initial commit of ebook 33295HEADmain

187 files changed, 49938 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/33295-8.txt b/33295-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e62534c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15786 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6
+       "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 30, 2010 [EBook #33295]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME V, SLICE VI
+
+         Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CELTES, KONRAD         CENTO (town of Italy)
+  CELTIBERIA             CENTO (composition)
+  CEMENT                 CENTRAL AMERICA
+  CEMETERY               CENTRAL FALLS
+  CENCI, BEATRICE        CENTRALIA
+  CENOBITES              CENTRAL INDIA
+  CENOMANI               CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR
+  CENOTAPH               CENTUMVIRI
+  CENSOR                 CENTURION
+  CENSORINUS             CENTURIPE
+  CENSUS                 CENTURY
+  CENTAUREA              CEOS
+  CENTAURS               CEPHALIC INDEX
+  CENTAURUS              CEPHALONIA
+  CENTAURY               CEPHALOPODA
+  CENTENARY              CEPHEUS
+  CENTERVILLE            CEPHISODOTUS
+  CENTIPEDE              CERAM
+  CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA     CERAMICS
+
+
+
+
+CELTES, KONRAD (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin poet, the son of a
+vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the Greek translation), was
+born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He early ran away from home to avoid
+being set to his father's trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to
+find a generous patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola.
+After the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of a
+scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of the
+continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere establishing
+learned societies on the model of the academy of Pomponius Laetus at
+Rome. Among these was the _Sodalitas litteraria Rhenana_ or _Celtica_ at
+Mainz (1491). In 1486 he published his first book, _Ars versificandi et
+carminum_, which created an immense sensation and gained him the honour
+of being crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony
+being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of Nuremberg
+in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor Maximilian I. professor
+of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in 1502 was made head of the new
+Collegium Poetarum et Mathematicorum, with the right of conferring the
+laureateship. He did much to introduce system into the methods of
+teaching, to purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the
+study of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a mere
+classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in history and
+topography, especially in that of his native country. It was he who
+first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at Regensburg) the
+remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim, of which he
+published an edition (Nuremberg, 1501), the historical poem _Ligurinus
+sive de rebus gestis Frederici primi imperatoris libri x._ (Augsburg,
+1507), and the celebrated map of the Roman empire known as the _Tabula
+Peutingeriana_ (after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He
+projected a great work on Germany; but of this only the _Germania
+generalis_ and an historical work in prose, _De origine, situ, moribus
+et institutis Nurimbergae libettus_, saw the light. As a writer of Latin
+verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He composed odes,
+elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an unfinished epic, the
+_Theodoriceis_. His epigrams, edited by Hartfelder, were published at
+Berlin in 1881. His editions of the classics are now, of course, out of
+date. He died at Vienna on the 4th of February 1508.
+
+  For a full list of Celtes's works see Engelbert Klüpfel, _De vita et
+  scriptis Conradi Celtis_ (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann
+  Aschbach, _Die früheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes_ (Vienna, 1869);
+  Hartmann, _Konrad Celtes in Nürnberg _(Nuremberg, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+CELTIBERIA, a term used by Greek and Roman writers to denote, sometimes
+the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes the north-east part of the
+central plateau of the peninsula. The latter was probably the correct
+use. The Celtiberi, in this narrower sense, were not so much one tribe
+as a group of cantons--Arevaci, Pelendones, Berones and four or five
+others. They were the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time
+offered a stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian
+mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar
+capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the first
+mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however, keep faith, and
+several campaigns were undertaken against them. In 179 B.C. the whole
+country was subdued by T. Sempronius Gracchus, who by his generous
+treatment of the vanquished gained their esteem and affection. In 153
+they again revolted, and were not finally overcome until the capture of
+Numantia (133). The twenty years' war waged round this city, and its
+siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 B.C.) form only the
+most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its mark in
+entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1906-1907 by German
+archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still more after the
+death of Sertorius (72 B.C.), the Celtiberians became gradually
+romanized, and town life grew up among their valleys; Clunia, for
+instance, became a Roman municipality, and ruins of its walls, gates and
+theatre testify to its civilization; while Bilbilis (Bambola), another
+municipality, was the birthplace of the eminently Roman poet Martial.
+The Celtiberians may have been so called because they were thought to
+be the descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain),
+or because they were regarded (cf. Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race of Celts
+and Spaniards (Iberians); in either case the name represents a
+geographer's theory rather than an ascertained fact. That a strong
+Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by numerous traditions
+and by the more trustworthy evidence of place-names. The Celtic
+place-names of Spain, however, are not confined to Celtiberia or even to
+the north and east; they occur even in the south and west.
+
+  A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi is
+  given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough and
+  unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being chiefly
+  used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a nomadic
+  life or occupied small villages; large towns were few. Their infantry
+  and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they adopted the
+  wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried double-edged swords
+  and short daggers for use hand to hand, the steel of which was
+  hardened by being buried underground; their defensive armour was a
+  light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler, and greaves of felt
+  round their legs. They wore brazen helmets with purple crests, and
+  rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept on the bare ground.
+  Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with urine instead of water.
+  They were said to offer sacrifice to a nameless god (Strabo iii. p.
+  164) at the time of the full moon when all the household danced
+  together before the doors of the houses. Although cruel to their
+  enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate meat of all
+  kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hübner's article in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. (1886-1893), collects all the
+  ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strabo's notice (bk.
+  iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest.     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CEMENT (from Lat. _caementum_, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form
+of _caedimentum_, from _caedere_, to cut), apparently first used of a
+mixture of broken stone, tiles, &c., with some binding material, and
+hence of any material capable of adhering to, and uniting into a
+coherent mass, fragments of a substance not in itself adhesive. The term
+is often applied to adhesive mixtures employed to unite objects or parts
+of objects (see below), but in engineering, when used without
+qualification, it means Portland cement, its modifications and
+congeners; these are all hydraulic cements, i.e. when set they resist
+the action of water, and can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to
+set under water.
+
+_Hydraulic Cements_.--It was well known to builders in the earliest
+historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist the action of
+water, i.e. were hydraulic; it was also known that this property could
+be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture of silicious materials such
+as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here the two classes into which hydraulic
+cements are divided.
+
+
+  Pozzuolanic cement.
+
+When pure chalk or limestone is "burned," i.e. heated in a kiln until
+its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime. This slakes
+violently with water, giving slaked lime, which can be made into a
+smooth paste with water and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The
+setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime (a purely
+physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring between the lime and
+the sand). The function of the sand is simply that of a diluent to
+prevent undue shrinkage and cracking in drying. Subsequent hardening of
+the mortar is caused by the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the
+air by the lime, a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the
+action is superficial. Mortar made from pure or "fat" lime cannot
+withstand the action of water, and is only used for work done above
+water-level. If, however, such "fat" lime is mixed in the presence of
+water, not with sand but with silica in an active form, i.e. amorphous
+and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate containing silica in an
+active condition, it will unite with the silica and form a silicate of
+lime capable of resisting the action of water. The mixture of the lime
+and active silica or silicate is a pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of
+all pozzuolanic cements would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated
+silica, but though the latter is prepared artificially for various
+purposes, it is too expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar
+obstacle lies in the way of using a certain native form of active
+silica, viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of
+nitroglycerine, for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available for
+making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious
+substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be used. They
+are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice, tufa, santorin earth,
+trass and pozzuolana itself. The following analyses show their general
+composition:--
+
+  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                             |Neapolitan |   Roman   |           |
+  |                             |  Pozzuo-  |  Pozzuo-  |   Trass   |
+  |                             |   lana    |   lana    |(per cent) |
+  |                             |(per cent) |(per cent) |           |
+  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------|
+  | Soluble silica (SiO2)       |   27.80   |   32.64   |   19.32   |
+  | Insoluble silicious residue |   35.38   |   25.94   |   50.40   |
+  | Alumina (Al2O3)             | / 19.80   | / 22.74   |   13.86   |
+  | Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)        | \         | \         |    3.10   |
+  | Lime (CaO)                  |    5.68   |    4.06   |   · ·     |
+  | Magnesia (MgO)              |    0.35   |    1.37   |    0.13   |
+  | Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)   |   Trace   |   Trace   |   · ·     |
+  | Combined water (H2O)        | /  4.27   | /  8.92   |    7.57   |
+  | Carbonic anhydride (CO2)    | \         | \         |   · ·     |
+  | Moisture                    |    · ·    |    · ·    |    5.04   |
+  | Alkalis and loss            |    6.72   |    4.33   |    0.58   |
+  |                             +-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                             |  100.00   | 100.00    |   100.0   |
+  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is
+granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a high
+percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused into
+abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the same slag
+allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy which it
+possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified. It bears to
+ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that borne by plastic
+sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This potential energy becomes
+kinetic when the slag is brought into contact with lime in the presence
+of water, and causes the formation of a true hydraulic silicate of lime.
+The following analysis shows the composition of a typical slag:--
+
+                                       Per Cent.
+  Insoluble residue                      1.04
+  Silica (SiO2)                         31.50
+  Alumina (Al2O3)                       18.56
+  Manganous oxide (MnO)                  0.44
+  Lime (CaO)                            42.22
+  Magnesia (MgO)                         3.18
+  Soda (Na2O)                            0.70
+  Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)              0.45
+  Sulphur (S)                            2.21
+                                       ------
+                                       100.30
+  Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur    1.10
+                                       ------
+                                        99.20
+
+Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime until both
+materials are in a state of fine division and intimately mixed. The
+usual proportions are three of slag to one of slaked lime by weight. The
+product termed slag cement sets slowly, but ultimately attains a
+strength scarcely inferior to that of Portland cement. Although it is
+cheap and suitable for many purposes, its use is not large and tends to
+decrease. Pozzuolanic cements are little used in England. Generally
+speaking, they are only of local importance, their cheapness depending
+largely on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit
+of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured by the
+careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime, but are mixed
+roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being employed. This excess does
+no harm, for that part which fails to unite with the lime serves as a
+diluent, much as does sand in mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic
+cement made on the spot where it is to be used may be regarded as a
+better kind of common mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic
+mortars may be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as
+the pozzuolanic constituent.
+
+
+  Portland Cement
+
+Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the
+pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and active
+silica ready to unite under suitable conditions, but consist of definite
+chemical compounds of lime and silica and lime and alumina, which, when
+mixed with water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of
+great mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert
+material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a high
+temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance and an
+argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances in England are
+chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand it, limestone, marl,
+shale, slag or any similar material may be used, provided that the
+correct proportions of lime, silica and alumina are maintained. The
+earliest forms of cements of the Portland class were the hydraulic
+limes. These are still largely used, and are prepared by burning
+limestones containing clayey matter. Some of these naturally possess a
+composition differing but little from that of the mixture of raw
+materials artificially prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement
+itself. Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient
+times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to water
+have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity to hydraulic lime
+is Roman cement, prepared by heating an indurated marl occurring
+naturally in nodules. Its name must not be taken to imply that it was
+used by the ancients; in point of fact the manufacture of this substance
+dates back only to 1796.
+
+With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th century
+arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply of materials
+containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium carbonate and clay
+being limited, attempts were made to produce artificial mixtures which
+would serve a similar end. Among those who experimented in this
+direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, who added clay to finely ground
+limestone, calcined the mixture, and ground the product, which he called
+Portland cement. The only connexion between Portland cement and the
+place Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles Portland
+stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture Portland cement
+from Portland stone (after adding a suitable quantity of clay), but this
+is merely because Portland stone is substantially carbonate of lime; any
+other limestone would serve equally well. Although Portland cement is
+later in date than either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account
+of its greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an
+artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition and
+properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The greater part of
+the Portland cement made in England is manufactured on the Thames and
+Medway. The materials are chalk and Medway mud; in a few works the
+latter is replaced by gault.
+
+  The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in the
+  following  analyses:--
+
+  +-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |              Chalk.               |                                   Clay.                                    |
+  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+
+  |                         |Per cent.|                            |Per cent.|                  |       |          |
+  |Silica (SiO2)            |   0.92  | Insoluble silicious matter |  26.67  |Consisting of     |       |          |
+  |Alumina+ferric oxide     |         | Silica (SiO2)              |  31.24  |  Quartz (SiO2)   | 19.33 |          |
+  |  (Al2O2 + Fe2O3)        |   0.24  | Alumina (Al2O3)            |  16.60  |  Silica (SiO2)   |  5.19 |\         |
+  |Lime (CaO)               |  55.00  | Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3)       |   8.66  |  Alumina (Al2O3) |  1.47 | >Feldspar|
+  |Magnesia (MgO)           |   0.36  | Lime (CaO)                 |   0.25  |  Magnesia (MgO)  |  0.03 | | 7.34%  |
+  |Carbonic anhydride (CO2) |  43.40  | Magnesia (MgO)             |   1.91  |  Soda (Na20)     |  0.65 |/         |
+  |                         |  -----  | Soda (Na2O)                |   1.00  |                  | ----- |          |
+  |                         |  99.92  | Potash (K2O)               |   0.45  |                  | 26.67 |          |
+  |                         |         | Sodium Chloride (NaCl)     |   1.86  |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         | Combined water, organic    |         |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         |   matter, and loss         |  11.36  |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         |                            | ------  |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         |                            | 100.00  |                  |       |          |
+  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+
+
+
+    Mixing.
+
+    Loading the kiln.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+  These materials are mixed in the proportion of about 3:1 by weight so
+  that the dried mixture contains approximately 75% of calcium
+  carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may be effected in
+  several ways. The method once exclusively used consists in mixing the
+  raw materials with a large quantity of water in a wash mill, a machine
+  having radial horizontal arms driven from a central vertical spindle
+  and carrying harrows which stir up and intermix any soft material
+  placed in the pit in which the apparatus revolves. The raw materials
+  in the correct proportion are fed into this mill together with a large
+  quantity of water. The thin watery "slip" or slurry flows into large
+  settling tanks ("backs") where the solids in suspension are deposited;
+  the water is drawn off, leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk
+  and clay in the form of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being
+  dried on floors heated by flues is ready for burning. This process is
+  now almost obsolete. According to present practice the raw materials
+  are mixed in a wash mill with so much water that the resulting slurry
+  contains 40 to 50% of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow,
+  is ground between millstones so as to complete the process of
+  comminution begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are
+  of the utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced
+  will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is
+  generally effected by the waste heat of the kilns, so that while one
+  charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the
+  kilns. The kilns commonly employed are "chamber kilns," circular
+  structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but having the
+  top closed and connected at the side with a wide flue in which the
+  slurry is exposed to the hot products of combustion from the kiln. The
+  farther ends of the flues of several such kilns are connected with a
+  chimney shaft. The slurry, in drying on the floor of the flue, forms a
+  fairly tough cake which cracks spontaneously in the process of drying
+  into rough blocks suitable for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of
+  the kiln is a grate of iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled
+  to start the fire. A layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a
+  layer of coke, then a layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is
+  filled with coke and slurry evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on
+  to the drying floors, and the kiln is started. The construction of an
+  ordinary chamber kiln may be gathered from the accompanying diagram
+  (fig. l). The operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln,
+  which will contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will
+  take two days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three
+  days in burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and
+  unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run.
+  The output will be about 30 tons of "clinker" ready to be ground into
+  cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker is
+  effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills,
+  tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the
+  manufacture, because the finished cement should be as fine and
+  "floury" as possible. The foregoing description represents the
+  procedure in use in many English factories. There are various
+  modifications in practice according to local conditions: a few of
+  these may be described. In all cases, however, the main operations are
+  the same, viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the
+  mixture, if necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature
+  (about 1500° C. =2732° F.). Thus when hard limestone is the form of
+  calcium carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and mixed with
+  the correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The mixture is
+  slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and burned. A
+  possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix the
+  resulting lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By this
+  method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an extra
+  expenditure of fuel in the double burning.
+
+
+    Other kilns.
+
+  Many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland cement.
+  Besides the chamber kilns which have been described, there are the
+  old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar to the chamber kilns,
+  but are bottle-shaped and open at the top; they do not dry the slurry
+  for their next charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also
+  stage kilns of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical
+  shafts, one above the other, but not in the same vertical line,
+  connected by a horizontal channel. At this middle portion and in the
+  upper part of the lower shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper
+  shaft is full of unburnt raw material which is heated by the hot gases
+  coming from the burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker
+  already burned and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies
+  that necessary for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of
+  Dietzsch kilns, built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are
+  other forms of shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a
+  burning zone, a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no
+  horizontal stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane.
+  Another form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of
+  compartments arranged in a ring and connected with a central chimney;
+  in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw materials
+  are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled. At a given
+  moment one of these compartments is burning and at its full
+  temperature; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or more
+  compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and is
+  thereby strongly heated; the products of combustion pass away through
+  one or more compartments in front of it and heat their contents before
+  they are subjected to actual combustion. It will be seen that the
+  principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage kiln. In
+  each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully hot
+  serves to heat the air-supply to the compartment where combustion is
+  actually proceeding; in like manner the raw materials about to be
+  burned are well heated by the waste gases from the compartment in full
+  activity before they themselves are burned. (It may be noted that here
+  and generally in this article "burn" is used in the technical sense;
+  it is technically correct to speak of cement clinker being "burned",
+  although it is not a fuel; in accurate terms it is the fuel which is
+  burned, and it is the heat it generates which raises the clinker to a
+  high temperature, i.e. technically "burns" it.) By this device a great
+  part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is effected.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+
+    Rotatory kilns.
+
+  The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent. They
+  are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because the
+  cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in fixed kilns.
+  These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in length, an ordinary length
+  in modern practice being 100 to 120 ft.; their diameter
+  correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft. 6 in. The cylinders are
+  made of steel plate, lined with refractory bricks, are carried on
+  rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal, and are rotated by
+  power. At the upper end the raw material is fed in either as a dry
+  powder or as a slurry; at the lower end is a powerful burner. In the
+  early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was used as a fuel, but with
+  little success; about 1895 petroleum was used in the United States
+  with complete success, but at a relatively heavy cost. At the present
+  time, finely powdered coal injected by a blast of air is almost
+  universally employed, petroleum being used only where it is actually
+  cheaper than coal. In the working of this type of kiln the rotation
+  and slight inclination of the cylinder cause the raw material to
+  descend towards the lower end. At the upper end the raw material is
+  dried and heated moderately. As it descends it reaches a part of the
+  kiln where the temperature is higher; here the carbonic acid of the
+  carbonate of lime, and the combined water of the clay are driven off,
+  and the resulting lime begins to act chemically on the dehydrated
+  clay. The material is then in a partially burnt and slightly sintered
+  state, but it is not fully clinkered and would not make Portland
+  cement. The material continues to descend by the rotation of the kiln
+  and reaches the lower end nearest the burner where the temperature is
+  highest, and is there heated so highly that the union of the lime,
+  silica and alumina is complete, and fully burnt clinker falls out of
+  the kiln. It is extremely hot, and is cooled usually by being passed
+  down one or more rotating cylinders, similar to the first, but
+  smaller, and acting as coolers instead of kilns. On its way down the
+  cylinders the clinker meets a current of cold air and is cooled, the
+  air being correspondingly warmed and passing on to aid in the
+  combustion of the fuel used in heating the kiln. This regenerative
+  heating is similar in principle and effect to that obtained by means
+  of the shaft and ring kilns described above. The output of these kilns
+  varies from 200 to 400 tons per kiln per week according to their size
+  and the nature of the raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per
+  week for an ordinary chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also
+  secured. The rotatory system presents many advantages and is rapidly
+  replacing the older methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents
+  diagrammatically a rotatory cement plant on the Hurry & Seaman system,
+  which was one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process
+  successfully on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory
+  kilns of various other makes are now in use, but the same principles
+  are embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder
+  for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and a
+  blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling
+  tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly
+  heated on its way to the burner.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  Another method of making Portland cement which has been proposed and
+  tried with some success consists in fusing the raw materials together
+  in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace. The high temperature
+  necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this process difficult to
+  accomplish commercially, but it has many inherent merits and may be
+  the process of the future, displacing the rotatory method.
+
+
+    Cement clinker.
+
+  Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like
+  substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The
+  product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt and properly
+  vitrified; that from an ordinary fixed kiln of whatever type is apt to
+  contain a certain amount (5 to 15%) of underburnt material, which is
+  yellowish and friable and is not properly clinkered. This material
+  must be picked out, as such underburnt stuff contains free lime or
+  unsaturated lime compounds. These may slake slowly in the finished
+  cement and cause such expansion as may destroy the work of which it
+  forms part. Well-burnt, well-picked clinker when ground yields good
+  Portland cement. Nothing is added during or after grinding save a
+  small amount (1 to 2%) of calcium sulphate in the form either of
+  gypsum or of plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the
+  cement slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water
+  (up to 2%) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by blowing
+  steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This small
+  addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate, but
+  the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone and
+  blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights, is
+  adulteration and therefore fraudulent.
+
+
+    Composition.
+
+  The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively narrow
+  limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending to
+  become smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture increase. The
+  following analysis may be taken as typical of cements made from chalk
+  and clay on the Thames and Medway:--
+
+                             Per cent.
+    Silica (SiO2)              22.0
+    Insoluble residue           1.0
+    Alumina (Al2O3)             7.5
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)        3.5
+    Lime (CaO)                 62.0
+    Magnesia (MgO)              1.0
+    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)   1.5
+    Carbonic anhydride (CO2)    0.5
+    Water (H2O)                 0.5
+    Alkalis                     0.5
+                              -----
+                              100.0
+
+  There may be variations from this composition according to the nature
+  of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range from 19 to
+  27%, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7 to 14%, the lime from
+  60 to 67%. All such variations are permissible provided that the
+  quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient to saturate the whole of
+  the lime and to leave none of it in a "free" condition, likely to
+  cause the cement to expand after setting. Other things being equal,
+  the higher the percentage of lime within the limits indicated above
+  the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed cement is less easy
+  to burn than cement containing about 62% of lime; and unless the
+  burning is thorough and the raw materials are intimately mixed, the
+  cement is apt to be unsound. Although the ultimate composition of
+  cement, that is, the percentage of each base and acid present, can be
+  accurately determined by analysis, its proximate composition, i.e. the
+  nature and amount of the compounds formed from these acids and bases,
+  can only be ascertained indirectly and with difficulty. The
+  foundations of our knowledge on this subject were laid by H. le
+  Chatelier, whose work has since been supplemented by that of Spenser
+  B. Newberry, W.B. Newberry and Clifford Richardson. As the outcome of
+  these inquiries it has been established that tricalcium silicate
+  3CaO·SiO2 is the essential constituent of Portland cement. The
+  constituent of next importance is an aluminate, but whether this is
+  dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO·Al2O3, or tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO·Al2O3,
+  is still in doubt. In the following description it is assumed to be
+  the tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and aluminates
+  present, and ferric oxide and magnesia, if existing in the moderate
+  quantities which are usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of
+  minor importance and may be regarded as little more than impurities.
+  The silicates and aluminates of which Portland cement is composed are
+  believed to exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of
+  each other, these solid solutions taking the form of minerals
+  recognizable as individuals. The two principal minerals are termed
+  alite and celite; according to the best opinion, alite consists of a
+  solid solution of tricalcium aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and
+  celite of a solid solution of dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium
+  silicate. Celite is little affected by water, and has but small
+  influence on the setting; alite is decomposed and hydrated, this
+  action constituting the main part of the setting of Portland cement.
+  Both the components of alite react, and for simplicity their reactions
+  may be stated in separate equations, thus:--
+
+    (1)  2(3CaO·SiO2) + 9H2O = 2(CaO·SiO2)·5H2O + 4Ca(OH)2
+        Tricalcium silicate.    Hydrated mono-     Calcium
+                               calcium silicate.  hydroxide.
+
+    (2)  3CaO·Al2O3 + 12H2O = 3CaO·Al2O3·12H2O
+        Tricalcium aluminate.  Hydrated tricalcium
+                                 aluminate.
+
+  Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral,
+  is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to
+  tricalcium aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary; but,
+  whatever the proportions, each of these substances will react in its
+  characteristic manner according to the equations given above.
+
+  The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland cement is
+  not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous to that of the
+  setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution of the
+  compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more soluble form,
+  their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent
+  supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus of
+  the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a
+  coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a small
+  quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition of a
+  substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less soluble
+  form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an indefinitely
+  large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there should be
+  present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the reacting
+  substance at any one time; it is sufficient if there is enough for
+  hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive
+  stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the aluminate
+  is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that its
+  ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the
+  tricalcium silicate.
+
+  As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium
+  silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of
+  minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in ordinary
+  cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of silica,
+  alumina and lime in the clinker; its role in the setting of the cement
+  is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement can be
+  prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free also from
+  manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed for
+  exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement in
+  quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is evidence
+  that in larger proportion, e.g. 10-15%, it may hydrate and set after
+  the general setting of the cement, and may give rise to disruptive
+  strains causing the cement to "blow" and fail. In so-called natural
+  cement which is comparatively lightly burnt, the magnesia appears to
+  be inert, and as much as 20 to 30% may be present. Another constituent
+  of Portland cement which influences its setting time is calcium
+  sulphate, naturally formed from the sulphur in the raw materials or
+  fuel, or intentionally added to the finished cement as gypsum or
+  plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable retarding effect on the
+  hydration of the calcium aluminate, and consequently on the setting of
+  the cement; thus it is that a little gypsum is often added to convert
+  a naturally quick-setting cement into one which sets slowly. It will
+  be observed that in the hydration of tricalcium silicate, the main
+  constituent of Portland cement, a large portion of the lime appears as
+  calcium hydroxide, i.e. slaked lime. It is evident that this will form
+  a pozzuolanic cement if a suitable silicious material such as trass is
+  added to the cement. The ultimate product when set may be regarded as
+  a mixed Portland and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this
+  manner as an adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W.
+  Michaelis, and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but
+  it has not become general.
+
+
+    Testing.
+
+  The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis and by
+  determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength and
+  soundness. A good sample will usually have a composition within the
+  limits cited above and approximating to the typical figures given
+  above. It will be ground so finely that not more than 3% will be left
+  on a sieve of 76 × 76 meshes per sq. in., the wires of the sieve being
+  0.005 in. in diameter. It will have, when freshly burned, a specific
+  gravity not lower than 3.15, and briquettes made from it and kept in
+  water will possess a tensile strength of 400-500 lb. per sq. in. seven
+  days after they are made, while briquettes made from a mixture of 3
+  parts by weight of sand and 1 of cement will give about 225 lb. per sq.
+  in. at twenty-eight days. Formerly the soundness of cement was
+  determined by keeping thin pats of the cement in cold water for
+  twenty-eight days, or in warm water (110°-120° F.) for twenty-four
+  hours, and examining for cracks or other signs of expansion. Modern
+  practice is to measure the expansion of a test piece of cement kept in
+  water at a temperature of 212° F. The simplest and most generally used
+  method is due to H.L. le Châtelier, and consists in measuring the
+  increase in circumference of a cylinder of cement 30 mm. in diameter
+  by means of a split ring encircling the cylinder, the motion of which
+  is magnified by two light rods extending radially. Another
+  quantitative test for soundness is that formulated by L. Deval, who
+  has shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of cement kept in water
+  for two days at 80° C. = 176° F. attain approximately the same
+  strength as similar briquettes attain at seven days in water at the
+  ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes kept at 176° F. for
+  seven days are approximately equal in strength to those kept at the
+  ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A cement not perfectly
+  sound will give low results in the hot test, and a cement of
+  indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The test is
+  admittedly severe, but can be passed without difficulty by cement made
+  with proper care and skill. There are many modifications and
+  elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement for
+  all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing and
+  analysis before it is accepted and used.
+
+_Hydraulic Lime_ is a cement of the Portland as distinct from the
+pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is that known as
+Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at Ardèche in France. This
+limestone consists of calcium carbonate most intimately intermixed with
+very finely divided silica. It contains but little alumina and oxide of
+iron, which are the constituents generally necessary to bring about the
+union of silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the
+silica is so finely divided and so well distributed that it unites
+readily with the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently
+high temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class; they
+contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in composition
+resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement.
+
+  Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows:--
+
+                                Chaux de Theil.    Blue Lias.
+                                   Per cent.        Per cent.
+
+    Insoluble silicious matter       0.3              2.39
+    Silica (SiO2)                   21.7             14.17
+    Alumina (Al2O3)                  1.8              6.79
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)             0.6              2.34
+    Lime (CaO)                      74.0             63.43
+    Magnesia (MgO)                   0.7              1.54
+    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)        0.3              1.63
+    Carbonic anhydride (CO2) \       0.6            / 3.64
+    Water (H20)              /                      \ 2.69
+    Alkalis and loss                 · ·              1.38
+                                   -----            ------
+                                   100.0            100.00
+
+  Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has to be
+  slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking is
+  conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime being
+  sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking proceeds
+  slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncombined lime
+  is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious compounds,
+  notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In English practice
+  hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that regular and perfect
+  slaking is more easily attained when working systematically on a large
+  scale and by storing the material for a long period, the French method
+  is the better and more rational. The product may then be regarded as a
+  cement of the Portland class mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with
+  water and made into a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes
+  almost as strong as Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage
+  for some purposes, e.g. for foundations and abutments where
+  settlements may occur. The structure is free to take its permanent
+  position before the lime sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in
+  point is the employment of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement
+  as grouting outside the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made
+  by the shield system.
+
+_Roman Cement_ is another cement of the Portland class which came into
+use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Portland cement was
+attempted. It is still in use, though only for special purposes where a
+quick-setting material is required. It is made from septaria nodules
+which are dredged up on the Kent and Essex coasts and consist of about
+60% of calcium carbonate mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently
+indurated to remain coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared
+in any way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat.
+
+  The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but approximates
+  to the following figures:--
+
+                                   Per cent.
+    Insoluble silicious matter       5.86
+    Silica (SiO2)                   19.62
+    Alumina (Al203)                 10.30
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)             7.44
+    Manganese dioxide (MnO2)         1.57
+    Lime (CaO)                      44.54
+    Magnesia (MgO)                   2.92
+    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)        2.61
+    Carbonic anhydride (CO2)         3.43
+    Water (H2O)                      0.25
+    Alkalis and loss                 1.46
+                                   ------
+                                   100.00
+
+  The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives
+  the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also
+  differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains
+  appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of alumina
+  causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard in about
+  five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh, very
+  well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is likely
+  to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place.
+
+The term _Natural Cements_ is applied to cements made by burning
+mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occurring in
+approximately suitable proportions. They may be regarded as badly-mixed
+Portland cements, and need no special description. American "natural"
+cements are of a somewhat different class. They are usually made from a
+silicious limestone containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly
+burned.
+
+  The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind:--
+
+                                        Per cent.
+    Silica (SiO2)                         24.30
+    Alumina (Al203)                        7.22
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)                   5.06
+    Lime (CaO)                            33.70
+    Magnesia (MgO)                        20.94
+    Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss    8.78
+                                         ------
+                                         100.00
+
+  These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building
+  materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good
+  artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings.
+
+_Passow Cement _is a recent product which is in a class by itself. It is
+made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable composition and
+finely grinding the product, either alone or with an admixture of about
+10% of Portland cement clinker. It differs from ordinary slag cement
+(see above) in that it is not a pozzuolanic cement depending on the
+interaction of granulated slag and lime. The particular method of
+granulating slag for Passow cement produces a material which sets _per
+se_ and attains a strength comparable with that of Portland cement.
+Passow cement has been successfully made from slag of different
+compositions in Germany, England and America.
+
+
+  Uses of hydraulic cements.
+
+The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic or
+Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which is to be
+exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote antiquity it was found
+that the jointing of masonry which was to be immersed required the use
+of a cement indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar failed
+in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from limestones or
+chalks containing a little clay was found to stand; mortar made from
+lime mixed with trass or similar active silicious material was also
+found to stand. On this observation rests the whole of the present
+enormous employment of hydraulic cements. It was a natural transition to
+utilize these cements not merely for jointing masonry but also for
+making concrete, and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct
+from cements which are not hydraulic (e.g. ordinary mortar), are used
+for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their use in
+above-water work is checked by the low price of common brick. Even in
+such work, where it would be thought that masses of burnt clay would be
+the cheapest conceivable material, concrete is at least on level terms
+with its rival. It must be remembered that one of the great advantages
+of concrete is that five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from
+local sand and gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement,
+on which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose
+incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that the
+largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock and harbour
+work, and for the making of foundations. It is also employed for the
+building of light bridges, floors, and pipes constructed of cement
+mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron rods. Such composite structures
+take advantage at once of the high tensile strength of iron and of the
+high compressive strength of cement mortar. (See also CONCRETE.)
+
+Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials provided certain
+conditions be observed. It might be supposed that hydraulic cements from
+their nature would be indifferent to the action of water, but this is
+only true if the structures of which they form part are sufficiently
+compact. In this case the action of the water is checked by the film of
+carbonate of lime which eventually forms oh the surface of calcareous
+cement. This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the
+ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and ultimate
+destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or mortar is not well
+made and is porous, the continual passage of water through it will
+gradually break up and dissolve away the calcareous constituents of the
+cement until its strength is utterly destroyed. This destructive action
+is increased if the water contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of
+which act chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As
+sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is especially
+necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every care to produce an
+impervious structure. There are various minor external causes for the
+failure and ultimate destruction of cement mortar and concrete, but
+their discussion is a matter for the specialist. Failure from inherent
+vice in the cement has been already touched on; it can always be traced
+to want of skill and care in manufacture.
+
+_Calcium Sulphate Cements._--Under this term are comprehended all
+cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the hydration of
+calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris, Keene's cement and many
+variants of these two types. The raw material is gypsum (q.v.). This may
+be almost chemically pure, when it is generally used for Keene's cement;
+or it may contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which
+case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster of
+Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum at
+temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be produced. If
+plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is carried out at about 204°
+C. (=400° F.); at this temperature, gypsum, CaS04.2H20, loses
+three-quarters of its combined water and becomes 2CaSO4.H20. If a cement
+of the Keene's cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is
+higher, e.g. 500° C. (=932° F.), and the whole of the combined water of
+the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaSO4 being obtained.
+
+
+    Plaster of Paris; Keene's cement.
+
+  To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking the
+  mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both
+  processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory kilns, a
+  process which may be regarded as the method of the present and the
+  immediate future. Keene's cement and its congeners are made in fixed
+  kilns so constructed that only the gaseous products of combustion come
+  into contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid
+  contamination with the ash of the fuel.
+
+  The setting of plaster of Paris depends on the fact that when
+  2CaSO4·H2O is treated with water it dissolves, forming a
+  supersaturated solution of CaSO4·2H2O. The excess held temporarily in
+  solution is then deposited in crystals of CaSO4·2H2O. In the light of
+  this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes clear.
+  The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to make it
+  into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite insufficient to
+  dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part, and gives a
+  supersaturated solution of CaSO4.2H2O. In a few minutes the surplus
+  hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution, and the
+  water is capable again of dissolving 2CaSO4·H2O, which in turn is
+  fully hydrated and deposited as CaSO4·2H2O. The process goes on until
+  a relatively small quantity of water has by instalments dissolved and
+  hydrated the 2CaSO4·H2O, and has deposited CaSO4·2H2O in felted
+  crystals forming a solid mass well cemented together. The setting is
+  rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and is accompanied by a
+  considerable expansion of the mass. There is reason to suppose that
+  the change described takes place in two stages, the gypsum first
+  forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystallizing in the
+  monosymmetric system. Gypsum thus crystallized is in its normal
+  monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary conditions than the
+  orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process of dehydration to form
+  plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum is converted into the
+  orthorhombic form before it begins to be dehydrated.
+
+  The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the other
+  class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene
+  class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of
+  knowledge on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential
+  difference between the setting of Keene's cement and that of plaster
+  of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying
+  hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion
+  which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less
+  marked.
+
+  It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low
+  temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO4·H2O, to soak
+  the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to
+  recalcine them at about 500° C. On grinding they give Keene's cement.
+  Instead of alum various other salts, e.g. borax, may be used. The
+  quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of Keene's
+  cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium sulphate, and make
+  it difficult to explain what, if any, influence these minute amounts
+  of alum and the like can exert on the setting of the cement. It seems
+  probable that the effect of the salts is inconsiderable, and that the
+  governing condition is the temperature at which the cement has been
+  burnt. The setting of Keene's cement takes place by the same sort of
+  process which has been described for the setting of plaster of Paris,
+  the chief differences being that the substance dissolved is anhydrous
+  calcium sulphate and that the operation takes a longer time.
+
+  All cements having calcium sulphate as their base are suitable only
+  for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They form
+  excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white colour
+  and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter quantity
+  being due to their expansion when setting.
+
+  See D.B. Butler, _Portland Cement_ (London, 1905); E.C. Eckel,
+  _Cements, Limes and Plasters_ (New York, 1905); G.R. Redgrave and
+  Charles Spackman, _Calcareous Cements_ (London, 1905); F.H. Lewis,
+  "Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States," _The Mineral
+  Industry_ (New York, 1898); W.H. Stanger and Bertram Blount, "Cement
+  Manufacture in Great Britain," _The Mineral Industry_, New York, 1897
+  and 1905; _Id_. "The Testing of Hydraulic Cements," _Journ. Soc. Chem.
+  Ind.,_ 1894, 13, p. 455; _Id., Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._, 1901; B.
+  Blount, "Recent Progress in the Cement Industry," _Journ. Soc. Chem.
+  Ind.,_ 1906, 25, p. 1020; H.L. le Chatelier, _Recherrhes
+  experimenlales sur la constitution des mortiers hydrauliques;_ Desch,
+  _Concrete_, No. 2, pp. 101-102; Davis, _Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,_ 1905,
+  26, p. 727.     (B. Bl.)
+
+  _Adhesive Cements._--Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral
+  substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making
+  joints, mending broken china and other objects, &c. A strong cement
+  for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared by
+  mixing 12 parts of Portland cement, 8 of fine sand and 1 of infusorial
+  earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of soda; the
+  object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone, marble, and
+  earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be made as
+  follows:--skimmed-milk cheese is boiled in water till of a gluey
+  consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated
+  with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar cement
+  is a mixture of dried fresh curd with 1/10th of its weight of
+  quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with water
+  when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china, &c., is
+  composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster of
+  Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to be
+  united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement,
+  the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg,
+  hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also
+  useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before their
+  application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of wine
+  is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are solutions
+  of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha. For use
+  with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of wooden
+  cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed oil boiled with
+  litharge, and 8 parts of melted glue; other strong cements for the
+  same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine in cold water and
+  dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or by mixing glue with
+  one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little bichromate of
+  potash. _Mahogany cement_, for filling up cracks in wood, consists of
+  4 parts of beeswax, 1 of Indian red and yellow-ochre to give colour.
+  _Cutler's cement_, used for fixing knife-blades in their hafts, is
+  made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin, or of 4 parts of
+  rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For covering bottle-corks
+  a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is employed. A cheap cement,
+  sometimes employed to fix iron rails in stone-work, is melted
+  brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust. For pipe-joints, a mixture of
+  iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac, moistened with water, is
+  employed. _Japanese cement_, for uniting surfaces of paper, is made by
+  mixing rice-flour with water and boiling it. _Jewellers'_ or _Armenian
+  cement_ consists of isinglass with mastic and gum ammoniac dissolved
+  in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep their work firm by means of a
+  cement of pitch and rosin, a little tallow, and brick-dust to thicken.
+  _Temporary cement_ for lathe-work, such as the polishing and grinding
+  of jewelry and optical glasses, is compounded thus:--rosin, 4 oz.;
+  whitening previously made red-hot, 4 oz.; wax, ĵ oz.
+
+
+
+
+CEMETERY (Gr. [Greek: koimêtêrion], from [Greek: koiman], to sleep),
+literally a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to
+the places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally
+extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of interment in
+churches or churchyards being unknown in the first centuries of the
+Christian era. The term cemetery has, therefore, been appropriately
+applied in modern times to the burial-grounds, generally extra-mural,
+which have been substituted for the overcrowded churchyards (q.v.) of
+populous parishes both urban and rural.
+
+From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the condition of
+the London churchyards by correspondence in the press and by the reports
+of parliamentary committees, the first of which, that of Mr Chadwick,
+appeared in 1843. The vaults under the pavement of the churches, and the
+small spaces of open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins.
+In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products of
+corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease and death to
+those who frequented them. In the churchyards coffins were placed tier
+above tier in the graves until they were within a few feet (or sometimes
+even a few inches) of the surface, and the level of the ground was often
+raised to that of the lower windows of the church. To make room for
+fresh interments the sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal
+of bones and partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents
+of the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the
+site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles and
+nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the churchyards
+was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the gaseous emanations
+from the graves, and the water, wherever it was obtained from wells,
+containing organic matter, the source of which could not be mistaken. In
+all the large towns the evil prevailed in a greater or less degree, but
+in London, on account of the immense population and the consequent
+mortality, it forced itself more readily upon public attention, and
+after more than one partial measure of relief had been passed the
+churchyards were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of
+1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of ground to
+the north, south, east and west became henceforth the burial-places of
+the metropolis. Several of them had been already established by private
+enterprise before the passing of the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green
+cemetery dates from 1832), but that enactment forms the epoch from
+which the general development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland
+began. Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost
+everywhere abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by
+such safeguards as make it practically innocuous. This tendency has been
+conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the United States. The
+increasing practice of cremation (q.v.) has assisted in the movement for
+disposing of the dead in more sanitary conditions; and the proposals of
+Sir Seymour Haden and others for burying the dead in more open coffins,
+and abandoning the old system of family graves, have had considerable
+effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving the sanitary
+aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the cemeteries themselves
+as fit as possible for this purpose, and beautiful in arrangement and
+decoration.
+
+The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery on the Harrow
+Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of Highgate Hill; the cemetery at
+Abney Park (once the residence of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead
+cemeteries to the south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton;
+the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria cemetery
+and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London; and at a greater
+distance, accessible by railway, the great cemetery at Brookwood near
+Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery at New Southgate. The general plan of
+all these cemeteries is the same, a park with broad paths either laid
+out in curved lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each
+other at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery. The
+ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave spaces, and
+trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between them. The
+buildings consist of a curator's residence and one or more chapels, and
+usually there is also a range of family graves with imposing tombs,
+massive structures containing in their corridors recesses for the
+reception of coffins, generally closed only by an iron grating. The
+provincial cemeteries in the main features of their arrangements
+resemble those of the metropolis. One of the most remarkable is St
+James's cemetery at Liverpool, which occupies a deserted quarry. The
+face of the eastern side of the quarry is traversed by ascending
+gradients off which open catacombs formed in the living rock,--a soft
+sandstone; the ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand
+hundreds of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through
+a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery chapel,
+built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle porticos.
+
+Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries. One of the
+largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn near Boston.
+Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery (1836) at
+Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at Brooklyn (New York); the
+Lake View cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio; while the cemeteries at New
+Orleans (q.v.) are famous for their beauty.
+
+The chief cemetery of Paris is that of Père la Chaise, the prototype of
+the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes its name from the
+celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom as rector of the Jesuits of
+Paris it once belonged. It was laid out as a cemetery in 1804. It has an
+area of about 200 acres, and contains about 20,000 monuments, including
+those of all the great men of France of the 19th century--marshals,
+generals, ministers, poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors
+and musicians. Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the
+scene of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian
+column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 1871 the
+Communists made their last stand among the tombs of Père la Chaise; 900
+of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were shot there after its
+capture, and 200 of them were buried in quicklime in one huge grave and
+700 in another. There are other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and
+Montmartre, besides the minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles,
+Passy, La Villette, &c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being
+more or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the
+plateau of Méry sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which it is
+connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit fully 2 sq.
+m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs in many respects from
+the English. Every city and town is required by law to provide a
+burial-ground beyond its barriers, properly laid out and planted, and
+situated if possible on a rising ground. Each interment must take place
+in a separate grave. This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the
+dead are buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the _fosses communes_, the
+poor being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being made
+in all other cases. The _fosse_ is filled and left undisturbed for five
+years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed, the level of
+the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and interments begin
+again. For a fee of 50 francs a _concession temporaire_ for ten years
+can be obtained, but where it is desired to erect a permanent monument
+the ground must be bought by the executors of the deceased. In Paris the
+undertakers' trade is the monopoly of a company, the _Société des pompes
+funèbres_, which in return for its privileges is required to give a free
+burial to the poor.
+
+The _Leichenhäuser_, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich form a
+remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The object of
+their founders was twofold--(1) to obviate even the remotest danger of
+premature interment, and (2) to offer a respectable place for the
+reception of the dead, in order to remove the corpse from the confined
+dwellings of the survivors. At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of
+the wings of the propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the
+cemetery. It consists of the warder's room, where an attendant is always
+on duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated,
+kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on which a
+corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a ring connected by
+a light cord with a bell which hangs outside in the warder's room. The
+use of the dead-house is voluntary. The bodies deposited there are
+inspected at regular intervals by a medical officer, and the warder is
+always on the watch for the ringing of the warning bell. One revival,
+that of a child, has been known to take place at Frankfort. The
+Leichenhaus of Munich is situated in the southern cemetery outside the
+Sendling Gate. At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular
+building with an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which
+contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At both
+Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the attendants receive the
+dead confided to them with respect, and no interment is permitted until
+the first signs of decomposition appear; the relatives then assemble in
+one of the halls adjoining the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place.
+In any case there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature
+interment, but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of
+great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which result
+from the prolonged retention of the dead among the living. Mortuaries
+for this purpose have also been established in many places in England.
+
+In Italy the _Campo Santo_ (Holy Field) is best illustrated by the
+famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to other Italian
+burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use in southern Europe the
+catacombs (q.v.) of Sicily are the most curious. There is one of these
+under the old Capuchin monastery of Ziza near Palermo, where in four
+large airy subterranean corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in
+the wall, many of them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or
+hanging with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation
+for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then
+dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end of
+the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely ornamented
+with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones.
