century.</p> + +<p><i>Meissen and Berlin.</i>—At Meissen, efforts were made to improve +the technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen +wares had already become valuable, and they were reproduced, +marks included, until all initiative was destroyed, and the +factory continued to live, mainly, on its old reputation.</p> + +<p>At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy +throughout the early years of the 19th century were severely +felt, so that a cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured. +The only innovations that can be ascribed to the factory during +this period, though highly esteemed at the time, form striking +examples of the artistic decadence of the period. Such was the +lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in porcelain slip so +that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a porcelain facsimile; +another was the production of slabs of porcelain modelled +in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it +appeared like a picture painted <i>en grisaille</i>.</p> + +<p>From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the +majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in +the world has greater attention been paid to the technical and +scientific problems of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment +has rendered the greatest service in the development of the +important chemical and electrical industries of Germany by the +splendid appliances it has invented for scientific use.</p> + +<p>Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been +conducted with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger +perfected his soft porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the +best Japanese porcelains, and here also he developed the manufacture +of copper-red glazes in imitation of the old <i>sang-de-boeuf</i> +and <i>flambé</i>, glazes of the Chinese, at the same time establishing +some of the scientific principles underlying their production. At +Berlin, too, all the modern methods of decoration, whether in +coloured glazes, raised enamels, <i>pâte sur pâte</i>, the elaborate +paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the use of crystalline +glazes, have been followed with great success; but the factory +has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to the +decorative side of porcelain.</p> + +<p><i>Vienna.</i>—Few European factories were so little affected by the +general trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have +already referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding +which became the distinguishing feature of its wares towards the +end of the 18th century, and this style, once perfected, seems to +have been continued with little change. It has been stated by +a renowned German authority, that the Viennese porcelain was +at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this period the plan +of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was developed to its +utmost, and this, in combination with the richest gilding, marks +the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to an end +in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap +porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and therefore +styled “Viennese porcelain,” has during the last twenty years +overwhelmed the English and American markets.</p> + +<p><i>Sèvres.</i>—The important part played by the Royal French +manufactory at Sèvres has already been sketched. During the +troublous years of the French Revolution the works practically +came to a standstill, and under the Directory it was a question +whether this manufactory, along with certain other state establishments +in France, should be closed. Napoleon, however, +decided that for the glory of France and as a means of encouraging +its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the English +potters, the establishment at Sèvres should be conducted as a +national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brongniart, +a man of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was +appointed director, and retained that post under the successive +governments of France until his death in 1847. In the hands of +Brongniart the establishment at Sèvres became at once a school +of research and a centre of practical accomplishment—the +influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its products +were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French +monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose +ideas of Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of +his victories, and after every campaign a fresh table service or +new suite of vases was produced to commemorate the emperor’s +successes. The most striking piece of this kind was the vase +made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon and Marie +Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled with +figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than +115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the +acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures. +This vase was three years in making, and is said to have cost +something like £1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary +example of the productions of Sèvres, for under every successive +government of the 19th century the factory has been called to +produce enormous vases which are to be found in the rooms +or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and while +these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their +manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered, +very few of them possess either spontaneity or charm. They +are correct, frigid, cold, and compare most unfavourably from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span> +the artistic point of view with the masterpieces of oriental +pottery.</p> + +<p>Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again +the influence of Sèvres became paramount in Europe, and its +styles of painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830 +to 1870 by all those European potters who were attempting to +make anything beyond useful domestic wares. As an instance of +its aims in the period between 1830 and 1850, large sums were +spent in the production of great slabs of porcelain many feet in +area; on which were painted copies of some of the famous portraits +and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of the Louvre. A +number of these are preserved in the museum at Sèvres, and must +always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical +accomplishment.