+
+Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations from time
+immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton and Macao are crowded
+with tombs, many of them being in the form of small tumuli, with a low
+encircling wall, forcibly recalling the ringed barrows of western
+Europe. But the most picturesque cemeteries in the world are those of
+the Turks. From them it was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern
+cemetery, with its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around
+Constantinople the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under
+whose branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never reopened;
+a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so the dead now occupy
+a wider territory than that which is covered by the homes of the living.
+The Turks believe that till the body is buried the soul is in a state of
+discomfort, and the funeral, therefore, takes place as soon as possible
+after death. No coffin is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few
+boards are arranged round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care
+being taken to leave a small opening extending from the head of the
+corpse to the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently
+enlarged by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone
+of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban in the
+case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low relief if the
+grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying form indicates not
+only the rank of the sleeper below but also the period of his death, for
+the fashion of the Turkish head-dress is always changing. A cypress is
+usually planted beside the grave, its odour being supposed to neutralize
+any noxious exhalations from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a
+forest, where by day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or
+perching on the trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at
+night. Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite
+resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside the narrow
+openings that lead down into a parent's, a husband's, or a brother's
+grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constantinople contrast rather
+unfavourably with the simple dignity of those which belong to the Turks.
+That of the Armenians abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of
+the death of whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones
+there are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging
+on the gallows.
+
+  See also the articles BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CREMATION; FUNERAL
+  RITES; CHURCHYARD.
+
+
+
+
+CENCI, BEATRICE (1577-1599), a Roman woman, famous for her tragic story;
+poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance about her, which modern
+historic research has to a large extent destroyed. Born at Rome, she was
+the daughter of Francesco Cenci (1549-1598), the bastard son of a
+priest, and a man of great wealth but dissolute habits and violent
+temper. He seems to have been guilty of various offences and to have got
+off with short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous
+cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely
+legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve
+children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia Petroni, a
+widow with three daughters, by whom he had no offspring. He was very
+quarrelsome and lived on the worst possible terms with his children,
+who, however, were all of them more or less disreputable. He kept
+various mistresses and was even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his
+sons were equally dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter
+Beatrice was probably due to his discovery that she had had an
+illegitimate child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards
+(A. Bertolotti, in his _Francesco Cenci_, publishes Beatrice's will in
+which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that he
+tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The eldest son
+Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel, who cheated his own
+father and even attempted to murder him (1595). Two other sons, Rocco
+and Cristoforo, both of them notorious rakes, were killed in brawls.
+Finally Francesco's wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and
+Beatrice, assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him.
+Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according to
+Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice's lover), and Francesco was
+assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom of
+Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos murdered, but
+the other was arrested by the Neapolitan authorities and confessed
+everything. Information having been communicated to Rome, the whole of
+the Cenci family were arrested early in 1599; but the story of the
+hardships they underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra
+escaped; Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and
+Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture, also ended
+by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain mercy for the accused,
+but the crime was considered too heinous, and the pope (Clement VIII.)
+refused to grant a pardon; on the 11th of September 1599, Beatrice and
+Lucrezia were beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with
+red-hot pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered. Bernardo's
+penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to perpetual
+imprisonment, and after a year's confinement he was pardoned. The
+property of the family was confiscated.
+
+  The romantic character of the history of this family has been the
+  subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley's tragedy is well known
+  as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts a purely
+  fictitious version of the story. Nor is F.D. Guerrazzi's novel,
+  _Beatrice Cenci_ (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first attempt to
+  deal with the subject on documentary evidence is A. Bertolotti's
+  _Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1879),
+  containing a number of interesting documents which place the events in
+  their true light; cf. Labruzzi's article in the _Nuova Antologia_,
+  1879, vol. xiv., and another in the _Edinburgh Review_, January 1879.
+
+
+
+
+CENOBITES (from Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek: bios], life),
+monks who lived together in a convent or community under a rule and a
+superior,--in contrast to hermits or anchorets who live in isolation.
+The Basilians (q.v.) in the East and the Benedictines (q.v.) in the West
+are the chief cenobitical orders (see MONASTICISM).
+
+
+
+
+CENOMANI, a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose territory
+corresponded generally to Maine in the modern department of Sarthe.
+Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum (corrupted into Subdinnum),
+afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum (whence Le Mans), the original name of
+the town, as usual in the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that
+of the people. According to Caesar (_Bell. Gall._ vii. 75. 3), they
+assisted Vercingetorix in the great rising (52 B.C.) with a force of
+5000 men. Under Augustus they formed a _civitas stipendiaria_ of Gallia
+Lugdunensis, and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii.
+About 400 B.C., under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large
+number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans
+southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of Cato (in
+Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 130), that some of them settled near Massilia
+in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route taken by them.
+The limits of their territory are not clearly defined, but were probably
+the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps
+the Addua) on the west, and the Padus on the south. Livy gives their
+chief towns as Brixia (Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona.
+The Cenomani nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies
+of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 B.C.), when the
+Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and during the war against
+Hannibal. They certainly joined in the revolt of the Gauls under
+Hamilcar (200), but after they had been defeated by the consul Gaius
+Cornelius (197) they finally submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia
+Transpadana, they acquired the rights of citizenship.
+
+The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel of Cenomani
+have given rise to discussion. According to Arbois de Jubainville, the
+Cenom[)a]ni of Italy are not identical with the Cenom[=a]ni (or
+Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the latter, the survival of the
+syllable "man" in Le Mans is due to the stress laid on the vowel; had
+the vowel been short and unaccented, it would have disappeared. In
+Italy, Cenomani is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of
+the Aulerci.
+
+  See A. Voisin, _Les Cénomans anciens et modernes_ (Le Mans, 1862); A.
+  Desjardins, _Géographic historique de la Gaule romaine,_ ii.
+  (1876-1893); Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Premiers Habitants de
+  l'Europe_ (1889-1894); article and authorities in _La Grande
+  Encyclopédie_; C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii.
+  pt. 2 (1899); full ancient authorities in A. Holder, _Alt-celtischer
+  Sprachschatz_, i. (1896).
+
+
+
+
+CENOTAPH (Gr. [Greek: kenos], empty, [Greek: taphos], tomb), a monument
+or tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere. The
+custom arose from the erection of monuments to those whose bodies could
+not be recovered, as in the case of drowning.
+
+
+
+
+CENSOR (from Lat. _censere_, assess, estimate; in Gr. [Greek:
+timaetaes]). I. _In ancient Rome_, the title of the two Roman officials
+who presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens
+for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to the
+community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea of the arbitrary
+assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines _census_ as _arbitrium_,
+and derives the name _censores_ from the position of these magistrates
+as _arbitri populi_ (Varro, _de Ling. Lat._ v. 81; _ap._ Non. p. 519).
+This original idea of "discretionary power" was never entirely lost;
+although ultimately it came to be more intimately associated with the
+appreciation of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the
+point of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman
+manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not unusual
+feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome possessed sumptuary
+laws, and laws dealing with moral offences, which it was the duty of
+other magistrates to enforce; but the organization for the control of
+conduct was mainly exhibited in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited,
+was at once simple and comprehensive.
+
+The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 B.C. to
+relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the periods of
+registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous office; but its
+tenure does not seem to have been fixed until 434 B.C., when a _lex
+Aemilia_ provided that the censors should hold office for eighteen
+months. This magistracy was at first confined to patricians; a plebeian
+censor is first mentioned in 351 B.C. A _lex Publilia_ of 339 B.C. is
+said to have enacted that one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian
+censors were for the first time elected in 131 B.C. The election always
+took place in the Comitia Centuriata (see COMITIA). The censorship,
+although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the right of
+summoning the senate and the people, was not only one of the higher
+magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a political career. It
+was an irresponsible office; and the only limitations on its powers were
+created by the restriction of tenure to a year and a half, the fact that
+re-election was forbidden, and the restraint imposed on each censor by
+the fact that no act of his was valid without the assent of his
+colleague.
+
+The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration of
+citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries; (2) the
+taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their property; (3)
+the right of exclusion from public functions on moral grounds, known as
+the _regimen morum_; (4) the solemn act of purification (_lustrum_)
+which closed the census. Two other functions were subsequently
+added:--(5) the selection of the senate (_lectio senatus_, see SENATE),
+and (6) certain financial duties such as the leasing of the contracts
+for tax-collecting and for the repair of public buildings. The first
+four of these functions were those of the census, which was a detailed
+examination of the citizen body as represented by heads of families
+(_patres familiarum_) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select
+portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights took
+place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see EQUITES). It was in
+connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and the knights, as
+well as with the choice of senators, that the censors published their
+edicts stating the moral rules which they intended to enforce. The
+offences which they punished were sometimes concerned with family life
+and private relations, sometimes with breaches of political duty.
+Certain professions, such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked
+their stigma, and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were
+the consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. _Infamia_ was the
+general name given to the disabilities pronounced by the censor. These
+varied in degree from the deprivation of a senator of his seat, or a
+knight's loss of his horse, to exclusion from the tribes or centuries,
+an exclusion which entailed the loss of voting power. All the
+disabilities pronounced by one pair of censors might be removed by their
+successors.
+
+The censorship, although its control over the senate came to be
+weakened (see SENATE), lasted as long as the republic; and it was only
+suspended, not abolished, during the principate. Although the princeps
+exercised censorial functions, he was seldom censor. Yet the office
+itself was held by Claudius I. and Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title
+of life censor (_censor perpetuus_), but the precedent was not followed.
+A fruitless attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was
+made in A.D. 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, ii. 331 foll. (3rd
+  ed., Leipzig, 1887); Daremberg-Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités
+  grecques et romaines_, i. 990 foll. (1875, &c.); Lange, _Romische
+  Alterthumer_, i. 572 foll. (Berlin, 1856, &c.); de Boor, _Fasti
+  Censorii_ (Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, _Die romische Censur in ihrem
+  Verhaltnisse zur Verfassung_ (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, "Über die Census"
+  in _Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil._ lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt, "Die
+  Lustra der Römer" in _Rhein. Museum_, xxv. 465, xxvi. i.
+       (A. H. J. G.)
+
+II. In modern times the word "censor" is used generally for one who
+exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of other persons.
+In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it is the title of the
+official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate students (i.e. those
+who are not attached to a college, hall or hostel). In Oxford the censor
+is nominated by the vice-chancellor and the proctors, and holds office
+for five years; in Cambridge he is similarly appointed, and holds office
+for life. The censors of the Royal College of Physicians are the
+officials who grant licences.
+
+_Council of Censors_, in American constitutional history, is the name
+given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsylvania from
+1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont from 1777 to 1870.
+Under both constitutions the council of censors was elected once in
+seven years, for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the
+governmental departments, the conduct of the state officers, and the
+working of the laws, and as to whether the constitution had been
+violated in any particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in
+number to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required
+amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose. A
+convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the constitution by
+abolishing the censors.
+
+  For the censorship of the press, see PRESS LAWS; for the censorship of
+  plays, THEATRE: _Law_, and LORD CHAMBERLAIN.
+
+
+
+
+CENSORINUS, Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer, flourished during
+the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of a lost work _De Accentibus_,
+and of an extant treatise _De Die Natali_, written in 238, and dedicated
+to his patron Quintus Caerellius as a birthday gift. The contents are of
+a varied character: the natural history of man, the influence of the
+stars and genii, music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the
+Greek philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and
+mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining the
+principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is full of curious and
+interesting information. The style is clear and concise, although
+somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity, for the period, good. The chief
+authorities used were Varro and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold
+that the entire work is practically an adaptation of the lost _Pratum_
+of Suetonius. The fragments of a work _De Natali Institutione_, dealing
+with astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually printed
+with the _De Die Natali_ of Censorinus, are not by him. Part of the
+original MS., containing the end of the genuine work, and the title and
+name of the author of the fragment are lost.
+
+  The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Lindenbrog
+  (1614); the most recent critical editions are by O. Jahn (1845), F.
+  Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English
+  translation of the _De Die Natali_ (the first eleven chapters being
+  omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CENSUS (from Lat. _censere_, to estimate or assess; connected by some
+with _centum, i.e._ a count by hundreds), a term used to denote a
+periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times, to population, and
+occasionally to industries and agricultural resources, but formerly
+extending to property of all kinds, for the purpose of assessment.
+
+Operations of this character have been conducted with different objects
+from very ancient times. The fighting strength of the children of Israel
+at the Exodus was ascertained by a count of all males of twenty years
+old and upwards, made by enumerators appointed for each clan. The
+Levites, who were exempted from military duties, were separately
+enumerated from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was
+ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute amongst them
+the functions assigned to the priestly body in connexion with the
+temple. The census unwillingly carried out by Joab at the behest of
+David related exclusively to the fighting men of the community, and the
+dire consequences ascribed to it were quoted in reprobation of such
+inquiries as late as the middle of the 18th century. It appears, too,
+that a register of the population of each clan was kept during the
+Babylonian captivity and its totals were published on their return to
+Jerusalem. In the Persian empire there was apparently some method in
+force by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the
+purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumeration of
+somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in connexion with
+the provincial revenues and military liabilities. In Egypt, Amasis had
+the occupation of each individual annually registered, nominally to aid
+the official supervision of morals by discouraging disreputable means of
+subsistence; and this ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced
+by Solon into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed
+later into an electoral record.
+
+It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the name of the
+inquiry is derived was first established upon a regular footing. The
+original census was ascribed to Servius Tullius, and in the constitution
+which goes by his name it was decreed that every fifth year the
+population should be enumerated along with the property of each
+family--land, live-stock, slaves and freedmen. The main object was to
+ensure the accurate division of the people into the six main classes and
+their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations of
+combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the city the operation
+grew in importance, and was followed by an official _lustrum_, or
+purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the people by the censors
+or functionaries in charge of the classification. Hence the name of
+lustrum came to denote the intercensal term, or a period of five years.
+The word census, too, came to mean the property qualification of the
+class, as well as the process of registering the resources of the
+individual. Later, it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in
+which it has survived in the contracted form of _cess_. Unfortunately
+the statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the
+fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed down
+relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood. In the
+time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole empire. In the
+words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered "the whole world to be
+_taxed_," or, according to the revised version, to be _enrolled_. The
+compilation of the results of this the most comprehensive enumeration
+till then attempted was engaging the attention of the emperor, it is
+said, just before his death, but was never completed. The various
+inquiries instituted during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book
+and the Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that
+they took little or no account of the population, the feudal system
+probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary for the purposes
+of taxation or military service.
+
+The foundations of the census on the modern system were laid in Europe
+towards the middle or end of the 17th century. Sweden led the way, by
+making compulsory the parish record of births, deaths and marriages,
+kept by the clergy, and extending it to include the whole of the
+domiciled population of the parish. In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered
+the extension to the rural communes of the system which had for many
+years been in force in Paris of registering and periodically publishing
+the domestic occurrences of the locality. Five years before this,
+however, a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been
+established in the colony of New France, and was continued in Quebec
+from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered to be the
+earliest of modern censuses.
+
+Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by statistical
+experts in periodical conference to bring about a general understanding,
+first, as to the subjects which may be considered most likely to be
+ascertained with approximate accuracy at a census, and secondly--a point
+of scarcely less importance--as to the form in which the results of the
+inquiry should be compiled in order to render comparison possible
+between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard to the
+scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practicable in a
+country where the agency of trained officials is employed throughout the
+operation which cannot be expected to be adequately recorded where the
+responsibility for the correctness of the replies is thrown upon the
+householder. The standard set up by eminent statisticians, therefore,
+may be taken to represent an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere
+under present conditions, but towards which each successive census may
+be expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance is
+attached from the international standpoint are age, sex, civil
+condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities. Occupation,
+too, should be included, but the record of so detailed a subject is
+usually considered to be better obtained by a special inquiry, rather
+than by the rough and ready methods of a synchronous enumeration. This
+course has been adopted in Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach
+to it is made in the decennial census of Canada and the United States.
+Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested, is of
+considerably more importance in some countries than in others, and the
+same may be said of nationality, which is often usefully supplemented by
+the return of mother-tongue. Nor should it be forgotten that the
+internal classification and the combinations of the above subjects are
+also matters to be treated upon some uniform plan, if the full value of
+the statistics is to be extracted from the raw material. On the whole,
+the progress towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of
+the questions here mentioned which has been made in the present
+generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long laboured in
+the cause of efficient enumeration.
+
+
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE
+
+_England and Wales._--Up to the beginning of the 19th century the number
+of the population was a matter of estimate and conjecture. In 1753 a
+bill was introduced by a private member of the House of Commons, backed
+by official support, to provide for the annual enumeration of the people
+and of the persons in receipt of parochial relief. It was violently
+opposed as "subversive of the last remains of English liberty" and as
+likely to result in "some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper."
+After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by the House
+of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of England the weakness
+of the country in fighting-material was one of the main objections
+offered to the proposal. By the end of the century, however, owing to a
+great extent to the publication of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum
+had swung far in the opposite direction, it was thought desirable to
+possess the means of judging from time to time the relations between an
+increasing population and the means of subsistence. A census bill,
+accordingly, again brought in by a private member, became law without
+opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under it took
+place in March of the following year, the operations being confined to
+Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England to the overseers,
+acting under the justices of the peace and the high constables, and in
+Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under the sheriffs. A supplementary
+statement of births, deaths and marriages for each parish was required
+from the clergy, who transmitted it to parliament through the bishops
+and primates successively. There was no central office or control. The
+schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise, the
+population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under one of the
+three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or industry, or (c)
+other than these two. The results, which were not satisfactory, were
+published without comment. Ten years later, the chief alteration in the
+inquiry was the substitution of the main occupation of the family for
+that of the individual. The report on this census contained a very
+valuable exposition of the difficulties involved in such operations and
+the numerous sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of
+questions. In 1821 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it
+was not repeated in 1831, when the attention of the enumerators was
+concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record. Their efforts
+were successful in getting a better, but still far from complete result.
+The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and the establishment, in
+1836, of civil registration districts, as a rule coterminous with them,
+provided a new basis for the taking of a census, and the operations in
+1841 were made over accordingly to the supervision of the
+registrar-general and his staff. The inquiry was extended to the sex,
+age and occupation of every individual; those born in the district were
+distinguished from others, foreigners being also separately returned.
+The number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction
+respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of births,
+deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the last time. The
+most important innovation, however, was the transfer of the
+responsibility for filling up the schedule from the overseers to the
+householders, thereby rendering possible a synchronous record.
+
+With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated has been
+since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head of the family,
+civil condition, and the blind and deaf-mute were included in the
+inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing for the census was
+interpreted to authorize the collection of details regarding
+accommodation in places of public worship and the attendance thereat, as
+well as corresponding information about educational establishments. A
+separate report was published on the former subject which proved
+something of a storm centre. The census of 1871 obtained for the first
+time a return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums. During
+the next ten years, the separate areas for which population returns had
+to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the creation of sanitary
+districts, to the number of 966. The necessity, for administrative or
+other purposes, of tabulating separately the returns for so many
+cross-divisions of the country constitutes one of the main difficulties
+of the English census operations, more particularly as the boundaries of
+these areas are frequently altered. In anticipation of the census of
+1891, a treasury committee was appointed to consider the various
+suggestions made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its
+proposals were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation column
+into employer, employed and independent worker, and as to the record
+upon the schedule of the number of rooms occupied by the family, where
+not more than five. Separate entry was also made of the persons living
+upon property or resources, but not following any occupation. No action
+was taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that midway
+between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and age should be
+effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for Wales, of those who
+could speak only Welsh, only English, and both languages, but, owing to
+the inclusion of infants, the results were of little value. In 1901 the
+same information was called for, excluding all under three years of age.
+The term tenement, too, was substituted for that of storey, as the
+subdivision of a house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited
+houses, those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately
+recorded. The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be
+returned only for British subjects, was called for from all not born
+within the kingdom.
+
+_Scotland._--In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to 1851,
+provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with that for England
+and Wales, allowance being made for the differences in procedure, which
+mainly concerned the agency to be employed. In 1855, however, civil
+registration of births and deaths was established in Scotland, and the
+conduct of the census of 1861 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the
+registrar-general of that country. The same course was followed at the
+three succeeding enumerations, but in 1901 the former practice was
+resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though far less than in
+England, was simplified, and the census compilation proportionately
+facilitated, by the passing of the Local Government Act for Scotland, in
+1889. In 1881, the definition of a house in Scotland was made identical
+with that in England, since previously what was called a house in the
+northern portion of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south,
+and vice versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of
+the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of children of
+school-age under instruction is also included in the inquiry. The number
+of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded for the first time in 1881. The
+question was somewhat expanded at the next census, and in 1901 was
+brought into harmony with the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx.
+
+_Ireland_.--An estimate of the population of Ireland was made as early
+as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 1712, in connexion with the
+hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a regular census was made in
+1811, through the Grand Juries. It was not successful, and in 1821
+again, the inquiry was considered to be but little more satisfactory.
+The census of 1831 was better, but the results were considered
+exaggerated, owing to the system of paying enumerators according to the
+numbers they returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a
+revisional inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good basis
+for the newly introduced system of public instruction. The completion of
+the ordnance survey and the establishment of an educated constabulary
+force brought the operations of 1841 up to the level of those of the
+sister kingdom. The main difference in procedure between the two
+inquiries is that in Ireland the schedule is filled in by the
+enumerator, a member of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the
+metropolitan police, instead of being left to the householder. The
+tabulation of the returns, again, is carried out at the central office
+from the original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into
+which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency. The inquiry
+in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great Britain. It includes,
+for instance, a considerable amount of information regarding holdings
+and stock. The details of house accommodation are fuller. A column is
+provided for the degree of education, and another for religious
+denomination, an addition which has always been successfully resisted in
+England. This last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the
+following enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the
+record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to those
+_temporarily_ incapacitated from work, whether at home or in a hospital.
+There is also a column for the entry of persons speaking the Irish
+language only or able to speak both that and English. In the report of
+1901 for England and Wales (p. 170) a table is given showing, for the
+three divisions of the United Kingdom, the relative number of persons
+speaking the ancient languages either exclusively or in addition to
+English.
+
+_British Colonies and Dependencies._--A simultaneous and uniform census
+of the British empire is an ideal which appeals to many, but its
+practical advantages are by no means commensurate with the difficulties
+to be surmounted. Scattered as are the colonies and dependencies over
+the world, the date found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother
+country and the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the
+tropics and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope
+of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information is
+thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the inquiry,
+too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the locality allow, and
+the population dealt with is likely to be able and willing to answer. By
+prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity may be obtained in regard to most
+of the main statistical facts ascertainable at a census, at all events
+in the more advanced units of the empire, and proposals to this effect
+were made by the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report
+upon the figures for 1901. Previous to that date, the only step towards
+compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare
+statement of area and population, appended without analysis; comparison
+or comment, to the reports for England and Wales, from the year 1861
+onwards. In 1905, however, the returns published in the colonial reports
+were combined with those of the United Kingdom, and the subjects of
+house-room, sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and,
+where available, instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as
+fully as the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command
+paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states, colonies
+and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of their population are
+set forth below.
+
+_Canada_.--The first enumeration of what was afterwards called Lower
+Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and dealt with the legal,
+or domiciled, population, not with that actually present at the time of
+the census, a practice still maintained, in contrast to that prevailing
+in the rest of the empire. The record was by families, and included the
+sex, age and civil condition of each individual, with a partial return
+of profession or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour
+of a fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has
+remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British occupation,
+a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually from 1824 to 1842, the
+information asked for differing from time to time. Enumerations were
+conducted independently by the different states until 1871, when the
+first federal census was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since
+then, the enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more
+recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North-West, where an
+intermediate census was found necessary in 1885-1886. The census of
+Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the United States rather than
+in accordance with British practice, and includes much which is the
+subject of annual returns in the latter country, or is not officially
+collected at all. The details of deaths in the year preceding the
+census, for instance, are called for, there being no registration of
+such occurrences in the rural tracts. In consideration of the large
+immigrant population again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded,
+with details as to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration.
+Occupation is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary
+unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other particulars. No
+less than eleven schedules are employed, most of them relating to
+details of industries and production. The duty of filling up so
+comprehensive a return, involving an answer to 561 questions, is not
+left to the householder, but entrusted to enumerators specially engaged,
+working under the supervision of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to
+the sparse population and difficulties of communication in a great part
+of the dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not
+completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator for the
+collection of his returns and their revision and transmission to the
+central office. A special feature in the operations is the provision,
+necessitated by the record of the _legal_ population, for the inclusion
+in the local return of the persons temporarily absent on the date of the
+census, and their adjustment in the general aggregates, a matter to
+which considerable attention is paid. The very large mass of detail
+collected at these inquiries entails an unusually long time spent in
+compilation; the statistics of population, accordingly, are available
+considerably in advance of those relating to production and industries.
+
+_Australasia_.--As the sphere of the census operations in Canada has
+been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the east coast to
+the immense territories of the north-west, so, in the island continent,
+colonization, first concentrated in the south-east, has extended along
+the coasts and thence into the interior, except in the northern region.
+The first act of effective occupation of the country having been the
+establishment of a penal settlement, the only population to be dealt
+with in the earlier years of British administration was that under
+restraint, with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated from 1788
+onwards by official "musters," at first weekly, and afterwards at
+lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate that it had no
+statistical value until 1820, when the muster was taken after due
+preparation and with greater care, approximating to the system of a
+regular census. The first operation, however, called by the latter name,
+was the enumeration of 1828, when an act was passed providing for the
+enumeration of the whole population, the occupied area and the
+live-stock. The details of population included sex, children and adults
+respectively, religion and _status_, that is whether free (immigrants or
+liberated convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar
+inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate census
+was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively. The scope of the
+inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat extended and made to include
+occupations other than agriculture and stock-breeding. Five years later,
+the increase of the population justified the further addition of
+particulars regarding birthplace and education. The record of _status_,
+too, was made optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In
+that year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony, took
+its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated in 1846, ten years
+after its foundation as a colony. From 1861 the census has been taken
+decennially by all the states except Queensland, where, as in New
+Zealand, it has been quinquennial since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up
+to and including the census of 1901 each state conducted separately its
+own inquiries. The scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great
+Britain, modified to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered
+population. The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under
+district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the whole
+number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the population in the
+rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In more than one state the
+police are employed as enumerators, but elsewhere, a staff has to be
+specially recruited for the purpose. The operations were improved and
+facilitated by means of an interstatal conference held before the census
+of 1891, at which a standard schedule was adopted and a series of
+general tables agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail
+according to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in
+addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace,
+occupation and house-room, includes education and sickness as well as
+infirmities, and leaves the return of religious denomination optional
+with the householder. Under the head of occupation, the bread-winner is
+distinguished from his dependants and is returned as employer, employed,
+or working on his own account, as is now the usual practice in
+census-taking. Each state issues its own report, in which the returns
+are worked up in the detail required for both local administrative
+purposes, and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the
+neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and Victoria are
+especially valuable in their statistical aspect from the analysis they
+contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively young community under
+modern conditions of progress.
+
+_South Africa._--Almost from the date of their taking possession of the
+Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East Indian Company
+instituted annual returns of population, live-stock and agricultural
+produce. The results from 1687 for nearly a century were recorded, but
+do not appear to have been more accurate than those subsequently
+obtained on the same method by the British government, by whom they were
+discontinued in 1856. The information was collected by district
+officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or procedure.
+The first synchronous census of the colony, as it was then constituted,
+took place in 1865, on a fairly comprehensive schedule. Ten years later
+the inquiry was extended to religion and civil condition, and for the
+census of 1891, again, a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The
+next census was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the
+disorganization produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same
+lines as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries
+and religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration of
+the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with special
+attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more ignorant
+classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy was enlisted. In
+some tracts it was found advisable to substitute a less elaborate
+schedule for that generally prescribed. In Natal, indeed, where the
+first independent census was taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was
+not on that occasion enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were
+counted on a very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to
+40 years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair
+indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable extent
+and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from the white
+population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable difference
+between the European and the Oriental in the matter of age distribution
+and civil condition. The Transvaal and the Orange River colonies were
+enumerated in 1904. In the latter, a census had been taken in 1890, in
+considerable detail, but that of the Transvaal, in 1896, seems to have
+been far from complete or accurate even in regard to the white
+population. In Southern Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in
+1891, but it was not until 1904 that the whole population was included
+in the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring a
+sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large and
+illiterate native population has to be taken into account. For this
+reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up to 1906 of Northern
+Rhodesia, the British possessions and protectorates of eastern Africa,
+or, again, of Nigeria and the protectorates attached to the West African
+colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone and Lagos.
+
+_The West Indies._--Each of the small administrative groups here
+included takes its census independently of the rest, though since 1871
+all take it about the date fixed for that of the United Kingdom. The
+information required differs in each group, but the schedule is, as a
+rule, of a simple character, and the results of the inquiry are usually
+set forth with comparatively little comment or analysis. In some of the
+groups distinctions of colour are returned in general terms; in others,
+not at all. On the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding
+the indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class
+who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad. No
+census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados, in 1901.
+
+_Ceylon_.--Here the census is taken decennially, on the same date as in
+India, in consideration of the constant stream of migration between the
+two countries. The schedule is much the same as in India with the
+substitution of race for caste. Until 1901, however, it was not filled
+in by the enumerator, as in India, but was distributed before and
+collected after the appointed date as in Great Britain.
+
+_India_.--The population of India is the largest aggregate yet brought
+within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumeration. It amounts to
+three-fourths of that of the British Empire, and but little less than a
+fifth of the estimated population of the world. Between 1853 and 1881
+each province conducted its own census operations independently, with
+little or no attempt at uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In
+the latter year the operations were placed for the first time under
+central administration, and the like procedure was adopted in 1891 and
+1901, with such modification of detail as was suggested by the
+experience of the preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be
+brought within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the
+use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than the
+standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to the inquiry,
+and the efficiency of the administrative agency increased. Not more than
+5% of the householders in India can read and write, and the proportion
+capable of fully understanding the schedule and of making the entries in
+it correctly is still lower. From the literate minority, therefore,
+agency has to be drawn in sufficient strength to take down every
+particle of the information dictated by the heads of families. As it
+would be impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the
+course of the census night for more than a comparatively small number of
+houses, the operation is divided into two processes. First a preliminary
+record is made a short time before the night in question, of the persons
+ordinarily residing in each house. Then, on that night, the enumerator,
+reinforced if necessary by aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat,
+and brings the record up to date by striking out the absent and entering
+the new arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include
+about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men were
+required for enumeration alone. To this army must be added the
+controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above number, charged
+with the instruction of their subordinates, the inspection and
+correction of the preliminary record, and the transmission of the
+schedule books to the local centre after the census has been taken. The
+supply of agency for these duties is, fortunately, not deficient.
+Irrespective of the large number of clerks, village scribes and state
+and municipal employés which can be drawn upon with but slight
+interruption of official routine, there is a fair supply of casual
+literary labour up to the moderate standard required. The services, too,
+of the educated public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of
+the local authorities for the census night, with no desire for
+remuneration beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps,
+of a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district.
+By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the
+preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in 1901
+were given to the public within a fortnight of the census, and differed
+from the final results by no more than 94,000, or .03%. The schedule
+adopted contains in addition to the standard subjects of sex, age, civil
+condition, birthplace, occupation and infirmities, columns for
+mother-tongue, religion and sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed
+in about 20 languages. The results for each province or large state are
+tabulated locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final
+compilation is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own
+report upon the operations and results. This work has usually an
+interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the prominent
+place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical variety of the
+population.
+
+
+FOREIGN COUNTRIES
+
+Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of taxation,
+such as the hearth-tax in France, were instituted in continental Europe
+as early as the 14th century; but as the basis of an estimate of
+population they were intrinsically untrustworthy. Going outside Europe,
+an extreme instance of the results of combining a census with more
+definite administrative objects may be found in the census of China in
+1711, when the population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and
+liability to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty
+years later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief
+of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103 millions!
+The notion of obtaining a periodical record of population and its
+movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities, originated, as
+stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth and death registers,
+till then kept voluntarily by the parish clergy, were made compulsory
+and general, the results for each year being communicated to a central
+office. A census, as a special undertaking, was not, however, carried
+out in that country until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in
+the next year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the
+parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring
+state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the 18th
+century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate. Amongst
+them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census was not obtained until
+1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small states of Italy, too, recorded
+their population in the middle of the above century, but the first
+general census of that country took place in 1861, after its
+unification. In Austria, a census was taken in 1754 by the parish
+clergy, concurrently with the civil authorities and the military
+commandants. Hungary was in part enumerated thirty years later. The
+starting-point of the modern census, however, in either part of the dual
+monarchy, was not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal
+countries began the current series of their censuses between 1825 and
+1860. The German empire has taken its census quinquennially since its
+foundation, but long before 1871 a census at short intervals used to be
+taken in all the states of the Zollverein, for the purpose of
+ascertaining the contribution to the federal revenue, the amount of
+which was revisable every three years. The last great country to enter
+the census field was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of
+the population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and
+police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials without
+central direction or systematic organization. In 1897 a general census
+was taken as synchronously throughout the empire as was found possible.
+It embraced a population second to that of India alone, as China,
+probably the most populous country in the world, has not yet been
+subjected to this test. The inquiry was made in great detail, under
+central control, and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the
+requirements of so varied a country and population. As in India, the
+schedules had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were
+dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The principal
+regions of which the population is still a matter of mere conjecture are
+the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of Africa, and a considerable
+portion of South America.     (J. A. B.)
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United States.
+Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative work, "It was
+no European state, but the United States of America that made a
+beginning of census-taking in the large and true sense of that word,"
+and Professor H. Wagner, writing of the censuses of Sweden, said to have
+been taken in the 18th century, uses these words, "Since 1749 careful
+parish registers have been kept by the clergy and have in general the
+value of censuses." The same authority, although mentioning a reported
+census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first real
+census of that country was in 1815. Sweden, Norway and the United States
+are the only countries with any claim to have taken the first modern
+census, as distinguished from a register of tax-payers, &c., the lineal
+descendant of the old Roman census, and the innovation seems to be due
+to the United States. If so, the first modern census was the American
+census of 1790. At the present date more than three-fifths of the
+estimated population of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is
+of interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated.
+
+The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken every ten
+years since under a mandate contained in the Constitution of the United
+States, was the outgrowth of a controversy in the convention which
+prepared the document. Representatives of the smaller states as a rule
+claimed that the vote, and so the influence, of the states in the
+proposed government should be equal. Representatives of the larger
+states as a rule claimed that their greater population and wealth were
+entitled to recognition. The controversy ended in the creation of a
+bicameral legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the
+larger states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each
+state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were to be
+distributed in proportion to the population, and the convention,
+foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an enumeration of the
+inhabitants and a redistribution or reapportionment of seats in the
+House of Representatives every ten years.
+
+The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as
+follows:--"Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among
+the several states which may be included within this Union according to
+their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
+whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
+term of years and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other
+persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
+the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every
+subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law
+direct."
+
+In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and free, the free
+classed as white and others, the free whites as males and females, and
+the free white males as under or above sixteen years of age. In 1800
+and 1810 the same classification was preserved, except that five
+age-groups instead of two were given for free white males and the same
+five were applied also to free white females. In connexion with the
+census of 1810 an attempt, perhaps the earliest in any country, was made
+to gather certain industrial statistics showing "the number, nature,
+extent, situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United
+States." In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white males,
+an age classification of four periods was applied to the free coloured
+and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens and of persons
+engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in commerce was called for.
+The inquiry into industrial statistics begun in 1810 was also repeated
+and extended.
+
+In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of each sex,
+and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex. The number of
+aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were also gathered.
+
+The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained a novel
+provision for the preparation in connexion with the census of
+statistical tables giving "such information in relation to mines,
+agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as will exhibit a full
+view of the pursuits, industry, education and resources of the country."
+This was about the first indication of a tendency, which grew in
+strength for half a century, to load the Federal census with inquiries
+having no essential or necessary connexion with its main purpose, which
+was to secure an accurate enumeration of the population as a basis for a
+reapportionment of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency
+was largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under the
+Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical
+inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent
+member of the party whose contention he states:--
+
+  "The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the
+  general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether purely
+  statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of
+  apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other authority
+  than that of the states themselves. That large party which advocates a
+  strict and jealous construction of the constitution would certainly
+  oppose any independent legislation by the national Congress for
+  providing a registration of births, marriages and deaths, or for
+  obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the
+  satisfaction of the publicist or for the guidance of the legislature.
+  Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to be
+  within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust and
+  opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of the
+  people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought."
+
+The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now mainly of
+historic importance, exerted great influence upon the development of the
+American census prior to 1900.
+
+The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educational
+statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes and of
+causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects. Public
+discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifications of scope
+and method at the census of 1850. Before the census law was passed, a
+census board, consisting of three members of the president's cabinet,
+was appointed to draft plans for the inquiry, and the essential features
+of its report prepared after consultation with a number of leading
+statisticians were embodied in the law.
+
+The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free inhabitants,
+one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding year, one for
+agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social statistics. The
+last asked for returns regarding valuation, taxation, educational and
+religious statistics, pauperism, crime and the prevailing rates of wages
+in each municipal division. It was also the first American census to
+give a line of the schedule to each person, death or establishment
+enumerated, and thus to make the returns in the individual form
+indispensable for a detailed classification and compilation. The results
+of this census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary
+analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them with
+European figures.
+
+The census of 1860 followed the model of its predecessor with slight
+changes. When the time for the next census approached it was felt that
+new legislation was needed, and a committee of the House of
+Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards president of the
+United States, at its head, made a careful and thorough study of the
+situation and reported an excellent bill, which passed the House, but
+was defeated by untoward influences in the Senate. In consequence the
+census of 1870 was taken with the outgrown machinery established twenty
+years earlier, a law characterized by Francis A. Walker, the
+superintendent of the census, who administered it, as "clumsy,
+antiquated and barbarous." It suffered also from the fact that large
+parts of the country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four
+years of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb of
+American census work. Tie accuracy of the results is generally denied by
+competent experts. The serious errors were errors of omission, were
+probably confined in the main to the Southern states, and were
+especially frequent among the negroes.
+
+Since 1870 the development of census work in the United States has been
+steady and rapid. The law, which had been prepared for the census of
+1870 by the House committee, furnished a basis for greatly improved
+legislation in 1879, under which the tenth census was taken. By this law
+the census office for the first time was allowed to call into existence
+and to control an adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators.
+The scope of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto
+volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of the
+population, but also of the products and resources of the United States.
+Probably no other census in the world has ever covered so wide a range
+of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India and the eleventh
+American census has extended through so many volumes. The topics usually
+contained in a census suffered from the great addition of other and less
+pertinent matter, and the reputation of the work was unfavourably
+affected by the length of time required to prepare and publish the
+volumes (the last ones not appearing until near the end of the decade),
+the original underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent
+supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the
+superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability and death
+of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh census was taken under
+a law almost identical with that of the tenth, and extended through
+twenty-five large volumes, presenting a work almost as encyclopaedic,
+but much more distinctively statistical.
+
+The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States, depends
+largely upon the degree to which its figures for the population of the
+country, of states, and especially of cities, meet or fail to meet the
+expectations of the interested public. Judged by this standard, the
+census of 1890 was less favourably received than that of 1880. The
+enumerated population of the country in 1880 was larger than had been
+anticipated; and in the face of these figures it was difficult for local
+complaints, even where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance.
+But according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth of
+population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had shown
+between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade of the century,
+except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%, in spite of an
+immigration nearly double that of any preceding decade. For this change
+no adequate explanation was offered by the census office. Hence the
+protests of those who believed that the figures for population were too
+small swelled into a general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census
+was probably more correct than the critics. Most of the motives
+influencing popular estimates of population in the United States tend to
+exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution of the
+United States attempted to secure a balance of interests by apportioning
+both representatives in Congress and direct taxes according to
+population. A passage in _The Federalist_ suggests the motives of the
+convention as follows:--
+
+  "As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will
+  necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if not
+  co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the states
+  should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the amount
+  of their numbers. Were their share of representation alone to be
+  governed by this rule, they would have an interest in exaggerating
+  their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their share of taxation
+  alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By extending the rule to
+  both objects the states will have opposite interests, which will
+  control and balance each other, and produce a requisite impartiality."
+
+With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal
+revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population
+disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many representatives in
+Congress has been reinforced by the more influential feelings of local
+pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat similar size. Hence a
+complaint that the population is overstated is seldom heard, and hence,
+also, popular charges of an under-count afford little evidence that the
+population was really larger than stated by the census.
+
+After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown that the
+number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was surprisingly small,
+and that this deficiency in children was a leading cause of the slow
+growth in population. Before the tabulation had been made Francis A.
+Walker wrote:--"If the birth-rate among the previously existing
+population did not suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot
+be vindicated. To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of
+the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of the
+inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years of age."
+These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the count of 1890. Efforts
+to invalidate the census returns by comparison with the registration
+records of Massachusetts cannot be deemed conclusive, since in the
+United States, as in Great Britain, the census must be deemed more
+accurate and less subject to error than registration records. A strong
+argument in favour of the eleventh census, apart from its
+self-consistency, is that its results as a whole fit in with the
+subsequent state enumerations. In eleven cases such enumerations have
+been taken; and on computing from them and the results of the federal
+census of 1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census
+should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform, it
+appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon, was the
+difference between the enumerations and these estimates over 4%. In
+Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in 1890 than the estimate
+would lead one to expect; in New York city, about 100,000 less. It seems
+not improbable that in the latter, where the difficulties incident to a
+count during the summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions
+occurred. Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh
+census as a whole.
+
+The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the argument
+that would maintain the eleventh census to be inaccurate because it
+showed a smaller rate of increase in population during the preceding
+decade than had been recorded by other censuses during earlier decades.
+The rate of increase during the decade ending in 1900 was even less than
+that for the preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off
+so marked could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer
+inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating from the
+computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian Territory and
+Indian reservations, was 20.7; the rate of increase if these places are
+included--in which case the figures of the population of Hawaii in 1890
+must be taken from the census of the Hawaiian government in that
+year--was 21%.
+
+  The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with those of
+  1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws relative to
+  census work. By this law the census office was far more independent
+  than ever before. Appointments and removals were made by the director
+  of the census rather than by the secretary of the interior, and in all
+  plans for the execution of the law the head of the office was
+  responsible for success. The law divided the subjects of census
+  inquiry into two parts--first, those of primary importance, requiring
+  the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly, those of subsidiary
+  importance, capable of production without the aid of the enumerator.
+  The former had to be finished and published by 1st July 1902; the
+  latter were not to be undertaken until the former were well advanced
+  towards completion. By this means the attention of the office could be
+  concentrated on a small number of subjects rather than distributed
+  over the long list treated in the volumes of the tenth and eleventh
+  censuses.
+
+  Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all
+  residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no
+  system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is no
+  such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a
+  national system of registration, and the country depends upon the
+  crude method of enumerators' returns for its information on vital
+  statistics, except in the states and cities which have established a
+  trustworthy registration system of their own. These are the New
+  England states and a few others in their vicinity or influenced by
+  their example. Enumerators' returns in this field are so incomplete
+  that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred in any
+  community during the preceding year are obtained by an enumerator
+  visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the computation of
+  death-rates is afforded, and the returns have comparatively little
+  scientific value. In the regions where census tables and
+  interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the
+  several states or cities they are often made more complete than those
+  in the state or municipal documents. The census of agriculture is also
+  liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm accounts
+  and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or the value
+  even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to the calendar
+  year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless answers about
+  the preceding year's crop are almost sure to have been given by many
+  farmers in the midst of the summer's work.
+
+  The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different
+  character. A large proportion of the industries of the country keep
+  satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some
+  correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects of
+  the census, and to fear that the information given will be open to the
+  public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manufacturing
+  schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of accounting among
+  different companies or lines of business, and this is often lacking.
+  Another source of error in the manufacturing census of the United
+  States is that the words of the census law are construed as requiring
+  an enumeration of the various trades and handicrafts, such as
+  carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns are gross and
+  notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek for them and to
+  report what it finds, however incomplete or incorrect the results may
+  be. Even on the population returns certain answers, such as the number
+  of the divorced or the number unable to read and write, may be open to
+  question.
+
+  The wide range of the American census, and the publication of
+  uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the
+  development of accurate census work requires a long educational
+  process in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough
+  approximations must always precede accurate measurements; and these
+  returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably
+  improve with each decade.
+
+  Besides, the breadth of its scope, in which the American census stands
+  unrivalled, the most important American contribution to census work
+  has been the application of electricity to the tabulation of the
+  results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties which this
+  method reduced were two. The production of tables for so enormous a
+  population as that of the United States through the method of tallying
+  by hand requires a great number of clerks and a long period of time,
+  and when complete cannot be verified except by a repetition of the
+  process. The new method abbreviates the time, since an electric
+  current can tally almost simultaneously the data, the tallying of
+  which by hand would be separated by appreciable intervals. The method
+  also renders comparatively easy the verification of the results of
+  certain selected parts.
+
+  Judged by European standards the cost of the American census is very
+  great. The following table gives the total and the per capita cost of
+  each enumeration.
+
+    +------+---------------------+------+-----------------------+
+    |      |         Cost.       |      |         Cost.         |
+    |      +----------+----------+      +------------+----------+
+    | Date.| Total in |Per Capita| Date.|  Total in  |Per Capita|
+    |      | dollars. |in cents. |      |  dollars.  |in cents. |
+    +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+
+    | 1790 |   44,377 |   1.12   | 1850 |  1,423,351 |    6.13  |
+    | 1800 |   66,109 |   1.24   | 1860 |  1,969,377 |    6.26  |
+    | 1810 |  178,445 |   2.46   | 1870 |  3,421,198 |    8.87  |
+    | 1820 |  208,526 |   2.16   | 1880 |  5,790,678 |   11.48  |
+    | 1830 |  378,545 |   2.94   | 1890 | 11,547,127 |   18.33  |
+    | 1840 |  833,371 |   4.88   | 1900 | 16,116,930 |   21.16  |
+    +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+
+
+  For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita cost
+  of the English census of 1901 was 2.24 cents, or little more than
+  one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in part
+  to the greater scope and complexity of the American census, and in
+  part to the fact that in the United States the field work is done by
+  well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most cases by
+  the heads of families, who are not paid.
+
+  The course of events has clearly established the fact that the
+  authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than the
+  strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented by
+  General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be.
+  Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled
+  practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to
+  supplement the state governments in the gathering of statistics that
+  may furnish a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has
+  allowed the Federal census office in its discretion to compile and
+  publish the birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately
+  kept; one Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces
+  throughout the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in
+  1889, and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published
+  in 1908-1909; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for
+  about half the population of the country, including all the states and
+  cities which have approximately complete records of deaths; Federal
+  agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of corporations have
+  been created for the purpose of gathering certain social and
+  industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has been made a
+  permanent statistical office.
+
+  The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation and
+  publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important lines of
+  work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton ginning
+  season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental census reports
+  upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on further
+  interpretation of various population tables, reports on street and
+  electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light and power
+  plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900-1904, on benevolent
+  institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses, on the social
+  statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures in 1905.
+  Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties, and it
+  has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal
+  government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial
+  Statistical Office in Berlin.     (W. F. W.)
+
+
+
+
+CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae,
+containing between four and five hundred species, and of wide
+distribution, but with its principal centre in the Mediterranean region.
+The plants are herbs with entire or cut often spiny-toothed leaves, and
+ovoid or globose involucres surrounding a number of tubular, oblique or
+two-lipped florets, the outer of which are usually larger and neuter,
+the inner bisexual. Four species are native in Britain. _C. nigra_ is
+knapweed, common in meadows and pastureland; _C. Cyanus_ is the
+bluebottle or cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; _C. Calcitrapa_
+is star-thistle, a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of
+England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads enveloped by
+involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine. Besides cornflower,
+a few other species are worth growing as garden plants; they are readily
+grown in ordinary soil:--_C. Cineraria_, a half-hardy perennial, native
+of Italy, is remarkable for its white downy foliage; _C. babylonica_
+(Levant) has large downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow
+flowers; _C. dealbata_ (Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger
+rose-coloured heads; _C. macrocephala_ (Caucasus) has large yellow
+heads; _C. montana_ (Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and _C.
+ragusina_ (S.E. Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow
+flowers.
+
+
+
+
+CENTAURS, in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse part man,
+dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. The name has been
+derived (1) from [Greek: kentein] (goad) and [Greek: tauros] (bull),
+implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from [Greek: kentein]
+and the common termination [Greek: -auros] or [Greek: -aura] ("air")
+i.e. "spearmen." The former is unsatisfactory partly from the
+philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is
+preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele (the
+rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some Magnesian
+mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known for their fight with
+the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to carry off Deidameia on the day
+of her marriage to Peirithous, king of the Lapithae, himself the son of
+Ixion. Theseus, who happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the
+Centaurs were driven off (Plutarch, _Theseus_, 30; Ovid, _Metam._ xii.
+210; Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented
+drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in allusion to
+their drunken and amorous habits. Their general character is that of
+wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the slaves of their animal
+passions, with the exception of Pholus and Chiron. They are variously
+explained by a fancied resemblance to the shapes of clouds, or as
+spirits of the rushing mountain torrents or winds. As children of
+Apollo, they are taken to signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested
+as the origin of the legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom
+riding was unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as
+one and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur as
+half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus, the
+contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between civilization
+and barbarism.
+
+  In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with the
+  body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they were
+  men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, and the
+  adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5; Diod. Sic. iv.
+  II) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney Colvin, _Journal
+  of Hellenic Studies_, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article in Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_). Fig. 34 in article GREEK ART (the west
+  pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the attempt of
+  the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous.
+
+
+
+
+CENTAURUS ("THE CENTAUR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern
+hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued thirty-seven stars in it.
+_[alpha]-Centauri_ is a splendid binary star. Its components are of the
+1st magnitude, and revolve in a period of eighty-one years; and since
+its parallax is 0.75", it is the nearest star to the earth;
+_[omega]-Centauri_, the finest globular star-cluster in the heavens,
+consists of about 6000 stars in a space of about 20' diameter, of which
+about 125 variables have been examined. _Nova Centauri_, a "new" star,
+was discovered in 1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard.
+
+
+
+
+CENTAURY (_Erythraea Centaurium_, natural order Gentianaceae), an annual
+herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched above, and a terminal
+inflorescence with numerous small red or pink regular flowers with a
+funnel-shaped corolla. The plant occurs in dry pastures and on sandy
+coasts in Britain, and presents many varieties, differing in length of
+stem, degree of branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or
+closeness of the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are
+grown as rock-plants.
+
+
+
+
+CENTENARY (from Lat. _centenarius_, of or belonging to a hundred, from
+_centeni_, distributive of _centum_, hundred), a space of a hundred
+years, and particularly the celebration of an event on the lapse of a
+hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The word "centennial" (from
+Lat. _centennis_, from _centum_, and _annus_, a year), though usually an
+adjective as in "the Centennial State," the name given to Colorado on
+its admission to statehood in 1876, is also used as a synonym of
+centenary.
+
+
+
+
+CENTERVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Appanoose county, Iowa,
+U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about 90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop.
+(1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905, state census) 5967 (487 being
+foreign-born); (1910) 6936. Centerville is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Iowa
+Central railways. Among the principal buildings are the county
+court-house and the Federal building, and the city has a public library
+and a hospital. It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the
+state; it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works,
+and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products, woollen
+goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted in 1846, was
+called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name was adopted, was
+incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870 was chartered as a city of
+the second class. The city limits were extended in 1906-1907.
+
+
+
+
+CENTIPEDE, the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda, a class of
+the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda (Millipedes), the
+Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute the now abandoned group
+Myriapoda. The resemblance between the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is
+principally superficial and due to the elongation and vermiform shape of
+the body, which in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar
+somites not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida
+and most Crustacea, into series or "tagmata" of varying function. Until
+1893 no one doubted the correctness of the assumption that the Chilopoda
+and Diplopoda were orders of a class Myriapoda of the same systematic
+status as the Arachnida or Hexapoda. But in that year, R.I. Pocock and
+J.S. Kingsley independently pointed out that they differ as much from
+each other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore,
+rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely
+associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the
+Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the Progoneata
+(Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. As the
+basis for this classification was taken the position of the generative
+orifices which open in the Opisthogonea at the posterior end and in the
+Prosogonea near the anterior end of the body. As a matter of fact, in
+the Chilopoda they are situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic
+somite; in the Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a
+little farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of
+Heymons into the embryology of _Scolopendra_, one of the Chilopods, has
+shown a close correspondence in the number of cephalic metameres between
+the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a correspondence which has not yet been
+established in the case of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last
+discovery bears out the view of relationship between the centipedes and
+insects, to the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda. But
+even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups can be
+brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the head, the
+position of the generative orifices will remain as a fundamental and
+constant character, distinguishing the Chilopoda from the other groups
+of so-called "Myriapods" and the Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in
+many particulars they resemble.
+
+  _Structure of the Chilopoda._--The exoskeletal elements of a typical
+  somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or
+  sternum, a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with
+  chitinous sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior
+  extremity there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when
+  present, and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the
+  _Scutigeridae_, the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply
+  reflexed, ventrally forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior
+  edge of this bears the labrum, which is usually represented by a small
+  median, and two large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a
+  single pair of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable
+  number of walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or
+  gonopods. The antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and
+  preoral in position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or
+  more segments. The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and
+  bi-segmented, with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair or
+  maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They are
+  foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera
+  (_Scutigera_, _Lithobius_) the inner branch consists of two distinct
+  segments meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The
+  outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four
+  segments. Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches
+  are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments of
+  the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The above
+  described condition seen in _Scutigera_ suggests that two pairs of
+  jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the
+  Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second pair
+  of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five or six
+  segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its fellow.
+  The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-jaws, are long
+  and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of six segments,
+  whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its fellow to form a
+  large coxal plate, the second is small and generally suppressed by
+  fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also small, while the
+  sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at the tip of which
+  opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within the appendage.
+
+  The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, mandibles and
+  maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield or cephalite. The
+  tergal element of the somite bearing the palpognath is usually
+  suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes of large size as in
+  some Geophilomorpha (_Himantarium_), sometimes small as in
+  _Scutigera_, _Lithobius_, _Craterostigmus_, sometimes suppressed
+  probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite as
+  in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-bearing
+  somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite of the
+  toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the somites
+  bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements are preserved
+  without fusion with the corresponding plates of the preceding or
+  succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body is retained.
+  The only exception to this is presented by _Scutigera_, where the
+  terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen pairs of legs
+  are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The walking legs are
+  articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural or lateral area of
+  the somites close to the external margins of the sterna, which widely
+  separate those of the left from those of the right side. Generally
+  speaking the legs resemble each other, although as a rule they
+  progressively increase in length towards the posterior end of the
+  body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the basal is
+  termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is armed with a
+  single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilomorpha and a few
+  genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial transverse joint into
+  two segments, as is the case in _Scolopendra_ and _Lithobius_ for
+  example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-footed centipedes of
+  the order Lithobiomorpha (e.g. _Henicops_, _Cermalobius_) the tarsi
+  are further subdivided. The multiplication of sub-segments reaches its
+  maximum in _Scutigera_, where the tarsi are extremely long, slender,
+  flexible and annulated. The legs of the last pair are directed
+  backwards in a line parallel with the long axis of the body, so that
+  their coxae, fused in some cases with the pleural sclerites
+  (_Scolopendra_, _Geophilus_), or free and of large size (_Scutigera_,
+  _Lithobius_), serve to protect the small genital and anal somites.
+  They are often greatly modified. In the males of some species of
+  _Lithobius_ one or more of the segments is inflated or furnished with
+  tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilomorpha the whole
+  limb is thickened in the male sex. In most Scolopendromorpha the basal
+  segment is armed beneath with spines or spikes (_Dacetum_,
+  _Scolopocryptops_); sometimes the whole appendage is thickened and
+  terminated by a sharp and serrate claw (_Theatops_, _Plutonium_). In
+  these cases the legs act as weapons of defence and offence. In other
+  cases (_Newportia_) the tarsi lose the claw, become many-jointed and
+  act as feelers, while in _Alipes_ the terminal segments are flattened,
+  leaf-like and furnished with a peculiar stridulating organ. The
+  genital somite is always small and sometimes retractile within the
+  somite bearing the last pair of legs. Its tergal plate is usually
+  retained, but its sternal plate is generally suppressed. In females of
+  the Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this
+  somite--the gonopods--are jointed, forcipate and relatively well
+  developed although small. In the females of the other orders they are
+  greatly reduced or absent. In the males their development varies
+  considerably. They are well developed in _Scutigera_, where they form
+  two pairs of digitiform sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they
+  are reduced to a pair of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal
+  somite is always small and limbless. In _Craterostigmus_ the genital
+  and anal somites are represented by a pair of elongate valves
+  projecting between the legs of the last pair. The structure of the
+  gonopods is unknown, and the homology between the two valves and the
+  skeletal elements of the somites in question not clearly understood.
+
+  A study of the development of _Scolopendra_ has shown that the
+  antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral
+  metamere and the mandibles those of the fourth, the first postoral
+  metamere, which has a pair of transient preantennal appendages, and
+  the third, which has no appendages, being excalated at an early stage
+  of embryonic growth. Furthermore, behind the legs of the last pair two
+  pairs of appendages are present. The second of these persists as the
+  gonopods of the adult, but the first is suppressed. Possibly, however,
+  it is represented in the male of _Scutigera_ by the anterior branches
+  of the gonopods. The cerebral or cephalic portion of the nervous
+  system consists of a quadrilobate mass. From the two upper lobes,
+  which are set transversely, arise the ocular nerves; from the two
+  lower lobes, which are united by a transverse commissure, spring the
+  antennal nerves in front and the chords which form the oesophageal
+  collar behind. These chords unite below the oesophagus to form the
+  compound suboesophageal ganglion, whence the nerves for the four pairs
+  of jaws arise. The ventral system consists of a double chord uniting
+  in each of the leg-bearing segments in a ganglionic swelling which
+  gives off four pairs of nerves to the limbs and tissues of the somite.
+  There is a single ganglion in the genital segment.
+
+  [Illustration: Modified from Heymons, _Bib. Zool._, 1901, by
+  permission of E. Nagele.
+
+    FIG. 1.
+
+    A, Diagram of anterior extremity of an early embryo of
+    _Scolopendra_, ventral view; cl, clypeus; lb, labrum; m, mouth; p.a,
+    preantennal appendage; a, antenna; int, premandibular rudiment; mdl,
+    mandible; mx, maxilla; p.g, palpognath; t.g, toxicognath; lg. 1,
+    first pair of walking legs.
+
+    B, Posterior end of a later embryo of _Scolopendra_, ventral view,
+    showing the anal segment or telson (t); the legs of the last pair in
+    the adult (lg. 21) and the two rudimentary pairs of legs (lg. 22,
+    lg. 23).]
+
+  Eyes are frequently absent. When present they may be either simple or
+  compound, i.e. consisting externally of a single lens (monomeniscous)
+  of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous). Simple eyes vary in
+  number on each side of the head from one, as in _Henicops_, to many as
+  forty, as in some species of _Lithobius_. In _Scolopendra_, where
+  there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thickening of the
+  cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath the lens
+  consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer
+  continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area. Thus the
+  eye is monostichous. The arrangement of the cells, however, is
+  peculiar. They are invaginated to form what may be described as a very
+  deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly narrow
+  median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed by the inner
+  or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by their outer or
+  distal ends. It results from this arrangement that the cells forming
+  all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizontally, i.e. at right
+  angles to the vertical axis of the eye. From the distal ends of the
+  cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming a rhabdom which
+  occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup beneath the
+  middle of the corneal lens. The outer ends of the cells are nucleated
+  and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve, which passes
+  from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the brain. Compound
+  eyes are found only in the _Scutigeridae_. Externally the eye consists
+  of one hundred or more little lenses or lenticles. The retinal portion
+  is composed of a corresponding number of ocular units or ommatidia.
+  Each ommatidium is an elongated cone with its broad extremity abutting
+  against the corneal lenticle. It consists of a non-nucleated
+  crystalline cone developed from embryonic cells, and is enveloped in
+  three tiers of large nucleated cells. The cells of the outermost tier
+  are heavily pigmented; those of the middle and innermost (proximal)
+  tiers, the retinal cells, are at their inner extremities produced into
+  threads continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve. In the space
+  between these cells and the crystalline cone which they surround,
+  there is a layer of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by the cells.
+
+  [Illustration: A and B after Heymons, _Bibl Zool_, 1901, by permission
+  of E. Nagele.
+
+  C after Adensamer, _Verh. z. b. Verein_, Vienna, 1893, pl. vii.
+
+    FIG. 2.
+
+    A, Brain of _Scolopendra_. n.ant, Antennal nerves; n.opt, ocular
+    nerves; n.pr.ant, preantennal nerves; oes. comm, oesophageal
+    commissure.
+
+    B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra. len, Corneal lens; ret, retinal or
+    visual cells; n.opt, optic nerve.
+
+    C, Ocular unit or ommatidium of compound Eye of _Scutigera_. len,
+    corneal lenticle; c.c, crystalline cone; 1, pigmented cells of
+    outermost tier; 2, 3, retinular cells of middle and innermost tiers;
+    rbd, rhabdomeres; n.opt, optic nerve; pg, pigment cells.]
+
+  The alimentary canal is a simple tube running without convolutions
+  from the mouth to the anus. Its anterior portion or pharynx, which
+  arises from the stomodaeal invagination in the embryo, is short; a
+  pair of large, so-called salivary glands open into it. The mesenteric
+  part of the canal is relatively wide and receives at its junction with
+  the hind-gut the excretory products of a pair of very long and slender
+  malpighian tubes of proctodaeal origin. The posterior end of the
+  canal, arising from the proctodaeum, is relatively short and narrow.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of Alimentary Canal of _Lithobius_.
+
+    a, Anus.
+
+    mg, Mid-Gut.
+
+    hg, Hind-Gut.
+
+    mt, Malphighian tubule.
+
+    s.gl, Salivary gland.
+
+    lg. 1, lg. 15, Legs of first and fifteenth pairs.]
+
+  The generative organs vary in structural details in different
+  centipedes. In the male of _Lithobius_ the testes consist of a single
+  coiled tube lying above the alimentary canal. The slender vas deferens
+  which proceeds from its hinder end divides posteriorly into a right
+  and left branch, embracing the gut and uniting beneath it to form a
+  common chamber or atrium within the genital orifice. The atrium
+  receives the secretion of two pairs of large accessory glands; and a
+  pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales, open, one on each side, into
+  the divided sperm ducts close to their point of origin above the
+  intestine. The organs of the female are very similar. There is a large
+  median ovary followed by a short oviduct forming a circum-intestinal
+  collar and a common atrium. Into the latter open a pair of short
+  receptacula seminis and the slender duct of two pairs of large
+  accessory glands. There is nothing in the female corresponding to the
+  supra-intestinal vesiculae seminales of the male. In the male of
+  _Scolopendra_, on the contrary, there are as many as twelve pairs of
+  somewhat sausage-shaped testes, approximated two by two. From each
+  pair proceed two slender ducts which open into a median duct coiled in
+  the posterior third of the body and much expanded in the last three of
+  the leg-bearing segments. The right and left portions of the
+  intestinal ring of the genital duct are unequally developed, and there
+  are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of accessory glands
+  communicate with the genital atrium as in _Lithobius_. In the female
+  _Scolopendra_ the right and left portions of the intestinal collar are
+  also unequally developed, and only a single pair of accessory glands
+  besides the receptacula seminis open into the atrium.
+
+  [Illustration: After Heymons, _Bibl. Zool_, 1901, by permission of E.
+  Nagele.
+
+    FIG. 4.--Posterior portion of generative organs of male of
+    _Scolopendra_ (A), of female (B). t, Testes; v.d, vas deferens; ov,
+    ovary; _r.s_, receptaculum seminis; gl. acc, accessory glands; g.o,
+    generative orifice.]
+
+  The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately
+  beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers
+  corresponding roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a
+  blood-sinus formed by a pericardial membrane whence large alary
+  muscles extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in
+  _Scolopendra_ a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its
+  posterior extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood
+  re-enters the organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior
+  chamber, which lies in the first or second leg-bearing segment,
+  proceed three arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to
+  supply the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow
+  of the opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the
+  sides of the latter arise vessels to the gnathites, and from its
+  inferior portion an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and
+  another backwards above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the
+  body, supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral
+  branch. In _Scolopendra_ the chambers of the heart, excepting the
+  first and last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms
+  like _Scutigera_ where the terga are very unequal in size a
+  corresponding inequality in the size of the chambers is manifested.
+
+  [Illustration: A after Newport, _Phil. Trans._, 1843. B after Haase,
+  _Zool. Beitrage_, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J.N. Kern. C after
+  Haase, loc. cit.
+
+    FIG. 5.
+
+    A, Anterior extremity of _Scolopendra_, showing two chambers of the
+    heart (h), the aortic ring (a), the alae cordis (a.m) and a cardiac
+    orifice (o).
+
+    B, Two segments of _Scolopendra_, showing the branching and
+    anastomosing tracheae and a spiracle (sp).
+
+    C, A pair of tufted tracheae of _Scutigera_. d, Dorsal plate; t.s,
+    tracheal sac; tr, tracheal tubes.]
+
+  In all centipedes, except _Scutigera_, respiration is effected by
+  chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications
+  throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of spiracles
+  perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or fewer of the
+  somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never present upon
+  the anal, genital and last leg-bearing somites, and only rarely, as in
+  _Henicops_, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first pair. In the
+  majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid or slit-like
+  orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like integumental
+  infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal tubes which soon
+  anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks. In _Dacetum_, one of the
+  _Scolopendridae_, there is no pocket-like infolding, the small
+  tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on a large subcircular
+  plate where their apertures fuse to form a complicated network. The
+  apertures, as in the case of other genera, are protected by fine
+  hairs; and the tracheae themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral
+  filament. In the _Lithobiidae_ the tracheae do not anastomose; but in
+  _Scolopendra_ and _Geophilus_ the main trunks in each segment fuse
+  transversely with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally
+  with those of the preceding and succeeding segments.
+
+  In _Scutigera_ the tracheae differ both in structure and position from
+  those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and seven in
+  number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into a short sac
+  from which five tracheal tubes depend into the pericardial
+  blood-sinus.
+
+  Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders
+  referable to two subclasses--
+
+    Subclass I.         Pleurostigma.
+       Order 1             Geophilomorpha.
+       Order 2             Scolopendromorpha.
+       Order 3             Craterostigmomorpha.
+       Order 4             Lithobiomorpha.
+
+    Subclass II.        Notostigma.
+       Order 5             Scutigeromorpha.
+
+SUBCLASS I, PLEUROSTIGMA.--Chilopods furnished with a rich system of
+branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are paired and open
+upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the somites. Each leg-bearing
+somite contains a distinct tergum and sternum, the number of sterna
+never exceeding that of the terga. Eyes are either preserved or lost;
+when preserved they are represented either by a single one-lensed
+ocellus or by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head.
+The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent sharply
+downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior portion lying
+behind the antennae, so that these appendages, approximated in the
+middle line, project directly forwards from the margin of the head
+formed by this retroversion of the labral area. The maxillae are short
+and have no sensory organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and
+the toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single coxal
+plate.
+
+  _Order 1. Geophilomorpha_.--Chilopods with a large and indefinite
+  number of somites, most of which are partially or completely divided
+  into a smaller anterior segment, represented by a pretergal and two
+  presternal sclerites, and a larger posterior segment bearing the
+  spiracles and legs. Spiracles are present upon all the leg-bearing
+  somites except the first and last; and the legs which are short and
+  subequal in length consist of six segments, the basal of which remains
+  small. There are no eyes, and the antennae consist invariably of
+  fourteen segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the
+  toxicognaths always remains distinct and separates the head-shield
+  from the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and
+  antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the
+  preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial
+  integumental folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the
+  distal segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In
+  the last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the
+  coxa of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this
+  appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal
+  somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and the
+  gonopods typically persist in the male as small two-jointed appendages
+  and in the female as jointed or unjointed sclerites. The young are
+  hatched with the full number of segments.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6. (After Latzel, _Die Myr. öst.-ung. Mon._ vol.
+  i. "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.)
+
+    A, Upper view of anterior extremity in _Geophilus_.
+
+      a, Basal segments of antennae.
+
+      c, Cephalic plate.
+
+      t.palp, Tergal plate of somite, bearing palpognaths.
+
+      t.tox, Tergal plate of somite, bearing toxicognaths (_tox_).
+
+      t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite, bearing legs of first pair.
+
+    B, Toxicognaths of _Scolopendra_, showing the large coxal plate and
+    the reduced penultimate and antepenultimate segments.
+
+    C, Terminal segment or fang of the same, showing the orifice of the
+    poison gland.]
+
+  _Remarks._--The Geophilomorpha are universally distributed in suitable
+  localities. The number of families into which the order should be
+  divided is as yet unsettled, some authors admitting several groups of
+  this rank, others referring all the genera to a single family,
+  _Geophilidae_. In habits the _Geophilidae_ are mostly subterranean,
+  living in the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms.
+  Occasionally they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the
+  sake of moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive
+  to light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to
+  the nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They
+  can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using
+  the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority
+  of the family in habits are the two species _Linotaenia maritima_ and
+  _Schendyla submarina_, which live under stones or seaweed between
+  tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the
+  species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and
+  secrete a fluid which in some forms (_Himantarium_) is blood-red,
+  while in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form _Orphnaeus
+  phosphoreus_ the fluid is known to possess this property; and its
+  luminosity has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in
+  the case of _Linotaenia acuminata_ and _L. crassipes_.
+
+  The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between
+  thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding
+  discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being
+  less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example
+  recorded, a specimen of _Notiphilides_ from Venezuela, was 11 in. long
+  and 1/3 of an inch wide.
+
+  When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking up a
+  spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for that
+  purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered spot,
+  sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them with her
+  body, keeps guard until the young disperse and shift for themselves.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ (after Buffon).
+
+    A, a, Cephalic plate.
+
+    b, Tergum of segment, bearing first pair of legs (d).
+
+    c, Tip of palpognath.
+
+    e, Antenna.
+
+    f, Toxicognath.
+
+    g, Last pair of appendages, enlarged and directed backwards.]
+
+  _Order 2. Scolopendromorpha._--Chilopods differing principally from
+  the Geophilomorpha in that the number of leg-bearing somites is
+  definitely fixed at twenty-three or twenty-one. These are
+  differentiated into larger and smaller, which alternate with nearly
+  complete regularity. The anterior portion of each somite is only
+  partially cut off as a subsegment. The tergal plate of the somite
+  bearing the toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by fusion with the
+  tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The antennae consist of a
+  number of segments varying from seventeen to about thirty, and usually
+  differing in the individuals of a species. The second segment
+  (trochanter) of the legs of the last pair is coalesced with the third
+  (femur). In only one genus, namely _Plutonium_, which occurs in Italy,
+  is there a pair of spiracles for each leg-bearing segment, except the
+  first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha. In most genera there are
+  only nine pairs of spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th,
+  12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-bearing segments, as in
+  _Scolopendra_, _Cormocephalus_, _Cryptops_, &c. In genera with
+  twenty-three pairs of legs, like _Scolopocryptops_, there is an
+  additional pair of spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous segment;
+  and a few genera such as _Rhysida, Edentistoma_, possess a pair upon
+  the 7th segment. Eyes, when present, are always four in number on each
+  side. The newly hatched young has the full complement of appendages.
+
+  This order is divided into four families:--_Scolopendridae_
+  (_Scolopendra_, _Rhysida_), _Cryptopidae_ (_Cryptops_, _Theatops_),
+  _Scolopocryptopidae_ (_Scolopocryptops_, _Otocryptops_) and
+  _Newportudae_ (_Newportia_). Apart from the frigid zones it is
+  cosmopolitan in distribution, though only one genus (_Cryptops_)
+  extends into north temperate latitudes. In the tropics and warmer
+  countries of the southern hemisphere the genera and species are
+  particularly abundant, and individuals reach the greatest dimensions,
+  some specimens of the tropical American species _Scolopendra gigantea_
+  exceeding 12 in. in length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet
+  consisting of any animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to
+  be overcome. They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or
+  stones, and are nocturnal, shunning, like the _Geophilidae_, exposure
+  to light; and as in the _Geophilidae_, the females guard their eggs
+  and young until the latter disperse to lead an independent life.
+
+  _Order 3. Craterostigmomorpha_.--Chilopods with twenty-one tergal
+  plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with only
+  fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some members of
+  the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side of the head,
+  the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are
+  complete on the postaxial side of the appendage, and spiracles are
+  present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing
+  somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxicognaths, of
+  the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing somite,
+  great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (e.g.
+  _Mecistocephalus_) is presented; but in the structure of the posterior
+  end of the body this order differs from all the other orders of
+  Chilopoda. The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are
+  welded together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and
+  anal somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of
+  opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products.
+
+  [Illustration: After Pocock. Q.J.M.S. vol. 45, pl. 23, 1902.
+
+    FIG. 8.
+
+    A, Anterior end of _Craterostigmus_ from above.
+
+    a, Basal segments of antennae.
+
+    c, Cephalic plate with eyes (o).
+
+    t.tox, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxicognaths (tox).
+
+    t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of the first pair.
+
+    B, Maxillae.
+
+    C, Palpognath.
+
+    D, Toxicognath.
+
+    E, Last segment with genital capsule (g.c), and basal segments of
+    legs of 14th and 15th pairs (lg. 14, lg. 15).]
+
+  This order, containing the family _Craterostigmidae_, is based upon a
+  remarkable genus and species _Craterostigmus tasmanianus_, of which
+  only two specimens are known. These were collected under stones upon
+  the summit of Mount Rumney in Tasmania. They are about 1½ in. in
+  length; but nothing has been recorded of their habits. The chief
+  morphological interest attaching to _Craterostigmus_ is that, apart
+  from certain structural peculiarities of its own, it presents features
+  previously believed to be found exclusively either in the
+  Scolopendromorpha, or the Geophilomorpha, or the Lithobiomorpha; and
+  it shows how the Lithobiomorpha may be derived from a
+  Scolopendromorphous type most nearly resembling _Plutonium_ by the
+  excalation of the third, sixth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth and
+  seventeenth leg-bearing somites.
+
+  _Order 4. Lithobiomorpha._ Chilopoda with fifteen pairs of leg-bearing
+  somites differentiated into larger and smaller, the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
+  7th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th being large, the others small. Spiracles
+  present upon all the larger with the exception sometimes of the 1st.
+  The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders hitherto
+  considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused mesially.
+  In correlation with their weaker muscularity the first leg-bearing
+  segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present and usually jointed
+  in both sexes, are especially well developed and forcipate in the
+  female, and arise from a large ventral plate resulting from the fusion
+  of their coxae with the sternum of the genital somite. The antennae
+  are many-jointed, and there is a single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli
+  on each side of the head. The coxae of the legs are large, and those
+  of the last four or five pairs usually contain glands opening by large
+  orifices. The newly-hatched young has only seven pairs of legs, the
+  remaining pairs being successively added as growth proceeds.
+
+  The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the
+  _Lithobiidae_ (_Lithobius, Bothropolys_), _Henicopidae_ (_Henicops,
+  Haasiella_), the _Cermatobiidae_ (_Cermatobius_). _Cermatobius_, based
+  upon a single species, _martensii_, from the isl. of Adenara, is of
+  peculiar interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length
+  and multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it
+  approaches more nearly to _Scutigera_ than does any other
+  pleurostigmous Chilopod. It is also stated that the spiracles have
+  assumed a more dorsal position, thus foreshadowing the completely
+  dorsal situation they have taken up in the Notostigma. The
+  _Henicopidae_, containing centipedes of small size, attains its
+  maximum of development in the southern continents and islands, more
+  particularly Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America.
+  One genus (_Lamyctes_) however, occurs in Europe. The _Lithobiidae_,
+  on the contrary, are almost exclusively northern in range, being
+  particularly abundant and of large size individually in Europe,
+  extra-tropical Asia, and North and Central America. In habits the
+  _Lithobiidae_ closely resemble the _Scolopendridae_. They are,
+  however, comparatively far more agile with their shorter, more compact
+  bodies and stronger legs. They are mostly of small size, the largest
+  species, _Lithobius fusciatus_, of south Europe measuring only 2 in.
+  in length of body. The females do not guard their eggs, but coat them
+  with soil and leave them to their fate.
+
+SUBCLASS 2, NOTOSTIGMA.--Chilopods with a series of median dorsal
+tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the pericardial blood
+space, and opening each by an unpaired spiracle upon the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
+8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing somites. This characteristic is
+accompanied by the complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th,
+either by fusion with that of the 8th or by excalation, and by the
+evanescence of the terga of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and 13th
+pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not strongly
+reflexed inferiorly, and the eyes are large and compound. The maxillae
+are long and have a sensory organ, the palpognaths are long, spiny and
+composed of five segments, like the primitive Chilopod leg, and the
+toxicognaths have their basal segments disunited and independently
+movable. Gonopods duplicated in the male.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Scutigera rubrolineata_ (after Buffon). B,
+Tergum and part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of
+the stigmata o, o; p, hinder margin of tergum.]
+
+  This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the family
+  _Scutigeridae_. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs of
+  legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young is
+  hatched with only seven pairs of legs. The legs and antennae in the
+  adult are extremely long and many jointed. In habits as well as in
+  structure the _Scutigeridae_, of which _Scutigera_ is the best-known
+  genus, differ greatly from other centipedes. Although they hide under
+  stones and logs of wood like _Lithobius_, they are not lucifugous but
+  diurnal, and may be seen chasing their foes in the blazing sun. They
+  run with astonishing speed and have the power of dropping their legs
+  when seized. South of about the 40th parallel of north latitude they
+  are universally distributed in suitable localities. In most species
+  the body only reaches a length of about 1 in.; but twice that size or
+  more is reached by examples of the Indian species _Scutigera
+  longicornis_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Latzel, _Die Myr öst-ung. Mon._ vol. i.
+  "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.
+
+    FIG. 10.--Gnathites of _Scutigera_.
+
+    I. Mandibles.
+    II. Maxillae.
+    III. Palpognaths.
+    IV. Toxicognaths.]
+
+  Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda by
+  Scudder, who refers them to two families, _Gerascutigeridae_ and
+  _Eoscolopendridae_. But until the specimens have been examined by
+  zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken
+  seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to
+  existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds.     (R. I. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA (c. 1667-1723), English dramatic writer and actress,
+was born about 1667, probably in Ireland, whither her father, a
+Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman, had been forced to flee at the
+Restoration on account of his political sympathies. When sixteen she
+married the nephew of Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year
+she married an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in
+poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and some
+of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she married Joseph
+Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who survived her. Her first play
+was a tragedy, _The Perjured Husband_ (1700), and she herself appeared
+for the first time at Bath in her comedy _Love at a Venture_ (1706).
+Among her most successful comedies are--_The Gamester_ (1705); _The Busy
+Body_ (1709); _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1718); _The Basset-table_
+(1706); and _The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret_ (1714), in which, as
+the jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots,
+verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing, though
+coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue fluent. She never
+seems to have acted in London, but she was a friend of Rowe, Farquhar
+and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on the 1st of December 1723. Her dramatic
+works were published, with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872).
+
+
+
+
+CENTO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 18 m. S.E.
+direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-level; it is reached
+by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m.
+S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a steam tramway (18 m. N.) from
+Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901)
+4307 (town), 19,078 (commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with
+Ferrara. It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco
+Barbieri (Guercino). The communal picture-gallery and several churches
+contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A statue of him
+stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Governativo. The town was
+surrounded by walls, the gates of which are preserved. The origin of the
+name is uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+CENTO (Gr. _[Greek: kentrôn]_, Lat. _cento_, patchwork), a composition
+made up by collecting passages from various works. The Byzantine Greeks
+manufactured several out of the poems of Homer, among which may be
+mentioned the life of Christ by the famous empress Eudoxia, and a
+version of the Biblical history of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the
+later empire and the monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing
+poems out of the verse of Virgil. Such were the _Cento Nuptialis_ of
+Ausonius, the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th
+century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the hymns in
+honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace by Metellus, a monk
+of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the 12th century. Specimens may be
+found in the work of Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1504; Frankfort, 1541,
+1544). In 1535 Laelius Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the
+dissolute lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a
+_Petrarca Spirituale_; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one
+of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a _Virgilius Evangelizans, seu
+Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et versibus
+descripta_.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL AMERICA, that portion of the American continent which lies
+between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British crown colony of
+British Honduras, and the six independent republics of Guatemala,
+Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. These seven
+divisions are described in separate articles. Central America is bounded
+towards the N. by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific
+Ocean, and extends between 7° 12' and 18° 3' N. and between 77° 12' and
+92° 17' W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and stretches for
+some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of three serpentine
+curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m., between the Peninsula of
+Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras, and diminishing to 35 m. in the
+Isthmus of Panama. The eastern boundary of Central America was usually
+regarded as identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903, when the
+republic of Panama was formed out of the northern territories of
+Colombia; and the more modern definition given above does not command
+the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include the
+whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west, i.e. the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however, the support of
+political and historical considerations, as well as of common usage; and
+it may therefore be regarded as adequate, although, in respect of
+climate and natural products, it would be more accurate to define
+Central America as lying between Tehuantepec and Darien.
+
+  _Physical Features._--The _Cordilleras_, or mountain chains of Central
+  America do not form a complete link between the western ranges in the
+  north and south of the continent, for their continuity is interrupted
+  by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine basin of
+  Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central America from
+  end to end, their main axis trending from north-west to south-east.
+  They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges or series of
+  volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras are
+  disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser chains
+  radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude of 12,000
+  and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general character of
+  the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active. Large tracts
+  of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning of the 20th
+  century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical climate, and the
+  dense underwoods which impede exploration. In the northern part of
+  Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same country, in British
+  Honduras, along the Segovia river, on the Mosquito Coast, and in the
+  basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river, there are broad
+  stretches of comparatively flat country. The main line of watershed is
+  everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, except in
+  southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is almost equidistant from
+  the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers of the Pacific seaboard are
+  mostly short and swift,--mere mountain torrents, in many instances,
+  until they reach the sands and swamps which border the sea. The rivers
+  of the Atlantic littoral descend more gradually, and by longer
+  channels. The largest of them is the Segovia, in Nicaragua and
+  Honduras, which has a course of 450 m. Lake Nicaragua, the largest
+  inland sheet of water, has an area exceeding 3500 sq. m. There are
+  also several mountain lakes of exceptional interest and beauty, such
+  as Atitlán and Amatitlán, in Guatemala, besides two great land-locked
+  salt-water lakes--the Pearl Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the
+  Carataska Lagoon in Honduras.
+
+  [Illustration: Geologic Map of Central America.]
+
+  _Geology._--The neck of land which unites the continents of North and
+  South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of either,
+  but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were, between
+  the other two. The folds in the earth's crust which form the Andes and
+  the Western ranges of North America, are not continued along the
+  connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the strata are folded from
+  west to east, obliquely across the trend of the continent. It should,
+  however, be noticed that the Andes, as they approach the Caribbean
+  sea, bend round towards the east; and it is probable that the folds of
+  the North American Cordillera similarly bend eastward beneath the
+  volcanic rocks of Mexico. The folds of Central America are tangential
+  to the two arcs thus formed.
+
+  By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered by
+  Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic; but
+  the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From the
+  Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau the
+  existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet unproved,
+  but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico. South of the
+  plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges composed of
+  granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age, begin to
+  appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front of the
+  series of east and west folds which stand _en échelon_ across the
+  Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels of
+  latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala,
+  there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists
+  with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear, for
+  the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be
+  Pre-Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at
+  least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British
+  Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also in Costa
+  Rica and perhaps in Panama; and wherever the strike has been observed,
+  it is approximately from west to east. The presence of Palaeozoic
+  rocks has been proved in Guatemala and the adjacent state of Chiapas,
+  where limestones have been found containing many unmistakable
+  Carboniferous fossils, and below these is a considerable thickness of
+  beds supposed to be Silurian. Nowhere else in the Central American
+  region is there any palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks.
+
+  The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow clays
+  containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but the
+  occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated
+  outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in Central
+  America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower series of clays,
+  sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably by an upper series
+  of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas, Guatemala and
+  Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The upper series contains
+  hippurites. The greater part of the eastern half of the Mexican
+  plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds.
+
+  The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two divisions.
+  The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally of sand and
+  clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line. The upper
+  division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene (which have not
+  yet been clearly distinguished from each other), is usually of shallow
+  water origin; but in the northern part of Yucatan it includes beds of
+  chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles, which may have been
+  deposited in a deeper sea.
+
+  It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological
+  epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved in
+  the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undisturbed,
+  and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the Miocene
+  period, which appears to have been a period of great earth movement
+  throughout the Caribbean region. From the southern extremity of the
+  Mexican plateau to the Colombian border, the strike of the folds--of
+  the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits, as well as of the older
+  rocks--is in general from east to west; but there is one considerable
+  exception. On both sides of the deep depression which crosses Honduras
+  from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of Fonseca, the strike is commonly from
+  north to south. The depression is probably a "Graben" or trough formed
+  by faulting.
+
+  The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon the
+  Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land contracts
+  to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the Caribbean
+  shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great, and over a
+  wide area they entirely conceal the original structural features of
+  the country. The eruptions began towards the close of the Cretaceous
+  period and continue to the present day. The rocks are lavas and ashes,
+  chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition, but rhyolites and
+  trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met with in one or two
+  places.
+
+  According to R.T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence of any
+  Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific,
+  excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene period. It
+  should, however, be stated that all authorities are not agreed upon
+  this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones which he believes
+  to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally at a height of
+  about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Unfortunately the
+  fossils obtained from these beds were lost.
+
+  _Climate_.--The climate of Central America is subject to the most
+  marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the
+  proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which
+  render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands of
+  British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike the alpine
+  regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may, however, be
+  roughly divided into a tropical zone (_tierra caliente_), from
+  sea-level to about 1500 ft.; a temperate zone (_tierra templada_),
+  from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (_tierra fria_), above 5000 ft.
+  These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it often
+  happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater on the
+  Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on the Pacific
+  slope varies in duration from four to six months, between April and
+  December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On the coast, it
+  corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, the
+  tempestuous _Cordonazo de San Francisco_, or "Flagellation of St
+  Francis," as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted by an
+  interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known as the
+  _Veranillo de San Juan_, or "Little summer of St John." In the rainy
+  season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two or three
+  o'clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great cumulus
+  masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain crashes down;
+  and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North winds are most usual
+  during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast the trade-winds may bring
+  rain in any month, and, owing to the moist atmosphere, the heat is
+  more oppressive. The rainfall may vary in successive years from less
+  than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to the occurrence of
+  cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft., but snow seldom
+  falls.
+
+  _Fauna_.--The fauna of Central America is more closely connected with
+  the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the region is
+  comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are
+  comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own. It
+  is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous to man.
+  Of felines it possesses the jaguar (_Felis onza_), popularly called
+  the tiger; the cuguar (_Felis concolor_), popularly called the lion;
+  the tigrillo (_Felis tigrina_), which is sometimes kept tame; and
+  other species. Several species of monkeys (_Mycetes_ and _Ateles_) are
+  numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (_Cervus
+  mexicanus_) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands.
+  Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as the
+  marrano de monte (_Sus torquatus_) and the jabali or javali (_Sus
+  labiatus javali_). The _Edentata_ are represented by a species of
+  armadillo, the honey-bear (_Myrmecophaga tomandua_), and the
+  _Myrmecophaga didactyla;_ and among the rodents may be mentioned,
+  besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit-eating cotorra and
+  tepes-cuinte (_Dasyprocta aguti_ and _Coelogenys paca_), and the
+  troublesome _Geomys mexicana._ The manatee is common in all the larger
+  streams. Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little
+  marsupial called the tacuacine, or the _Didelphys carcinora,_ its
+  allied species. The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes
+  had to be left to their undisputed occupancy. In the south-east of
+  Costa Rica the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with
+  all their live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires
+  which in a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most
+  of the domestic animals--the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit,
+  common fowl, peacock and pigeon--are of European origin, and are
+  popularly grouped together as _animales de Castilla._ For the bird
+  collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National
+  Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica alone possesses more than
+  twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among birds of
+  prey it is sufficient to mention _Corogyps atratus,_ the commonest of
+  the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger, the _Cathartes
+  aura,_ the beautiful _Polyborus vulgaris,_ and the king of the
+  vultures (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Neither the condor of the southern
+  continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known. The parrot,
+  macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow, blackbird, Mexican
+  jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker, humming-bird and trogon
+  are also widely distributed. A bird of the last-named genus, the
+  quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon resplendens_) is of special note,
+  not only from the fact that its yellow tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long,
+  were formerly worn as insignia by the Indian princes, but because it
+  has been adopted as the emblematical figure on the national arms of
+  Guatemala. The gallinaceous order is well represented, and comprises
+  several peculiar species, as the pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey
+  (_Meleagris ocellata_), which has a bronze sheen on its plumage; and
+  aquatic birds, it is almost needless to add, are unusually numerous in
+  a region so richly furnished with lagoons, rivers and lakes.
+
+  Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost endless
+  varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless boba or
+  chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous corali, taboba,
+  culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great size, scorpions,
+  edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous. In the rivers
+  and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound; turtles and
+  tortoises are exported; and there are valuable pearl and oyster
+  fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the
+  _Coleoptera_, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and
+  the Chrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the
+  _Lepidoptera_ the prevalent genera are--_Ageronia, Papilio, Heliconia,
+  Sphinx_ and _Bombyx_. There are five species of bees, and the European
+  honey-bee, known as _aveja de Castilla_ or "bee of Castile," has been
+  naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen marching in a
+  column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and locust are
+  unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but their
+  distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown in
+  parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the _Timetes
+  Chiron,_ which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests of
+  Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return.
+
+  _Flora_.--The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine to the
+  tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another.
+  Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to
+  those of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is
+  unsurpassed for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic
+  districts, the soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated
+  and irrigated, magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco,
+  coffee, cocoa and maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar
+  yields two or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal
+  supplying a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes,
+  yams, arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical
+  fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests
+  abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum copal,
+  vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods, medicinal
+  plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst the forest trees are
+  the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and the splendid Coyal palm
+  (_Cocos butyracea,_ L.), with feathery leaves 15 to 20 ft. long,
+  golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fermented produces the
+  intoxicating _chicha_ or _vino de Coyol._ In Guatemala occurs the
+  remarkable _Herrania purpurea,_ a "Chocolate tree," whose seeds yield
+  a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself. The same country is
+  famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arborescent thistles, and a
+  remarkable plant called by the Spaniards _Flor de la Calentura_,
+  "fever flower," from the heat which it is said to emit at the moment
+  of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance of medicinal plants,
+  notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (_Myrospermum salvatorense_); in
+  Honduras there are immense forests of conifers, resembling those of
+  the Landes in France; in Nicaragua a characteristic tree is the cortes
+  (_Tecoma sideroxylori_) yielding timber as hard as ebony, and
+  noteworthy for the golden blossom with which it is entirely covered
+  after the leaves have fallen.