</p> + +<p>The most noticeable invention of Sèvres in the middle part of +the 19th century was the <i>pâte sur pâte</i> decoration in which +porcelain clays of various colours are used as the artist’s medium. +The idea appears to have been adopted from an old Chinese vase +by Robert, the chief painter, and at the London International +Exhibition of 1862 some small cups decorated in this method, by +Gely, were first shown. The most successful work in this style +was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked at Sèvres +until 1870. In that year he came to England and was employed +at Minton’s, where for about thirty-five years he continued this +method of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of +pottery decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M. +Solon the <i>pâte sur pâte</i> decoration took the form of paintings +of figure subjects or dainty ornamental designs in white slip on +a coloured porcelain ground of green, blue, dark-grey or black. +On such grounds a thin wash of the slip gives a translucent film, +so that by washing on or building up successive layers of slip, +sharpening the drawing with modelling tools, or softening or +rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate gradations +of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip +to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly +adopted by all the principal European factories, though nowhere +was it carried to such perfection as at Sèvres and at Minton’s. +M. Taxile Doat has executed many extraordinary pieces in this +style of decoration at Sèvres, and in the British Museum there is +a large vase of his, presented by the French government at the +beginning of the present century. One great feature of French +porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the development +of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district +of central France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain +production in the period between 1780 and 1850, but after the +latter date it rapidly developed into a pottery centre second only +in importance to that of the Potteries district in England. We +can do no more than mention this fact, because, for the most +part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the production +of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art.</p> + +<p>The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sèvres, and all +work came to a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory, +which was almost completed before the outbreak of the war, was +opened by Marshal MacMahon in 1876, but for many years the +work was continued under great discouragement. Between 1879 +and 1889 attention was paid to the study and imitation of old +Chinese methods, and this resulted in the reproduction of many +of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the despair of +European potters.</p> + +<p>At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sèvres +was perhaps the most notable feature of the magnificent collection +of ceramics gathered there. The collection included many +varieties of porcelain, both hard and soft paste, decorated in all +the current styles of the period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze +painting, flambé glazes and crystalline glazes, but most beautiful +of all were the magnificent groups of “biscuit” figures designed +as table garnitures by some of the best French sculptors of the +time.</p> + +<p><i>English Progress.</i>—The demand for elaborate specimens of +painted porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between +1851 and 1880, and this demand was undoubtedly fostered by +the series of international exhibitions held during that period, +when every European pottery works of note produced large and +costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware, smothered with +painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced +something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of +European factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton +at Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the +Arnoux’s of Apt, an old family of French potters, was at this +time the technical and artistic director of Messrs Minton’s +works, and he was the only pottery director during the 19th +century who could in any sense be compared with M. Brongniart +of Sèvres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree artistic +with technical skill, and under his management the works of +Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in +Europe. Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse, +and Protat, and pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill, +E. Lessore and L. Solon were engaged at this factory and produced +many of the most characteristic European decorations of +the middle of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>To this period, too, we must refer another English invention, +that of a special porcelain known as “Parian.” This in its +finest expression was a “biscuit” porcelain used for the production +of statuettes and groups rivalling the finest 18th century “biscuit” +figures of Sèvres and Derby. It seems probable that this Parian +was first made at the works of Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-upon-Trent; +but it was immediately adopted at Minton’s, +Wedgwood’s, and at Worcester; and each of these firms used it +in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured at +the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain +works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by +the Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of +Longton, and other English manufacturers until it became an +important branch of the English porcelain made in the period +under review.</p> + +<p><i>Japanese Influence.</i>—At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great +collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm, +and there was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese +art in Europe once more; not as in the 18th century, when the +old Japanese patterns were copied or frankly imitated, but a +European-Japanese style arose, based on the methods and ideas +of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen, the workers in +metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the Worcester +Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and +skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and +minute execution must be ranked before all other European +works of their kind.</p> + +<p>The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese +art was, however, developed at the Royal Copenhagen works, +the productions of which are not only famous all over the world, +but have set a new style in porcelain decoration which is being +followed at most of the continental factories. By the use of the +pure Swedish felspar and quartz and the finest china clays from +Germany or Cornwall a material of excellent quality is prepared, +and on this naturalistic paintings of birds, fishes, animals and +water or northern landscapes and figure subjects are painted in +delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens. The Royal Copenhagen +works has also produced a profusion of skilfully modelled +animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately +tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours.</p> + +<p>Not only have Berlin, Sèvres and other European factories +adopted the modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the +Japanese are now imitating these skilful productions which were +originally inspired by their own early work.</p> + +<p><i>Stonewares.</i>—Mention must be made of the revival of the +manufacture of artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and +Villeroy and Boch, the great German potters. Doultons, besides +reviving the older forms of English stoneware, made some +entirely new departures, and their pieces with designs etched in +the clay are admirable examples of the right use of a refractory +material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish stonewares, +and many interesting new departures in addition, but +mostly in German forms that have not commended the wares +to other nations.</p> + +<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate X.