+
+_Inhabitants_--In 1905 the population of Central America numbered about
+4,750,000, and this total tends to increase, despite the unhealthy
+climate of many districts, the terribly high average of infant
+mortality, and the slow progress of immigration. Some authorities
+estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of the inhabitants are of
+mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the Indian element predominates
+everywhere except in Costa Rica, where the whites are exceptionally
+numerous. The Indian races have not shown the same power to adapt
+themselves to modern civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there
+are tribes remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the
+Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture (see
+below under _Archaeology_). The density of population throughout Central
+America is little more than 25 per sq. m.; and it is clear that several
+large areas now thinly peopled once maintained a far greater number of
+inhabitants. Such are parts of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the
+flora consists in great measure of plants that were formerly cultivated
+by the Indians. The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by
+tribal wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the
+German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere, the foreign
+population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other centres of
+commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United States being largely
+represented among the wealthier classes of residents; while the foreign
+labourers are mostly Italians or negroes, with a few Chinese on the
+Pacific coast.
+
+_History_.--Central America was discovered by Columbus in August 1502;
+and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica was conquered by the
+Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after 1513. Between 1522 and 1525,
+the authority of Avila was superseded, and his work of conquest
+completed by Hernando Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama
+formed part of a distinct Spanish government, "New Granada"; British
+Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed, in the 18th
+century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British government exercised a
+nominal protectorate after 1665. Otherwise the rest of Central America
+remained a Spanish dependency bearing the general name of "Guatemala,"
+until 1821. It ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a
+military governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding
+in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador,
+Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it was administered by
+Spanish officials, who almost invariably devoted their whole energy to
+enriching themselves and the home authorities. The old Indian
+civilization was swept away; the native races were enslaved, maltreated
+and, for a time, demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to
+that of the West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced
+by hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not only
+survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro population, but
+quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of their masters,
+with whom they intermarried. By the close of the 18th century, the
+majority had attained something like uniformity of life and thought.
+Racial distinctions had been obscured by intermarriage; even the term
+_Ladino_, or "Latin," came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish
+or Indian blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured race
+more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers; but so
+gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost unnoticed. Its
+result, the successful revolt of the Spanish colonies--colonies mainly
+peopled by Indians or half-castes--was no more a conflict of rival races
+or civilizations than the rebellion of the British colonies in North
+America.
+
+"New Granada" attained its independence in 1819; and in 1821 "Guatemala"
+declared itself free. That the subsequent history of the Central
+American republics has been largely a record of civil war,
+maladministration and financial dishonesty, is perhaps due in part to
+racial inferiority. In part, however, it may be explained by the absence
+of any tradition of good government; perhaps also by the brevity and
+artificiality of the evolution which converted a debased
+slave-population into the citizens of modern democratic states. The five
+divisions of "Guatemala" were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican
+empire during 1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras,
+Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a Mexican
+republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the Republic of the United
+States of Central America. The Liberal or Federalist party, which was
+supreme in Honduras, found itself opposed by the Conservatives,
+including the clergy and former Spanish officials, who were very
+influential in Guatemala. A bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In
+1837-1839 a Conservative rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of
+Guatemala, resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General
+Francisco Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to
+restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A fresh
+union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in 1842, and
+dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the conclusion, on
+the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (q.v.) between Great
+Britain and the United States, which was designed to facilitate the
+construction of an interoceanic canal. The history of this project is
+given in detail under PANAMA CANAL. One important result of the treaty
+was the abandonment, in 1860, of the British protectorate over the
+Mosquito Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political
+disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had combined to
+restore federal unity; but their allied armies were defeated by the
+Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the American adventurer, William
+Walker, endeavoured to usurp the government of Nicaragua; in 1860 he
+invaded Honduras and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the
+slave-holders of the United States by adding new slave-states to the
+Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885, and
+its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala, lost his
+life. In 1895 the Greater Republic of Central America was formed by the
+union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras; and a constitution was framed
+providing for the admission of Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December
+1898 it was dissolved, as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of
+November 1903 Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia,
+declared itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immediately
+recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards by the European
+powers. The United States also forbade the landing of any Colombian
+force on the territories of Panama, and thus guaranteed the security of
+the new state.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of Central America, and
+  especially of its physical features, the following monographs by K.
+  Sapper are of prime importance:--_In den Vulcangebieten Mittelamerikas
+  und Westindiens_ (Stuttgart, 1905); _Mittelamerikanische Reisen und
+  Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bis 1900_ (Brunswick, 1902), and _Das
+  nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dem Hochland von
+  Anahuac_ (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many useful
+  illustrations and maps. See also _Central America and the West
+  Indies_, by A.H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London, 1901, 2
+  vols., with maps and illustrations); _Central and South America_, by
+  H.W. Bates (London, 1882); _The Spanish American Republics_, by T.
+  Child (London, 1892); and _Expedition nach Zentral und Sudamerika_, by
+  P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see "The Geological History of
+  the Isthmus of Panama and Portions of Costa Rica," by R.T. Hill, in
+  _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the
+  following by K. Sapper:--"Grundzüge der physikalischen Geographic von
+  Guatemala," in _Petermann's Mitt._ Ergänzungsheft, No. 113 (1894),
+  "Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des nördlichen Mittelamerika," ibid., No.
+  127 (1899), and "Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des südlichen
+  Mittelamerika," _ibid_., No. 151 (1905). _The States of Central
+  America_, by E.G. Squier (New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are
+  others of the numerous essays, pamphlets, &c., on Central American
+  affairs left by this author; see the bibliography of his writings
+  published in New York in 1876. The _Bulletins of the Bureau of
+  American Republics_ (Washington, from 1893) give ample information on
+  commerce and industry. See also _History of Central America_, by H.
+  Bancroft (San Francisco, 1881-1887. 3 vols.).
+
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL AMERICA
+
+Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th century have
+thrown much light on the splendid past of Central America. The still
+extant ruins of great buildings, unlike anything which is known in the
+old world, testify to the high culture attained in pre-Columbian days by
+several native peoples differing greatly from one another in speech and
+racial affinities. As a science the archaeology of Central America has
+scarcely yet emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly
+uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await solution must
+still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscriptions, which hitherto
+has not progressed beyond the discovery of calendar systems and the
+relative datings involved in such systems.
+
+For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it has
+been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central America,
+properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican territories
+south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The peoples inhabiting
+Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas and Oaxaca present at the first
+view striking ethnical differences. On a linguistic basis, however, they
+may be united into several large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater
+part of Guatamala are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included
+the still savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically
+are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels in
+Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam, Pokoman,
+Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these there are patches of
+country in which dialects of the Mexican are spoken. In Oaxaca there is
+an extraordinary mixture of languages, some of which, like that of the
+Huave of Tehuantepec, are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the
+population, however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the
+Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects also occur in
+isolated parts of Oaxaca.
+
+_Mayan Culture._--The civilization of the Mayas may well have been
+reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of which the
+ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than 500 years. The date
+of its extinction is unknown, but in certain places, notably Mayapan and
+Chichenitza, the highest development seems to be synchronous with the
+appearance of foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below). This
+quite distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question
+played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which the scanty
+documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other hand the Mayan
+culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate heterogeneous
+elements, obliterating racial distinctions and imposing its own dominant
+character over a wide area. Oaxaca, the country of the Mixtecs and
+Zapotecs, became, as was natural from its geographical position midway
+between Yucatan and Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological
+traditions which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united.
+
+
+  Architecture
+
+Central American architecture is characterized by a fine feeling for
+construction, and the execution is at once bold and aesthetically
+effective. Amongst the various ruins, some of which represent the
+remains of entire cities, while others are no more than groups of
+buildings or single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The
+commonest of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are
+occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with a
+covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top from one
+or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps. Usually the platform on
+the top of a pyramid is occupied by buildings, the typical distribution
+of which is into two parts, viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion
+with the pyramid there are various subsidiary structures, such as
+altars, pillars, and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of
+ritual and worship, besides habitations for officials and
+"tennis-courts" for the famous ball-game like that played by the
+Mexicans. The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the
+buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation to
+particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids constitute
+one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure, within which are
+contained other pyramids, altars or other buildings of various
+dimensions.
+
+The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which the front
+facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors. These divide it
+into a series of rooms, behind which again there may be a second series.
+Occasionally the rooms are distributed round a central apartment, but
+this is ordinarily done only when a second storey has to be placed above
+them. The gallery-buildings may rise to as much as three storeys, the
+height, size and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies
+of vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the
+vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls
+being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so narrow a
+space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At Mitla, where the
+material used in the construction of the buildings was timber instead of
+stone, the larger rooms were furnished with stone pillars on which the
+beams could rest. The same principle recurs in certain ruins at
+Chichenitza. The tops and sides of the doors are often decorated with
+carved reliefs and hieroglyphs, and the entrances are sometimes
+supported by plain or carved columns and pilasters, of which style the
+serpent columns of Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its
+external front one of these galleries may have a cornice and
+half-pillars. Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze
+which generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole
+building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic, serpents'
+heads and human masks. The corners of the wall terminate in
+three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the frieze frequently
+show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated into trunks. The roof of the
+gallery is flat and occasionally gabled.
+
+_Principal Sites._--Such are the general characteristics of Central
+American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every site
+exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the ruined
+settlements even as at present known is very large. The most
+considerable are enumerated below.
+
+_Yucatan_.--Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed over
+Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still await
+exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted to one or two
+sites in the centre of the peninsula which have already become famous.
+At Uxmal the buildings consist of five considerable groups, viz.--the
+Casa del Adivino, which is a step-pyramid 240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide
+and 80 ft. high, crowned by a temple 75 ft. long by 12 ft. wide; the
+Casa de Monjas, a striking erection of four oblong buildings on an
+extensive terrace; the Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa
+de Palomas, the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a
+court. At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite
+insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate
+importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist of
+eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The Casa de
+Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to several distinct
+periods; the Caracol, a round structure with dome in imitation of a
+snail-shell, showing evident traces of Mexican influence; El Castillo, a
+large temple standing on a base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached
+by staircases on all four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a
+kind unknown anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an
+unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of caryatid
+figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple, which contains
+marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures of warriors and
+place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively Mexican style. Yet
+another evidence of Mexican influence at Chichenitza is to be noted in
+five figures of the so-called Chac-mol type, that is to say, horizontal
+figures in which the arms are extended to the navel which is indicated
+by a cup-like depression. This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such
+sites as Tlascala and Cempoallan.
+
+Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine
+wall-paintings; Tantah, with remarkable pillared facades; the ruins of
+Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and Xlabpak de Santa Rosa,
+where there is a three-storeyed temple palace. Two sculptured reliefs
+are of great interest; they represent a person holding a staff on which
+is a figure of the god Ah-bolon-tzacab.
+
+_Guatemala_.--The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide area. The
+most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta river. The most
+important sites in that district are Piedras Negras, and Yaxchilan or
+Menche Tinamit, where there are temples covered with sculptured reliefs
+and hieroglyphic inscriptions, and stelae and slabs carved with human
+figures placed in niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its
+splendid sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near the
+modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-Mixco.
+Chacujál, which Cortes visited on his expedition of 1524-1525 is very
+possibly to be identified with the modern Pueblo Viejo on the river
+Tinaja. Chaculá and Quen-Santo between the headwaters of the Rio de
+Chiapas and the Rio Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local
+character. Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two
+settlements, as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms.
+Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character, which proves
+that Mayan science had penetrated into what was probably the home of an
+old Lacantun culture.
+
+Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras, is a
+very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settlement which had
+already been deserted before Alvarado's expedition of 1522. The
+sculptures of gods, goddesses and other figures, executed on enormous
+blocks of stone, show a distinctively Mexican character, with which,
+however, various Mayan features are blended. They may perhaps be
+attributed to some offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil
+Indians, which developed on lines of its own in this remote corner.
+
+Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of Quirigua,
+which rival Copan in importance and have suffered less from the ravages
+of the climate. The ruins of temples and palaces contain gigantic stone
+stelae of very fine workmanship, on which are sculptured human and
+animal figures representing hieroglyphs of the calendar dates.
+
+_Honduras_.--Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan
+civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins comprise
+great buildings, temples, pyramids, &c. and contain sculptures of the
+highest interest. Especially noteworthy are altars in the form of a
+turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs. The hieroglyphs are of the
+kind usually found in such ruins, the meaning of which is so far clear
+that it is known that the commencement of an inscription records certain
+dates in the complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of
+these dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated
+from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries. From this
+it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization, whether or not it was
+preceded by anything older, flourished for only a comparatively short
+period, the beginning of which cannot be placed many centuries before
+A.D. 1000.
+
+According to Squier (_Honduras_, London, 1870, p. 75) the other
+principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the department
+of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and in the ruined town of
+Cururu. They are "large, pyramidal, terraced structures, often faced
+with stones, conical mounds of earth and walls of stone." Further ruins,
+such as those of Calamulla, Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca
+and Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in the side
+valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting and most
+extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo), about 20 m.
+south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence works, terraced stone
+mounds and numerous large pyramids are to be found. Squier found further
+ruins in the west of Honduras, which have also been described in part by
+Stephens, and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de
+Palacio (_Carta dirigida al Rei de España_, published by Squier, New
+York, 1860).
+
+[Illustration: (Map of Central America)]
+
+At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a large
+population in past days. Possibly they may be identified with a site
+of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by Bernal Diaz (_Histoire
+véridique de la conquête de la Nouvelle Espagne_, translated by D.
+Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877, ch. 178, p. 690).
+
+_Chiapas_ (Mexico).--The principal site is Palenque, the ruins of which
+were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention. The style of
+architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular comb-shaped gables,
+distinguishes Palenque from Copan and Quirigua, which it surpasses also
+in the unequalled magnificence of its sculptures. Five out of the
+remarkably uniform series of buildings may be specially mentioned. They
+are the Great Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts
+commanded by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the Cross, which are
+galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known reliefs,
+the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the Temple of the Relief.
+The sculptured figures of Palenque are familiar from many reproductions.
+The most characteristic groups represent a deity standing between
+worshippers who hold a staff surmounted by the water-god
+Ah-bolon-tzacab, the "god of the nine medicines." The inscriptions on
+the famous Cross and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which
+are remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and
+hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere.
+
+A whole series of sites is included within the geographical limits of
+Chiapas, which from the archaeologist's standpoint must be considered as
+belonging properly to Guatemala. The country has been quite
+insufficiently explored.
+
+_Oaxaca_ (Mexico).--The bulk of the population of the province of Oaxaca
+is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented by the
+Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time the intermediaries
+between the Nahua civilization of Mexico on the west and the Mayan on
+the east. The influence of the two separate currents may be detected in
+the bastard calendar system no less than in the still undeciphered
+inscriptions. The principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of
+the priests and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite
+distinct character, though presenting certain analogies with the
+Mexican. One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three
+steps to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides
+these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented
+necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and of
+the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the "palaces"
+are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that the deities
+represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon.
+
+Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character of its
+sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with extensive ruins
+including a fine tennis court.
+
+_British Honduras_.--The antiquities of British Honduras have been but
+little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to them a few
+accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style these buildings
+closely resemble those of the neighbouring Yucatan. The ruins in the
+colony New Boston, mentioned by Froebel (_Central America_, p. 167), are
+of this kind. F. de P. Castells (see _American Antiquarian_, Chicago,
+1904, vol. xxvi. pp. 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the
+colony, of "Ixim chech," supposed to be the Indian form of the English
+name "Indian Church." They are on the road to the Lake of Yaxha (green
+water), where further ruins are to be found. Thomas Gann gives detailed
+accounts of numerous mounds also in the northern part of British
+Honduras (see _19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_,
+Washington, 1900, part i. pp. 661-692, with plates). The most
+interesting ruins are those which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at
+the mouth of the New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful
+wall paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann could
+only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by Indians. It should be
+remarked that a number of the mounds in Santa Rita were erected over
+ruins of buildings which must therefore be of older date than the
+mounds.
+
+_Salvador_.--Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls this
+whole district _Cuscatan_ (Mex. _Cozcatlan_), that is, "Land of precious
+stones, of treasures, of abundance." A further description of the land
+is given by Palacio (l.c.) in 1576. Although there are numerous relics
+of Mayan civilization buried in the earth; few ruins are to be seen on
+the surface. Karl Sapper has described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near
+the capital, Tehuacan near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Güija
+in the extreme north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct
+affinity in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they
+are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and western
+districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the same race of
+Mayas, and these tracts of country were later settled by the
+Mexican-speaking Pipiles.
+
+A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is that the
+pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which are higher than
+they are broad, and this peculiarity may be attributed to the influence
+of the Maya tribes, who are related to the Mams of Guatemala.
+
+_Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs._--The key to the decipherment,
+so far as this has progressed at present, was furnished by the _Historia
+de las Cosas de Yucatan_, a work written by Diego de Landa, the first
+bishop of the country. This professed to give, with much other more or
+less doubtful information, the full account of a calendar system
+analogous to that of the Mexicans, which was said to have been used by
+the Mayas (see MEXICO). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18
+weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to compare
+these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the few Mayan
+picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus, Peresianus, Dresden
+Codex) which have survived the destructive fanaticism of the Spanish
+missionaries. Förstemann's acute analysis detected that the bars and
+dots which occur along the margin and in the body of the pictorial
+scenes represented numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five,
+while for five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in
+which these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are
+never more than five in a group. It was established that the first sign
+in such a group is that for the numeral 1 (_Kin_), the next that for 20
+(_Uinal_), the third for 18×20 (_Tun_), the fourth for 18×20×20
+(_Katun_), and the fifth for 18×20×20×20, that is to say, a cycle.
+
+Had the available material for study been confined to the manuscripts,
+little more progress would have been made beyond establishing subsidiary
+details in the actual calendar. But when a similar analysis was applied
+to the numerous monuments discovered and figured by Maudslay and others,
+some important results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found
+that many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were also
+of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that they all
+referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-point or zero is
+no doubt the mythological date at which, according to Mayan cosmology,
+the world was created. It is placed at nine or ten cycles before the
+time when Copan and Quirigua were erected and the picture manuscripts
+made. And it is by reference to it in the inscriptions that such
+students as Seler, Goodman and others have been enabled, as already
+stated, to obtain a record of the relative chronology of the most famous
+monuments, to confine the period of their erection within the space of a
+few centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity.
+Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial results which
+have already been won from the study of the hieroglyphs.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Antiquités mexicaines_ of Dupaix (Paris, 1834),
+  the _Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan_
+  of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the _Monuments anciens du Mexique_
+  of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are quite out of
+  date and superseded. Stephen's _Incidents of Travel in Central
+  America, Chiapas and Yucatan_ (New York, 1841 and 1867), and B.M.
+  Norman's _Rambles in Yucatan_ (New York, 1843), are still of value,
+  the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by Catherwood. Among
+  the earlier writers may also be mentioned Charnay, _Les Anciennes
+  Villes du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1885) and _Cités et ruines
+  américaines_ (Paris, 1863), the latter written in collaboration with
+  Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily bibliophiles
+  will be content to study the following:--Maudslay (in Godman and
+  Salvin's _Biologia Centrali-Americana_, sect. _Archaeology_, London,
+  1889, &c.), a pioneer work containing the admirably presented results
+  of scientific exploration. Maler, in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_,
+  vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and 1903); Holmes,
+  _Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans_ (Field Columbian
+  Museum, Chicago, 1895); E. Seler, _Die alten Ansiedelungen von
+  Chacula_ (Berlin, 1901), _Wandmalereien von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1895),
+  _Ges. Abhandlungen_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904),
+  _Fuhrer von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1906). E. Förstemann has contributed many
+  valuable essays to _Globus_ and the _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_
+  (Berlin); especially important are his commentaries to the _Dresden
+  Codex_ (Dresden, 1901), to the _Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis_
+  (Danzig, 1902), and to the _Codex Peresianus_ (Danzig, 1903). See also
+  "The Archaic Maya Inscriptions," by F.T. Goodman (in _Biologia
+  Centrali-Americana_, section _Archaeology_, viii., 1897), and _Report
+  of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881_, by A.F. Bandelier
+  (Boston, 1884). Valuable bibliographies have been made by Bandelier
+  (_Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America_,
+  Worcester, U.S.A., 1881) and by K. Häbler ("Die Maya Literatur und der
+  Maya Apparat zu Dresden," in the _Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekwesen_,
+  xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published in facsimile
+  as follows:--the _Dresden Codex_ by Förstemann (Leipzig, 1880, and
+  Dresden, 1892), and the _Codex Tro_ by Brasseur de
+  Bourbourg--_Manuscrit Troano, étude sur le système graphique et la
+  langue des Mayas_ (Paris, 1869-1870), the _Codex Cortesianus_ by Léon
+  de Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and F.L.
+  de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the _Codex Peresianus_ by Duruy
+  and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de Rosny (Paris,
+  1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in Salvador:--_La
+  Universidad_, by D. Gonzalez, vol. ii. ser. 3, No. 6, p. 283 (San
+  Salvador, 1892-1893); _Le Salvador pré-Colombien, études
+  archéologiques_, by F. de Montcasus de Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25
+  plates; Karl Sapper in _Arch. fur Ethnologie_, 9, p. 3 ff. (1896).
+       (W. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL FALLS, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the
+Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence. Pop. (1900) 18,167;
+(1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792 were foreign-born, 4164 being
+French-Canadian, 1587 being English, and 1292 being Irish; (1910)
+22,754. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The
+Blackstone furnishes good water-power, and the chief industry of the
+city is the manufacture of cotton goods; other important industries are
+the refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and
+hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$5,090,984, being 12.9% more than in 1900. A settlement was established
+here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield, and then, after
+1871, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill was erected, and from then
+until 1827 the settlement was known as Chocolateville. It was
+incorporated as the Central Falls Fire District of Smithfield in 1847,
+and in 1895 was chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRALIA, a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of
+the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4763; (1900) 6721
+(571 foreign-born); (1910) 9680. The city is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois Central, the Illinois Southern, and
+the Southern railways; the first two have repair shops here. Centralia
+is situated in the central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as
+"Egypt." Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars,
+concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and
+apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city is a
+shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled in 1853,
+and was first chartered as a city in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL INDIA, a collection of native states in India forming a separate
+agency, which must not be confounded with the Central Provinces. The
+Central India agency was formed in 1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was
+appointed agent to the governor-general. It lies between 21° 24' and 26°
+52' N. and between 74° 0' and 83° 0' E., and may be said to consist of
+two large detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as a pivot,
+spread outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching northward to
+within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of the Nerbudda
+and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area is 78,772 sq. m. It
+is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United Provinces, on the W. and
+S.W. by Rajputana, some native states of the Bombay presidency, and
+Khandesh. The Central Provinces and the Bengal district of Chota Nagpur
+enclose it on the S. and E., while the Jhansi district of the United
+Provinces separates the two tracts.
+
+Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions: the
+highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of some 1500 ft.
+above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft. above sea-level,
+comprising the greater part of the eastern section of the agency; and
+the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south. The Malwa plateau
+consists of great undulating plains, separated by flat-topped hills,
+whose sides are boldly terraced, with here and there a scarp rising
+above the general level; it is covered with long grass, stunted trees
+and scrub, which owing to the presence of deciduous plants is of a
+uniform straw colour, except in the rains. The foundation of this
+plateau is a bed of sandstone and shales belonging to the Vindhyan
+series. This bed, which stretches east and west from Sasseram to
+Neemuch, and north and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the
+whole of the agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the
+plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan trap, a
+blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high level
+tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows, the valleys
+of Central India being merely "denudation hollows" carved out by the
+action of rain and rivers. It is apparently the northern limit of what
+was once a vast basaltic plain stretching from Goona to Belgaum, "one of
+the most gigantic outpourings of volcanic matter in the world." The
+sandstone bed on which it rests is visible at a point just north of
+Goona, and in a small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those
+places freed from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly
+that part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and
+comprises the greater part of the political divisions of Bundelkhand and
+Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior. The formation save in north
+Bundelkhand is sandstone of the Vindhyan series, free as a rule from
+"trap." In the north of Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and
+quartz. The quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in
+many places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears here
+and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly to the south
+of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and Kaimur ranges are met
+with. The country is rough forest and jungle land little used for
+cultivation. The greater part of Central India is covered with the
+well-known "black cotton soil," produced by the disintegration of the
+trap rock. It is a very rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and
+an unusual power of retaining moisture, which makes artificial
+irrigation little needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown
+upon it. The ordinary "red soil" covers a large part of northern
+Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a special
+feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as climatically the
+differences between the plateau and the eastern part of the agency are
+distinct and the languages markedly so. The plateau is inhabited by
+pure-blooded Rajput races, whose ancestry can be traced back for
+centuries, with all their numerous offshoots. The inhabitants of the
+low-lying country are also Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a
+rule the families of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with
+them. The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often
+flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but little
+affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of the climate of
+the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the _Ain-i-Akbari_, says: "The
+climate is so temperate that in the winter there is no occasion for warm
+clothing, nor is it necessary in summer to cool the water with
+saltpetre. But in the four rainy months the night here is cold enough to
+render a quilt necessary." The rains of the south-east monsoon reach
+Central India as a rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end
+of September.
+
+_Administrative Divisions._--The Central India agency is divided for
+administrative purposes into eight units, two classed as residencies and
+six as agencies. These are the residencies of Gwalior and Indore, and
+the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal, Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and
+Malwa. But these divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the
+purposes of the British government, the original native divisions
+consisting of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 15 large
+states are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia, Orchha,
+Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch), Dewas (junior
+branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the Pindari War in 1818 the
+whole country that is now under the Central India agency was in great
+confusion and disorder, having suffered heavily from the extortions of
+the Mahratta armies and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of
+the great Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into
+complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands they
+seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of money. Many of
+these minor chiefs had been expelled from their possessions, had taken
+refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated upon the Mahratta
+usurpers by wasting the lands which they had lost, until the Mahrattas
+compounded for peace by payment of blackmail. In this state of affairs
+all parties agreed to accept the interposition of the British government
+for the restoration of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of
+pacification was effected. The policy pursued was to declare the
+permanency of the rights existing at the time of the British
+interposition, conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust
+and guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to their
+superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or encroachments; and to
+settle the claims of the ousted landholders, who had resorted to pillage
+or blackmail, by fixing grants of land to be made to them, or settling
+the money allowances to be paid to them. The general result was to place
+all the privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs
+under the guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all
+disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred, and
+whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to hereditary
+rights or rulership. The states have no general ethnological affinity,
+such as exists in Rajputana. Their territories are in many cases neither
+compact nor continuous, consisting of a number of villages here and
+there, with a nucleus of more or less importance round the chief town.
+Their relations to the government of India and to each other present
+many variations. Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government
+of India; others are held under _sanads_ and deeds of fealty and
+obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states, are held
+under agreements mediated by the British government between them and
+their superior chiefs.
+
+_Population._--The total population of the Central India agency in 1901
+was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of 16.4%.
+Considerable losses were caused by the famines of 1897-1898 and
+1899-1900, which were severely felt, especially in Bhopal and Malwa. The
+greater part of the population of Central India is of the Hindu
+religion, but a few Mahommedan groups still exist, either traces of the
+days when the Mogul emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the
+Deccan, or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired
+out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first Bhopal
+is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable instance of the
+other. Roughly there are four great sections of the population: the
+Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling circles; the Rajputs, who are
+also hereditary noblemen; the trading classes, consisting chiefly of
+Marwaris and Gujaratis; and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian
+stock. The Mahrattas are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater
+part of Central India, have no true connexion with the soil and are
+little met with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and
+administrative centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications
+form a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have
+so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost part of
+the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically all the trade
+of Central India, with the exception of the Bora class of Mahommedans.
+They are either Vaishnavite Hindus or else Jains. Their advent into
+Central India dates, except in the case of one or two families, from the
+time of the Mahratta invasion only. The Jain portion of this community
+is very wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly
+of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being the
+modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants of this
+country.
+
+The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore, and there
+are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and Nowgong. The whole country
+is fairly provided with railways, largely at the expense of Sindhia.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, a province of British India, which was
+formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation of the Central Provinces and
+the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The total area of the provinces is
+113,281 sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325.
+As is shown by its name the province is situated in the centre of the
+Indian peninsula, comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of
+hill and plateau country which separates the plains of Hindustan from
+the Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India
+states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the United
+Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the Khandesh district of
+Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the large _zamindari_ estates of the
+Madras presidency; and on the E. by these latter estates and the
+tributary states of Bengal. In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five
+Oriya-speaking hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces
+to Bengal, while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were
+transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province,
+therefore, now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore,
+Nerbudda, Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into the
+twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni,
+Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, Wardha, Nagpur,
+Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur, Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur,
+Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen tributary states of Makrai, Bastar,
+Kanker, Nandgaon, Kairagarh, Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh,
+Sarangarh, Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur.
+
+
+    Central Provinces.
+
+  The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura range
+  of hills (q.v.), which runs south of the Nerbudda river from east to
+  west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of districts north of
+  the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura plateau, and districts south of
+  the Satpuras. North of the Satpuras is the rich valley of the
+  Nerbudda, which may be said to begin towards the north of the
+  Jubbulpore district and to extend westward through the district of
+  Narsinghpur as far as the western limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of
+  nearly 300 m. The elevation of the valley above the sea varies from
+  1400 ft. at Jubbulpore to 1120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about
+  30 m., extending between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the
+  Vindhyas. This great plain, 10,613 sq. m. in extent, contains for the
+  most part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley
+  west of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of
+  Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district of the
+  Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts, this tract
+  of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the base of the
+  hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land which is
+  highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great plain of
+  Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft.; it has an
+  area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the Mahanadi.
+  Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the great plain
+  of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general surface inclines
+  towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at Nagpur to 750 ft. at
+  Chanda. To the south the province is shut in by the wide mountainous
+  tract which stretches from the Bay of Bengal through Bastar to the
+  Godavari, and west of that river is continued onward to the rocky
+  ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by a succession of ranges that enclose
+  the plain of Berar along its southern border.
+
+
+    Berar.
+
+  Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura range of
+  mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south. The
+  Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura mountains, form the
+  northern border. On the east the frontier is marked by the Wardha
+  river down to its confluence with the Penganga, and on the south by
+  the Penganga for about two-thirds of the frontier's length. The tract
+  is half surrounded on the east, north and north-west by the Central
+  Provinces, with which it is amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat
+  mountain tract which walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into
+  two sections, the Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north
+  by the Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the
+  Ajanta range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta
+  ridge, sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead
+  up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward between
+  this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from 40 to 50
+  m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It contains all the
+  best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black alluvial soil, of
+  almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates sufficiently to
+  maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is nothing
+  picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country. The upland
+  tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying plains, high
+  plateaus, fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is rendered
+  picturesque by rivers and groves.
+
+  _Natural Features_.--The provinces may be divided into two tracts of
+  upland and three of plain, consisting of the Vindhya and Satpura
+  plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the north
+  the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary of the
+  Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks are generally
+  overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decaying trap, which is
+  principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring crops, wheat and
+  grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the lighter and more
+  sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of the Nerbudda from
+  Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep alluvial deposits of
+  extreme richness and excellently suited to the growth of wheat. To the
+  south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range stretches across the province,
+  containing the greater part of five districts, its crystalline and
+  sandstone rocks rising in places through the superficial stratum of
+  trap, and with large areas of shallow stony land still covered to a
+  great extent with forest interspersed by black-soil valleys of great
+  fertility. In the latter are grown wheat and other spring crops, while
+  the lighter kinds of rice and the hill millets are all that the poorer
+  land can bear. To the south of the Satpuras and extending along its
+  base from west to east lie successively the Berar, Nagpur and
+  Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of Berar is to a great extent a
+  rich black vegetable mould; and where this surface soil does not
+  exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow upper crust of inferior
+  light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by the Wardha and Wainganga
+  rivers, contains towards the west the shallow black soil in which
+  autumn crops like cotton and the large millet, _juar_, which do not
+  require excessive moisture, can be successfully cultivated. The
+  eastern part of the Nagpur country and the Chhattisgarh plain,
+  comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great rice tract of the
+  province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil rendering it
+  excellently adapted for the growth of this crop.
+
+  _Climate_.---As regards climate the districts of the Central Provinces
+  are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division
+  are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh,
+  Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Satpura
+  districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy, owing
+  to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average temperature
+  than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is from 3 to 4
+  degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in a cooler district
+  being about 105° as against 108° in the hotter ones for the month of
+  May, and 79° as against 83° for the month of December. In the cold
+  weather the temperature in Nagpur and the other hot districts is about
+  the same as in Calcutta and substantially higher than that of northern
+  India. The climate of Berar differs very little from that of the
+  Deccan generally, except that in the Payanghat valley the hot weather
+  may be exceptionally severe. The rainfall of the province is
+  considerably heavier than in northern India, and the result of this is
+  a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere during the monsoon season. The
+  average rainfall, before it was affected by the abnormal seasons which
+  followed 1892, was 51 in., varying from 33 in. in Nimar to 65 in
+  Balaghat. In the autumn months malarial fever is prevalent in all
+  thickly forested tracts and also in the rice country; but on the whole
+  the province is considered to be healthy, and as the rains break
+  fairly regularly in June and produce an immediate fall in the
+  temperature, severe heat is only experienced for a period of from two
+  to three months.
+
+  _Agriculture_.--Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the
+  province produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and
+  grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the
+  decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan and
+  Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in all the
+  Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur. Cotton and
+  juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur, Wardha and the
+  southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter also in Chanda. In the
+  Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is principally devoted to
+  hill millets. Rice is an important crop in Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla,
+  Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and
+  the two eastern districts of Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of
+  Berar are cotton and juar. The succession of bad seasons which marked
+  the end of the decade affected the distribution of the principal
+  crops, but with the advent of more prosperous seasons things tend to
+  return to their old level.
+
+  _Industries_.--The only important industries are connected with cotton
+  and coal. In 1904 the total number of factories was 391, almost
+  entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received an
+  immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a brewery was
+  established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are worked in the Central
+  Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each of which there is a branch
+  line of railway. In 1903-1904 there was a total yield of 160,000 tons,
+  valued at about £45,000. In connexion with the Warora colliery there
+  is a fire-clay business. The Mopani colliery, which dates back to
+  1860, is worked by a joint-stock company.
+
+  _Trade_.--The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly by
+  rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are cotton piece
+  goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway materials, raw
+  cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil. The chief
+  exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and lac. The
+  exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations, especially during
+  famine periods.
+
+  _Railways_.--Until recently, the only railway in the Central Provinces
+  was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one terminating at
+  Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was continued by the East
+  Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-Nagpur line has now opened up
+  the eastern portion of the country, bringing it into direct connexion
+  with Calcutta; and a new branch of the Indian Midland, from Saugor
+  through Damoh, has been partly constructed as a famine work. Large
+  portions, however, in the hilly centre and in the south-east, are
+  still remote from railways.
+
+  _Administration_.--The administration of the province is conducted by
+  a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India in
+  council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial
+  civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant
+  superintendents of police, and officers specially recruited for
+  various departments. The form of the administration of Berar was in
+  1903 entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by
+  the treaties of 1853 and 1860 the revenues of the province were
+  assigned primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent,
+  such surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the
+  nizam, while the province itself was administered in trust by the
+  government of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November
+  1902 a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in
+  perpetuity to the British government in return for an annual rental of
+  25 lakhs. It remained under the administration of the resident until
+  the 1st of October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the
+  Central Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result
+  of this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except
+  the judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were
+  amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central
+  Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that
+  province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional
+  commissioner as its immediate head.
+
+  _Population_.--The population of the Central Provinces and Berar as
+  now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and is of
+  very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by
+  immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There are
+  six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who formerly
+  held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the north and
+  north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley and the open
+  country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking immigrants from
+  Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur
+  and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking immigrants from Bombay into Berar,
+  the Mahratta districts and the southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu
+  castes in the Sironcha and Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of
+  Bastar; and the Hindu immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed
+  to have arrived many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of
+  Ratanpur rose into power.
+
+  _Language_.--Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of language
+  is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six dialects are
+  found in the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight languages and
+  sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these languages are
+  Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Oriya, Telugu and
+  Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief dialects are Gondi, Oraon
+  or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of which Gondi is by far the most
+  important. There are also the Munda languages, of which the chief are
+  Korku, Kharia and Munda or Kol. The chief languages of Berar are
+  Marathi, Urdu, Gondi, Banjari, Hindi, Marwari, Telugu, Korku and
+  Gujarati.
+
+_History_.--The authentic history of the greater part of the country
+embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till the 16th century
+A.D. By the people of northern India the country was known as Gondwana,
+after the savage tribes of Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman
+invaders of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain
+fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscriptions show
+that parts of it had fallen from time to time under the dominion of one
+or other of the great kingdoms of the north, e.g. of Asoka, of the
+Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar);
+and inscriptions and numerous discoveries of coins prove that, during
+the middle ages, the open spaces were occupied by a series of Rajput
+dynasties. Of these the most important was that of the Haihayas of
+Ratanpur, a family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda
+valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the Pandava
+dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled, though from the 16th
+century onwards over greatly diminished territories, until its overthrow
+by the Mahrattas in 1745. The second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja,
+was the founder of Ratanpur.
+
+The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century, and no
+more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond dynasties from
+the 14th to the 16th centuries. The first of these is mentioned in 1398,
+when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said by Ferishta to have ruled all
+the hills of Gondwana. He was finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang
+Shah, king of Malwa. The 16th century saw the establishment of a
+powerful Gond kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th
+of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his dominions so
+as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan plateau, Jubbulpore and
+Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley, and Seoni on the Satpura highlands.
+Sangram Sah died in 1530; and the break up of his dominion began with
+the enforced cession to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of
+Saugor and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which afterwards
+formed the state of Bhopal.
+
+About 200 years after Sangram Sah's time, Bakht Buland, the Gond
+chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhindwara, having
+visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization he had there
+admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which his successor made his
+capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its widest extent, embraced the modern
+districts of Betul, Chhindwara, Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara
+and Balaghat. In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of
+another Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th
+century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deogarh and
+Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul emperors. In addition to the
+acquisitions made in the north at the expense of Garha-Mandla, the
+Moguls, after the annexation of Berar, established governors at Paunar
+in Wardha and Kherla in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states,
+however, they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over
+them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical
+independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful rule their
+territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul empire and the
+rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta powers, with the organized
+forces of which their semi-barbarous feudal levies were unable to cope,
+brought misfortune upon them.
+
+In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived the
+Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the Nerbudda
+valley. In 1733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundelkhand; and in 1735 the
+Mahrattas had established their power in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa
+advanced to Mandla and exacted the payment of _chauth_ (tributary
+blackmail), and from this time until 1781, when the successors of
+Sangram Sah were finally overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a
+Mahratta dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities of
+Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla of Berar
+established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had conquered the territories
+of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh. In 1741 Ratanpur had surrendered to
+the Mahratta leader Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput
+dynasty came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were
+suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a shadowy
+existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse for avoiding the
+claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though actually decisions in
+important matters were sought at Poona. Raghoji died in 1755, and in
+1769 his son and successor, Janoji, was forced to acknowledge the
+peshwa's effective supremacy. The Nagpur state, however, continued to
+grow. In 1785 Mudhoji (d. 1788), Janoji's successor, bought from the
+Poona court the cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and
+between 1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of
+Hoshangabad and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II. (d.
+1816). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered practically the
+whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar, as well as Orissa and
+some of the Chota Nagpur states.
+
+In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the result was the
+defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the treaty of Deogaon, by
+which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack, Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to
+this time the rule of the Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant
+extraction, had been on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat,
+Raghoji now set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless
+exploitation of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of
+the British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of
+oppression. After Raghoji II.'s death in 1816 his imbecile son Parsaji
+was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa Sahib. In spite of a
+treaty signed with the British in this year, Mudhoji in 1817 joined the
+peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi and forced to cede the rest of
+Berar to the nizam, and parts of Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul,
+Seoni and the Nerbudda valley, to the British. After a temporary
+restoration to the throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild
+of Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority, which
+lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a British
+resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without heirs, Nagpur
+lapsed to the British paramount power. Until the formation of the
+Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province, which consists of the
+present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and Chhatisgarh, was administered by
+a commissioner under the central government.
+
+The territories in the north ceded in 1817 by the peshwa (parts of
+Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820 formed into the
+Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent to the governor-general,
+and in 1835 were included in the newly formed North-West Provinces. In
+1842, in consequence of a rising, they were again placed under the
+jurisdiction of an agent to the governor-general. Restored to the
+North-West Provinces in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur
+province to constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of
+October 1903 Berar also was placed under the administration of the
+commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see BERAR). In 1905
+the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory states of
+Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were transferred to
+Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang Bhakar, Korea, Surguja,
+Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred from Bengal to the Central
+Provinces.
+
+During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered from famine
+more severely than any other part of India. The complete failure of the
+rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity to develop suddenly into
+famine, which lasted until the end of 1897. The total number of persons
+in receipt of relief reached its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897.
+The expenditure on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the
+total cost of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly
+twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole province
+rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average, while the
+birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The Central Provinces were
+stricken by another famine, yet more severe and widespread, caused by
+the complete failure of the rains in 1899. The maximum of persons
+relieved for the whole province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition,
+about 68,000 persons were in receipt of relief in the native states.
+During the three years 1899-1902 the total expenditure on famine relief
+amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered from the
+famines of 1897 and 1900.
+
+  See _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list
+  of authorities.
+
+
+
+
+CENTUMVIRI (_centum_, hundred; _vir_, man), an ancient court of civil
+jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius Tullius.[1] Its
+antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula used in its procedure,
+the lance (_hasta_) as the sign of true ownership, the oath or wager
+(_sacramentum_), the ancient formula for recovery of property or
+assertion of liberty. It is probably alluded to in Livy's account of the
+Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C. (Livy iii. 55, _Consules ... fecerunt
+sanciendo ut qui tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris
+nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset_). If the _judices_ here
+mentioned are the _centumviri_, it is clear that they formed a tribunal
+which represented the interests of the _plebs_. This is in accordance
+with Cicero's account (_de Orat._ i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their
+jurisdiction. He says this was mainly concerned with the property of
+which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in their power
+to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided questions concerning
+debt. Hence the _plebs_ had an interest in securing their decisions
+against undue influence. They were never regarded as magistrates, but
+merely as _judices_, and as such would be appointed for a fixed term of
+service by the magistrate, probably by the _praetor urbanus_. But in
+Cicero's time they were elected by the _Comitia Tributa_. They then
+numbered 105. Their original number is uncertain. It was probably
+increased by Augustus and in Pliny's time had reached 180. The office
+was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and plebeians.
+The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to the municipal
+senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Tigerström, _De Judicibus apud Romanos_ (Berlin, 1826);
+  Greenidge, _Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff., 182
+  ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, _Der romische
+  Civilprozess_, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak).     (A. M. Cl.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, i³. 275, n. 4, ii³. 231, n. 1, 590 f.)
+    believed that the _Centumviri_ were instituted about 150 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+CENTURION (Lat. _centurio_), in the ancient Roman army, an officer in
+command of a _centuria_, originally a body of a hundred infantry, later
+the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There were therefore in the
+legion sixty centurions, who, though theoretically subordinate to the
+six military tribunes, were the actual working officers of the legion.
+For the most part the centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were
+arranged in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of
+the legion (_primus pilus_) was an officer of very high importance.
+Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were
+"seconded" for various kinds of special service, e.g. for staff
+employment, the command of auxiliaries. See further ROMAN ARMY.
+
+
+
+
+CENTURIPE (formerly CENTORBI, anc. [Greek: Kentoripa] or _Centuripae_),
+a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated 2380 ft. above
+sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of the railway station of
+Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m. W. from Catania. Pop. (1901)
+11,311. Thucydides mentions it as a city of the Sicels. It became an
+ally of the Athenians at the time of their expedition against Syracuse,
+and maintained its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell
+under the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero
+describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the largest
+and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of 10,000,
+engaged in the cultivation of an extensive territory. It was granted
+Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears to have suffered much
+in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and not to have regained its former
+prosperity under the empire. Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in
+1233, but it was soon rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city
+walls and of buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and
+numerous antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic _terra-cottas_,
+have been discovered in casual excavations.
+
+  See F. Ansaldi, _I Monumenti dell' antica Centuripi_ (Catania, 1851);
+  P. Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche_
+  (Rome, 1904), v. 177.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CENTURY (from Lat. _centuria_, a division of a hundred men), the name
+for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting to one hundred men,
+and for one of the divisions into which the Roman people was separated
+for voting purposes (see COMITIA). The word is applied to any group of
+one hundred, and more particularly to a period of a hundred years, and
+to the successive periods of a hundred years, dating before or after the
+birth of Christ. The "Century-plant" is a name given to the Agave
+(q.v.), or American aloe, from the supposition that it flowered once
+only in every hundred years.
+
+
+
+
+CEOS (Gr. [Greek: Keôs], mod. _Zea_ or _Tzia_), an island in the Aegean
+Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of Syra, 14
+m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about 15 m. and its
+breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the centre, where it
+culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among its natural productions
+are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and honey; it also exports a
+considerable quantity of valonia. There were formerly four towns of some
+importance in the island:--Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore;
+Coressia, the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the
+neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of Apollo;
+and Poieëssa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is represented by the
+town of Zea, and Carthaea by the village of 'S tais Polais; traces of
+the other two can still be made out. Iulis was the birthplace of the
+lyric poets Simonides and Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and
+Ariston, and the physician Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was
+so generally recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a
+proverb. One of them forbade a citizen to protract his life beyond sixty
+years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at Artemisium and
+Salamis; they joined the Delian League and also the later Athenian
+alliance in 377 B.C. They revolted in 363-362, but were reduced again,
+and the Athenians established a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth,
+which was one of the most valuable products of the island. In A.D. 1207
+it was divided between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of
+the duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566. Silver
+coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating from the 6th
+century B.C. (see NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, "Cyclades and Sporades"). The
+present population of the island is about 4000, of which the capital has
+about 2000.
+
+  See Pridik, _De Cei Insulae rebus_ (1892).     (E. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+CEPHALIC INDEX, the term in use by anthropologists to express the
+percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The principle employed by
+Retzius is to take the longer diameter of a skull, the antero-posterior
+diameter, as 100; if the shorter or transverse diameter falls below 80
+the skull may be classed as long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds
+80 the skull is broad (brachycephalic) (see CRANIOMETRY).
+
+
+
+
+CEPHALONIA (Ital. _Cefalonia_, ancient and modern official Greek
+_Cephallenia_, [Greek: Kephallênia]), an island belonging to the kingdom
+of Greece, and the largest of those known as the Ionian Islands,
+situated on the west side of the mainland, almost directly opposite the
+Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally derived from Cephalus, the
+Attic hero who was regarded as having colonized the island. The
+tradition, which is repeated by Aristotle, is probably due solely to the
+similarity of the names (see J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias_, i. 37, 6 note).
+Pop. (1907) 71,235. Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies
+from about 20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the
+projecting part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a
+distance of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The
+whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with rocky
+hills of varying elevation, the main range running from north-west to
+south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato, Monte Negro, or the
+Black Mountain (5315 ft.), frequently retains the snow for several
+months. It is not only the loftiest part of the sierra, but also the
+highest land in the whole Ionian group. The name "Black" was given from
+the darkness of the pine woods which still constitute the most striking
+feature in Cephalonian scenery, although their extent has been greatly
+curtailed by fire. The summit is called Megálo Sorós. The island is ill
+supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams except the
+Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers. In the western part
+of the island a gulf runs up from the south, a distance of about 7 m.;
+on its east side stands the chief town Argostoli, with about 10,000
+inhabitants, and on its west side the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000.
+About a mile west of the town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea
+water running down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels.
+About 5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of
+Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island. On an
+eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the ancient
+Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale; while on the
+other side of the island are the remains of Samos on the bay of the same
+name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south above the vale of Rakli and its
+blossoming oleanders, and of an unknown city near the village of Scala.
+The ruins of this city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple,
+rock-cut tombs, and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos
+are remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly of
+the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost unimpaired
+the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants of Cephalonia
+have all along been extremely active; and no slight amount of toil has
+been expended in the construction of terraces on the steep sides of the
+hills. Owing to the thinness of the population, however, but a small
+proportion of the soil is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain
+grown in the island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant,
+in the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit is
+smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it finds a
+market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The grape vine also is
+grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising industry. The olive crop
+is of considerable importance, and the culture of cotton in the low
+grounds has been successfully attempted. Manufactures are few and
+undeveloped, but lace from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and
+basket-work are produced by the villagers, and boats are built at both
+the principal towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and
+Zante are most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental
+activity.
+
+In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to be mentioned
+under the name of Same, and its inhabitants, among the subjects of
+Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes (see, however, under ITHACA). In
+the Persian War they took but little part; in the Peloponnesian they
+sided with the Athenians. The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip
+of Macedon in 218 B.C., because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In
+189 B.C. all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards
+revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months. The island
+was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears again at a later date
+as "free and autonomous." After the division of the Roman empire, it
+continued attached to Byzantium till 1082, when it was captured by
+Robert Guiscard, who died, however, before he could repress the revolt
+of 1085. In 1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who
+accepted the protection of Venice in 1215; and after 1225 it was held
+along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of five counts of the
+Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice in 1350 by the
+prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured by the Turks in 1479; but
+the Hispanico-Venetian fleet under Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of
+Cordova effected their expulsion in 1500, and the island continued in
+Venetian possession till the fall of the republic. For some time it was
+administered for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the
+British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in the hands
+of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who displayed an
+industry and energy in the repression of injustice and development of
+civilization only outdone by the despotic vigour of Sir Charles Napier,
+who held the same office for the nine years from 1818 to 1827. During
+the British protectorate the island made undoubted advances in material
+prosperity, but was several times the scene of political disturbances.
+It retained longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence
+exerted by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming more
+democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight districts, and
+an elaborate system of police was in force; since its annexation to
+Greece it has been broken up into twenty demarchies, each with its
+separate jurisdiction and revenues, and the police system has been
+abolished.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia was
+  written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland's _Travels_ (1815); Ansted's
+  _Ionian Islands_ (1863); Viscount Kirkwall's _Four Years in Ionian
+  Islands_ (1864); Wiebel's _Die Insel Kephalonia_; parliamentary
+  papers. Riemann, _Recherches archéologiques sur les Iles Ioniennes_
+  (Paris, 1879-1880); Partsch, _Kephallenia und Ithaka_ (1890); see also
+  CORFU; IONIAN ISLANDS.     (E. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+CEPHALOPODA, the fifth of the classes into which the zoological phylum
+Mollusca is divided (see MOLLUSCA). The Cephalopoda are mainly
+characterized by the concrescence of the foot and head. The foot grows
+forward on each side so as to surround the mouth, the two upgrowths
+meeting on the dorsal side of the head--whence the name Cephalopoda. The
+perioral portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like
+processes; these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or
+hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of muscular lobes
+right and left, which are bent round towards one another so that their
+free margins meet and constitute a short tube--the siphon or funnel. The
+hind-foot is either very small or absent. A distinctive feature of the
+Cephalopoda is their bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like
+the torsion of the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda.
+
+  The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median line,
+  is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is deeply
+  produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber around the
+  anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or paired
+  apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only in
+  _Nautilus_, in female Octopoda, female _Ommatostrephes_ and male
+  _Eledone_), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is
+  elevated, and may be very much elongated in a direction almost at
+  right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot.
+
+  A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral
+  hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or
+  lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming habits
+  of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is, enclosed
+  in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented sacs, capable
+  of expansion and contraction, and known as chromatophores, are usually
+  present in the integument. The sexes are separate.
+
+  The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as the
+  efficient branchial organs (figs. 4, 24),
+
+  The vascular system is very highly developed; the heart consists of a
+  pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts are
+  formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known to
+  what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or whether
+  there is a true capillary system.
+
+  The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing
+  among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary or
+  testis--the viscero-pericardial sac--which opens to the exterior
+  either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion with
+  the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs, the
+  walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29).
+  They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in
+  _Nautilus_. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla. Jaws
+  (fig. 6, e) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws have
+  the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (_Nautilus_),
+  and are capable of inflicting severe wounds.
+
+  Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives
+  are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic
+  region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are
+  developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits a very
+  special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a remarkable
+  archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in all. The typical
+  osphradium is not present, except in _Nautilus_, but other organs are
+  present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory function is
+  ascribed both in _Nautilus_ and in the other Cephalopoda.
+
+  Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female individuals
+  always being differentiated. The genital aperture and duct is
+  sometimes single, when it is the left; sometimes the typical pair is
+  developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all
+  Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar
+  modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot,
+  connected with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization is
+  applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate
+  spermatophores or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very
+  usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nidamental
+  glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fig. 4, g.n.). The egg is
+  large, and the development is much modified by the presence of an
+  excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm of the
+  egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development are
+  consequently not recognizable.
+
+The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata and
+Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen) describe the
+number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are several characters,
+of as great importance as those derived from the gills, by which the
+members of these two orders are separated from one another.
+
+ORDER 1. TETRABRANCHIATA (= Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera).
+
+_Characters_.--The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are not
+fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circumoral lobes of
+the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles, not suckers (fig. 6).
+There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence Tetrabranchiata), and two
+pairs of renal organs, consequently four renal apertures (fig. 4). The
+viscero-pericardial chamber opens by two independent apertures to the
+exterior, and not into the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and
+left) in the female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in
+both sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or
+straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the
+mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the
+last-formed of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the hinder
+ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. 1). The pair of
+cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14. A), opening to the exterior
+by minute orifices (pin-hole camera), and devoid of refractive
+structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base of the gills
+(fig. 4, _olf_). Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac is _not_
+present. Branchial hearts are _not_ developed on the branchial afferent
+vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus,
+contracted by spirit and lying in its shell, the right half of which is
+cut away (from Gegenbaur, after Owen).
+
+  a, Visceral hump.
+
+  b, Portion of the free edge of the mantle-skirt reflected on to the
+  shell,--the edge of the mantle-skirt can be traced downwards and
+  forwards around the base of the mid-foot or siphon i.
+
+  l, l, Superficial origin of the retractor muscle of the mid-foot
+  (siphon), more or less firmly attached to the shell, of which a small
+  piece (s) is seen between the letters l, l.
+
+  s, (farther back) points to the siphuncular pedicle, which is broken
+  off short and not continued, as in the perfect state, through the
+  whole length of the siphuncle of the shell, also marked s and s'.
+
+  o, points to the right eye.
+
+  t, is placed near the extremities of the contracted tentacles of the
+  outer or annular lobe of the fore-foot--the jointed tentacles are seen
+  protruding a little from their long cylindrical sheaths.
+
+  v, The dorsal "hood" formed by an enlargement in this region of the
+  annular lobe of the fore-foot (m in figs. 2, 3).
+
+  V, A swelling of the mantle-skirt, indicating the position on its
+  inner face of the nidamental gland (see fig. 4, g.n.).]
+
+_Visceral Hump and Shell._--The visceral hump of _Nautilus_ (if we
+exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which it trails,
+as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the coiled
+form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always slips
+forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber which is
+practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted chambers thrown off
+instead of being accumulated behind the inhabited chamber as a coiled
+series of air-chambers, we should have a more correct indication in the
+shell of the extent and form of the animal's body. Amongst Gastropods it
+is not very unusual to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as
+growth advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the
+shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied cavity by a
+transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be formed, but in no
+Gastropod are these apical chambers known to contain a gas during the
+life of the animal in whose shell they occur. A further peculiarity of
+the nautilus shell and of that of the allied extinct _Ammonites_,
+_Scaphites_, _Orthoceras_, &c., and of the living _Spirula_, is that the
+series of deserted air-chambers is traversed by a cord-like pedicle
+extending from the centro-dorsal area of the visceral hump to the
+smallest and first-formed chamber of the series. No structure comparable
+to this siphuncular pedicle is known in any other Mollusca. The
+siphuncle does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple
+vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous sinus,
+and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial artery. There
+appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers of the nautilus shell
+contain in the healthy living animal a gas which serves to lessen the
+specific gravity of the whole organism. This gas is said to be of the
+same composition as the atmosphere, with a larger proportion of
+nitrogen. With regard to its origin we have only conjectures. Each
+septum shutting off an air-containing chamber is formed during a period
+of quiescence, probably after the reproductive act, when the visceral
+mass of the nautilus may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from
+the dorsal integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by
+the animal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal when
+no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the loosening of the
+animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward when a new septum is
+formed, as well as the mode in which the air-chambers may be used as a
+hydrostatic apparatus, and the relation to this use, if any, of the
+siphuncular pedicle, is involved in obscurity, and is the subject of
+much ingenious speculation. In connexion with the secretion of gas by
+the animal, besides the parallel cases ranging from the protozoon
+_Arcella_ to the physoclistic fishes, from the hydroid _Siphonophora_ to
+the insect-larva _Corethra_, we have the identical phenomenon observed
+in the closely allied _Sepia_ when recently hatched. Here, in the pores
+of the internal rudimentary shell, gas is observable, which has
+necessarily been liberated by the tissues which secrete the shell, and
+not derived from any external source (Huxley).
+
+The coiled shell of _Nautilus_, and of the majority of extinct
+Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the body of the animal,
+inasmuch as the curvature of the coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal
+area is towards the head or forwards, instead of away from the head and
+backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as _Planorbis_; the
+coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the two cases. Such a shell is
+said to be exogastric. But in some extinct forms, e.g. _Phragmoceras_,
+_Cyrtoceras_, _Ptenoceras_, the shell is coiled towards the ventral
+side, when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct allies of the
+nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of a variety of shapes, open
+coils such as _Scaphites_, leading on to perfectly cylindrical shells
+with chamber succeeding chamber in a straight line (_Orthoceras_),
+whence again we may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell of
+_Turrilites_. In some extinct genera, e.g. _Gomphoceras_, among the
+Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is contracted and the edge of the
+aperture is lobed. In these cases the animal was probably able only to
+protrude its appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part of the
+aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated from the dorsal part
+by a constriction. Hence it is possible to distinguish the ventral and
+dorsal sides of the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or
+endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be determined
+by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses the septa centrally,
+ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell apertures occur also in
+Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching an extreme in _Morphoceras_, where
+the original aperture is subdivided by the ingrowth of the sides, so
+that only five small separate apertures remain. Of these the central
+probably corresponded to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the
+remaining two to the pedal appendages.
+
+  _Head, Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-pallial Chamber._--In the pearly
+  nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free
+  flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, d, e). In the
+  antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a
+  little over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the
+  postero-ventral region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive
+  sub-pallial chamber, at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A
+  view of the interior of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the
+  mantle-skirt is retroverted and the observer faces in the direction
+  indicated by the reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in
+  fig. 4. With this should be compared the similar view of the
+  sub-pallial chamber of the Dibranchiate _Sepia_. It should be noted as
+  a difference between _Nautilus_ and the Dibranchiates that in the
+  former the nidamental gland (in the female) lies on that surface of
+  the pallial chamber formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, g.n.;
+  fig. 1, V), whilst in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the
+  body-wall; in fact in the former the base of the fold forming the
+  mantle-skirt comprises in its area a part of what is unreflected
+  visceral hump in the latter.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus,
+  removed from its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn
+  from nature by A.G. Bourne).
+
+    m, The dorsal "hood" formed by the enlargement of the outer or
+    annular lobe of the fore-foot, and corresponding to the sheaths of
+    two tentacles (g, g in fig. 6).
+
+    n, Tentacular sheaths of lateral portion of the annular lobe.
+
+    u, The left eye.
+
+    b, The nuchal plate, continuous at its right and left posterior
+    angles with the root of the mid-foot, and corresponding to the
+    nuchal cartilage of Sepia.
+
+    c, Visceral hump.
+
+    d, The free margin of the mantle-skirt, the middle letter d points
+    to that portion of the mantle-skirt which is reflected over a part
+    of the shell as seen in fig. 1, b; the cup-like fossa to which b and
+    d point in the present figure is occupied by the coil of the shell.
+
+    g.a. points to the lateral continuation of the nuchal plate b to
+    join the root of the mid-foot or siphon.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lateral view of the same specimen as that
+  drawn in fig. 2. Letters as in that figure with the following
+  additions--
+
+    e, points to the concave margin of the mantle-skirt leading into the
+    sub-pallial chamber.
+
+    g, The mid-foot or siphon.
+
+    k, The superficial origin of its retractor muscles closely applied
+    to the shell and serving to hold the animal in its place.
+
+    l, The siphuncular pedicle of the visceral hump broken off short.
+
+    v, v, The superior and inferior ophthalmic tentacles.]
+
+  The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the
+  viscero-pericardial sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are
+  shown in position on the body-wall of the pallial chamber of
+  _Nautilus_ in figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median
+  (the anus) and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice _two_
+  pairs of gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a
+  short papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior
+  gill-plume (see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in
+  a Dibranchiate, we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median
+  anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal
+  apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side)
+  except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts
+  and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are
+  present on the surface of the pallial chamber, since in the
+  Dibranchiata the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each
+  nephridium instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of
+  ctenidia (gill-plumes) is present instead of the two pairs in
+  _Nautilus_. The existence of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of
+  renal sacs in _Nautilus_, placed one behind the other, is highly
+  remarkable. The interest of this arrangement is in relation to the
+  general morphology of the Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this
+  repetition of organs in a linear series as anything else than an
+  instance of metameric segmentation, comparable to the segmentation of
+  the ringed worms and Arthropods. The only other example which we have
+  of this metamerism in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There
+  we find not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some
+  species more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal
+  integument, which carries eight shells. In _Chiton_ the renal organs
+  are not affected by the metamerism as they are in _Nautilus_. It is
+  impossible on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their
+  importance demands the significance of these two instances among
+  Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be wrong to
+  pass them by without insisting upon the great importance which the
+  occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric segmentation in a
+  group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses, and the light
+  which they may be made to throw upon the nature of metameric
+  segmentation in general.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a
+  female Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely
+  reflected so as to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber
+  (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne).
+
+    a, Muscular band passing from the mid-foot to the integument.
+
+    b, The valve on the surface of the funnel, partially concealed by
+    the inrolled lateral margin of the latter.
+
+    c, The mantle-skirt retroverted.
+
+    an, The median anus.
+
+    x, Post-anal papilla of unknown significance.
+
+    g.n., Nidamental gland.
+
+    r.ov, Aperture of the right oviduct.
+
+    l.ov, Aperture of the rudimentary left oviduct (pyriform sac of
+    Owen).
+
+    neph.a, Aperture of the left anterior renal sac.
+
+    neph.p, Aperture of the left posterior renal sac.
+
+    viscper, Left aperture of the viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    olf, The left osphradium placed near the base of the anterior
+    gill-plume.
+
+    The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.]
+
+  The foot and head of _Nautilus_ are in the adult inextricably grown
+  together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the head
+  which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot or front
+  portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying
+  tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The
+  epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an
+  incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and
+  rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The
+  epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in which
+  this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the mantle
+  and the foot.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male
+  Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely reflected so as
+  to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the four
+  ctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne).
+  pe, Penis, being the enlarged termination of the right spermatic duct;
+  l.sp, aperture of the rudimentary left spermatic duct (pyriform sac
+  of Owen). Other letters as in fig. 4.]
+
+  The lobes of the fore-foot of _Nautilus_ and of the other Cephalopoda
+  require further description. It has been doubted whether these lobes
+  were rightly referred (by T.H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and it has
+  been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenadier, H. von Jhering)
+  that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to be impossible
+  to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion of the foot,
+  when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further, when the
+  fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal ganglion. The
+  fore-foot of _Nautilus_ completely surrounds the buccal cone (fig. 6,
+  e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded tentacles similar
+  to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (_Actinia_). A.G. Bourne, of
+  University College, prepared from actual specimens the drawings of
+  this part in the male and female _Nautilus_ reproduced in fig. 6, and
+  restored the parts to their natural form when expanded. The drawings
+  show very strikingly the difference between male and female. In the
+  females (lower figure), we observe in the centre of the disk the
+  buccal cone e carrying the beak-like pair of jaws which project from
+  the finely papillate buccal membrane. Three tentaculiferous lobes of
+  the fore-foot are in immediate contact with this buccal cone; they are
+  the right and left (c, c) inner lobes, and the inferior inner lobe
+  (d)--called inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth.
+  This inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right
+  and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated organ on its
+  surface, known as Owen's organ, probably olfactory in function (n),
+  marks the separation of the constituent halves of this double lobe.
+  Each half carries a group of fourteen tentacles. The right and the
+  left inner lobes (c, c) each carry twelve tentacles. External to these
+  three lobes the muscular substance of the mouth-embracing foot is
+  raised into a wide ring, which becomes especially thick and large in
+  the dorsal region where it is notably modified in form, offering a
+  concavity into which the coil of the shell is received, and furnishing
+  a protective roof to the retracted mass of tentacles. This part of the
+  external annular lobe of the fore-foot is called the "hood" (figs. 2,
+  3, m). The median antero-posterior line traversing this hood exactly
+  corresponds to the line of concrescence of the two halves of the
+  fore-foot, which primitively grew forward one on each side of the
+  head, and finally fused together along this line in front of the
+  mouth. The tentacles carried by the great annular lobe are nineteen on
+  each side, thirty-eight in all. They are called "digital," and are
+  somewhat larger than the "labial" tentacles carried on the three inner
+  lobes. The dorsalmost pair of tentacles (marked g in fig. 6) are the
+  only ones which actually belong to that part of the disk which forms
+  the great dorsal hood m. The hood is, in fact, to a large extent
+  formed by the enlarged sheaths of these two tentacles. All the
+  tentacles of the circumoral disk are set in remarkable tubular
+  sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The sheaths of some of those
+  belonging to the external or annular lobe are seen in fig. 3, marked
+  n. The sheaths are muscular as well as the tentacles, and are simply
+  tubes from the base of which the solid tentacle grows. The functional
+  significance of this sheathing arrangement is as obscure as its
+  morphological origin. With reference to the latter, it appears highly
+  probable that the tubular sheath represents the cup of a sucker such
+  as is found on the fore-foot of the Dibranchiata. In any case, it
+  seems to the writer impossible to doubt that each tentacle, and its
+  sheath on a lobe of the circumoral disk of Nautilus, corresponds to a
+  sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate. W. Keferstein follows Sir R.
+  Owen in strongly opposing this identification, and in regarding such
+  tentacle as the equivalent of a whole lobe or arm of a Decapod or
+  Octopod Dibranch. The details of these structures, especially in the
+  facts concerning the hectocotylus and spadix, afford the most
+  conclusive reasons for dissenting from Owen's view. On the ventral
+  side an extensive part of the internal surface of the muscular ring is
+  laminated, forming the so-called "organ of Valenciennes," peculiar to
+  the female and serving for the attachment of the spermatophores. We
+  have so far enumerated in the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four
+  more remain which have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to
+  the suggestion that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These
+  remaining tentacles are placed one above (before) and one below
+  (behind) each eye, and bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. 3 v,
+  v).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of
+  _Nautilus pompilius_ as seen in the expanded condition, the observer
+  looking down on to the buccal cone e; one-third the natural size
+  linear. The drawings have been made from actual specimens by A.G.
+  Bourne, B. Sc., University College, London.
+
+    a, The shell.
+
+    b, The _outer_ ring-like expansion (annular lobe) of the circumoral
+    muscular mass of the fore-foot, carrying nineteen tentacles on each
+    side--posteriorly this is enlarged to form the "hood" (marked v in
+    fig. 1 and m in figs. 2 and 3). giving off the pair of tentacles
+    marked g in the present figure.
+
+    c, The right and left inner lobes of the fore-foot, each carrying
+    twelve tentacles in the female, in the male subdivided into p, the
+    "spadix" or hectocotylus on the left side, and q, the "anti-spadix,"
+    a group of four tentacles on the right side--it is thus seen that
+    the subdivided right and left inner lobes of the male correspond to
+    the undivided right and left inner lobes of the female.
+
+    d, The inner inferior lobe of the fore-foot, a bilateral structure
+    in the female carrying two groups, each of fourteen tentacles,
+    separated from one another by a lamellated organ n, supposed to be
+    olfactory in function--in the male the inner inferior lobe of the
+    fore-foot is very much reduced, and has the form of a paired group
+    of lamellae (d in the upper figure).
+
+    e, The buccal cone, rising from the centre of the three inner lobes,
+    and fringing the protruded calcareous beaks or jaws with a series of
+    minute papillae.
+
+    f, The tentacles of the outer circumoral lobe or annular lobe of the
+    fore-foot projecting from their sheaths.
+
+    g, The two most posterior tentacles of this series belonging to that
+    part of the annular lobe which forms the hood (m in figs. 2 and 3).
+
+    i, Superior ophthalmic tentacle.
+
+    k, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle.
+
+    l, Eye.
+
+    m, Paired laminated organ on each side of the base of the inner
+    inferior lobe (d) of the female.
+
+    n, Olfactory lamellae upon the inner inferior lobe (in the female).
+
+    o, The siphon (mid-foot).
+
+    p, The spadix (in the male), the hectocotylized portion of the left
+    inner lobe of the fore-foot representing four modified tentacles,
+    eight being left unmodified.
+
+    q, The anti-spadix (in the male), being four of the twelve tentacles
+    of the right inner lobe of the fore-foot isolated from the remaining
+    eight, and representing on the right side the differentiated spadix
+    of the left side. The four tentacles of the anti-spadix are set,
+    three on one base and one on a separate base.]
+
+  In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differences
+  in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see upper
+  drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary, and
+  carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae
+  (d), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left
+  inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows a
+  larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached groups
+  (q) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united whilst
+  one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the
+  "anti-spadix." The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion
+  carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it
+  corresponding to the anti-spadix. This is the "spadix." It carries no
+  tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae
+  appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right
+  internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that
+  modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate
+  Siphonopods to which the name "hectocotylus" is applied. The spadix is
+  in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the male
+  nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata is
+  connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus the
+  spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible
+  to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe
+  that the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with
+  the female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix.
+  The anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also
+  male peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not
+  differ from that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each
+  side. The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male
+  nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two
+  additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelliform
+  structures.
+
+  _Musculature, Fins and, Cartilaginous Skeleton._--Without entering
+  into a detailed account of the musculature of _Nautilus_, we may point
+  out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the
+  mid-foot (siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass
+  of muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the
+  integument on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the
+  free flap of the mantle-skirt (fig. 1, l, l, and fig. 3, k). These
+  muscular areae have a certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to
+  hold the animal in its shell and as the fixed supports for the various
+  movements of the tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be
+  identified with the ring-like area of adhesion by which the
+  foot-muscle of the limpet is attached to the shell of that animal. In
+  the Dibranchs a similar origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot
+  and mid-foot from the sides of the shell--modified, as this is, in
+  position and relations--can be traced.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Minute structure of the cartilage of _Loligo_
+  (from Gegenbaur, after Furbringer)
+
+    a, Simple cells.
+
+    b, Dividing cells.
+
+    c, Canaliculi.
+
+    d, An empty cartilage capsule with its pores.
+
+    e, Canaliculi in section.]
+
+  In _Nautilus_ there are no fin-like expansions of the integument,
+  whereas such occur in the Decapod Dibranchs along the sides of the
+  visceral hump (figs. 15, 16). As an exception among Octopoda lateral
+  fins occur in _Pinnoctopus_ (fig. 38, A), and in _Cirrhoteuthis_ (fig.
+  38, D).
+
+  In _Nautilus_ there is a curious plate-like expansion of integument in
+  the mid-dorsal region just behind the hood, lying between that
+  structure and the portion of mantle-skirt which is reflected over the
+  shell. This is shown in fig. 2, b. If we trace out the margin of this
+  plate we find that it becomes continuous on each side with the sides
+  of the funnel. In _Sepia_ and other Decapods (not in Octopods) a
+  closely similar plate exists in an exactly corresponding position (see
+  b in figs. 10, 26). In _Sepia_ a cartilaginous development occurs here
+  immediately below the integument forming the so-called "nuchal plate,"
+  drawn in fig. 8, D. The morphological significance of this nuchal
+  lamella, as seen both in _Nautilus_ and in _Sepia_, is not obvious.
+  Cartilage having the structure shown in fig. 7 occurs in various
+  regions of the body of Cephalopoda. In all Glossophorous Mollusca the
+  lingual apparatus is supported by internal skeletal pieces, having the
+  character of cartilage; but in the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a
+  wider range.
+
+  In _Nautilus_ a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming
+  the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into
+  the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (a), whilst its
+  two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In _Sepia_, and
+  Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as shown in
+  fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identified in any
+  way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus_. The lower
+  larger portion of this cartilage in _Sepia_ is called the cephalic
+  cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it
+  completely invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the
+  nerves from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage.
+  The outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to
+  form a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing
+  right and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8,
+  C) are the "pre-orbital cartilages"; in front of these, again, there
+  is seen a piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base
+  of the "arms" of the fore-foot, and is the "basi-brachial" cartilage.
+  The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the "nuchal cartilage" already
+  mentioned, and in _Sepia_, a thin plate-like "sub-ostracal" or
+  (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and
+  fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no nuchal
+  cartilage, but two band-like "dorsal cartilages." In Decapods there
+  are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the
+  funnel--"siphon-hinge cartilages"--into which fleshy knobs of the
+  mantle-skirt are loosely fitted. In _Sepia_, along the whole base-line
+  of each lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a "basi-pterygial
+  cartilage." It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in
+  Dibranch Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton
+  than is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other
+  instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the
+  Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage forms
+  a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids
+  (_Mygale_, _Scorpio_) and in _Limulus_ a large internal cartilaginous
+  plate--the ento-sternite--is developed as a support for a large series
+  of muscles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after
+  Keferstein.)
+
+    A, Capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus pompilius._
+
+    a points to the ridge which supports the pedal portion of the
+    nerve-centre.
+
+    B, Lateral view of the same--the large anterior processes are sunk
+    in the muscular substance of the siphon.
+
+    C, Cephalic cartilages of _Sepia officinalis_.
+
+    D, Nuchal cartilage of _Sepia officinalis_.]
+
+  _Alimentary Tract._--The buccal cone of _Nautilus_ is terminated by a
+  villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-like
+  jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are very
+  strong and dense in _Nautilus_, being calcified. Fossilized beaks of
+  Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In Dibranchs
+  the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of _Nautilus_. They
+  resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower beak being the larger
+  and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak. The lingual ribbon and
+  odontophoral apparatus have the structure which is typical for
+  Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is represented a single row of
+  teeth from the lingual ribbon of _Nautilus_, and in fig. 9, B, C, of
+  other Cephalopoda.
+
+  In _Nautilus_ a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, cr)
+  passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral
+  hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard of
+  a bird (fig 10, gizz). A nearly straight intestine passes from the
+  muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small caecum.
+  In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower and the
+  muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important feature in
+  the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all but _Nautilus_
+  the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very capacious--much
+  larger than the stomach in _Loligo vulgaris_--or elongated into a
+  spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the alimentary tract, as
+  seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which it exhibits in the
+  Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of _Nautilus_ are compacted
+  into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm membrane, as also is the
+  case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has four paired lobes in
+  _Nautilus_, which open by two bile-ducts into the alimentary canal at
+  the commencement of the intestine. The bile-ducts unite before
+  entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two large lobes of the
+  liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell in Decapoda), and
+  the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the bile-ducts in
+  Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diverticula, which are
+  known as "pancreas," though neither physiologically nor
+  morphologically is there any ground for considering either the
+  so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly equivalent to
+  the glands so denominated in the Vertebrata. In _Nautilus_ the
+  equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the Dibranchs can be
+  traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single
+  row of lingual teeth of _Nautilus pompilius_ (after Keferstein). B,
+  Two rows of lingual teeth of _Sepia officinalis_ (after Troschel). C,
+  Lingual teeth of _Eledone cirrhosa_ (after Loven).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately
+  median antero-posterior section of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from a
+  drawing by A.G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut
+  muscular surfaces of the foot and buccal mass.
+
+    a, The shell.
+
+    b, The nuchal plate, identical with the nuchal cartilage of _Sepia_
+    (see fig. 2, b).
+
+    c, The integument covering the visceral hump.
+
+    d, The mantle flap or skirt in the dorsal region where it rests
+    against the coil of the shell.
+
+    e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt resting on the lip of the
+    shell represented by the dotted line.
+
+    f, The pallial chamber with two of the four gills.
+
+    g, The vertically cut median portion of the mid-foot (siphon).
+
+    h, The capito-pedal cartilage (see fig. 8).
+
+    i, The valve of the siphon.
+
+    l, The siphuncular pedicle (cut short).
+
+    m, The hood or dorsal enlargement of the annular lobe of the
+    fore-foot.
+
+    n, Tentacles of the annular lobe.
+
+    p, Tentacles of inner inferior lobe.
+
+    q, Buccal membrane.
+
+    r, Upper jaw or beak.
+
+    s, Lower jaw or beak.
+
+    t, Lingual ribbon.
+
+    x, The viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    n.c, Nerve-collar.
+
+    oe, Oesophagus.
+
+    cr, Crop.
+
+    gizz, Gizzard.
+
+    int, Intestine.
+
+    an, Anus.
+
+    nept, Aperture of a nephridial sac.
+
+    r.e, Renal glandular masses on the walls of the afferent branchial
+    veins (see fig. 11).
+
+    a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.
+
+    e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.
+
+    vt, Ventricle of the heart.]
+
+  Posterior salivary glands are not developed in _Nautilus_, but on each
+  side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding to the
+  anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is present in
+  _Nautilus_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram to show the relations of the four
+  nephridial sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large
+  vessels in _Nautilus_ (drawn by A.G. Bourne).
+
+    neph, neph, on the right side point to the two nephridia of that
+    side (the two of the opposite side are not lettered)--each is seen
+    to have an independent aperture.
+
+    x is the viscero-pericardial sac, the dotted line indicating its
+    backward extension.
+
+    visc. per. apert, marks an arrow introduced into the right aperture
+    of the viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    r.e, r.e, point to the glandular enlarged walls of the afferent
+    branchial vessels--two small glandular bodies of the kind are seen
+    to project into each nephridial sac, whilst a larger body of the
+    same kind depends from each of the four branchial afferent vessels
+    into the viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    v.c, Vena-cava.
+
+    vent, Ventricle of the heart.
+
+    ao, Cephalic aorta (the small abdominal aorta not drawn).
+
+    a.b.v, Branchial vessel.
+
+    e.v.b, Efferent branchial vessel.]
+
+  _Coelom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs._--_Nautilus_ and
+  the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters in
+  regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a
+  lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with the
+  trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the original
+  coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan pericardium is
+  shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and communicates,
+  directly in _Nautilus_, in the rest through the renal sacs, with the
+  exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized pericardial cavity is
+  particularly large, and has been recognized as distinct from the
+  blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who have not considered the
+  pericardial space of other Mollusca to be thus isolated. The enlarged
+  pericardium, which may even take the form of a pair of sacs, has been
+  variously named, but is best known as the viscero-pericardial sac or
+  chamber. In _Nautilus_ this sac occupies the whole of the
+  postero-dorsal surface and a part of the antero-dorsal (see fig. 10,
+  x), investing the genital and other viscera which lie below it, and
+  having the ventricle of the heart suspended in it. Certain membranes
+  forming incomplete septa, and a curious muscular band--the
+  pallio-cardiac band--traverse the sac. The four branchial afferent
+  veins, which in traversing the walls of the four renal sacs give off,
+  as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs, also give off at
+  the same points four much larger glandular masses, which hang freely
+  into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, r.e). In _Nautilus_ the
+  viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior directly by a pair of
+  apertures, one placed close to the right and one close to the left
+  posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, visc.per). This direct opening of
+  the pericardial sac to the exterior is an exception to what occurs in
+  all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial sac opens
+  into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal organ to the
+  exterior. In _Nautilus_ there is no opening from the
+  viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external
+  pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a
+  shifting of the reno-pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the
+  renal sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of
+  such shifting are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the
+  ink-bag in Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of
+  Mollusca, which in some few cases (e.g. _Spondylus_) open into the
+  renal organs, whilst in other cases they open close by the side of the
+  renal organs on the surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac
+  of the Dibranchs is very large also, and extends into the dorsal
+  region. It varies in shape--that is to say, in the extensions of its
+  area right and left between the various viscera--in different genera,
+  but in the Decapods is largest. In an extension of this chamber is
+  placed the ovary of _Sepia_, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the
+  branchial hearts and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable
+  that water is drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since
+  sand and other foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into
+  the pair of renal sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from
+  the external orifice (fig. 29, y, y'). There does not seem any room
+  for doubting that each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial
+  orifice which we have seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in
+  the Lamellibranchia.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram to show the relations of the heart in
+  the Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+    A, Part of the dorsal vascular trunk and transverse trunks of a
+    worm.
+
+    B, Ventricle and auricles of _Nautilus_.
+
+    C, Of a Lamellibranch, of _Chiton_, or of _Loligo_.
+
+    D, Of _Octopus_.
+
+    E, Of a Gastropod.
+
+    a, Auricle.
+
+    v, Ventricle.
+
+    ac, Arteria=cephalica=(aorta).
+
+    ai, Arteria abdominalis. The arrows show the direction of the
+    blood-current.]
+
+  The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of _Nautilus_ do not
+  differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the heart is
+  a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent vessel
+  (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta
+  anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram,
+  fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to
+  the dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple
+  flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one
+  auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain
+  the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda
+  (excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart is
+  seen in _Octopus_, and is to some extent approached by _Nautilus_, the
+  median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is shown
+  in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented by the heart
+  of _Nautilus_ is the possession of four instead of two auricles, a
+  feature which is simply related to the metamerism of the branchiae. By
+  the left side of the heart of _Nautilus_, attached to it by a
+  membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial chamber, is
+  the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be the rudimentary
+  left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be (E.R. Lankester and
+  A.G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and its duct being attached
+  by a membrane to the opposite side of the heart.
+
+  The cephalic and abdominal aortae of _Nautilus_ appear, after running
+  to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal respectively, to
+  open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera, muscular masses,
+  &c. These spaces are not large, but confined and shallow. Capillaries
+  are stated to occur in the integument. In the Dibranchs the arterial
+  system is very much more complete; it appears in some cases to end in
+  irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other cases in true capillaries which
+  lead on into veins. An investigation of these capillaries in the light
+  of modern histological knowledge is much needed. From the sinuses and
+  capillaries the veins take origin, collecting into a large median
+  trunk (the vena cava), which in the Dibranchs as well as in _Nautilus_
+  has a ventral (postero-ventral) position, and runs parallel to the
+  long axis of the animal. In _Nautilus_ this vena cava gives off at the
+  level of the gills four branchial afferent veins (fig. 11, v.c.),
+  which pass into the four gills without dilating. In the Dibranchs at a
+  similar position the vena cava gives off a right and a left branchial
+  afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall of the corresponding
+  renal sac and receiving additional factors, dilates at the base of the
+  corresponding branchial plume, forming there a pulsating sac--the
+  branchial heart. Attached to each branchial heart is a curious
+  glandular body, which may possibly be related to the larger masses
+  (fig. 11, r.e) which depend into the viscero-pericardial cavity from
+  the branchial afferent veins of _Nautilus_. From the dilated branchial
+  heart the branchial afferent vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial
+  face of the gill-plume. From each gill-plume the blood passes by the
+  branchial efferent vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed
+  by the dilatation of these vessels.
+
+  The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused
+  colouring matter--the haemocyanin of Fredericque--which has been found
+  also in the blood of _Helix_, and in that of the Arthropods _Homarus_
+  and _Limulus_. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the
+  deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent.
+
+  The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected with
+  the branchial advehent vessels in _Nautilus_ and in the other
+  Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical
+  relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance
+  with the metamerism of _Nautilus_ already noticed, there are two pairs
+  of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a pore to
+  the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a
+  non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac; these portions,
+  however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other
+  cases, but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The
+  glandular renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending
+  along that part of the sac's wall which immediately invests the great
+  branchial afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly
+  from its wall a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and
+  anastomose with one another, and are clothed by the glandular
+  epithelium of the renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac
+  and passed by its aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous
+  excretory product is very rapidly discharged; in _Nautilus_ a
+  pink-coloured powder is found accumulated in the renal sacs,
+  consisting of calcium phosphate. The presence of this phosphatic
+  calculus by no means proves that such was the sole excretion of the
+  renal glandular tissue. In _Nautilus_ a glandular growth like that
+  rising from the wall of the branchial vessel into its corresponding
+  renal sac, but larger in size, depends from each branchial afferent
+  vessel into the viscero-pericardial sac and forms the pericardial
+  gland--probably identical with the "appendage" of the branchial hearts
+  of Dibranchs.
+
+  The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal
+  organs of the Dibranchs and those of _Nautilus_, is the absence of the
+  accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just
+  mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of a
+  pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac (y,
+  y' in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also
+  more prominent in Dibranchs than in _Nautilus_, being raised on
+  papillae (np in fig. 29; r in fig. 25). In _Sepia_ the two renal sacs
+  give off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow
+  and forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral
+  portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber. In
+  _Loligo_ the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still
+  more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In _Octopus_ the
+  renal sacs are quite separate.
+
+  _Gonads and Genital Ducts._--In _Nautilus_it has been shown by E. Ray
+  Lankester and A.G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both sexes are
+  paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and forming the
+  "pyriform appendage," described by Sir R. Owen as adhering by
+  membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart, and shown by W.
+  Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the exterior. The ovary
+  (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies in _Nautilus_, as in
+  the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from the other viscera,
+  near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is formed by the coelomic
+  or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is originally part of the
+  coelom, and in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ is, in the adult, part of the
+  viscero-pericardial chamber. In _Octopus_ it is this genital chamber
+  which communicates by a right and a left canal with the renal sac, and
+  is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary or testis is
+  itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which it only
+  partly fills. In _Nautilus_ the right genital duct, which is
+  functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal
+  surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary
+  or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to
+  represent a single median or bilateral organ.
+
+  The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and the
+  coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the gonad,
+  so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the coelom by
+  a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium, migrate below
+  it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian cavity, pushing
+  the epithelium before them. Each ovum is surrounded by a follicular
+  epithelium which is nourished by numerous blood-vessels, and which
+  penetrates into the surface of the ovum in numerous folds. When
+  mature, the ovum is contained in a membrane or chorion with a
+  micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the follicle into the genital
+  coelom and duct. In its passage to the exterior the ovum passes a
+  glandular structure on the wall of the genital capsule, which probably
+  secretes the gelatinous substance enclosing the eggs. In addition to
+  this internal gland there are other accessory glands, which are not
+  related to the genital duct or sac but are differentiations of the
+  wall of the pallial cavity, and occur on the inner wall of the pallium
+  in _Nautilus_, on the somatic wall in Dibranchiata. In _Nautilus_ they
+  form a continuous mass. These produce the external envelopes of the
+  eggs.
+
+  In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the
+  genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary.
+  The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis
+  to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermiduct
+  is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal
+  reservoir known as Needham's sac or the spermatophore sac. The
+  function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an
+  elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into
+  itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part is
+  called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally
+  coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the
+  connective is extended and evaginated, and the sac containing the
+  sperms bursts. In _Nautilus_ the spermatophore when uncoiled is a
+  little over 30 mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat
+  similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods.
+
+  The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In _Nautilus_ they are
+  laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two
+  thick shells, the outer of which is partly open.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig 13.--Nervous system of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from
+  Genebaur, after Owen).
+
+    t, t, Ganglion-like enlargements on nerves passing from the pedal
+    ganglion to the inner series of tentacles.
+
+    t', Nerves to the tentacles of the outer or annular lobe.
+
+    b, Pedal ganglion-pair
+
+    a, Cerebral ganglion-pair.
+
+    c, Pleuro-visceral ganglionic band (fused pleural and visceral
+    ganglion-pairs).
+
+    d, Genital ganglion placed on the course of the large visceral
+    nerve, just before it gives off its branchial and its osphradial
+    branches.
+
+    m, Nerves from the pleural ganglion to the mantle-skirt.]
+
+  _Nervous System._--_Nautilus_, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits a
+  great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown in fig.
+  13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little
+  differentiated from their commissures and connectives--an archaic
+  condition reminding us of _Chiton_. The special optic outgrowth of the
+  cerebral ganglion, the optical ganglion (fig. 13, o), is
+  characteristic. The cerebral ganglion-pair (a) lying above the
+  oesophagus is connected with two suboesophageal ganglion-pairs, of
+  band-like form. The anterior of these is the pedal _b, b_, and
+  supplies the circumoral lobes and tentacles, and the funnel, a fact
+  which proves the pedal origin of these organs. The hinder band is the
+  visceral and pleural pair fused; from its pleural portion nerves pass
+  to the mantle, from its visceral portion nerves to the branchiae and
+  genital ganglion (fig. 13, d), and in immediate connexion with the
+  latter is a nerve to the osphradium or olfactory papilla. A labial
+  commissure arises by a double root from the cerebral ganglia and gives
+  off a stomatogastric commissure, which passes under the pharynx
+  immediately behind the radula and bears a buccal ganglion on either
+  side.
+
+  _Special Sense-Organs._--_Nautilus_ possesses a pair of osphradial
+  papillae (fig. 4, olf) corresponding in position and innervation to
+  Spengel's organ placed at the base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all
+  classes of Mollusca. This organ has not been detected in other
+  Cephalopoda. _Nautilus_ possesses other olfactory organs in the region
+  of the head. Just below the eye is a small triangular process (not
+  seen in our figures), having the structure of a shortened and
+  highly-modified tentacle and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is
+  followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded as an olfactory organ. The
+  large nerve which runs to this organ originates from the point of
+  juncture of the pedal with the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ
+  upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe of _Nautilus_ is possibly also
+  olfactory in function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is a pit or open
+  canal supplied by a nerve corresponding in origin to the olfactory
+  nerve of _Nautilus_ above mentioned. Possibly the sense of taste
+  resides in certain processes within the mouth of _Nautilus_ and other
+  Cephalopoda.
+
+  The otocysts of _Nautilus_ were discovered by J.D. Macdonald. Each
+  lies at the side of the head, ventral to the eye, resting on the
+  capito-pedal cartilage, and supported by the large auditory nerve
+  which apparently arises from the pedal ganglion but originates in the
+  cerebral. It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and
+  contains whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the
+  otoliths of other Mollusca.