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:266px; height:553px" src="images/img758a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:262px; height:520px" src="images/img758b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Chelsea porcelain; 1745-1770 +Figure after Watteau.</td> +<td class="caption">Worcester Porcelain; c. 1760-1770</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:325px; height:234px" src="images/img758c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Whieldon and Wedgwood,<br /> +cauliflower ware; c. 1750-1760</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:259px; height:426px" src="images/img758d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:324px; height:342px" src="images/img758e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Wedgwood’s jasper; c. 1780</td> +<td class="caption">Turner’s jasper; c. 1780</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span></p> + +<p><i>Artistic Results.</i>—While the great potteries of Europe have been +employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in +consolidating their knowledge on the technical and scientific +side, so that they are able to produce pottery more perfect +in shape, with a higher degree of finish and greater certainty of +result than was ever known before, it cannot be said that the +artistic results have been commensurate with the labour expended. +Fortunately, however, the success of these important +industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited +a considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists, +to become artist-potters and producers of individual wares, +often recalling the works of the great schools of bygone centuries. +This movement, which to-day has its exponents in every European +country as well as in the United States of America, originated in +France between 1840 and 1850, when the formation of the earliest +ceramic museums and the new-born interest in the old French +faience led to various attempts at pottery-making by the old +methods of handwork and rule of thumb. Avisseau of Tours +(1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859) began to make +pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863) revived +painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand +for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs, +and in France and other countries artists began to dabble in the +painting of pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom, +painting pieces obtained from some pottery manufacturer, +which he sold on his own account after they had been decorated +and fired; or he became attached to a particular factory and his +productions were sold by the potter; or the artist became an +amateur potter, and either worked alone or encouraged other +artists to co-operate with him.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent +men in each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their +own day, but are also likely to be regarded always as among +the distinguished productions of the 19th century. Emile +Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who were attracted by +the technique of the potter. For some time they bought specimens +of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at +Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial +art for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours +in a delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from +old engravings. He worked for a short time at Sèvres, and then, +like so many other French pottery artists of this period, he +came to Minton’s in England, and finally entered into an engagement +with the old firm of Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which +continued almost to his death (1860-1876). On their fine cream-coloured +earthenware he sketched many thousands of fanciful +designs which had a great vogue in the ’seventies and ’eighties of +the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His +first innovation was a method known as “Barbotine” or slip-painting, +in which coloured clays were used “impasto,” often in +considerable thickness, so that after the work had been fired and +glazed it bore some resemblance to an oil painting. For a few +years this style of decoration became the rage all over Europe, +but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it had found favour, +and is now only used for the decoration of common wares. +Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the +discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first +European potter to produce flambé glazes after the manner of +the Chinese, and a fine collection of these productions of his is +preserved in the museum at Sèvres.</p> + +<p>The greatest of all the French innovators was, however, +Théodore Deck, who had been trained as a working potter and +was led to forsake the management of an ordinary tile and pottery +business in Paris to experiment on his own account. He started +a little workshop in the Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and +rapidly gathered round him a number of young painters all eager +to experiment in the magnificent colours which Deck with his +passionate love of Persian and other oriental pottery could place +at their disposal. Within a few years this venture was so successful +that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a great +potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier, +Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased +by the lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of +his career came in 1887, when he was appointed director of the +National Manufactory at Sèvres, for he was the only practical +potter who had ever occupied that position; but he died in 1890 +before he had been able to impress his personality on the work of +Sèvres.</p> + +<p>The same movement that was active in France found its exponents +in other countries as well. In Italy and the south of +France the last quarter of the 19th century witnessed a revival +of Italian majolica and of lustre decoration. Prominent in this +direction were the productions of Cantegalli of Florence and of +the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near Cannes; while in England +William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his tiles +and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours recalling +those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages. This +departure in England was, however, followed up by many +manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of +pottery colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw & +Company of Jackfield, and Minton’s of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced +much excellent work, in tiles and vases inspired from the +same oriental sources.</p> + +<p>Meantime, in America there had been growing up a manufacture +of pottery after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey; +East Liverpool, Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these +centres English workmen had been attracted, and earthenware +after the current English styles was manufactured; but, as +was the case in Europe, individual efforts were made to produce +artistic pottery. The first and best known of these artistic departures +was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and +again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an +enterprise which has since produced some very original work. +From 1880 to 1889 the work was mainly carried on at the +expense of this lady, but since that date the enterprise has been +self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery has become known +throughout the world.</p> + +<p>The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development +of new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes—and +it is not too much to say that much of the improved +sanitation of modern dwellings and towns has been rendered +possible by the special appliances invented by potters for these +purposes. In this direction the English potters undoubtedly +led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated +abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large +works in Germany, France and the United States of America. +Varieties, too, of hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares, +stonewares and porcelains, have been invented for use in the +chemical and electrical industries. But these belong to the great +modern branch of pottery manufacture, not to pottery art. In +the same way, the revived attention paid to the various forms of +pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings belongs rather +to the question of mural decoration than of pottery.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and +Germany the leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany +excelling in the amount of its output, and England in the fineness +and finish of its productions. France, in addition to the National +Manufactory at Sèvres, as much as ever divorced from commerce, +has its porcelain industry at Limoges and large manufactories +of tiles and earthenware in many departments; while there are +also a number of artist potters like Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche +and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic pottery in +hard-fired stonewares (<i>grès</i>) and porcelain, while the production +of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been developed +by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Müller. A great +development has also taken place in the production of decorative +pottery and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides +producing quantities of painted blue and white earthenware +(made in the English and not in the old Dutch fashion), has +been experimenting largely in the development of crystalline +and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while the Rozenburg factory +at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near Amsterdam, +have made some distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery and +porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span> +already been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of +Bing & Gröndhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles +of decoration initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there +are two important factories at Rörstrand and Gustafsberg. +Under the accomplished director of the Rörstrand factory, Mr +Robert Almström, a great variety of products have been successfully +manufactured, including hard-paste porcelain, English +bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy, Spain and +Belgium have also important modern pottery works.</p> + +<p>In the United States of America there are large establishments +for the manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all +after the English fashion, while in addition there are a number +of experimental kilns at work producing artistic pottery. The +Rookwood factory has already been mentioned, but the wares +produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs Robineau and T. +Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See “Report on American +Art Pottery,” pp. 922-935 of <i>Special Reports of the U.S. Census +Office, Manufactures</i>, pt. iii., 1905.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Technical Pottery Works.</i>—It is only possible to give a selection of +the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical +side of pottery production. Brongniart, <i>Traité des arts céramiques</i> +(3rd ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvétat; E. +Bourry, <i>Traité des industries céramiques</i> (Paris, 1897); Théodore +Deck, <i>La Faïence</i> (Paris, 1887); A. Granger, <i>La Céramique industrielle</i> +(Paris, 1905); E.S. Auscher, <i>La Céramique cuisant à haute température</i> +(Paris, 1899); <i>Technologie de la Céramique</i> (Paris, 1901); <i>Les +Industries céramiques</i> (Paris, 1901); Seger, <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> +(Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., Eastern, Pa., U.S.A., 1902); Langenbeck, +<i>The Chemistry of Pottery</i> (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895); William +Burton, <i>Porcelain</i> (London, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin +of some example of ancient pottery—was it made in the district where +it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre? When we +possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the use of one +general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will frequently +enable such a question to be answered, where now all is doubt and +speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto are often not +worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose, the older +methods of silicate analysis being only approximate.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the +production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft +of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less +interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British +Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France, +Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant +pottery little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical +skill from the country work of the middle ages. In England the +cheapness of machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such +village industries.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>I tre libri dell’ Arte del Vasajo</i>, by Cipriano Piccolpasso of Castel +Durante, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1548.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once +dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called +pottery at all, though we have no other name for them. The +material is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Foreign pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early +as the XIIth Dynasty, <i>e.g.</i> the Cretan polychrome ware of the +Middle Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib +(“Kahun”) and the Cypriote (?) “punctuated” black ware from +the same site, and from Khata’anah (17). The date between the +XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties is certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom +Egyptians do not seem to have imitated these earlier foreign forms. +British Museum, No. 17,046, is, however, probably an instance of an +Egyptian idea imitated by the foreign potter (17).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture +of sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy porcelain—the +earliest porcelain of which we have any record.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> On this subject see in particular Mazard, <i>De la connaissance par +les anciens des glaçures plombifères</i>, a scientific and valuable monograph +(1879); also Rayet and Collignon, <i>Hist. de la céramique +grecque</i>, p. 365 (or <i>B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery</i>, Introduction).