+
+  The eye of _Nautilus_ is among the most interesting structures of that
+  remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk and general
+  elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that of
+  _Nautilus_. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no
+  transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly
+  projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in
+  diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument,
+  whilst in the middle of the drum-membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3,
+  u). Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered
+  this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by
+  him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that the
+  hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which is
+  accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric
+  apparatus in _Nautilus_, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we
+  have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the
+  principle of "the pin-hole camera." There is no other eye known in the
+  whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall of the
+  eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked
+  retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives the
+  fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other
+  Cephalopods (e.g. fig. 33, Ri, Re, p), the retina consists of two
+  layers of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most
+  interesting consideration connected with this eye of _Nautilus_ is
+  found when the further facts are noted--(1) that the elaborate
+  lens-bearing eyes of Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development
+  in which they have the same structure as the eye of
+  _Nautilus_--namely, are open sacs (fig. 34); and (2) that amongst
+  other Mollusca examples of cephalic eyes can be found which in the
+  adult condition are, like the eye of _Nautilus_ and the developing eye
+  of Dibranchs, simple pits of the integument, the cells of which are
+  surrounded by pigment and connected with the filaments of an optic
+  nerve. Such is the structure of the eye of the limpet (_Patella_), and
+  in such a simple eye we obtain the clearest demonstration of the fact
+  that the retina of the Molluscan cephalic eye, like that of the
+  Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that of the vertebrate myelonic eye,
+  is essentially a modified area of the general epiderm, and that the
+  sensitiveness of its cells to the action of light and their relation
+  to nerve-filaments is only a specialization and intensifying of a
+  property common to the whole epiderm of the surface of the body. What,
+  however, strikes us as especially remarkable is that the simple form
+  of a pit, which in _Patella_ serves to accumulate a secretion which
+  acts as a refractive body, should in _Nautilus_ be glorified and
+  raised to the dignity of an efficient optical apparatus. In all other
+  Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from the follicular or pit-like
+  condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire the form of a _closed_
+  sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then filled partially or
+  completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by its walls (fig. 14,
+  B). This is the condition attained in most Gastropoda. It presents a
+  striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye, where, in consequence
+  of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the eye does not form a
+  vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca.
+
+    A, _Nautilus_ (and _Patella_).
+
+    B, Gastropod (_Limax_ or _Helix_).
+
+    C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod (Oigopsid).
+
+    Pal, Eyelid (outermost fold).
+
+    Co, Cornea (second fold).
+
+    Ir, Iris (third fold).
+
+    Int 1,2,3,4, Different parts of the integument.
+
+    l, Deep portion of the lens.
+
+    l^1, Outer portion of the lens
+
+    Co.ep, Ciliary body.
+
+    R, Retina.
+
+    N.op, Optic nerve.
+
+    G.op, Optic ganglion.
+
+    x, Inner layer of the retina.
+
+    N.S., Nervous stratum of the retina. (From Balfour, after
+    Grenacher.)]
+
+  The development of _Nautilus_ is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur
+  Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts to
+  obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native
+  fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in
+  captivity, but without success.
+
+  _Phylogeny and Classification._--As _Nautilus_ is the only living
+  genus of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based
+  upon the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of
+  shell similar in structure to that of _Nautilus_ are known, chiefly
+  from Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two
+  sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial
+  chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse
+  cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated
+  dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle,
+  which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter
+  its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial chamber
+  is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape, with no
+  cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a constriction.
+  The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation which deeply indents
+  the front wall of the initial chamber, called the protoconch, but does
+  not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-Chalmas has shown that the
+  cavity of the protoconch is traversed by a tubular organ, the
+  "prosiphon," which does not communicate with the true siphuncle, the
+  place of which it is supposed to take in the early life of the animal.
+  It is generally held, as suggested by Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial
+  chamber of the Nautiloidea corresponds not to the protoconch of the
+  Ammonoids, but to the second chamber of the latter, and that there
+  existed in the young Nautiloids a true initial chamber, a protoconch
+  which was either uncalcified or deciduous. The shell of the living
+  nautilus does not decide this question, as its early stages are
+  unknown, and there is a little vacuity in the centre of the spirally
+  coiled shell which may have been originally occupied by the true
+  protoconch.
+
+  The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the
+  aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards
+  (fig. 1); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is
+  usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed
+  forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united to
+  the shell are known as "sutures," and these in the Nautiloidea are
+  simply curved or slightly lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea they are
+  folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections of the suture
+  towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those in the
+  opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the _Nautilus_ pierces the
+  centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually central
+  or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that case may be
+  external, i.e. ventral, or internal, i.e. dorsal. In Ammonoids the
+  siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its walls in the
+  living _Nautilus_ are strengthened by the deposit of calcareous
+  granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely calcified.
+  But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from calcareous tubes
+  surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from the septa. In the
+  pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged backwards at the point where
+  it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming a shelly tube somewhat like
+  the neck of a bottle. In many fossil forms these septal necks are
+  continued from the septum from which they arise to the next, so that
+  the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete secondary calcareous tube. In
+  the majority of Nautiloids the septal necks are directed backwards,
+  and they are said to be retrosiphonate. In the majority of the
+  Ammonoids the septal necks are continued forwards from the septa to
+  which they belong, and such forms are termed prosiphonate.
+
+  The Tetrabranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
+  periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing first in the
+  Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the Palaeozoic
+  period, and comparatively few surviving into the Secondary. On the
+  other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic formations, being
+  represented in deposits earlier than the Carboniferous only by
+  comparatively simple types, such as _Clymenia_ and _Goniatites_. In
+  the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abundant, both in genera and
+  species and in individuals, and with few local exceptions none are
+  known to have survived even to the commencement of the Tertiary. In
+  the widest sense the genus _Nautilus_ has existed since the Ordovician
+  (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not properly to be placed
+  in the same genus as the existing form. Even with this qualification
+  the genus is very ancient, shells very similar to those of the living
+  _Nautilus_ being found in the Upper Cretaceous.
+
+  It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea were
+  Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the shell was,
+  therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed with the
+  Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the possession of
+  an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be little doubt that
+  they gave rise to the Dibranchiata.
+
+  About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only a
+  few species of the genus _Nautilus_ survive. Some of the fossil forms
+  are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6
+  in. Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described, and
+  some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in
+  diameter.
+
+  Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been found
+  peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within the
+  body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The most typical
+  form of these structures has been named _aptychus._ It consists of two
+  bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semicircular shape, and
+  attached to one another by their straight inner margins, like a pair
+  of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and horny, but more often
+  it is thick and calcified, in which case the principal layer has a
+  peculiar cellular structure. The surface may be smooth or sculptured,
+  and one side is usually marked by concentric lines of growth. Another
+  type is similar, except that the two halves are united in the middle
+  line; bodies of this character are called _synaptychus_; they occur in
+  the body-chamber of species of _Scaphites_. Another form called
+  _anaptychus_ consists of a thin horny undivided plate which is
+  concentrically striated. This is associated with species of
+  _Ammonites_ and _Goniatites_.
+
+  Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these structures.
+  According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an operculum developed
+  in a part of the body corresponding to the hood of _Nautilus_. E. Ray
+  Lankester suggested that the double plate was borne on the surface of
+  the nidamental gland, with the form and sculpturing of which in
+  _Nautilus_ it closely agrees. On this view the aptychus would occur
+  only in females. The most recent view is that these structures could
+  not have been opercula because of their constant position inside the
+  body-chamber, and that they were not external secretions at all, but a
+  calcified internal cartilage situated at the base of the funnel.
+
+  _Classification of Tetrabranchiata._--Cephalopoda in which the mantle
+  is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell, which may
+  or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the shell occupied
+  by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles around the mouth,
+  which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of the funnel not united.
+  Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of renal tubes without
+  reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens directly to exterior.
+  Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic vesicles with apertures,
+  without crystalline lens.
+
+  _Sub-order 1. Nautiloidea_.--Initial chamber not inflated, with
+  dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Orthoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a
+    simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical siphuncle.
+    _Orthoceras_, Silurian to Trias. _Baltoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Actinoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with
+    wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. _Actinoceras_, Silurian
+    to Carboniferous. _Discosorus_, Silurian. _Huronia_, Silurian.
+    _Loxoceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Endoceratidae_. Shell straight, with wide margina
+    siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another.
+    _Endoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Gomphoceratidae_. Shell globular, straight or arcuate,
+    aperture contracted. _Gomphoceras_, Silurian. _Phragmoceras_,
+    Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Ascoceratidae_. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit
+    truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of shell
+    ventrally. _Ascoceras_, Silurian. _Glossoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Poterioceratidae_. Shell straight or curved, fusiform,
+    aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. _Poterioceras_,
+    Silurian to Carboniferous. _Streptoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 7. _Cyrtoceratidae_. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple,
+    siphuncle wide, septa approximated. _Cyrtoceras_, Devonian.
+
+    Fam. 8. _Lituitidae_. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal
+    part uncoiled, aperture contracted. _Lituites_, Silurian.
+    _Ophidioceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 9. _Trochoceratidae_. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or
+    sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. _Trochoceras_,
+    Devonian. _Adelphoceras_, Devonian.
+
+    Fam. 10. _Nautilidae_. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide and
+    simple, siphuncle central. _Nautilus_, recent. _Trocholites_,
+    Silurian. _Gyroceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous. _Hercoceras_,
+    Silurian. _Ptenoceras_, Devonian. _Discites_, Carboniferous.
+
+    Fam. 11. _Bactritidae_. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow
+    and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating.
+    _Bactrites_, Silurian and Devonian.
+
+  _Sub-order 2. Ammonitoidea_,--Initial chamber spheroidal; siphuncle
+  narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture; sutures complex.
+
+  _Tribe 1. Retrosiphonata_.--Siphuncular necks projecting behind the
+  septa as in Nautiloidea. Sutures form simple undulations. Occur
+  exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Goniatitidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and
+    ventral siphuncle. _Goniatites_, Devonian and Carboniferous.
+    _Anarcestes_, Devonian.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Clymeniidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures,
+    siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. _Clymenia_, Upper Devonian.
+
+  _Tribe 2. Prosiphonata._--Siphuncular necks projecting in front of the
+  septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Arcestidae_. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth, with
+    reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an aptychus present.
+    _Popanoceras_, Permian. _Cyclolobus_, Permian, _Arcestes_, Trias.
+    _Lobites_, Trias.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Tropitidae_. Shells globular, but having radiating and
+    tuberculated costae. _Thalassoceras_, Permian. _Tropites_, Trias.
+    _Sibirites_, Trias.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Ceratitidae_. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus,
+    terminal chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. _Trachyceras_,
+    Upper Trias. _Ceratites_, Trias. _Dinarites_, Trias.
+
+  Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled forms,
+  viz. _Cochloceras_, Trias; also some straight forms, e.g.
+  _Rhab-doccras_, Trias.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Pinacoceratidae_. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal
+    chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. _Pinacoceras_,
+    Trias.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Phylloceratidae_. Shell coiled, the whorls overlapping each
+    other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles. _Phytloceras_,
+    Jurassic.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Lytoceratidae_. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or
+    uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles and
+    lobes. _Lytoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous. _Macroscaphites_,
+    Cretaceous. _Reunites_, Cretaceous. _Ptychoeeras_, Cretaceous.
+    _Turrilites_, Cretaceous. _Baculites_, Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 7. _Ammonitidae_. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which do not
+    embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anaptychus present.
+    _Ammonites_, Jurassic. _Arietites_, Jurassic. _Aegoceras_, Lias.
+
+    Fam. 8. _Harpoceratidae_. Shell discord and flattened, with a
+    carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections, a
+    calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. _Harpoceras_, Jurassic.
+    _Oppelia_, Jurassic. _Lissoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 9. _Amaltheidae_. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina
+    continued anteriorly into a rostrum. _Amaltheus_, Lias.
+    _Cardioceras_, Jurassic. _Schloenbachia_, Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 10. _Stephanoceratidae_. Shell not carinated, but with
+    radiating costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with
+    lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two
+    pieces. _Stephanoceras, Morphoceras, Pensphinctes, Peltoceras_,
+    Jurassic. _Hoplites_, Cretaceous. _Acanthoceras_, Cretaceous.
+    _Cosmoceras_, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are
+    related to this family, viz. _Scaphites, Crioceras_, Cretaceous.
+
+ORDER 2. DIBRANCHIATA (= Holosiphona, Acetabulifera)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Sepia officinalis_, L., about ½ natural size,
+as seen when dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the
+pouches at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life
+when not actually in use. a. Neck; b, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; c,
+the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; d, the two long prehensile
+arms; e, the eyes.]
+
+_Characters_.--Cephalopoda in which the inflected margins of the
+epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon (fig. 24, i).
+The circumoral lobes of the fore-foot carry suckers disposed upon them
+in rows, _not_ tentacles (see figs. 15, 24). There is a single pair of
+typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills (hence Dibranchiata), and a
+single pair of renal organs, opening by apertures right and left of the
+median anus (fig. 25, r) and by similar internal pores into the
+pericardial chamber, which consequently does not open directly to the
+surface as in _Nautilus_. The oviducts are sometimes paired right and
+left (Octopoda, Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed
+(Myopsida). The sperm-duct is always single except, according to W.
+Keferstein, in _Eledone moschata._
+
+A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the mantle
+(figs 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none, and in _Spirula_
+(fig. 17, D) and the extinct _Belemnitidae_, &c., which have a small
+chambered shell resembling that of _Nautilus_ with or without the
+addition of plate-like and cylindrical accessory developments (fig. 17,
+A, C, fig. 19).
+
+The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a
+refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds,--the vesicle being in
+the embryo, an open sac like that of _Nautilus_ (fig. 34). Osphradia are
+not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recognized. One or two
+pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are present. An ink-sac
+formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and opening near the anus is
+present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, t), and has been detected even in
+the fossil _Belemnitidae._ Branchial hearts are developed on the two
+branchial afferent blood-vessels (fig. 28, _vc'_, _vi_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Decapodous Cephalopods.
+
+  A, _Cheiroteuthis Veranyi_, d'Orb. (from the Mediterranean).
+
+  B, _Thysanoteuthis rhombus_, Troschel (from Messina).
+
+  C, _Loligopsis cyclura_, Fér. and d'Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Internal Shells of Cephalopoda.
+
+  A, _Conoteutliis dupiniana_, d'Orb. (from the Neocomian of France).
+
+  B, Shell _Sepia orbigniana_. Fér. (Mediterranean).
+
+  C, Shell of _Spirulirostra Bellardii_, d'Orb. (from the Miocene of
+  Turin). The specimen is cut so as to show in section the chambered
+  shell and the laminated "guard" deposited upon its surface.
+
+  D, Shell of _Splrula laevis_, Gray (New Zealand).]
+
+In the Dibranchiata the shell shows various stages of degeneration,
+culminating in its complete disappearance in _Octopus_. As in other
+Mollusca, there is a tendency in Cephalopods for the mantle to extend
+over the outside of the shell from its edges, and when these secondary
+mantle-folds entirely cover the shell and meet or fuse together the
+shell is surrounded by the mantle both externally and internally, and is
+said to be internal, though it remains always a cuticular structure
+external to the epidermis. This procebs is generally accompanied by a
+reduction of the size of the shell in comparison with that of the body,
+so that the relations of the two are gradually reversed, the body
+outgrows its house and instead of the mantle being enclosed by the
+shell, the shell is enclosed by the mantle. The earliest stage of this
+process is shown in the recent _Spirula,_ though it is perhaps not
+impossible that in some of the later fossil Ammonoids the shell was
+becoming more and more internal. The shell of _Spirula_ (fig. 18) is
+coiled somewhat like that of _Nautilus_, but the coils are not in
+contact, the direction of the coil is endogastric or ventral instead of
+exogastric, and the shell is very much smaller than the body. Like that
+of _Nautilus_ it is divided by septa and traversed by a siphuncle. The
+relation of the animal to the terminal chamber is as in _Nautilus,_ but
+the body extends far beyond the aperture, and folds of the mantle grow
+up over the shell and cover it everywhere except part of the dorsal and
+ventral surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: After Chun, from Lankester's _Treatise an Zoology_
+
+  FIG. 18.--_Spirula._
+
+    A, Dorsal aspect.
+
+    B, Ventral aspect.
+
+    a, Arms.
+
+    e, Eyes.
+
+    fi, Fins.
+
+    fu, Funnel.
+
+    pa, Mantle.
+
+    po, Posterior fossa.
+
+    sh, Shell.
+
+    te, Tentacular arms.
+
+    td, Terminal pallial disk]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Digram of shell Belemnite (after Phillips). r.
+Horny pen or "proostracum": A, conical cavity or "alveolus," in which
+the chambered "phragmacone" (p) is contained: g, "guard," or "rostrum."]
+
+The next modification in the enclosed shell is the addition to it of
+secondary deposits of calcareous matter, by the inner surface of the
+shell-sac. Successive layers are deposited on the posterior part of the
+original shell, whether coiled or straight, and these layers form a
+conical mass, which may attain great thickness. A somewhat coiled shell
+with such a deposit is seen in _Spirulirostra_ (fig. 17, C) of the
+Miocene. In the next stage of modification secondary secretion forms a
+long and broad projection of the dorsal lip of the aperture; this is
+well developed in the belemnites (fig. 19). Thus in these modified
+shells three parts are to be distinguished: the original septate shell,
+which has been called the phragmacone; the posterior conical deposit,
+called the rostrum or guard; and the anterior somewhat flat projection,
+called the proostracum. In the living Dibranchiata other than _Spirula_
+the phragmacone and rostrum have become very rudimentary. The shell of
+_Sepia_ (fig. 20) consists almost entirely of the proostracum, the
+little ventral hollow posteriorly representing the phragmacone, and the
+posterior pointed projection, the rostrum. In the _Oigopsida_ the shell
+is represented by a proostracum which is no longer calcified by forms a
+chitinous plume or gladuius, and a similar rudiment occurs in
+_Loliginidac_ (fig. 21) and _Sepiolidae_. Lastly, in the Octopoda the
+shell is represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the
+retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are paired
+in _Octopus_, unpaired in other cases as in _Cirrhoteuthis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 20.--The calcareous internal shell
+of _Sepia officinalis, _the so-called cuttle-bone, a, Lateral expansion;
+b, anterior cancellated region; c, laminated region, the laminae
+enclosing air.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of
+_Lohgo_.]
+
+The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which the shell is
+enclosed has led to an erroneous identification of this sac with the
+primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of the Molluscan embryo. The first
+appearance of the shell-sac in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36.
+Its formation as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and the
+fact that it appears and disappears without closing in _Argonauta_ and
+_Octopus_, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers)
+Tr. Float: Br.a, anterior arms: Br p, posterior arms: V, the expanded
+portion of them, once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En,
+the Funnel.]
+
+In _Argonauta_ (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses a shell,
+in which the body is contained; but this is not homologous with the
+true shell in other cases; it is a structure _sui generis_ secreted by
+the expanded arms of the dorsal pair which are closely applied to it on
+either side (fig. 22).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Head and circumoral processes of the
+  fore-foot of _Onychoteuthis_ (from Owen).
+
+    a, Neck.
+
+    b, Eye.
+
+    c, The eight short arms.
+
+    d, Long prehensile arms, the clavate extremities of which are
+    provided with suckers at e, and with a double row of hooks beyond at
+    f. The temporary conjunction of the arms by means of the suckers
+    enables them to act in combination.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Male of _Ocythoe catenulata_, Steenstrup
+  (_Octopus carena_, Ver.), showing the hectocotylized arm. (From
+  Gegenbaur.)
+
+    t^1, t^2, t^3, t^4, The first, second, third and fourth arms or
+    processes of the fore-foot.
+
+    h, The third arm of the right side hectocotylized.
+
+    x, The apical sac of the hectocotylized arm.
+
+    y, The filament which issues from the sac when development is
+    complete.
+
+    i, The siphon.]
+
+  _Head, Foot, Mantle and Mantle-cavity._--If we now compare the
+  fore-foot of the Dibranchiata with that of _Nautilus_, we find in the
+  first place a more simple arrangement of its lobes, which are either
+  four or five pairs of tapering processes (called "arms"), arranged in
+  a series around the buccal cone, and a substitution of suckers for
+  tentacles on the surface of these lobes (figs. 15 and 24). The most
+  dorsally placed pair of arms, corresponding to the two sides of the
+  hood of _Nautilus_, are in reality the most anterior, and are termed
+  the first pair. In the Octopoda there are four pairs of these arms
+  (fig. 38), in the Decapoda five pairs, of which the fourth is greatly
+  elongated (figs. 15, 16). In _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each of
+  these long arms is withdrawn into a pouch beside the head, and is only
+  ejected for the purpose of prehension. In _Loligo_ they are completely
+  retractile, very slightly so in the majority of the Oigopsida, and in
+  _Rhynchoteuthis_ they are united to form a beak-like appendage. A
+  gradual reduction of the tentacular arms can be seen in the Decapoda,
+  leading to their total absence in Octopoda; thus in _Leachia_,
+  _Chaunoteuthis_ and others these arms are reduced to mere stumps. In
+  some _Cheiroteuthidae_ and _Cranchiidae_ the ordinary or sessile arms,
+  especially the dorsal pairs, are reduced. In the Octopoda they are not
+  unfrequently connected by a web, and form an efficient swimming-bell,
+  e.g. in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and _Amphuretidae_. The suckers are placed
+  on the adoral surface of the arms, and may be in one, two or four
+  rows, and very numerous. In place of suckers in some genera, e.g.
+  _Veranya_, we find on certain arms or parts of the arms horny hooks;
+  in other cases a hook rises from the centre of each sucker. The hooks
+  on the long arms of _Onychoteuthis_ are drawn in fig. 23. In various
+  species of _Cheiroteuthis_ the suckers on the tentacular arms are very
+  feeble, but the bottom of the cup is covered by a number of
+  anastomosed epithelial filaments which are used as a fishing-net. The
+  fore-foot, with its apparatus of suckers and hooks, is in the
+  Dibranchiata essentially a prehensile apparatus, though the whole
+  series of arms in the Octopoda serve as swimming organs, and in many
+  (e.g. the common octopus or poulp) the sucker-bearing surface is used
+  as a crawling organ.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male
+  _Sepia_, obtained by cutting longitudinally the firm mantle-skirt and
+  drawing the divided halves apart. This figure is strictly comparable
+  with fig. 4. (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+    C, The head.
+
+    J, The mid-foot or siphon, which has been cut open so as to display
+    the valve i.
+
+    R, The glandular tissue of the left nephridium or renal-sac, which
+    has been cut open (see fig. 29).
+
+    P, P, The lateral fins of the mantle-skirt.
+
+    Br, The single pair of branchiae (ctenidia).
+
+    a, The anus--immediately below it is the opening of the ink-bag.
+
+    c, Cartilaginous socket in the siphon to receive c', the
+    cartilaginous knob of the mantle-skirt--the two constituting the
+    "pallial hinge apparatus" characteristic of Decapoda, not found in
+    Octopoda.
+
+    g, The azygos genital papilla and aperture.
+
+    'i, Valve of the siphon (possibly the rudimentary hind-foot)
+
+    m, Muscular band connected with the fore-foot and mid-foot (siphon)
+    and identical with the muscular mass k in fig. 3.
+
+    r, Renal papillae, carrying the apertures of the nephridia.
+
+    v.br, Branchial efferent blood-vessel.
+
+    v br', Bulbous enlargements of the branchial blood-vessels (see figs
+    28, 29).
+
+    t, Ink-bag]
+
+  In the males of the Dibranchiata one of the arms is more or less
+  modified in connexion with the reproductive function, and is called
+  the "hectocotylized arm." This name is derived from the condition
+  assumed by the arm in those cases in which its modification is carried
+  out to the greatest extent. These cases are those of the Octopods
+  _Argonauta argo_ and _Ocythoe catenulata_ (fig. 24). In the males of
+  these the third arm (on the left side in _Argonauta_, on the right
+  side in _Ocythoe_) is found before the breeding season to be
+  represented by a globular sac of integument. This sac bursts, and from
+  it issues an arm larger than its neighbours, having a small sac at its
+  extremity in _Ocythoe_ (fig. 24. x), from which subsequently a long
+  filament issues. Before copulation the male charges this arm with the
+  spermatophores or packets of spermatozoa removed from its generative
+  orifice beneath the mantle-skirt, and during coitus the arm becomes
+  detached and is left adhering to the female by means of its suckers. A
+  new arm is formed at the cicatrix before the next breeding season. The
+  female, being much larger than the male, swims away with the detached
+  arm lodged beneath her mantle-skirt. There, in a way which is not
+  understood, the fertilization of the eggs is effected. Specimens of
+  the female _Ocythoë_ with the detached arm adherent were examined by
+  Cuvier, who mistook the arm for a parasitic worm and gave to it the
+  name _Hectocotylus_. Accordingly, the correspondingly modified arms of
+  other Cephalopoda are said to be hectocotylized. J.J.S. Steenstrup has
+  determined the hectocotylized condition of one or other of the arms in
+  a number of male Dibranchs as follows:--in all, excepting _Argonauta_
+  and _Ocythoe_ and _Tremoctopus_, the modification of the arm is
+  slight, consisting in a small enlargement of part or the whole of the
+  arm, and the obliteration of some of its suckers; in _Octopus_ and
+  _Eledone_ the third right arm is hectocotylized; in _Rossia_ and
+  _Sepiola_ the fourth left arm is hectocotylized along its whole
+  length, and the fourth right arm also in the middle only; in _Sepia_
+  the fourth left arm is modified at its base only; in _Sepioteuthis_,
+  the same at its apex; in _Loligo_, the same also at its apex; in
+  _Loliolus_, the same along its whole length; in _Ommatostrephes_,
+  _Onychoteuthis_ and _Loligopsis_ no hectocotylized arm has hitherto
+  been observed. Thus, speaking generally, it is one or both of the
+  fourth pair of short arms which are modified in the Decapoda, of the
+  third pair in the Octopoda. In the pallial cavity are situated one
+  pair of gills in the Dibranchiata (fig. 25), attached dorsally along
+  the whole of their afferent borders. On each side of the branchia is a
+  series of lamellae, least in number in the Octopoda. Each lamella is
+  transversely folded, and the folds are in turn folded, so that the
+  respiratory surface is increased. On the somatic wall of the pallial
+  cavity, between and ventral to the gills, are the following apertures:
+  the anus and opening of the ink-sac, close together in the median
+  line; a pair of apertures of the renal sacs, on either side of the
+  median line; external to the renal orifice, on the left side, the
+  genital aperture in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and Myopsida. In other Octopoda,
+  and in nearly all the Oigopsida among the Decapoda, the genital ducts
+  are paired in the female, but only the left is developed in the male.
+  The funnel forms a complete tube in the Dibranchiata, and in the
+  majority of the Decapoda, as in _Nautilus_, it is provided with an
+  internal valve projecting from its somatic surface, which allows water
+  to pass outwards but prevents it passing inwards. The mantle performs
+  rhythmical respiratory movements of expansion and contraction, the
+  water entering between funnel and mantle and passing out through the
+  funnel. In Decapoda the edge of the mantle bears internally on each
+  side a cartilaginous projection which fits into a corresponding
+  depression on the external surface of the funnel; this is called the
+  "resisting apparatus," and serves to make the union of mantle and
+  funnel firmer during expiration. More powerful expiratory movements
+  are used for sudden retrograde locomotion through the water.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately
+  median antero-posterior section of _Sepia officinalis_ (from a drawing
+  by A.G. Bourne). The lettering corresponds with that of fig. 10, with
+  which this drawing is intended to be compared.
+
+    a, Shell (here enclosed by a growth of the mantle).
+
+    b, The nuchal plate (here a cartilage).
+
+    c, (The reference line should be continued through the black area
+    representing the shell to the outline below it), the integument
+    covering the visceral hump.
+
+    d, The reflected portion of the mantle-skirt forming the sac which
+    encloses the shell.
+
+    e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt (mouth of the pallial
+    chamber).
+
+    f, The pallial chamber.
+
+    g, The vertically cut median portion of the siphon.
+
+    i, The valve of the siphon.
+
+    m, The two upper lobes of the fore-foot.
+
+    n, The long prehensile arms of the same.
+
+    o, The fifth or lowermost lobe of the fore-foot.
+
+    p, The third lobe of the fore-foot.
+
+    q, The buccal membrane.
+
+    v, The upper beak or jaw. s, The lower beak or jaw.
+
+    t, The lingual ribbon.
+
+    x, The viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    n.c, The nerve-collar.
+
+    cr, The crop.
+
+    gizz, The gizzard.
+
+    an, The anus.
+
+    c.t, The left ctenidium or gill-plume.
+
+    vent, Ventricle of the heart.
+
+    a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.
+
+    e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.
+
+    re, Renal glandular mass.
+
+    n.n.a, Left nephridial aperture.
+
+    visc.per.apert, Viscero-pericardial aperture (see fig. 29).
+
+    br.b, Branchial heart.
+
+    app, Appendage of the same.
+
+    i.s, Ink-bag.]
+
+  _Luminous Organs._--In certain Oigopsida living in deep water, e.g.
+  _Histioteuthis, Calliteuthis, Histiopsis, Pterygioteuthis_, the
+  surface of the skin bears photogenous organs directed towards the oral
+  extremity. Anatomically these consist of a deeper photogenous layer
+  and a more superficial refracting layer. In some cases, e.g.
+  _Pterygioteuthis_, they occur even within the mantle-cavity.
+
+  _Fins._--In the majority of the Decapoda and in the _Cirrhoteuthidae_,
+  the mantle is produced into lateral symmetrical expansions which have
+  the function of fins. They originate at the aboral extremity where
+  they remain in _Spirula_ (fig. 18). In most other Oigopsida they are
+  terminal, but more dorsal than ventral, e.g. _Loligopsis_ (fig. 16),
+  and there may be two on each side, as in _Grimalditeuthis_. In other
+  cases they extend laterally along a greater length of the body, as in
+  _Sepia_ (fig. 15). In _Ctenopteryx_ they have a superficial
+  resemblance to the fins of fishes, consisting of a thin membrane
+  supported by a series of muscular rods.
+
+  _Chromatophores._--These are characteristic of the Dibranchiata,
+  apparently absent in _Nautilus_. They are originally single cells of
+  ectodermic origin which sink below the epidermis and become connected
+  with radiating muscular fibres. The cells are single but multinuclear.
+  Different cells contain pigments of different colours, yellow, brown,
+  red or blue. Each cell in life is in constant tremulous movement;
+  under the influence of nervous excitement the cells are suddenly
+  expanded or contracted, producing blushes of colour and pallor. By
+  reflex action of which the afferent stimulus acts upon the eyes as in
+  fishes, the chromatophores assume a condition which approximates the
+  colour of the animal to that of surrounding objects. In the Decapoda
+  there are also reflecting elements which produce iridescent hues.
+
+  _Aquiferous Cavities._--In addition to the pockets into which the
+  tentacular arms of Decapoda are retracted, there are in several
+  Dibranchiata cavities in the integument which open to the exterior by
+  special pores but have no communication with the vascular system or
+  other internal cavities of the body. In _Ocythoe_ there are such pores
+  on the back of the head and at the base of the funnel; buccal pouches
+  on the ventral side of the mouth, internal to the arms, occur in some
+  genera, one in _Loligo_, two in _Sepia_. In some species of _Sepia_
+  there are pouches in the mantle.
+
+  _Alimentary Tube._--The principal differences from _Nautilus_ are the
+  following:--the mandibles are similar in shape, but are chitinous, not
+  calcified. In the radula there are three teeth on each side of the
+  median tooth in each row, except in _Gonatus_, in which there are only
+  two lateral teeth, and the _Cirrhoteuthidae_, in which the radula has
+  entirely disappeared. In front of the radula is the so-called tongue,
+  a fleshy projection corresponding to the sub-radular organ of other
+  Mollusca.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Alimentary canal of _Loligo sagittata_ (from
+  Gegenbaur). The buccal mass is omitted.
+
+    oe, Oesophagus.
+
+    v, The stomach opened longitudinally.
+
+    x, Probe passed through the pylorus.
+
+    c, Commencement of the caecum.
+
+    e, Its spiral portion.
+
+    i, Intestine.
+
+    a, Ink-bag.
+
+    b, Its opening into the rectum.]
+
+  In most of the Dibranchiata there are two pairs of salivary glands. In
+  the Decapoda the ducts of the posterior pair unite into a median duct
+  which opens on the surface of the sub-radular organ. The anterior pair
+  is but slightly developed except in the Oigopsida. In the Octopoda
+  there are also two pairs, but the posterior pair, except in
+  _Cirrhoteuthis_ where they are absent, are large and displaced
+  backwards, being situated near the oesophageal proventriculus.
+  Connected with the intestine immediately beyond the pylorus is a
+  thin-walled caecum, spherical in _Rossia_ and _Leachia_, elongated in
+  _Loligo_, but usually coiled into a spiral (fig. 27). The hepatic
+  ducts open into the caecum. The liver is developed as a paired gland,
+  more or less fused into one in the adult, but the ducts are always
+  paired. The ducts are covered by a number of glandular follicles
+  forming what is called the pancreas.
+
+  The ink-sac, absent in _Nautilus_, is a rectal caecum developed from
+  its dorsal wall. It is present in all Dibranchiata except _Octopus
+  arcticus, O. piscatorum_ and _Cirrhoteuthis_. It consists of a deeper
+  part or gland proper and a reservoir. It extends to the posterior
+  extremity of the body in _Sepia_, but in _Octopoda_ is usually
+  embedded in the surface of the liver. The pigment of the secretion is
+  melanin, and its function is to produce a dense opacity in the water,
+  which conceals the animal.
+
+  _Vascular System_ (fig. 28).--The ventricle lies in the pericardial
+  cavity, except in Octopoda where this cavity is much reduced. The
+  auricles, one pair, are contractile expansions of the efferent
+  branchial vessels. The heart gives off an anterior or cephalic and a
+  posterior or abdominal aorta. The vascular system is almost perfect,
+  arteries and veins being united by capillaries. The principal vein is
+  a vena cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and
+  dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a
+  pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial
+  vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered
+  externally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of
+  the "kidney" (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a
+  contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular
+  appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which are
+  attached to the afferent branchial veins in _Nautilus_, and to the
+  pericardial glands of other Molluscs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Circulatory and excretory organs of _Sepia_
+  (from Gegenbaur, after John Hunter).
+
+    br, Branchiae (ctenidia).
+
+    c, Ventricle of the heart.
+
+    a, Anterior artery (aorta).
+
+    a', Posterior artery.
+
+    v, The right and left auricles (enlargements of the efferent
+    branchial veins).
+
+    v', Efferent branchial vein on the free face of the gill-plume.
+
+    v.c, Vena cava.
+
+    vi, vc', Afferent branchial vessels (branches of the vena cava, see
+    fig. 29).
+
+    vc", Abdominal veins.
+
+    x, Branchial hearts and appendages.
+
+    re, e, Glandular substance of the nephridia developed on the wall of
+    the great veins on their way to the gills. The arrows indicate the
+    direction of the blood-current.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins
+  which run through them, in _Sepia officinalis_ (after Vigelius). The
+  nephridial sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed.
+
+    v.c, Vena cava.
+
+    r.d.v.c, Right descending branch of the same.
+
+    r.s.v.c, Left descending branch of the same.
+
+    v.b.a, Vein from the ink-bag.
+
+    v.m, Mesenteric vein.
+
+    v.g, Genital vein.
+
+    v.a.d, Right abdominal vein.
+
+    v.a.s, Left abdominal vein.
+
+    v.p.d, Right pallial vein.
+
+    v.p.s, Left pallial vein.
+
+    c.b, Branchial heart.
+
+    x, Appendage of the same.
+
+    c.v, Capsule of the branchial heart.
+
+    np, External aperture of the right nephridial sac.
+
+    y, Reno-pericardial orifice placing the left renal sac or nephridium
+    in communication with the viscero-pericardial sac, the course of
+    which below the nephridial sac is indicated by dotted lines.
+
+    y', The similar orifice of the right side.
+
+    a.r, Glandular renal outgrowths.
+
+    w.k, Viscero-pericardial sac (dotted outline).]
+
+  _Coelom._--The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction between
+  the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or genital
+  division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which contain
+  the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial division is
+  suppressed and the genital division communicates by long ducts with
+  sacs containing the appendages of the branchial hearts. The renal sacs
+  communicate with the pericardium by pores near the external renal
+  apertures; in the Octopoda the reno-pericardial openings are in the
+  capsules of the branchial hearts. The genital ducts pass from the
+  genital coelom to the exterior. They are paired in female Oigopsida
+  and Octopoda except _Cirrhoteuthidae_, but only the left persists in
+  the males of all Dibranchiata, and in the female Myopsida.
+
+  [Illustration: FIGS. 30, 31.--Nerve-centres of _Octopus_. Figure 30
+  gives a view from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral
+  aspect.
+
+    buc, The buccal mass.
+
+    ped, Pedal ganglion.
+
+    opt, Optic ganglion.
+
+    cer, Cerebral ganglion.
+
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+
+    visc, Visceral ganglion.
+
+    oes, Oesophagus.
+
+    f, Foramen in the nerve-mass formed by pedal, pleural and visceral
+    ganglion-pairs, traversed by a blood-vessel.]
+
+  In the oviduct is a glandular enlargement, and in addition to this the
+  females are provided with the so-called nidamental glands which are
+  developed on the somatic wall of the pallial cavity, one on each side
+  of the rectum, except in certain Oigopsida (_Enoploteuthis, Cranchia,
+  Leachia_) and in the Octopoda, in which these organs are absent. The
+  latter fact is related to the habit of the majority of the Octopoda of
+  guarding or "incubating" their eggs, which have little protective
+  covering. In the other cases the eggs are surrounded by a tough
+  gelatinous elastic material secreted by the nidamental glands.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Lateral view of the nervous centres and
+  nerves of the right side of _Octopus vulgaris_ (from a drawing by A.G.
+  Bourne).
+
+    bg, Buccal ganglion.
+
+    cer, Cerebral ganglion.
+
+    ped, Pedal ganglion.
+
+    pl, Pleural, and visc., visceral region of the pleuro-visceral
+    ganglion.
+
+    gang. stell, The right stellate ganglion of the mantle connected by
+    a nerve to the pleural portion.
+
+    n.visc, The right visceral nerve.
+
+    n.olf, Its (probably) olfactory branches.
+
+    n.br, Its branchial branches.]
+
+  The vas deferens is at first narrow and convoluted, then dilates into
+  a vesicula seminalis at the end of which is a glandular diverticulum
+  called the prostate. By the vesicula and the prostate the
+  spermatophores are formed. These have a structure similar to those of
+  _Nautilus_, and in the Octopoda may be as much as 50 mm. in length.
+  Beyond the prostate the duct opens into a large terminal reservoir
+  which has been called Needham's sac, and in which the spermatophores
+  are stored.
+
+  _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--The figures (30, 31, 32)
+  representing the nerve-centres of _Octopus_ serve to exhibit the
+  disposition of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more
+  distinctly swollen than in _Nautilus_. In _Octopus_ an infra-buccal
+  ganglion-pair are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair
+  of Gastropoda. In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with
+  these are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial
+  nerves of _Nautilus_, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right
+  and left) a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of
+  the pleuro-visceral ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form
+  the stellate ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to
+  supply the powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate
+  ganglia are connected, except in _Sepiola_, by a transverse
+  supra-oesophageal commissure, which represents the pallial cords
+  united by a commissure above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves
+  from the visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the
+  same course as in _Nautilus_, but no osphradial papilla is present. An
+  enteric nervous system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata,
+  connected with the somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia,
+  as in the Arthropoda through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and
+  anastomozing with deep branches of the visceral nerves of the
+  viscero-pleural ganglion-pair. It has been especially described by A.
+  Hancock in _Ommatostrephes_. Upon the stomach it forms a single large
+  and readily detected gastric ganglion.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Horizontal section of the eye of _Sepia_
+  (Myopsid). (From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.)
+
+    KK, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8).
+
+    C, Cornea (closed).
+
+    L, Lens.
+
+    ci, Ciliary body.
+
+    Ri, Internal layer of the retina.
+
+    Re, External layer of the retina.
+
+    p, Pigment between these.
+
+    o, Optic nerve.
+
+    go, Optic ganglion.
+
+    k and k', Capsular cartilage.
+
+    ik, Cartilage of the iris.
+
+    w, White body.
+
+    ae, Argentine integument.]
+
+  In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest
+  elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that
+  we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development of
+  the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the
+  lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate's eye is shown in
+  section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34
+  and 37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate
+  closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or
+  primitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, poc). The lens forms as a
+  structureless growth, secreted by both the internal and external
+  surfaces of the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, l). The
+  integument around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the
+  surface now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the
+  iridian folds (if in B, fig. 37; ik in fig. 33; Ir in fig. 14), and
+  then secondly an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and
+  completely closes over the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive
+  vesicle (fig. 33, C). This covering is transparent, and is the cornea.
+  In the oceanic Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but
+  leaves a central aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are
+  termed Oigopsidae by C. d'Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed
+  cornea are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and
+  there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding
+  the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over the
+  surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an
+  adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of
+  Vertebrates. _Sepia_ and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower
+  eyelid, that is to say, only one-half of the sphincter-like fold of
+  integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventrally between
+  the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed in the
+  cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small blind
+  process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of the vesicle
+  with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at the anterior
+  end of the vesicle forming a macula acustica, and in the cavity is a
+  single otolith, partly calcareous and partly organic except in
+  _Eledone_, in which it is entirely organic. The nerve arises from the
+  cerebral ganglion on each side and passes through the pedal ganglion.
+
+  There is no branchial osphradium in the Dibranchiata corresponding to
+  that of _Nautilus_, but the olfactory organ or rhinophore near the eye
+  is present. In _Sepia_ and the majority of the Dibranchiata it is a
+  simple pit, in some of the Oigopsida it is a projection which may be
+  stalked.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagrams of sections showing the early stage
+  of development of the eye of _Loligo_ when it is, like the permanent
+  eye of _Nautilus_ and of _Patella_, an open sac. (From Lankester.)
+
+    A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-like upgrowth.
+
+    B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to form a sac, the primitive
+    optic vesicle of _Loligo_.]
+
+  _Reproduction and Development._--The modification of one or a pair of
+  the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already been
+  described. In many genera the sexes differ from one another in other
+  characters also. As a rule the males are more slender or smaller than
+  the females. The maximum degree of sexual dimorphism occurs in
+  _Argonauta_ among the Octopods; in this genus the female may be
+  fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar modification of
+  the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs in the female
+  only, no shell being formed in the male. In most cases the females are
+  much more numerous than the males, but the opposite relation appears
+  to exist in those Octopoda in which the hectocotylus is autotomous,
+  for as many as four hectocotyli have been found in the pallial cavity
+  of a single female. When the hectocotylus is not detached it is
+  usually inserted into the pallial cavity of the female so as to
+  deposit the spermatophores in or near the aperture of the oviduct, but
+  in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ they are merely deposited on the ventral lobes
+  of the buccal membrane.
+
+  The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and in
+  _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each egg has a separate envelope
+  continued into a long stalk by which it is attached with several
+  others in a cluster. In _Argonauta_ the eggs are carried by the female
+  in the cavity of the shell. In _Loligo_ the eggs are very numerous,
+  and are enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united
+  at one end into a cluster.
+
+  The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which the egg
+  is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This is the
+  result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the latter
+  assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca the
+  segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal. In the egg
+  of _Loligo_, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the
+  protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation
+  is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From one
+  part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes
+  place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole
+  surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side
+  of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline
+  membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the first
+  stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast cells or
+  their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm forms
+  another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a continuous
+  sheet below the ectoderm.
+
+  The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and
+  extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm.
+  After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon
+  and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle
+  ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and
+  the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomodaeal
+  invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short proctodaeal
+  invagination.
+
+  The external changes of form are as follows:--The mantle is the middle
+  of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland, which,
+  however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other Molluscs.
+  Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form the
+  shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in _Argonauta_ and other
+  Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other
+  forms except _Spirula_ it closes completely and the shell develops
+  within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the
+  foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become
+  the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely
+  posterior to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms
+  gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it. Between
+  the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the funnel, and
+  their position shows them to be the epipodia. The otocysts and eyes
+  are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the former behind the eyes,
+  at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-centres, cerebral, visceral,
+  pedal and optic, are formed as proliferations of the ectoderm. At the
+  sides of the optic ganglia a pair of ectodermic invaginations are
+  formed, which in the adult become the white bodies of the eyes,
+  surrounding the optic ganglion. These are vestiges of lateral cerebral
+  lobes which degenerate in the course of development.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Development of _Loligo_.
+
+    1. View of the cleavage of the egg during the first formation of
+    embryonic cells.
+
+    2. Lateral view of the egg at a little later stage. a, Limit to
+    which the layer of cleavage-cells has spread over the egg; b,
+    portion of the egg (shaded) as yet uncovered by cleavage-cells; ap,
+    the auto-plasts; kp, cleavage-pole where first cells were formed.
+
+    3. Later stage, the limit (a) now extended so as to leave but little
+    of the egg-surface (b) unenclosed. The eyes (d), mouth (e) and
+    mantle-sac (u) have appeared.
+
+    4. Later stage, anterior surface, the embryo is becoming nipped off
+    from the yolk-sac (g).
+
+    5. View of an embryo similar to (3) from the cleavage-pole or
+    centro-dorsal area.
+
+    6. Later stage, posterior surface.
+
+    7. Section in a median dorso-ventral and antero-posterior plane of
+    an embryo of the same age as (4).
+
+    8. View of the anterior face of an older embryo.
+
+    9. View of the posterior face of an embryo of the same age as (8).
+
+    Letters in (3) to (9):--a, lateral fins of the mantle; b,
+    mantle-skirt; c, supra-ocular invagination to form the "white body";
+    d, the eye; e, the mouth; f^1, f^2, f^3, f^4, f^5, the five paired
+    processes of the fore-foot; g, rhythmically contractile area of the
+    yolk-sac, which is itself a hernia-like protrusion of the median
+    portion of the fore-foot; h, dotted line showing internal area
+    occupied by yolk (food-material of the egg); k, first rudiment of
+    the epipodia (paired ridges which unite to form the siphon or
+    funnel); l, sac of the radula or lingual ribbon; m, stomach; n,
+    rudiments of the gills (paired ctenidia); o, the otocysts--a pair of
+    invaginations of the surface of the epipodia; p, the optic ganglion;
+    q, the distal portion of the ridges which form the siphon, k being
+    the basal portion of the same structure; r, the vesicle-like
+    rudiment of the intestine formed independently of the parts
+    connected with the mouth, s, k, m, and without invagination; s,
+    rudiment of the salivary glands; t in (7), the shell-sac at an
+    earlier stage open (see fig. 36), now closed up; u, the open
+    shell-sac formed by an uprising ring-like growth of the
+    centro-dorsal area; w in (5), the mantle-skirt commencing to be
+    raised up around the area of the shell-sac. In (7) mes points to the
+    middle cell-layer of the embryo, ep to the outer layer, and h to the
+    deep layer of fusiform cells which separates everywhere the embryo
+    from the yolk or food-material lying within it.]
+
+  The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in the
+  mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out the
+  genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from the wall
+  of the coelom.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section through aboral end of embryo of
+  _Loligo_ showing shell-sac still open. ep, ectoderm; m, mesoderm;
+  m', endoderm; shs, shell-sac; y, yolk.]
+
+  _Phylogeny and Classification._--The order is divided into two
+  sub-orders, Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the
+  tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming than the
+  Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In the former
+  also there is generally an internal shell of considerable size, often
+  calcined, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges of a shell
+  remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were derived from the
+  Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal structures fossil
+  remains of Octopods are almost entirely unknown. _Palaeoctopus_,
+  however, occurs in the Cretaceous, while shells of _Argonauta_ do not
+  appear before the Pliocene. The Decapoda are abundantly represented in
+  the Secondary formations by the _Belemnitidae_, whose shell (fig. 19)
+  consists of a straight conical phragmacone covered posteriorly by a
+  very thick rostrum, and produced anteriorly into a thin long
+  proöstracum which is only occasionally preserved. In certain cases
+  remains of the arms provided with hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been
+  recognized. The _Belemnitidae_ appear first in the Upper Trias, attain
+  their maximum development in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued
+  into the Tertiary period, though represented in the Eocene by a few
+  allied forms.
+
+  There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda from
+  _Belemnitidae_, and many of the extinct forms may have been directly
+  ancestral. Chitinous "pens" like that of _Loligo_, however, begin to
+  appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this case as
+  in many others the parent form and the modified form existed
+  contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived. The oldest
+  shells of the _Sepia_ type are from the Eocene, and it is perhaps
+  possible that the _Sepiidae_ arose separately from the Belemnites.
+
+  It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus _Spirula_
+  have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only
+  in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of
+  _Spirula_ has lost a rostrum and a proöstracum; its characters must be
+  regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the
+  protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of
+  _Spirula_ agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position
+  is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric the
+  ventral side is the convex or external, while in _Spirula_ the shell
+  is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell is
+  not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character.
+
+  With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is
+  difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as
+  well as a pair of genital ducts in _Nautilus_ with the view that the
+  original Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of
+  coelomoducts. Considering the great specialization, however, and high
+  degree of organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the
+  earliest Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long
+  evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may have
+  been developed in the course of its own history. In the other
+  direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with only
+  two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata.
+
+  SUBORDER 1. DECAPODA.--Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile arms
+  which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular arms,
+  situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each side and
+  retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated and provided
+  with horny rings, on the tentacular arms confined usually to the
+  distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal shell, and
+  lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic cavity;
+  nidamentary glands usually present.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Right and left sections through embryos of
+  _Loligo_. (After Lankester.)
+
+    A, Same stage as fig. 35 (4).
+
+    B, Same stage as fig. 35 (8); only the left side of the sections is
+    drawn, and the food-material which occupies the space internal to
+    the membrane ym is omitted.
+
+    al, Rectum.
+
+    is, Ink-sac.
+
+    ep, Outer cell-layer.
+
+    mes, Middle cell-layer.
+
+    ym, Deep cell-layer of fusiform cells (yolk-membrane).
+
+    ng, Optic nerve-ganglion.
+
+    ot, Otocyst.
+
+    wb, The "white body" of the adult ocular capsule forming as an
+    invagination of the outer cell-layer.
+
+    mtf, Mantle-skirt.
+
+    g, Gill.
+
+    ps, Pen-sac or shell-sac, now closed.
+
+    dg, Dorsal groove.
+
+    poc. Primitive optic vesicle, now closed (see fig. 34).
+
+    l, Lens.
+
+    r, Retina.
+
+    soc, Second or anterior optic chamber still open.
+
+    if, Iridean folds.
+
+    C, The primitive invagination to form one of the otocysts, as seen
+    in fig. 35 (5) and (6).]
+
+  Tribe 1. _Oigopsida_.--A wide aperture in the cornea. Two oviducts in
+  the female. In fossil genera and _Spirula_, shell has a multilocular
+  phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular and larger than
+  the second chamber. The most ancient forms characterized by the small
+  size of the rostrum and proöstracum, and large size of the
+  phragmacone. In the living genera, except _Spirula_, the shell is a
+  chitinous gladius.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Belemnoteuthidae_. Extinct; shell with well-developed
+    phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope; siphuncular
+    necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten equal arms provided
+    with hooks. _Phragmoteuthis_, Trias. _Belemnoteuthis_, Jurassic and
+    Cretaceous. _Acanthoteuthis_, Jurassic.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Aulacoceratidae_. Extinct; phragmacone with widely
+    separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform.
+    _Aulacoceras_, Trias. _Atractites_, Trias and Jurassic.
+    _Xiphoteuthis_, Lias.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Belemnitidae_. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral
+    siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proöstracum; rostrum large
+    and cylindrical. _Belemnites_, 350 species from Jurassic and
+    Cretaceous. _Diploconus_, Upper Jurassic.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Belopteridae_. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone well
+    developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber small.
+    _Beloptera_, Eocene. _Bayanoteuthis_, Eocene. _Spirulirostra_,
+    Miocene.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Spirulidae_. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior
+    extremity of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or proöstracum;
+    shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and sipnunculated; fins
+    posterior. _Spirula_, three living species known, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Ommatostrephidae_. Shell internal and chitinous, ending
+    aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short and thick;
+    suckers with denticulate rings. _Ommatostrephes_, fins aboral,
+    simple and rhomboidal, British. _Ctenopteryx_, fins pectinate, as
+    long as the body; _Bathyteuthis_, fins terminal, rudimentary;
+    tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. _Rhynchoteuthis_, tentacular
+    arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage. _Symplectoteuthis.
+    Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis_; this is the largest of
+    Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including arms.
+
+    Fam. 7. _Thysanoteuthidae_. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows of
+    suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole length of
+    body. _Thysanoteuthis_, Mediterranean.
+
+    Fam. 8. _Onychoteuthidae_. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long;
+    suckers with hooks. _Onychoteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on
+    tentacular arms only. _Enoploteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on all
+    the arms. _Veranya_, body very short, tentacular arms atrophied in
+    the adult, Mediterranean. _Chaunoteuthis_, body elongated,
+    tentacular arms atrophied. _Pterygioteuthis. Ancistroteuthis.
+    Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidoteuthis._
+
+    Fam. 9. _Gonatidae_. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula with only
+    two lateral teeth. _Gonatus_.
+
+    Fam. 10. _Cheiroteuthidae_. Tentacular arms long, not retractile;
+    resisting apparatus well developed. _Cheiroteuthis_, suckers along
+    the whole length of the tentacular arms. _Doratopsis_, body very
+    long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very short.
+    _Histioteuthis_, six dorsal arms united by membrane, photogenous
+    organs present. _Histiopsis_, membrane of dorsal arms only half-way
+    up the arms, photogenous organs present. _Calliteuthis_, no brachial
+    membrane, photogenous organs present. _Grimalditeuthis_, two fins on
+    each bide, no tentacular arms.
+
+    Fam. 11. _Cranchiidae_. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes
+    prominent; fins small and terminal. _Cranchia_, body short,
+    purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. _Loligopsis_,
+    body elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. _Leachia_,
+    tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. _Taonius_, body
+    elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Octopodous Cephalopods.
+
+    A, _Pinnoctopus cordiformis_, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand).
+
+    B, _Tremoctopus violaceus_, Ver. (from the Mediterranean).
+
+    C, _Cranchia scabra_, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean; one of the
+    Decapoda).
+
+    D, _Cirrhoteuthis Mulleri_, Esch. (from the Greenland coast).]
+
+  Tribe 2. _Myopsida_.--No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct only
+  developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phragmacone,
+  calcified or simply chitinous.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Sepiidae_. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending the
+    whole length of the body; shell calcareous and laminated.
+    _Belosepia_, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in shell,
+    Eocene. _Sepia_, shell with a rostrum, British. _Sepiella_, shell
+    without a rostrum.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Sepiolidae_. Body short, rounded at the aboral end; fins
+    rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous, small
+    or absent. _Sepiola_, head united to mantle dorsally, British.
+    _Rossia_, head not united to mantle, British. _Stoloteuthis_ and
+    _Inioteuthis_, without shell. _Heteroteuthis. Euprymna._
+
+    Fam. 3. _Idiosepiidae_. Body elongated, with rudimentary terminal
+    fins; internal shell almost lost. _Idiosepius_, 1.5 cm. long, Indian
+    Ocean.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Sepiadariidae_. Body short; mantle united to head dorsally;
+    no shell. _Sepiadarium_, Pacific Ocean. _Sepioloidea_, Australian.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Loliginidae_. Body elongated and conical; fins extending
+    forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous, well
+    developed. _Loligo_, fins triangular, aboral, British.
+    _Sepioteuthis_, fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length.
+    _Loliolus. Loliguncula._ The following fossil genera, known only by
+    their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near
+    _Loligo_:--_Teuthopsis, Beloteuthis_ and _Geoteuthis_, Lias;
+    _Phylloteuthis_, Cretaceous; _Plesioteuthis_, Jurassic and
+    Cretaceous.
+
+  SUBORDER 2. OCTOPODA.--Only four pairs of arms, all similar and longer
+  than the body. Body short and rounded aborally. Suckers sessile. Heart
+  not contained in coelom. No nidamentary glands.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Palaeoctopus Newboldi_, the oldest Octopod
+  known. From the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)]
+
+  Tribe I. _Leioglossa_.--No radula. Arms united by a complete membrane.
+  Fins on sides of body.
+
+    Fam. _Cirrhoteuthidae_. Tentacular filaments on either side of the
+    suckers. _Cirrhoteuthis_, pallial sac prominent, fins large,
+    pelagic. _Opisthoteuthis_, body flattened, with small fins,
+    deep-sea. _Vampyroteuthis_, four fins. _Palaeoctopus_, fossil,
+    Cretaceous.
+
+  Tribe 2. _Trachyglossa._--Radula present. No fins.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Amphitretidae_. Arms united by membrane; funnel attached to
+    mantle, dividing the pallial aperture into two. _Amphitretus_,
+    pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Alloposidae_. All arms united by membrane; mantle joined
+    to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures. _Alloposus_,
+    pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Octopodidae_. Arms long and equal, without membrane;
+    hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores.
+    _Octopus_, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. _Eledone_,
+    single row of suckers on each arm. _Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus.
+    Cistopus. Japetella._
+
+    Fam. 4. _Philonexidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal in
+    size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. _Tremoctopus_, two dorsal
+    pairs of arms united by membrane. _Ocythoë_, without interbrachial
+    membrane.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Argonautidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; no interbrachial
+    membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female expanded and
+    secreting a shell; males very small, without shell. _Argonauta_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Use has been freely made above of the article by E. Ray
+  Lankester, on _Mollusca_, in the 9th edition of this Encyclopedia. For
+  the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, "Notes on Living Nautilus,"
+  _Amer. Nat._ xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey, "Contribution to the Natural
+  History of the Pearly Nautilus," A. Willey's _Zoological Results_, pt.
+  vi. (1902); Foord, _Cat. Fossil Cephalopoda in British Museum_;
+  Alpheus Hyatt, "Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comp. Zoology,"
+  _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._ (Cambridge, U.S., 1868); Jalta, "I Cefalopodi
+  viventi nel golfo di Napoli," _Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel_,
+  xxiii. (1896); Joubin, "Céphalopodes de l'atlantique nord," "Céph. de
+  la Princesse Alice," _Camp. sci. Albert I^er de Monaco_, ix. (1895),
+  xxii. (1900); Paul Pelseneer, "Mollusca," in the _Treatise on
+  Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester.     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CEPHEUS, in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda (q.v.); in
+astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by
+Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy
+catalogued 13 stars in this constellation, Tycho n, and Hevelius 51. The
+most interesting star in it is [delta] _Cephei_, a remarkable double
+star, the brighter component of which is a short period variable (5.37
+days), with a range in magnitude of 3.7 to 4.9; it is also a
+spectroscopic binary.
+
+
+
+
+CEPHISODOTUS, the name of the father and of the son of Praxiteles, both
+sculptors like himself. The former must have flourished about 400 B.C. A
+noted work of his was Peace bearing the infant Wealth, of which a copy
+exists at Munich. Peace is a Madonna-like figure of a somewhat
+conservative type; the child Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus
+also made, like his son, a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus,
+unless indeed ancient critics have made two works of one. He made
+certain statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 B.C. Of the
+work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no remains; he
+was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th century B.C.,
+especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the orator Lycurgus, and
+others (see J. Overbeck, _Antike Schriftquellen_, p. 255).
+
+
+
+
+CERAM (_Sirang_), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the Molucca
+group, lying about 3° S., and between 127° 45' and 131° E. Its length is
+a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about 50 m., and its area,
+including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m. It consists of two parts,
+Great Ceram and Little Ceram or Huvamohel, united by the isthmus of
+Taruno; and, for administrative purposes, is assigned to the residency
+of Amboyna, being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai and Amahai,
+the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and Waru or Eastern
+Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches west and east through the
+island, but near the north coast hills, rising 2300 to 2600 ft., slope
+steeply to the shore. Near the south coast, west of the Bay of
+Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains forms a colossal pyramid, with
+peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft. The isthmus connecting the two parts of
+the island is very narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490 ft. The
+chief rivers flow north and south into bays, but are navigable only for
+a few miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very heavy,
+amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the north
+coast the bays of Savai and Waru are accessible for small vessels. The
+geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive rocks and
+crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern Amboyna. In the
+eastern section the prevailing rock is crystalline chalk, similar to
+that of Buru. Several hot springs occur, and earthquakes are not
+infrequent. About 4000 persons perished in the earthquake of 1899. A
+large part of the interior is covered with dense forests, and except
+along the coast the population is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is
+without much interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of
+specimens. The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer;
+there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are
+mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the swallows
+that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are to be found in the
+various rivers; and as early as 1860 no fewer than 213 species were
+described. The most valuable timber tree is the iron-wood. Rice, maize,
+cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a variety of fruits are grown; and some
+tobacco is exported to Europe; but by far the most important production
+is the sago palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts,
+especially of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not
+only to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch have
+established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points. The
+coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay population, Buginese,
+Macassars, Balinese and other races of the archipelago. The interior is
+occupied by the aborigines, a people of Papuan stock. They are savages
+and head-hunters. The introduction of Christianity was hampered by the
+baneful influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which
+pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached themselves;
+and it has several times cost the Dutch authorities considerable efforts
+to frustrate their machinations (see _Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind._, fifth
+year). The total population is estimated at 100,000, including 12,000
+Christians and 16,000 Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at
+the north and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno. There
+was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little Ceram, as early
+as 1646.
+
+
+
+
+CERAMICS, or KERAMICS ([Greek: keramos], earthenware), a general term
+for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this purpose both
+in French (_céramique_) and in German (_Keramik_), and thus has its
+convenience in English as representing an international form of
+description for a study which owes much to the art experts of all
+nations, though "ceramic" and "ceramics" do not appear in English as
+technical terms till the middle of the 19th century.
+
+The word "pottery" (Fr. _poterie_) in its widest sense includes all
+objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though there is a
+growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner articles of this
+great class and to apply the word "porcelain" to all the finer
+varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is founded on a
+misconception; the word "porcelain" should only be applied to certain
+well-marked varieties of pottery. The very existence of pottery is
+dependent on two important natural properties of that great and
+widespread group of rocky or earthy substances known as clays, viz. the
+property of plasticity (the power of being readily kneaded or moulded
+while moist), and the property of being converted when fired into one of
+the most indestructible of ordinary things.
+
+The clays form such an important group of mineral substances that the
+reader must refer to the article CLAY for an account of their
+occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we shall only
+deal with the various clays as they have affected the problems of the
+potter throughout the ages. The clays found on or close to the earth's
+surface are so varied in composition and properties that we may see in
+them one of the vital factors that has determined the nature of the
+pottery of different countries and different peoples. They vary in
+plasticity, and in the hardness, colour and texture of the fired
+product, through an astonishingly wide range. To-day the fine, plastic,
+white-burning clays of the south of England are carried all over Europe
+and America for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of
+affairs which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to the
+18th century, the potters of every country could only use on an
+extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and the
+influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone centuries
+has never yet received the attention it deserves.[1]
+
+_General Evolution of Pottery._--The primitive races of mankind, whether
+of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as they found on
+the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and with the
+rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone slab if necessary
+and picking out any rocky fragments of appreciable size, then beating it
+with the hands, with stones or boards, or treading it with the feet to
+render it fairly uniform in consistency, proceeded to fashion it into
+such shapes as need or fancy dictated. Fired in an open fire, or in the
+most rudimentary form of potter's kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab,
+brown or red--and these from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or
+black. How many generations of men, of any race, handed on their
+painfully acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was
+passed, we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances
+were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can trace in
+the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually advancing
+skill based on increased technical knowledge. For ages tools and methods
+remained of the simplest--the fingers for shaping or building up
+vessels, a piece of mat or basket-work for giving initial support to a
+more ambitious vase,--until some original genius of the tribe finds that
+by starting to build up his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he
+can turn his support so as to bring every part in succession under his
+hand, and lo! the potter's wheel is invented--not brought down from
+heaven by one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the
+older civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian,
+and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of man
+struggling to fulfil his allotted task.
+
+Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to imagine that
+the very rudest pottery must have been the invention of Egyptian,
+Chinese or some other distinct race from which the knowledge radiated to
+all the other races of the prehistoric world. No conception could be
+more erroneous. Since the middle of the 19th century research has
+established beyond doubt that wherever clay was found men became potters
+of a sort, just as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &c., by
+sheer force of need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded
+view that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that
+the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from such a
+parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable evidence that
+pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of what we now call Greece,
+Italy, Spain and other countries, long before they were aware that any
+other peoples lived on the earth than themselves.
+
+For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by drying in
+the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried grain, &c., but
+the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the amazing fact that a
+baked clay vessel became as hard as stone. Then, too, came the knowledge
+that even in one district all the clays did not fire to the same colour,
+and colour decoration arose, in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay
+or earth (a ruddle or bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright
+red or buff colour on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay--most
+precious of all were little deposits of white clay which kept their
+purity unsullied through the fire,--and by these primitive means the
+races of the dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery
+of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all Egyptian,
+Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive foundations.
+
+We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the great
+nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each develop the
+potter's art in an individual way. The Egyptians evolve schemes of
+glowing colour--brilliant glazes fired on objects, shaped in sand held
+together with a little clay, or actually carved from rocks or stones;
+the Greeks produce their marvels of plastic form, and then, excited by
+their growing skill in metal work, turn the plastic clay into imitations
+of metal forms. These nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some
+knowledge--only a tincture, it must be confessed--over all the lands
+they hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt to
+the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters' fires that have never
+since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and over Europe its
+pottery is forgotten along with its greater achievements; yet still
+pottery-making goes on in a very simple way, to be slowly revived and
+modified once more by the communities of monks, who, in later centuries,
+replace the Roman legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe.
+Meantime Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the
+splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery was
+still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine civilization
+and the Persians played during this obscure time, we are only just
+beginning to realize; but we now know that many interesting kinds of
+decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at Alexandria, at Damascus, in
+Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on which the later Moslem potters founded
+their glorious works), at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple
+red or drab clay, covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were
+the sole evidence of the potter's skill. What the Arab conquests
+destroyed, and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess;
+but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan conquests there
+came a time when the potter's art of the Occident reached its highest
+expression, and when methods and knowledge hitherto confined to Egypt,
+Syria and Persia were spread from Spain and the south of France to
+India--even, it may be, into China.
+
+Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese--the greatest race of potters
+the world has ever seen--were quietly gathering strength, until from
+their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged the marvellous, white
+translucent porcelain, one of the wonders of the medieval world.
+
+With the dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of affairs was
+practically this:--In European countries proper we find rudely fashioned
+and decorated wares in which we can trace the slow development of a
+native craft from the superposition of Roman methods on the primitive
+work of the peoples. The vessels were mostly intended for use and not
+for show; were clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at
+all then only with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no
+case above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or
+tile-maker. The finest expression of this native style is to be found in
+the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England, where all the
+colours are due to the clays and there is no approach to painting. In
+the Moslem countries--including the greater part of Spain and Sicily,
+Egypt and the nearer East, probably even to the very centre of
+Asia--pottery was being made either of whitish clay and sand, or of a
+light reddish clay coated with a white facing of fine clay or of
+tin-enamel, on which splendid decorative patterns in vivid pigments or
+brilliant iridescent lustres were painted.
+
+As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic pottery
+of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of Europeans as
+an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may well believe the
+traditional accounts that Saracen potters were brought into Italy,
+France and Burgundy to introduce the practice of their art, while
+Italian potters certainly penetrated into the workshops of eastern Spain
+and elsewhere, and gathered new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the
+south of France probably, efforts were continuously in progress to
+improve the native wares by coating the vessels with a white "slip" and
+drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and purplish
+black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war and peace, also
+introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion of the famous
+Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the 14th century a knowledge
+of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy and paved the way to the glorious
+painted majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. From Italy and Spain,
+France and Holland, Germany, and finally, though much later, England
+learnt this art, and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern
+Europe, so largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the
+direct offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance.[2]
+
+During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also began to find
+its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its substance and its
+marvellous translucence excited the attention of the Italian majolists
+and alchemists. The first European imitation of this famous oriental
+porcelain of which we have indubitable record was made at Florence
+(1575-1585) by alchemists or potters working under the patronage, and,
+it is said, with the active collaboration of Francesco de' Medici. This
+Florentine porcelain was the first of those distinctively European
+wares, made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connecting
+link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered either as
+pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered opaque by shaping and
+firing a mixture containing a large percentage of glass with a very
+little clay. After the cessation of the Florentine experiments we know
+of no European porcelain for nearly a century, though the importation of
+Chinese porcelain had largely increased owing to the activity of the
+various "India" companies. The next European porcelain, made like the
+Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St Cloud
+(1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy porcelain was made
+in France and England largely, and in other countries experimentally.
+German experimenters worked in another direction, and the first
+porcelain made in Europe from materials similar to the Chinese was
+produced at Meissen by Böttger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not
+only was there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese
+porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain manufacture in
+Europe; and in every country factories were established, generally under
+royal or princely patronage, for the manufacture of artificial porcelain
+like the French, or genuine porcelain like the German. The English made
+a departure in the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either,
+through adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this
+English bone-porcelain--a well-marked species--is now largely made in
+America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in England.
+
+By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant on the
+manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its abandonment,
+and a porcelain made from natural materials like the Chinese has since
+been generally made on the continent of Europe.
+
+The older tin-enamelled wares--derived from the Hispano-Moresque and the
+Italian majolica--so largely made in France, Holland, Germany and
+elsewhere during the 17th and 18th centuries, met with a fate analogous
+to that of the French porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a
+brittle substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the
+middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a
+serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior durability
+and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience gradually
+disappeared between the upper millstone of European porcelain and the
+nether millstone of English earthenware.
+
+The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the output of
+porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the United States.
+Mechanical methods were largely called in to supplement or replace what
+had hitherto remained almost pure handicraft. The English methods of
+preparing and mixing the materials of the body and glaze, and the
+English device of replacing painted decoration by machine printing, to a
+large extent carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical
+aspects of the work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its
+artistic spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely
+affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the painting,
+gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the first half of
+the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and hackneyed. During the
+latter half of the 19th century another influence was fortunately at
+work. Side by side with the increasing mechanical perfection of the
+great bulk of modern pottery there grew up a school of innovators and
+experimentalists, who revived many of the older decorative methods that
+had fallen into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in
+certain directions even beyond, the achievements of the past. The 20th
+century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe and
+America. In every country men were striving once again to bring back to
+their world-old craft something of artistic taste and skill.
+
+  _Technical Methods._--All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or of
+  modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay, dug
+  from the earth's surface, was or is prepared by beating and kneading
+  with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood; stones and
+  hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well tempered with
+  water, was used without any addition. From this clay, vessels were
+  shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump or ball, by building up
+  piece by piece and smoothing down one layer upon another or by
+  squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object or prepared mould or
+  form. The potter's wheel, though very ancient, was a comparatively
+  late invention, arrived at independently by many races of men. In its
+  simplest form it was a heavy disk pivoted on a central point to be set
+  going by the hand, as the workman squatted on the ground; and it may
+  be seen to-day in India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive
+  simplicity (see fig. 1). This form of potter's wheel was the only one
+  known until about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently,
+  the improvement was introduced of lengthening the spindle which
+  carries the throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much
+  larger disk which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have
+  both hands free for the manipulation of the clay (fig. 2). No further
+  advance seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the
+  wheel was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a
+  steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century,
+  this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Potter moulding a vessel on the wheel (from a
+  painting in a tomb at Thebes about 1800 B.C.). Compare the wheel on
+  the left in fig. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Potter's wheel of the time of the Ptolemies,
+  moved by the foot (from a wall-relief at Philae). Compare fig. 5, the
+  wheel on the right.]
+
+  A prevalent misconception with regard to the potter's wheel needs
+  correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is impossible to
+  carry the work to completion on the wheel at one operation as is
+  generally imagined. All that the potter can do while the clay is soft
+  enough to "throw" on the wheel is to get a rough shape of even
+  thickness. This operation completed, the piece is removed from the
+  wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about leather-hard, it may be
+  re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old practice), or placed in a
+  horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and turned down to the exact
+  shape and polished to an even, smooth surface. The Greek vase-makers
+  were already adepts in what is often reckoned a modern, detestable
+  practice. Many Greek vases have obviously been "thrown" in separate
+  sections, and when these had contracted and hardened sufficiently they
+  were luted together with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed
+  and turned down on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of
+  mechanical finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the
+  Chinese; many of their forms have been made in two or three portions,
+  subsequently joined together and finished on the outside as one piece.
+  Indeed it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered for
+  themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held up to
+  opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age. Always it
+  should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by "pressing"
+  cakes of clay into moulds is much older than the potter's wheel, and
+  has always been the method of making shapes other than those in the
+  round. The modern method of "casting" pottery by pouring slip, a fluid
+  mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds seems to have
+  originated in England about the middle of the 18th century; and this
+  too is a genuine potter's method which does not merit the disapproval
+  with which it has been generally regarded by writers on the potter's
+  art.
+
+  In all ages the work of the "thrower" or "presser" has been largely
+  supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape, and applies to it
+  handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Early Greek pottery-kiln, about 700-600 B.C.
+  (from a painted votive tablet found at Corinth, now in the Louvre).
+  The section shows the probable construction of the kiln.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is
+  for the insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated
+  floor, made of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing,--it was
+  probably a dome.]
+
+  _Firing._--The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a
+  specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be
+  referred here to the technological works mentioned in the bibliography
+  at the end of this article. It is, however, necessary that we should
+  briefly describe the earlier forms of potters' kilns used by the
+  nations whose pottery counts among the treasures of the collector and
+  the antiquary. Here again we now know that the primitive types of kiln
+  used by the potters of ancient Egypt or Greece have not vanished from
+  the earth; it is only in the civilized countries of the modern world
+  that they have been replaced by improved and perfected devices. The
+  potters of the North-West Provinces of India use to-day a kiln
+  practically identical with that depicted in severest silhouette on the
+  rock-tombs of Thebes; and the skilful Japanese remain content with a
+  kiln very similar to the one shown in fig. 3. This Greek type of kiln
+  was improved and enlarged by the Romans, and its use seems to have
+  been introduced wherever pottery was made under their sway, for
+  remains of Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4).
+  With the end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their
+  technical methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter
+  of the period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his
+  methods afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of
+  medieval potter's kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an
+  Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria
+  and Albert Museum[3] (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal
+  reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-fired pottery of
+  Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &c.), as well as for Chinese porcelain and
+  the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery as a
+  factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were introduced,
+  and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries is
+  practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section, from
+  10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore, of
+  containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would have formed
+  the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every device that can be
+  thought of for the better utilization of heat and its even
+  distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experimented with;
+  and, though the results have been most successful from the point of
+  view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired ovens remain very
+  wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of available heat being
+  relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-fired kilns and ovens
+  are now being used or experimented with in every country, and their
+  perfection, which cannot be far distant, will improve the most vital
+  of the potter's processes both in certainty and economy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two forms of Italian potter's wheels, about
+  1540.]
+
+  _Glazes._--We are never likely to known when glaze (i.e. a coating of
+  fired glass) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of
+  knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed
+  objects we possess are those of ancient Egypt,[4] but the practice may
+  have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of the
+  elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes were of
+  the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass before they
+  can be applied to pottery.
+
+  Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after it was
+  fired, in order to get a glossy surface; and in other cases the
+  surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with waxy or
+  resinous substances which were often coloured. It is possible that the
+  black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such a method, and though
+  that point is not settled, we have many types of primitive pottery,
+  both modern and ancient, which are coated in this way. Such a coating
+  is only a substitute for glaze in the work of peoples who do not know
+  or have not mastered the technical secrets of true glazes. We can only
+  consider as glazes those definite superficial layers of molten
+  material which have been fired on the clay substance. Glazes are as
+  varied as the various kinds of pottery, and it must never be forgotten
+  that each kind of pottery is at its best with its appropriate glaze.
+  The earliest known glazes (Egyptian and Assyrian) were silicates of
+  soda and lime containing very little alumina and no lead. Such glazes
+  are very uncertain in use, and can only be applied to pottery
+  unusually rich in silica (i.e. deficient in clay). Consequently these
+  alkaline glazes cannot be used on ordinary clay wares, and when they
+  have been used successfully, the clay has always been coated with a
+  surface layer of highly siliceous substance (e.g. the so-called
+  Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian pottery of the early middle
+  ages). The fact that glazes containing lead-oxide would adhere to
+  ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes would not was discovered at a
+  very early period; for lead glazes were extensively used in Egypt and
+  the nearer East in Ptolemaic times, and it is significant that, though
+  the Romans made singularly little use of glazes of any kind, the
+  pottery that succeeded theirs, either in western Europe or in the
+  Byzantine empire, was generally covered with glazes rich in lead.
+  Throughout Europe, and over the greater part of the world, leaded
+  glazes have been continuously used and improved for all ordinary
+  pottery, and it is only with certain special hard-fired types of ware
+  that they have yet been successfully replaced. Chinese porcelain and
+  all the European porcelains made by analogous methods are fired at so
+  high a temperature that a glaze by felspar softened by lime and silica
+  is found most suitable for them, and the hard-fired stonewares, rich
+  in silica, are often glazed with a salt glaze, or a melted earth rich
+  in oxide of iron.
+
+  Every kind of potter's clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &c.,
+  from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze, and
+  from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could produce
+  in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him by the
+  clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay which cannot
+  be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have always proved
+  the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large quantities of
+  sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of common salt; and
+  mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European porcelain, can be
+  glazed by melting felspathic materials upon them. Naturally those
+  species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the most
+  durable--the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable than lead
+  glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes.
+
+  The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (e.g.
+  Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &c.), the oldest and most uncertain; (2)
+  lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all ordinary
+  purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired porcelains,
+  generally unsuited to any other material; (4) salt glaze, produced by
+  vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares. Many
+  intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs, but these
+  remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this important
+  subject must be sought in the technical works.
+
+  _Colours._--The primitive potters of ancient and modern times have all
+  striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest, and
+  therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in natural
+  earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition that they
+  fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream, buff, red,
+  brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One clay daubed or
+  painted upon another formed the primitive palette of the potter,
+  especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze was used these
+  natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths, other than
+  clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were gradually
+  discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some of the
+  very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or iron
+  (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians and
+  Assyrians). Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials, but
+  the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian, Syrian
+  and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time the art of
+  glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been thoroughly
+  learnt. Vases, tiles, &c., shaped in good plastic clay, were covered
+  with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive glazes of this
+  type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted colours then
+  known. With this rudimentary technique the potters of the countries
+  south and east of the Mediterranean produced, between the 9th and 16th
+  centuries of our era, a type of pottery that remains ideal from the
+  point of view of colour: for, with nothing more than the greens given
+  by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise of pure copper, the deep
+  yet vivid blue of cobalt, the beautiful uncertain purple of manganese,
+  and in certain districts the rich red of Armenian bole, they achieved
+  colour schemes that have never been surpassed in their brilliant yet
+  harmonious richness.
+
+  When the coating of white siliceous clay was replaced by an opaque
+  tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &c., a necessary
+  change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the copper-greens
+  and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground; the fine manganese
+  purple turned to brown or black and the rich iron-reds to filthy
+  shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the Spanish-Arab potters paid
+  more attention to their lustre decoration, for that was the natural
+  thing to do. How strong and fine a palette could be evolved for use on
+  a tin-enamel ground was shown by the Italian majolists of the 15th and
+  16th centuries; and when the later developments of tin-enamelled
+  pottery took place in France, Holland, Germany, &c., their colour
+  schemes are only echoes of Italian majolica crossed with Chinese
+  porcelain. Delft, Nevers, Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with
+  its individuality; Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us
+  that they too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always
+  go back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian
+  and Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them.
+
+  The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are
+  known as "under glaze" colours, because they were painted on the
+  pottery before the glaze was fired.
+
+  The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been white,
+  but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of coloured
+  glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along with the
+  painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and Persian potters.
+  Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the only artistic
+  productions of the medieval European potters' kilns, and their use
+  everywhere preceded the introduction of painted pottery. The most
+  extensive application of coloured glazes was, however, that made by
+  the Chinese, who developed this type of colour decoration before they
+  used painted patterns in underglaze colour. The earliest Chinese
+  porcelains, and the hard-fired stonewares out of which their porcelain
+  arose, were decorated in this way, and the beauty of many of the early
+  Sung coloured glazes has never been surpassed.
+
+  With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese porcelain
+  very few underglaze colours could be used; and the prevalence of blue
+  and white among the early specimens of Chinese porcelains is due to
+  the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance known to the
+  potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the high temperature
+  needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the Chinese were driven to
+  invent the method of painting in coloured fusible glasses on the
+  already fired glaze. They adopted for this purpose the coloured
+  enamels used on metal; hence the common term "enamel decoration,"
+  which is so generally applied to painting in those colours which are
+  attached to the already fired glaze by refiring at a lower
+  temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured Chinese
+  porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly followed by our
+  European potters, and a new palette of colours and fresh styles of
+  decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-glaze colours, being
+  executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass painting, and it
+  generally offers a striking contrast both in technique and
+  colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the glaze. In
+  the former the work can be highly finished and the most mechanical
+  execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich nor so
+  brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same softness as
+  is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour when the glaze
+  is melted over it.
+
+  It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method of
+  pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at which
+  the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally more
+  limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in their turn
+  than the on-glaze colours.
+
+  When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery took on
+  its modern form, of earthenware made after the English fashion, and
+  porcelain like the French and German, the lead or felspathic glazes
+  used brought about another revolution in the potter's palette. The
+  growing ideal of mechanical perfection discounted the freedom of the
+  earlier brushwork, and printed patterns, or painting that might almost
+  have been printed, removed the mind still farther from the richness of
+  painted faience or majolica. It is useless to look for the glorious
+  colour of Persian faience, Italian majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in
+  modern wares produced by manufacturing processes where mechanical
+  perfection is demanded to a degree undreamt of before the 19th
+  century. The finest modern pottery colour is only to be sought in the
+  work of those enthusiasts and experimenters who are striving to
+  produce work as rich and free as the best of past times.
+
+  _Metals_.--The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver, have,
+  since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as
+  adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white
+  earthen-wares and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the
+  gold was applied with a kind of japanner's size and was not fired to
+  the glaze, but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally
+  been fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing
+  the metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass.
+  There can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia,
+  Syria and Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their
+  decorative effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been.
+  The early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to
+  have been "sized" or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable that
+  the use of "fired" gold was taught to the Oriental by the European in
+  the 18th century. To-day "liquid" gold is exported to China and Japan
+  from Europe for the use of the potter.
+
+
+PRIMITIVE POTTERY
+
+We can group together that great and widely-spread class of vessels made
+by the primitive races of mankind, whether before the dawn of
+civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting to note that
+many modern races still make pottery by the same rude method as the
+Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with striking similarity of
+result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods and practices of the
+primitive potters of our own time furnishes the best possible guide to
+the methods of fabrication and ornamentation of the ancient specimens
+that are dug up from barrows, grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only
+natural that the materials and methods of such pottery are always of the
+simplest. The clay is used with very little preparation, and it is no
+unusual thing to find bits of stone, gravel, &c., embedded in the paste
+of such wares, though at a later stage of development they would have
+been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of potters
+practised the art for long without discovering that their vessels were
+not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in firing, if fine
+sand or pounded "potsherds" were mixed with the clay; and when we are
+dealing with the work of races that have passed beyond the Stone Age and
+have learned the use of metals we find this custom universal.
+
+There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common to almost
+every primitive race:--
+
+  1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay.
+
+  2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or
+  matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and smoothing
+  down successive layers of clay.
+
+  3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and these
+  are coiled round and round upon each other and smoothed down with the
+  hands and with simple tools of bone, wood or metal.
+
+The use of the potter's wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable how
+beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery is. The
+primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders Petrie in Egypt,
+and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric date from Spain, are
+remarkable instances of this. Some primitive races leave their pottery
+without decoration, especially when they have a fine red-burning clay to
+work in, but, generally speaking, primitive pottery of every race and
+time is elaborately decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such
+decorations consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions
+arranged in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. All
+this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it is
+fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so obviously
+been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the neck or bowl of a
+vase; though the thong may have been used in the first instance merely
+to serve as a support while the vessel was dried. At a later stage the
+ornament is generally obtained by scratching with a tool, by pressing
+the end of a hollow stick into the clay to form rows of circles, by
+using a stick cut at the end into the shape of a half-moon, or other
+equally simple decorative device. In certain tropical countries this
+rudimentary pottery becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when
+merely dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries it
+must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an open
+fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into the
+ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imperfect the
+firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke. In those
+countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired the pieces
+naturally become buff, drab, brown or red.
+
+The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-mounds of
+England and the northern countries generally have received a number of
+fanciful names for which there is very little warrant except in the case
+of the cinerary urns. These are generally the largest vessels of this
+class, and as they were used to contain burnt bones there seems
+sufficient warrant for the supposition that they were made for this and
+for no other purpose.
+
+Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved during
+recent years by the labours of a number of American students connected
+with the United States Geological Survey, who have carefully recorded
+the present-day practices of those native tribes who make and use
+pottery in various parts of North America and Mexico; while, in the same
+way, Peruvian, Brazilian and other South American pottery has been as
+closely investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no
+primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze, though much
+of it has been highly polished after firing, and in some cases a varnish
+has been applied which may perhaps be regarded as the earliest kind of
+"glazing" ever applied to pottery vessels.
+
+  LITERATURE.--On primitive pottery the following works may be specially
+  mentioned. W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_ (1877); Boyd-Dawkins,
+  _Early Man in Britain_ (1880); Mortimer, _Forty Years' Researches in
+  British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire_ (1905); Abercromby,
+  "The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in Britain," _J. Anth. Inst._ vol.
+  xxxii. (1902), 373; _Guide to Antiquities of the Bronze Age_ (British
+  Museum, 1904); Koenen, _Gefässkunde der vorrömischen, römischen und
+  fränkischen Zeit in den Rheinländern_ (1895); Wosinsky, _Der
+  inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-zeit_ (1904); Walters,
+  _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek and Roman) (1905); Holmes,
+  _Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States_ (Bureau of
+  Ethnology, Washington, 1899); also Holmes and Cushing in _Report_ of
+  Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (1880); Von
+  der Steinen, _Natur-Völkerei Central Brasiliens_ (1894); Hartman,
+  _Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica_ (1905); Strebel, on "Mexican
+  Pottery" in _Publications_ of Museum für Völkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6,
+  1899); Werner, _British Central Africa_ (1907); Füllborn, _Deutsche
+  Ost-Afrika_, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer, "Kabyle Pottery," _Journ. Anth.
+  Inst._ vol. xxxii. p. 245, and "Upper Egypt," _ibid_. xxxv. p. 20;
+  Myres, "Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia Minor," _Journ. Anth. Inst._
+  xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, _Notes analytiques sur les
+  collections ethnographiques du Congo_, tome ii. (1907); Cupart,
+  _Debuts de l'art de l'ancienne Égypte_ (1903).     (W. B.*)
+
+
+EGYPT AND WESTERN ASIA
+
+_Egyptian Pottery_.--Egypt affords us the most striking instance of the
+development of the potter's art. As in other countries pottery was made
+even in Neolithic times, for the Nile mud forms a fine plastic clay and
+sand is of course abundant. With these materials various kinds of
+pottery, often extremely well made and of good form, have been
+continuously produced for common domestic requirements, but such pottery
+was never glazed.
+
+The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a special
+preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all, it contained so
+little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty the Egyptians had learnt to
+shape little objects in this tender material and cover them with their
+wonderful turquoise glazes. We have therefore to study the development
+of two independent things: (1) the ordinary pottery of common clay left
+without glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be
+special to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the
+technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the nearer
+East.
+
+We probably do not possess any specimens of the most primitive Neolithic
+pottery; the oldest type known to us, the black and red ware of Ballas
+and Nagada (1), dates from the later Neolithic age, when copper was just
+beginning to be used. This ware is very hard and compact and the face is
+highly burnished. The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red
+clay; the black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of
+air in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie suggests,
+by placing the pot's mouth down in the kiln, and leaving the ashes over
+the part which was to be burnt black. Both red and black colour go right
+through in every case. All-red and all-black vases are occasionally
+found, the red with geometrical decorations in white colour, and the
+black with incised decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at
+the same time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it
+is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the wheel.
+Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete in 1905 during
+the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hierapetra. The general
+appearance of the Cretan pottery is much the same as that of the
+Egyptian, and the duller red and black decoration (which here has a
+spotted or mottled appearance) was probably obtained in the same way,
+the black spots being due to the action of separate fragments of the
+baking material. This discovery is important in view of the probable
+early connexion of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres.
+
+A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and harder make,
+and often with a brighter surface, was introduced into Egypt at a later
+date (XIIth Dynasty), probably by Nubian tribes who were descended from
+relatives of the Neolithic Egyptians. From their characteristic graves
+these people are called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known
+by the same name.
+
+Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares, but by
+no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of primeval
+Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface decorations in
+red. These decorations are varied in character, including ships, birds
+and human figures; wavy lines and geometrical designs commonly occur.
+The whole _facies_ of this ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been
+compared with the decorated "Kabyle pottery" of modern times. To call
+the people who made this ware "Libyans" on the strength of this
+resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six thousand
+years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric Egyptians were not
+Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the peculiar decoration of their
+pottery, which seems so strangely barbaric, is in reality merely the
+most ancient handiwork of the Egyptian painter, and marks the first
+stage in the development of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (2).
+Other types of pottery (3), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also
+in use at this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase
+with a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed
+out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This cylindrical
+type outlived the red and black and the red and buff decorated styles
+(which are purely Neolithic and predynastic) and continued in use in the
+early dynastic period, well into the Copper age. The other unglazed
+pottery of the first three dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty
+of form or colour, and is indeed of the roughest description (4), but
+under the IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and
+vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (4). This fine ware continued in
+use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though the forms of course
+differed from age to age. Under the XIIth Dynasty, and during the Middle
+Kingdom generally, either this or a coarser unpolished red ware was in
+use. The forms of this period are very characteristic (5); the vases are
+usually footless, and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape--some
+small ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign "Pan-Grave"
+black and red pottery was also in use (see above).
+
+The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated
+with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly
+early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the
+Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.). Under the XIIth Dynasty pottery made of this
+characteristic Egyptian faience seems to have come into general use, and
+it continued in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor
+of the glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (6). The
+oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape of beads,
+plaques, &c.--rarely in the form of pottery vessels. The colour is
+usually a light blue, which may turn either white or green; but beads of
+the grey-black manganese colour are found, and on the light blue vases
+of King Aha (who is probably one of the historical originals of the
+legendary "Mena" or Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have
+the king's name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the
+blue-white glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid.
+This style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue
+continued till the end of the "New Empire" shortly before the XXVIth
+(Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the decoration
+before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light blue glaze was used
+well into the time of the XIIth Dynasty (British Museum, No. 36,346),
+but was then displaced by a new tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on
+which the black decoration shows up in sharper contrast than before.
+This blue, and a somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the
+time for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of
+scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite --not
+faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of glazed stone
+begins about this period, and not only steatite or schist was employed
+(on account of its softness), but a remarkably brilliant effect was
+obtained by glazing hard shining white quartzite with the wonderfully
+delicate XIIth Dynasty blue. A fragment of a statuette plinth of this
+beautiful material was obtained during the excavation of the XIth
+Dynasty temple at Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948).
+Vessels of diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the
+blue glaze. A good specimen of the finest XIIth Dynasty blue-glazed
+faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 B.C.) in the Cairo
+Museum (No. 3666) (6). The blue-glazed hippopotami of this period, with
+the reeds and water-plants in purplish black upon their bodies to
+indicate their habitat, are well known. Fine specimens of these are in
+the collection of the Rev. Wm. MacGregor at Tamworth (8).