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters, <i>Ancient +Pottery</i>, ii. 443-454.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See examples in colour on Plate V.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many +shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving +the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground +of the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance—probably +an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, manganese +and iron—and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11b" id="ft11b" href="#fa11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See Drury Fortnum, <i>Archaeologia</i>, vol. xlii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12b" id="ft12b" href="#fa12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with elaborate +English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these were +doubtless included under the name of “Damas Wares.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft13b" id="ft13b" href="#fa13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Riaño, <i>Spanish Arts</i>, Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook, +pp. 149-151; and <i>Sobre la manera de fabricar la antigua loza +dorado de Manises</i> (1878).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14b" id="ft14b" href="#fa14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See examples in colour, Plate VI.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15b" id="ft15b" href="#fa15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the lustred +pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th century onwards; +and it is important to note in this connexion that almost all the fine +examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern collections have been +obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian families.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16b" id="ft16b" href="#fa16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Piccolpasso, <i>I tre libri dell’ arte del Vasajo</i>, dated 1548. It has +been several times translated both into modern Italian and French. +The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this interesting +MS. in the volumes on <i>Majolica</i> by Drury E. Fortnum.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17b" id="ft17b" href="#fa17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, <i>Comptes +rendus</i> for December 1905, and W. Burton, <i>Society of Arts Journal</i>, +2846, vol. lv., 1907.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18b" id="ft18b" href="#fa18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> See Magne, <i>Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers</i> (Paris, 1904); also +Solon in <i>Burlington Magazine</i> (November 1907).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19b" id="ft19b" href="#fa19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See B. Fillon, <i>Les Faiences d’Oiron</i> (1862).</p> + +<p><a name="ft20b" id="ft20b" href="#fa20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See E. Bonaffe, <i>Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire</i> (1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft21b" id="ft21b" href="#fa21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See examples in colour, Plate X.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22b" id="ft22b" href="#fa22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval +pottery will be found in Hobson’s “Medieval Pottery found in +England,” <i>Archaeological Journal</i>, vol. lix.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23b" id="ft23b" href="#fa23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Böttger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the +discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwight’s death.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24b" id="ft24b" href="#fa24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved +the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A.H. Church’s +<i>English Earthenware</i>, and W. Burton’s <i>English Earthenware and +Stoneware</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25b" id="ft25b" href="#fa25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> It is amusing or annoying to find in European museums the wares +of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all +lumped together as “Wedgwood,” and yet one can hardly wonder +at it, remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and +how little of the other English potters of the 18th century.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26b" id="ft26b" href="#fa26b"><span class="fn">26</span></a> See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27b" id="ft27b" href="#fa27b"><span class="fn">27</span></a> S.W. Bushell, <i>Chinese Art</i> (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks, +ii. 5-6).</p> + +<p><a name="ft28b" id="ft28b" href="#fa28b"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Yao</i> is the Chinese term equivalent of the English “pottery” +or “ware.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft29b" id="ft29b" href="#fa29b"><span class="fn">29</span></a> See Brinkley, <i>Japan and China</i>, ix. 353-365.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30b" id="ft30b" href="#fa30b"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Solon, <i>The Noble Buccaros</i> (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft31b" id="ft31b" href="#fa31b"><span class="fn">31</span></a> M. Reinand, <i>Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans +dans l’Inde el à la Chine dans le IX^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1845).</p> + +<p><a name="ft32b" id="ft32b" href="#fa32b"><span class="fn">32</span></a> The suggestion has been made that the <i>céladon</i> wares found in +Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the +Chinese, but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point +consult Karabacek, “Zur muslimischen Keramik” in <i>Österreichische +Monatsschrift für den Orient</i>, vol. x., 1884; A.B. Meyer, “Über die +Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane” under “Über die Marta +banis,” ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, <i>Ancient Porcelain</i> (1888), and +Bushell, <i>Oriental Ceramic Art</i> (1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft33b" id="ft33b" href="#fa33b"><span class="fn">33</span></a> It is of interest to note that the “Delft” of Holland, also a +product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest +approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34b" id="ft34b" href="#fa34b"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See Drake, Sir W., <i>Venetian Ceramics</i>; and Davillier, Baron Ch., +<i>Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35b" id="ft35b" href="#fa35b"><span class="fn">35</span></a> A perfect <i>tour de force</i> in this inartistic style of work, preserved +in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen, has +been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See <i>Gaz. des beaux-arts</i>, +September 1904.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36b" id="ft36b" href="#fa36b"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Travels in England and Scotland</i> (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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