+
+The blue glaze of the XIIth Dynasty deepened in colour under the XIIIth,
+to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the manganese black) of
+fish and lotus plants belong (8) (British Museum, Nos. 4790, &c.). The
+finest specimens of XVIIIth Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir
+el-Bahri, in the neighbourhood of which place there may have been a
+factory for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &c., of this
+fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor (good
+collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this dynasty
+polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and dark blue, violet,
+purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other tints were used, not
+only for smaller objects of faience, such as rings, scarabs, kohl-pots,
+&c., but also for vases, e.g. No. 3965 of the Cairo Museum (Amenophis
+III. wine-bottle), the ground colour of which is white with a decoration
+of flower wreaths in blue, yellow and red, with an inscription in
+delicate blue (6). This polychrome faience was also now used for the
+_ushabti_ figures which were placed in the tombs; hitherto they had been
+made exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery;
+henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the polychrome
+glazes (e.g. British Museum, Nos. 34,180, 34,185) were soon abandoned,
+and the plain blue and black of the ordinary vases was adopted. The
+_ushabtis_ of King Seti I. (British Museum, No. 22,818, &c.) (9) are
+fine specimens of this type. Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and
+became weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used for
+their _ushabtis_ a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary colour
+which at once distinguishes the faience of this period from that of all
+others (9). The same brilliant glaze was used for vases of various kinds
+as well. The polychrome ware had developed into a style of inlaying with
+glazed faience, which we see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty
+(1400 B.C.) (10), and at Tel el-Yah[=u]d[=i]ya under the XXth (1200
+B.C.), used for wall decoration. After this time polychrome ceramic
+decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained in Asia
+(see below).
+
+The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by such a
+remarkable object as the gigantic _Uas_-sceptre of blue glazed faience,
+now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (12, 8). This is the largest known
+piece of Egyptian glazed faience; really large vases of faience are not
+found. Faience vases were very commonly built up or carved out of a ball
+of the dried material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous
+substance --it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have
+been fashioned on the wheel. Sometimes even small vases were made of
+separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (6). Under the
+XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of deities or animals in
+relief became common; these were made in moulds (6). In the matter of
+form the faience pottery of the New Empire follows the lead of the new
+earthenware types. Forms had altered considerably from those of the
+XIIth Dynasty. In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we
+now find egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without
+handles, great _amphorae_ with almost pointed bases, sometimes with the
+handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-tipped, squat jugs;
+little handleless vases somewhat resembling the modern _kulla_, "_mit
+mehrfach eingezogenem Bauch_" (V.B.), and the common flat flask-like
+type known as the "pilgrim bottle" (6, 13, 14, 15).
+
+Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time, imported
+vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean _Bugelkannen_ and
+Cypriote black "base ring" jugs, have been found in the tombs and
+deposits of this age (14). Imitations of foreign forms, especially the
+_Bugelkannen_, are found[5] chiefly in faience (British Museum, 22,731,
+is an imitation of a Minoan jug from Crete). The faience forms of the
+XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties include also the _kulla_ shape, the pilgrim
+bottle, miniature _amphorae_, &c. (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous forms
+not found in common pottery, imitating metal and stone vases, e.g. the
+blue-green ribbed pots of the XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze
+originals, and the _alabastron_ of the XVIIIth; these last go back to
+the XIIth Dynasty. Very pretty cups in the shape of lotus flowers (see
+fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are of the XIXth Dynasty,
+and mostly came from Tuna (6, 8).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Egyptian pottery made of fine blue paste.]
+
+The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth Dynasty during
+the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty has already been
+mentioned. Characteristic of the latter period of this ware are long
+jugs with attenuated body and single handle, which, because they have
+been found with Mycenaean objects in Cyprus, have been considered to be
+of foreign, probably of Syrian origin. They may, however, be Egyptian.
+Vases of the same ware in the shape of men and animals are not uncommon
+(17). Another ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face,
+sometimes becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in this
+ware the pilgrim bottles are common. An unpolished, brittle, and thin
+yellow ware was also used largely for wine-vases. The rougher, commoner
+red and brown ware at this period became decorated with designs, chiefly
+of lily wreaths, &c., in paint of various colours (13). This new
+development hid the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply
+obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of the
+period (see fig. 8). This painted pottery continued in use until about
+the time of the XXIInd Dynasty. From this time onwards, till the
+Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a red ware, usually covered
+with a white slip. Under the XXVIth Dynasty a finer homogeneous white
+ware occurs, usually for vases with a rude representation of the face of
+the god Bes on their bodies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.]
+
+The XXVIth Dynasty marks a new period of development in the history of
+Egyptian faience. The old deep blue colour had gradually deteriorated
+into an ugly green (British Museum, No. 8962), which was replaced by the
+Saite potters with a new light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in
+accordance with the archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light
+blue of the earliest Dynasties. The glaze itself is very thin and
+"sugary" in texture. The old decoration of the blue with designs and
+inscriptions in manganese-black is abandoned; on the _ushabtis_ the
+inscriptions are now incised. Side by side with this light blue glaze
+was used an unglazed faience, a sort of composition paste with the
+colour going right through.[6] It has more variety of colour than the
+glazed faience, light green and a dark indigo blue being found as well
+as the Saite light blue. Sometimes it is of a very soft, almost chalky
+consistency. It was used for vases, but more generally for small figures
+and scarabs (6). The commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim
+bottle, now made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with
+inscriptions on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the
+possessor. These flasks appear to have been common New Year's gifts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Egyptian pottery with painted ornament and sham
+marbling.]
+
+Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further new development
+of glaze began, of a more radical character than ever before. The colour
+deepened, and the glaze itself became much more glassy, and was thickly
+laid on. The new glaze was partly translucent, and differed very greatly
+from the old opaque glaze. It first appeared on _ushabtis_ at the end of
+the Saite period. A curious effect was obtained by glazing the
+head-dress, the inscription &c., of the _ushabtis_ in dark blue, and
+then covering the whole with translucent light blue glaze. This method
+was regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman periods,
+when the new style of glaze came into general use. A yellowish green
+effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body of the vases in yellow
+and covering this with the translucent blue glaze. This method was used
+to touch up the salient portions of the designs in relief, imitated
+from foreign originals, a style which now became usual on vases. The
+usual decoration is mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally
+predominating. A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue,
+blue-green, grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found. The glaze is
+very thickly laid on, and is often "crazed" (6, 8). A remarkable
+instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the god Bes in
+the British Museum (No. 35,028). A hard, light blue, opaque glaze like
+that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally, but rarely, met with in the
+case of vases (British Museum, Nos. 37,407, 37,408).
+
+We know something of the common wares in use during this period from the
+study of the _ostraka_, fragments of pottery on which dated
+tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written. From the _ostraka_ we
+see that during the Ptolemaic period the commonest pottery was made of
+red ware covered with white slip, which has already been mentioned. At
+the beginning of the Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar
+light pink ware with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark
+brown ware. About the 3rd century A.D. horizontally ribbed or fluted
+pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use. These were
+often large-sized _amphorae_, with very attenuated necks and long
+handles (see fig. 9). During the Byzantine (Coptic) period most of the
+pottery in use was ribbed, and usually pitched inside to hold water, as
+the ware was loose in texture and porous.
+
+During the Coptic period, a lighter ware was also in use, decorated with
+designs of various kinds in white, brown or red paint on the dull red or
+buff body. In Nubia a peculiar development of this ware is
+characteristic of the later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712).
+
+A polished red ware of Roman origin (imitation Arretine or "Samian") was
+commonly used as well.
+
+The heavily glazed blue faience continued in use until replaced in the
+early Arab period by the well-known yellow and brown lead-glazed
+pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds of Fostat (Old
+Cairo).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Egyptian pottery under the Ptolemies, showing
+Greek influence in the shapes.]
+
+_Western Asia.--Palestine_. The most ancient Palestinian pottery is the
+rough "Amorite" ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi) which sometimes has wavy
+handles like the prehistoric Egyptian (18). Later we find actual
+Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (19), an interesting testimony to the
+truth of the legend which brings the Philistines from Crete; the fourth
+and fifth cities of Lachish (1200-1000 B.C.) show us the first ordinary
+Phoenician or Israelite pottery--buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter
+with the handles sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong
+Egyptian influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found as
+in Egypt.
+
+The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery is the
+Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite period, of which
+the characteristics are well known. Some of this may actually have been
+made in Egypt.
+
+The course of the potter's art in Mesopotamia and Persia appears to have
+run on lines of development parallel with the art in Egypt, for the
+country between the Tigris and the Euphrates is rich in good clays, and,
+wherever the invention of glass arose, its application to pottery
+decoration was certainly developed at an early period in Egypt and in
+Mesopotamia.
+
+  Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed out,
+  though they have nothing to do with vase-making.
+
+  1. The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets,
+  cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the
+  literature of the time. The cylinders and prisms were thrown on the
+  potter's wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form was then
+  sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform
+  inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried
+  and fired.
+
+  2. The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs. While the
+  Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application of
+  their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished
+  objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture
+  decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork. The bricks were of very
+  open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects were
+  obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which formed a kind
+  of _cloison_ or boundary, the shallow cells between being filled in
+  with coloured clays--yellow, red or white--or with coloured glazes of
+  turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown. These glazes are
+  obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely prepared and
+  are always full of bubbles and consequently more or less opaque. Yet
+  the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid colour effect,
+  strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to a very high rank
+  among all the world's work in clay and glaze. The "Frieze of the
+  Archers" now in the Louvre may be mentioned as one of the finest
+  productions of its kind, and the Louvre and British Museum possess the
+  finest collections of this early architectural use of glazed and
+  coloured clay. (See also MURAL DECORATION )
+
+Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-formed vases
+made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were made. Small figures of
+deities made of the same clay are often found. It is practically the
+same terra-cotta as that of the inscribed tablets. None of the forms are
+particularly distinctive (see fig. 10). The excavations of the French in
+Persia have brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely
+interesting painted ware, which belongs to a very early period. The
+decoration is usually geometrical. The technique seems to be analogous
+to the Mycenaean-Greek (_Firnismalerei_), and the whole effect is very
+like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon pottery. The ware is
+buff in colour and fine in texture, with a polished surface. The
+decoration is sometimes in polychrome, but usually in the grey-brown
+iron-glaze (?) alone. This pottery degenerates later and finally
+disappears (20).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Assyrian biscuit pottery.]
+
+During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century B.C.) we find a
+polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown) obviously of
+Egyptian origin. It was used, not for vases, but architectonically for
+friezes, ornamental bosses, &c. Its origin may be found in Egypt under
+the XVIIIth Dynasty, when Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and
+Babylonia had regular diplomatic relations with Egypt In Asia this
+polychrome decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had
+ceased to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick
+decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay
+decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik. In the
+Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see fig. 11) which are
+probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imitations of Egyptian
+faience.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.]
+
+Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed pottery
+of which the slipper-shaped coffins, of the time were made (British
+Museum, Nos. 1645-1647) (21). This glaze possibly contains a small
+amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the contemporary
+translucent blue glaze of Egypt. The Egyptian glaze certainly spread
+into western Asia, and we find the last specimens of it in the tiles
+from the destroyed city of Rhagae in Persia, which may be as late as the
+13th century A.D. The lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman
+period, may be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no
+means clear.
+
+  REFERENCES.--(1) Petrie-Quibell, _Ballas and Nagada_ (date erroneous);
+  (2) Jacques de Morgan, _L' Âge de la pierre et des métaux_; (3)
+  Petrie, _Diospolis Parva_, frontispiece (also for "sequence-dates" of
+  pottery); (4) Garstang, _Mahâsna and Bêt Khallâf_, pls. xxix.--xxxii.;
+  (5) Petrie, _Illahûn_, pl. xii. (corr. by V. Bissing in (14)); (6) V.
+  Bissing, _Catalogue générale du musée de Caire, _"Die
+  Fayencegefässe"; (7) Petrie, _Abydos_, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry
+  Wallis, _Egyptian Ceramic Art_ (Macgregor Collection); (9) _Guide to
+  Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum_, p. 252 ff.; (10)
+  Petrie, _Tel-el-Amarna_; (11) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian
+  Rooms_, p. 261; (12) Petrie, _Nagâda_, pl. xxviii.; (13) Petrie,
+  _Illahûn_, pls. xx., xxi.; (14) V. Bissing, _Strena Helbigiana_, p. 20
+  ff.; (15) Garstang, _El Arábah_, pls. xviii.-xxi., xxviii., xxix.;
+  (16) Hall, _Oldest Civilization of Greece_, p. 143 ff. ibid. figs. 29,
+  30, 69; (17) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms_, pl. viii.;
+  (18) Petrie, _Tell-el-Hesy_, pl. v.; (19) Welch, _Ann. Brit. Sch.
+  Ath_. vi.; (20) de Morgan, _Délégation en Perse_, viii. (1905); (21)
+  _Brit. Mus.: Guide to Babylonian and Assyrian Room_.     (H. R. H.)
+
+
+GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN
+
+GREEK. _Study of Greek Vases_.--It is not so many years since an account
+of Greek pottery would naturally have followed chronologically the
+history of Egyptian pottery with little overlapping; but recent
+discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and, while up to the end of
+the 19th century the earliest remains to be traced on Greek soil could
+be assigned at the furthest to the period 2500-2000 B.C., it is now
+possible not only to show that at that period technical processes were
+highly developed, but even to trace a continuous development of Greek
+pottery from the Neolithic age. This result has been mainly brought
+about by Dr Arthur Evans's researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of
+similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece. Whether the
+race which produced this pottery can strictly be called Greek may be
+open to question, but at all events the ware is the independent product
+of a people inhabiting in prehistoric times the region afterwards known
+as Greece; its connexion with the pottery of the historic period can now
+be clearly traced, and in its advanced technical character and the
+genuinely artistic appearance of its decoration even this early ware
+proclaims itself as inspired by a similar genius.
+
+The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional impetus from
+the light that it throws on the early civilization of the country, and
+its value for the student of ethnology. But it has always appealed
+strongly to the archaeologist and in some degree also to the artist or
+connoisseur, to the former from its importance as a contribution to the
+history of Greek art, mythology and antiquities, to the latter from its
+beauty of form and decoration. Attention was first redirected to the
+painted vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time
+they served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur
+or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the 18th
+century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of more than
+merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted to the elucidation
+of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive at a chronological
+classification. Two facts must, however, be borne in mind: firstly, that
+down to the middle of the 19th century the great majority of painted
+vases had been found only in Italy; secondly, that these vases were
+mostly of the later and more florid styles, which, if artistically
+advanced, are now known to represent a decadent phase of Greek art.
+
+From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were the product
+not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the term "Etruscan vase"
+arose and passed into the languages of Europe, surviving even at this
+day in popular speech in spite of a century of refutation. Meanwhile,
+the study of the subjects depicted on the vases passed through the
+successive stages of allegorical, historical and mystical
+interpretation, until a century and more of painstaking study led to the
+more rational principles of modern archaeologists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Jug from Cyprus of Oriental style, 10 in.
+high.]
+
+  _Sites and Discoveries_.--The sites on which Greek vases have been
+  found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from the
+  Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt. By far the great
+  majority, at all events of the finer specimens, have been extracted
+  from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the later
+  period or decadence have been found in large numbers on various sites
+  in southern Italy, such as Capua, Curnae and Nola in Campania, Anzi in
+  Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia. In the western Mediterranean, Sicily has
+  also been a fruitful field for this pottery, early varieties being
+  found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti and elsewhere. Painted
+  vases have also come to light in Sardinia and in North Africa,
+  especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds mostly belong to the 4th
+  century B.C. In Greece proper the most prolific site has been Athens,
+  where the finds extend from the Dipylon vases of the 8th century B.C.
+  down to the decadent productions of the 4th century; one group, that
+  of the white funeral _lekythoi_, is almost peculiar to Athens. Next to
+  this city, Corinth has been most productive, especially in pottery of
+  the archaic period and of local manufacture. Large quantities of
+  pottery of all periods have been yielded by Thebes, Tanagra and other
+  sites in Boeotia, and remains of the "Mycenaean" period at Mycenae,
+  Argos and elsewhere. But on the whole painted pottery is rare in other
+  parts of the mainland. Among the western islands of the archipelago,
+  Aegina and Euboea have proved fruitful in vases of all periods; Thera,
+  Melos and others of the Cyclades are remarkable for pottery of the
+  prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all Crete is
+  now famous for the wondrous series of painted and ornamented pottery
+  of pre-Mycenacan date, which can be traced back even to the Neolithic
+  period, and the discovery of which has entirely revolutionized the
+  preconceived theories on the appearance of painted pottery in Greece.
+  This has been found in the recent excavations at Cnossus, Palaeokastro
+  and elsewhere. In Asia Minor there have been some important finds on
+  the mainland, but only along the coast; some of the islands, more
+  especially Samos and Rhodes, have been more fruitful in this respect.
+  At Kertch and elsewhere in the Crimea, large numbers of fine but
+  somewhat florid vases of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. have come to
+  light. Cyprus has long been known as a rich field for pottery of all
+  periods, from the Mycenaean onwards, the later varieties being marked
+  by strong local quasi-oriental characteristics, with little
+  development from the more primitive types (figs. 12 and 13). The
+  principal sites are Salamis, Amathus, Marion (Poli) and Curium.
+  Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have
+  yielded results of considerable importance for the history of early
+  Greek vase-painting.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pottery from Cyprus with geometrical
+  ornament.]
+
+  The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs; but some
+  important discoveries have been made on the sites of temples and
+  sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Naucratis. In such
+  cases the vases are seldom complete, having been broken up and cast
+  away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments have remained
+  undisturbed. The tombs vary greatly in form, those of Greece being
+  usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy often fine and
+  elaborate chambers with architectural details, and the manner in which
+  the vases are found in these tombs varies greatly. Plain unornamented
+  pottery is almost universal, and may be considered to have formed the
+  "tomb-furniture" proper--the painted vases being as in daily life
+  merely ornamental adjuncts.
+
+  _Shapes and Uses of Greek Vases_.--The enormous number of painted
+  vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence of the
+  important part they must have played in the daily life, of the Greeks,
+  and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows the high
+  estimation in which they were held. It is, however, remarkable that,
+  with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its use in
+  daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical literature
+  which throw light on the purposes for which these vases were used.
+  Where any are described at full length there is always evidence that
+  metal vases are intended. Athenaeus and the lexicographers have indeed
+  put on record a long list of names of shapes, but it is only in a few
+  cases that we can be certain what forms they describe, or whether any
+  of the typical forms of existing vases can be identified with the
+  literary descriptions.
+
+  We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly, the
+  uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly, the
+  classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery
+  which have come down to us.
+
+  As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been discovered in
+  tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were made
+  principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had their uses
+  in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware cannot be
+  doubted. They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the commoner
+  wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us, being largely
+  ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on special occasions
+  for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at banquets or in
+  religious ceremonies.
+
+  Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled cup
+  in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (_Cythera_) and
+  inscribed with the word [Greek: hêmikotylion] or "half-kotyle,"
+  equivalent to about one-fourth of a pint. Another vase found at Athens
+  is supposed to represent the official [Greek: choinix] or quart,
+  having a capacity of 0.96 litre; it is inscribed [Greek: dêmosion] or
+  "official measure," and bears the official stamp of the state.
+  Conversely many names of vases, such as the _amphora_ or the _kotyle_,
+  were adopted to indicate measures of capacity for liquid or dry
+  commodities. Earthenware vessels were used for storing both liquids
+  and food, for the preparation of foods and liquids, and for the
+  various uses of the table and the toilet. That the painted ware was
+  used at banquets or on great occasions we learn from scenes depicted
+  on the vases themselves, in which vases painted with subjects appear
+  in use. In connexion with athletics, they were given as prizes, as in
+  the case of the Panathenaic _amphorae_, a class of vases given for
+  victories in the games held at Athens at the Panathenaic festivals,
+  where, however, they do not represent prizes so much as marks of
+  honour corresponding to modern racing cups. Vases were also used as
+  toys for children, as is proved by the discovery of many diminutive
+  specimens, chiefly jugs, in the tombs of children at Athens, on which
+  are depicted children playing at various games. They also served a
+  purely decorative use as domestic ornaments, being placed on columns
+  or shelves; or, in the case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the
+  wall. Many of the later Greek and Italian painted vases are very
+  carelessly decorated on the one side, which was obviously not intended
+  to be seen.
+
+  We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory,
+  sacrificial or funerary. Of all these uses, especially the last, there
+  is ample evidence. That vases were often placed in temples or shrines
+  as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature
+  of the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that
+  painted pottery served the same purpose for those who could only
+  afford the humbler material. Of late years much light has been thrown
+  upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis of Athens,
+  at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta, where numerous
+  fragments have been found bearing inscriptions which attest their use
+  for such purposes. It was a well-known Greek custom to clear out the
+  temples from time to time and form rubbish-heaps (_favissae_) of the
+  disused vases and statuettes, which were broken in pieces as useless,
+  but it is to this very fact that we owe their preservation. At
+  Naucratis many of the fragments bear incised inscriptions, such as
+  [Greek: Apollônos eimi], "I am Apollo's" (possibly a memorandum of the
+  priest's, to mark consecrated property), or [Greek: ho deina anethêke
+  tê Aphroditê], "So-and-so dedicated me to Aphrodite." Fig. 14 gives
+  another example with a dedication to Apollo. At Penteskouphia, near
+  Corinth, a large series of painted tablets ([Greek: pinakes]), dating
+  from 600 to 550 B.C., with representations of Poseidon and dedicatory
+  inscriptions to that deity, were found in 1879. Votive offerings in
+  this latter form were common at all periods, and tablets painted with
+  figures and hung on trees or walls are often depicted on the vases,
+  usually in connexion with scenes representing sacrifices or offerings.
+
+  There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones)
+  must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of
+  the Greeks. We read of them in connexion with the Athenian festival of
+  the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis. They were also
+  used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured cup in the
+  British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to Dionysus.
+  In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (_phiale_) is
+  invariable.
+
+  But their most important use, and that to which their preservation is
+  mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies. They were not
+  only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the tombs
+  to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the ashes of the
+  dead or as "tomb-furniture," in accordance with Greek religious
+  beliefs in regard to the future life. Several classes of vases are
+  marked out by their subjects as exclusively devoted to this purpose,
+  such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at Athens, which
+  were placed outside the tombs, the white Athenian _lekythoi_ of the
+  5th and 4th centuries B.C., and the large _krateres_ and other vases
+  of the 4th century B.C. found in the tombs of Apulia and other parts
+  of southern Italy. Their use as cinerary urns was perhaps more
+  restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases, though the
+  custom is well known and is referred to in literature from Homer
+  downwards. In "Mycenaean" times coffers ([Greek: larnakes]) of clay
+  were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine painted
+  examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the best periods
+  there are but isolated instances.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication
+  to Apollo.]
+
+  The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of
+  Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of
+  form was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest
+  nomenclature; each form has its conventional name appended. These
+  shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in which
+  food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids were mixed
+  or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids were poured out or
+  food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other vases for the use of
+  the table or toilet. Thus we have the _pithos_ and _amphora_ for
+  storing wine, the _krater_ for mixing it, the _psykter_ for cooling
+  it, the _kyathos_ for ladling it out, and the _oinochoe_ or _prochoos_
+  for pouring it out; the _hydria_ was used for fetching water from the
+  well. The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumerable, the
+  principal being the _kylix_, _kotyle_, _kantharos_, _rhyton_
+  (drinking-horn) and _phiale_ (libation bowl). The _pyxis_ was used by
+  women at their toilet, and the _lekythos_, _alabastron_ and _askos_
+  for oil and unguents.
+
+  _Technical Processes_.--Though the Greeks succeeded in making pottery
+  of a very high order from the point of view of form and decoration,
+  the technical processes remained throughout of the most
+  elementary--for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the
+  simplest, and the temperature at which the ware was fired was not high
+  enough to introduce any serious difficulties. As we should expect, it
+  is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical processes
+  in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no
+  vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative
+  triumphs on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as
+  those that satisfied his predecessors. As in every other case
+  technical and artistic refinement went hand in hand. In the earliest
+  times the clay was used with very little preparation; at all events
+  before the introduction of the potter's wheel the finish is not to be
+  compared with that of the early races in Egypt. As the practice
+  developed no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain
+  districts, and these became centres of manufacture or the clays were
+  carried to other established centres. The primitive wares usually
+  exhibit the natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other
+  elementary pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no
+  gloss. Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it
+  becomes finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the
+  glowing orange, inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th
+  century B.C. In the vases of the later Italian centres the colour
+  again reverts to a paler hue.
+
+  The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of
+  sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles. It was mixed
+  with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately fine
+  clay of two or three grades was obtained. Both red and whitish clays
+  were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that mixtures of
+  different clays gave the best results. The clay for the Athenian vases
+  was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica; and as it did not burn to a
+  very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (_rubrica_) was added to it to
+  produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes the best vases.
+  Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were also famous for their
+  clays, and at the first named tablets have been found bearing
+  representations of the digging of clay for pottery.
+
+  [FIG. 15.--Shapes of Greek Vases.]
+
+  The improved manipulation of the clays, and the increasing knowledge
+  that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture of other
+  substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way for what is
+  known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This delicate gloss, so
+  thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called glaze, but it
+  cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of finely-ground
+  glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability, as the Greek
+  potter used finer and finer clays and so was enabled to perfect his
+  shapes, he found that after a vase had been "thrown" he could get a
+  closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer clay
+  material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the wheel when
+  sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for such a purpose--of
+  very siliceous clay and ochre--would, when they were burnt in the
+  Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright colour, but also to
+  a glossy surface, especially where the flames had freely played about
+  them; and it is more in accordance with our knowledge to believe that
+  the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest Greek red vases was produced
+  in this way, for it seems impossible that it can have been a coating
+  of any special glaze.
+
+  In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is
+  always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic
+  sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of about
+  900° C., which a modern potter would consider very low. When broken
+  the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and is often
+  yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The material
+  is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it (another
+  proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the material of
+  Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing of the
+  secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of these
+  analyses may be summed up as follows: silica, 52-60 parts; alumina,
+  13-19 parts; lime, 5-10 parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts; oxide of iron,
+  12-19 parts. Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple red burning clays
+  would give a similar result. It is to the glory of the Greek potter
+  that with such ordinary materials, by the exercise of selection,
+  patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results we see. He
+  did as much as can be done with natural clay materials, but the glory
+  of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or Chinese, was
+  not for him.
+
+  _Manufacture of Vases_.--The earliest Greek pottery is, like all
+  primitive pottery, hand-made. The introduction of the potter's wheel
+  into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but we now
+  know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive pottery
+  of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, for instance, the Bronze age
+  tombs of 2500-1500 B.C. contain only hand-made pottery, but in the
+  next period (1500-1000 B.C.) we find hand-made and coarse vases side
+  by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery--the
+  "Mycenaean"--obviously made on the wheel. It seems probable,
+  therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about 1500 B.C.;
+  it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion shows (_Il._
+  xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with the hand,
+  not the foot; representations of its use are seen on several vases of
+  the archaic period (fig. 16), and they further prove that the vase was
+  replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of painting,
+  polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as for the
+  original shaping or "throwing."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Votive tablet from Corinth; a potter applying
+  painted bands while the vessel revolves on the wheel.]
+
+  The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same as that
+  still in use, need not be described in detail; the feet, necks, mouths
+  and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds, and attached
+  while the clay was moist, as is also indicated on a vase. Large and
+  coarse vases, such as wine casks ([Greek: pithoi]), were always
+  modelled by hand on a kind of hooped mould ([Greek: kannabos]).
+
+  Parts of vases were modelled by hand at all periods by way of
+  decoration. Even in the geometrical period we find horses modelled in
+  the round on the covers of vases and later on handles enriched with
+  moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such embellishments
+  are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations of metal forms,
+  but the plastic principle is one which obtained in Greek pottery from
+  the very first, as for instance in the primitive pottery of Troy, in
+  which the vases are often modelled in human or animal forms; and the
+  same principle is involved in the common practice of speaking of the
+  "neck," "shoulder" or "foot" of a vessel. In the best period the
+  practice of adding moulded ornaments or of modelling vases in natural
+  forms took a subsidiary place, but examples occur from time to time,
+  as in the beautiful _rhyta_ or drinking-horns of the red-figure period
+  (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller details such as are seen in
+  handles enriched with heads in relief, a favourite practice of the
+  potter Nicosthenes. In the 4th-century vases of southern Italy the
+  handles are often much ornamented in this fashion, as in the large
+  _krateres_, where they are adorned with masks in relief.
+
+  The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with designs in
+  relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence of the art,
+  when imitations of metal were superseding the painted pottery. Even
+  then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a mould, except in
+  the case of those in the form of human figures or animals (Plate II.,
+  figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the heading of terra-cotta
+  figures, except for the fact that they are usually painted in the
+  manner of the vases. But in southern Italy the tendency to imitate
+  metal led to the popularity of ornaments made separately from moulds
+  and attached or let in to vases otherwise plain. Vases of this period,
+  with reeded bodies, must also have been made from moulds, as were a
+  series of _phialae_ or libation-bowls associated with Cales in
+  Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are known to be direct imitations
+  of metal.
+
+  All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black glaze
+  or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of those
+  moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia with
+  opaque colouring laid on the varnish. Some of these plain black vases
+  of the 4th century are ornamented with _stamped_ patterns made with a
+  metal punch impressed in the moist clay. This decoration is confined
+  to simple patterns.
+
+  After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried in the sun
+  and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnishing and
+  painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought out by a
+  process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed with a
+  piece of wood or hard leather. On a vase in Berlin a boy is seen
+  applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably for this
+  purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has evidently not
+  been varnished. Many vases are varnished black all over the exterior
+  (whether decorated with designs or not) with the exception of the foot
+  and lip.
+
+  The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in the
+  potter's art. It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-dried
+  vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have come
+  down to us have been baked. The amount of heat required was regulated
+  by the character of the ware, but was not very high. Many examples
+  exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected to too much or
+  too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish or reddish
+  hue. Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an ashen-grey
+  colour, the black remaining unimpaired. Other accidents were liable to
+  occur in the baking, such as cracking under too great heat, or the
+  damaging of the shape by vases knocking against one another and so
+  being dented in or crushed. The form of the oven was of the simplest
+  (fig. 17). No furnaces have been found in Greece, and only one or two
+  in Italy, but we have a variety of evidence from vase-paintings. They
+  were fed by fires from beneath, and the vases were inserted with a
+  long shovel. They were heated with charcoal or wood fuel, and there
+  are representations of men poking or raking the fires with
+  long-handled implements. One vase-painting gives a bird's-eye view, in
+  horizontal section, of the interior of an oven full of jugs of various
+  forms. Others have more complete presentations of potteries, with men
+  engaged in the different processes of vase manufacture, modelling,
+  painting or supplying the kilns with newly-made wares.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Model of Kiln found in Essex.]
+
+  _The Painting of Vases_.--We may distinguish three principal classes
+  of painted pottery, of Which two admit of subdivision.
+
+  1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly
+   linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush.
+   The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing
+   into black.  The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse.
+
+  2. Greek vases painted with figures.  These may be subdivided as
+   follows:--
+
+    (a) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground.
+
+    (b) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of shining
+    black.
+
+  3. Vases with polychrome decoration.
+
+    (a) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in
+    various colours on white ground (these range from the 6th to the 4th
+    century B.C.).
+
+    (b) Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid over a
+    ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive period to the
+    3rd century B.C.).
+
+  Of these the second group is by far the largest and most important,
+  including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek
+  vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the
+  technical processes by which the most successful results were
+  obtained. In both the classes (a) and (b) the colouring is almost
+  confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black.
+
+  This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies
+  under different circumstances according to differences of locality, of
+  manufacture or accidents of production. It is seen in its greatest
+  perfection in the "Nolan" _amphorae_ of the earlier red-figure period,
+  at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Greek vases.
+  The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat,
+  i.e. stoving at a higher or lower temperature. It also varies in
+  thickness. At present no certainty has been attained as to its
+  composition--Brongniart's oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted --nor
+  has any acid been found to have an effect upon it, though the chemical
+  action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear.
+
+  The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the
+  black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the
+  former which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole
+  vase being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red
+  to receive the figures. It is obvious that the transition to merely
+  leaving the figures red is but a slight one. But in all black-figured
+  vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black
+  silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly
+  indicated by a pointed instrument making a faint line. The surface
+  within these outlines being filled in with black, details of anatomy,
+  dress, &c., were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed
+  tool. After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the
+  designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple and
+  white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in their
+  respective use. After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix
+  these colours the vase was complete.
+
+  In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background.
+  But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not
+  by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their
+  contours. Recent researches have attempted to show that the instrument
+  with which this was achieved may have been a feather brush or pen, by
+  which the lines were drawn separately, not concurrently. The other
+  tools used for painting would be an ordinary metal or reed pen and a
+  camel's-hair brush, or at any rate something analogous. Thus the
+  outlines of the figures were clearly marked, and the process is one of
+  drawing rather than painting, but it was in draughtsmanship that the
+  best vase-painters excelled. The next stage was to mark the inner
+  details by very fine black lines or by masses of black for surfaces
+  such as the hair; white and purple were also employed, but more
+  sparingly than on the earlier vases. The main processes always remain
+  the same down to the termination of vase-painting, though the tendency
+  to polychromy, which came in about the end of the 5th century B.C.,
+  effected some modifications. The blacking of the whole exterior
+  surface--a purely mechanical process--took place after the figures had
+  been completed and protected from accidents by the thick black border
+  of which we have spoken.
+
+  A fragment of an unfinished vase preserved in the Sèvres Museum gives
+  a very clear idea of the process just described, the figures being
+  completed, but the back ground not yet applied (fig. 18). There is
+  also another vase in existence which gives the interior of a
+  vase-painter's studio, in which three artists are at work with their
+  brushes, their paint-pots by their side.
+
+  [Illustration: (From a photo supplied by the Director of the Sèvres
+  Museum)
+
+  FIG. 18.--Fragment of unfinished red-figured vase]
+
+  In the class of vases (3 (a)), with polychrome figures on a white
+  ground, the essential feature is the white slip or _engobe_ with which
+  the naturally pale clay is covered. In the archaic vases of the 7th
+  and 6th centuries B.C., especially in the Ionian centres, as at
+  Rhodes, Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but
+  with this, difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary
+  black-figure method, the only additional colour being purple laid on
+  the black. We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or
+  outline, in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th
+  century B.C., which technically are of a very advanced character. The
+  colours used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow,
+  crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were
+  not fired.
+
+  In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in the
+  class of _lekythoi_ or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral
+  uses. Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with
+  handles, &c., were covered with a coating of white clay. A second
+  coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration,
+  and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and
+  finally fired at a low temperature. The decoration was achieved as
+  follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines, ignoring
+  draperies, &c., and not always followed when the colours were laid on.
+  This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour being applied
+  with a fine brush in monochrome--black, yellow or red--following the
+  lines of the sketch. For the drapery and other details polychrome
+  washes were employed, laid on with a large brush. All varieties of red
+  from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow, blue, black and
+  green. Hair is treated either in outline or by means of washes.
+
+  Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (b)) in which
+  opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with
+  which the whole vase is coated. This method is met with at three
+  distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long
+  distances of time.
+
+  We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where it seems
+  to have been introduced not long after the close of the Neolithic
+  period, about 2500 B.C., and where it holds its own for about a
+  thousand years against the contrasted method of "dark on light"
+  painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of
+  "Mycenaean" civilization in Crete. The colouring is very varied,
+  orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed.
+
+  The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a small
+  class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of transition
+  between the black-figured and red-figured. White and orange-red are
+  here employed, sometimes with accessory details in purple and black
+  and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually black-figured,
+  though the appearance of the vases is often red-figured. Lastly, it
+  appears in southern Italy as a final effort of vase-painting to
+  flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd century. Some of
+  these vases were made in Campania, where the method resembles that of
+  the Attic class just described, others in Apulia, probably at Gnathia.
+  The latter have feeble conventional decoration in purple and white
+  with details in yellow, confined to one side of the vases, and are
+  also distinguished by the use of ornaments in relief. They were also
+  occasionally made in Greece proper.
+
+  Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters,
+  especially in the best periods. The deep purple used for accessory
+  details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on
+  the white _lekythoi_ is an ochre ([Greek: miltos], _rubrica_). The
+  white also used for accessories is an earth or clay; in the slip
+  coating of the white ground vases it assumes the consistency of
+  pipe-clay. Yellow, where used for details on the later vases, is an
+  ochre, and blue and green are produced from artificial compounds
+  containing copper. A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and
+  green, used by the polychrome painters, are obviously artificial
+  pigments which have not been fired. When gilding was employed it was
+  laid on over a raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool
+  or brush, and was attached by varnish, not by fire.
+
+  _Potters and Inscriptions_.--The potters who made these vases were
+  mostly--at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, B.C.--[Greek:
+  metoikoi], or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply. We
+  have an Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and
+  a Scythes. The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases
+  seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities
+  may be merely due to the use of a vernacular. They formed a gild or
+  fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less
+  division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of
+  slaves. This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing
+  the interior of potteries. Others again "specialized" in different
+  shapes, and were known as [Greek: chutroplathoi], [Greek:
+  lêkuthopoioi], and so on.
+
+  Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five hundred
+  vases. They go back to about 700 B.C., the earliest names being found
+  on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority of the signatures
+  are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares. Some, such as
+  Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are combined. The best
+  known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs eighty times. The
+  ordinary forms of signature are four--(1) [Greek: ho deina epoiêsen];
+  (2) [Greek: ho deina hegrapsen ]; (3) [Greek: ho deina hegrapse kahi
+  epoiêsen]; (4) A [Greek: hegrapse]. B [Greek: epoiêsen]. Where [Greek:
+  epoiêse] alone occurs (as in a signature of Euxitheus), it probably
+  refers to the master of the pottery who designed the vase and
+  superintended its production; in other cases the share of the actual
+  artist is clearly indicated. Some artists, such as Duris and Makron,
+  sign [Greek: hegrapse] alone; in all cases, the form of signature
+  affords us a useful guide to their style.
+
+  Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases,
+  which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations
+  uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the [Greek: kalos]
+  names discussed below; all these are painted on the designs
+  themselves. There is also another class of _graffiti_ inscriptions,
+  which includes those incised by the owners with their names and
+  memoranda scratched under the foot, probably made by the potter or his
+  workmen relating to the number of vases in a batch or "set" and their
+  price.
+
+  _Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares_.--In Greek tombs a class of pottery
+  is often found which approximates, more in appearance to porcelain,
+  but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porcelain at all,
+  but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which it is in
+  point of fact an imitation. It is distinguished by the white gritty
+  material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and forming
+  what is sometimes known as "frit" from its semi-vitreous consistency.
+  The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale blue or cream
+  colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple or brown are
+  sometimes found. Some of the earliest examples of this ware have been
+  found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus, in the form of vases
+  moulded in the shape of human or animal heads. These exhibit a
+  remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more like Greek work
+  of the 6th century B.C. Apart from the technique they have nothing in
+  common with the Egyptian importations so often found in Mycenaean
+  tombs.
+
+  In a subsequent period (8th-7th century B.C.) Egyptian objects in
+  faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those of
+  Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy, through
+  the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of faience occur in
+  the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 B.C.) and similar vases with a
+  pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs of the same date. In
+  Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found ornamented with friezes of men
+  and animals in relief, or imitating in colour and design the glass
+  vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems probable that the Greeks of
+  Rhodes and other centres attempted the imitation of this ware (see
+  fig. 19), for we find faience _aryballi_ or globular oil-flasks
+  modelled in the form of helmeted heads or animals, which are purely
+  Greek in style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Enamelled pottery from tombs in Rhodes, made
+  under Egyptian influence.]
+
+  In the Hellenistic period the fashion was revived at Alexandria, and
+  under the Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled faience with figures
+  in relief and bearing the names of reigning sovereigns were made and
+  exported to the Cyrenaica and to southern Italy. Two of these are in
+  the British Museum (Egyptian department). The same collection includes
+  a very beautiful glazed vase in the form of Eros riding on a duck,
+  found in a tomb at Tanagra, but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a
+  head of a Ptolemaic queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze.
+
+  Subsequently in the 1st century B.C., this so-called porcelain ware
+  was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly
+  coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often
+  indicated. This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus
+  in Asia Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was
+  probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not
+  confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures;
+  the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal
+  (Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green
+  to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different
+  tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with figures
+  or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of these
+  glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and oxide
+  of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the green
+  and yellow glazes of medieval Europe.[7]
+
+HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF GREEK VASE-PAINTING.--It has been indicated in the
+section dealing with technical processes that Greek vases may be
+classified under four headings according to the character of the
+decoration, and this classification may with a slight modification be
+adopted as a chronological one, the history of the art falling under
+four main heads, under which it will be convenient to describe its
+development from the earliest specimens of painted pottery down to the
+period when it was finally replaced by other methods of decoration.
+
+  These four classes and their main characteristics may be summarized as
+  follows:--
+
+  I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_ from about 2500 or 2000 to 600
+  B.C., including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages of
+  historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated in
+  polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining black on
+  a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown or black
+  (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying from white to
+  pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked by its
+  naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the latter the
+  ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals; human
+  figures and mythological scenes being very rare.
+
+  II. _Black-figured Vases_ from about 600-500 B.C.; figures painted in
+  shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to bright
+  orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for details;
+  subjects mainly from mythology and legend.
+
+  III. _Red-figured Vases_, from 520 to 400 B.C.; figures drawn in
+  outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining
+  black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple
+  and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are
+  included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In these,
+  which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of vase-painting
+  is reached between 480 and 450 B.C.
+
+  IV. _Vases of the Decadence_, from 400 to 200 B.C.; mostly from
+  southern Italy, technique as in Class III., but the drawing is free
+  and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal,
+  theatrical and fanciful. At the end of this period vases are largely
+  replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms, or
+  with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal
+  vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation
+  of the Hellenistic world.
+
+I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_.--It has been noted in the
+introductory section that it is possible to trace the development of
+pottery in Greece as far back as the Neolithic period, owing chiefly to
+the light recently thrown on the subject by the excavations in Crete.
+These have yielded large quantities of painted pottery of high technical
+merit, usually with decoration in polychrome or white on a dark ground,
+in what is known as the Kamares ware, covering the period 2500-1500 B.C.
+(fig. 20). This was gradually superseded by painting in dark shining
+pigments on a light glossy ground during the later Minoan period
+(1500-1000 B.C.), forming what is known as the "Mycenaean" style. The
+subjects, though chiefly confined to floral ornaments or aquatic plants
+and creatures, are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their
+treatment, often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East.
+In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread all
+over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found in Greece,
+especially at Mycenae, in Rhodes and other Greek islands, and in Cyprus,
+where a series of vases with animals, monsters, and even human figures
+shows what is probably the latest development of the pure Minoan or
+Mycenaean style.
+
+[Illustration: From _Annual of the British School at Athens_.
+
+FIG. 20.--Minoan or "Kamares" ware, from Crete.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Primitive black pottery from the Troad.]
+
+Outside Crete the earliest Greek pottery has been found in Cyprus and at
+Troy, with simple incised or painted patterns on a black polished
+ground, the vases being all hand-made, and often treated in a plastic
+fashion with rude modelling of human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22);
+these cover the period 2500-2000 B.C. Early painted pottery, parallel
+with the Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important
+cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos. But until the general spread of
+Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second
+millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and
+successful development can be studied.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Primitive red pottery from the Troad.]
+
+About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by the Dorian
+invasion (1100 B.C.) the then decadent Mycenaean civilization was
+replaced by a new one much more backward in development, making pottery
+of a far simpler and more conventional type, the decoration being
+largely confined to geometrical patterns to the exclusion of motives
+derived from plant forms. This is usually known as the geometrical
+style, and the pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 B.C. It
+is found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits a
+certain development towards a more advanced stage. The patterns include
+the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander, and the circle, in
+various combinations, painted in dull black on a brown ground. In most
+places the art advanced no further, but in Boeotia, and still more at
+Athens, we can trace the gradual growth of decorative skill, first in
+the introduction of animals, and then in the appearance of the human
+figure. In the Athenian cemetery outside the Dipylon gate a series of
+colossal vases has come to light, on which are painted such subjects as
+sea-fights and funeral processions. The human figures are exceedingly
+rude and conventional, painted almost entirely in silhouette, but there
+is a distinct striving after artistic effect in the composition and
+arrangement. In Boeotia the vases do not advance beyond the animal
+stage, and many exhibit a tendency to decadence in their carelessness,
+as contrasted with the painstaking helplessness of the Athenian artists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vase with bands of animals, Oriental in style,
+(British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles
+and Hera, and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.]
+
+In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the art of
+vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean tradition, and was
+distinguished by its naturalism and originality, and by the bold and
+diverse effects produced by variety of colour or novelty of subject. The
+ornamentation is at first elementary, consisting of friezes of animals,
+especially lions, deer and goats (figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand
+out sharply in black against the creamy buff ground which is
+characteristic of nearly all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out
+by means of engraved lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by
+drawing parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the
+clay ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments such
+as rosettes and crosses in great variety of form to cover the
+background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek artist abhorred.
+The system of decoration has been thought to owe much to Assyrian
+textile fabrics.
+
+One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic pottery is
+a _pinax_ or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum, on which is
+represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus
+(fig. 25); their names are inscribed over the figures, and this is
+almost the earliest known instance of a mythological subject, the date
+of the painting being not later than 600 B.C. To a slightly later date
+belongs another remarkable group of cups with figures on a white ground,
+probably made at Cyrene in North Africa. Of these the most famous has a
+painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Cyrene from 580 to
+550 B.C., weighing goods for export in a ship. Others have mythological
+subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus, Cadmus and Pelops.
+
+But these vases, though still retaining the older technique, really
+belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases, and they belong
+to a time when in all Ionian centres this method was being superseded by
+the new technique which Corinth had introduced and Athens perfected, to
+the consideration of which we must return.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest
+of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.]
+
+For some 150 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry of pottery on
+the west of the Aegean. Large numbers of examples have been found in or
+near the city itself, many bearing inscriptions in the peculiar local
+alphabet. They show a continuous progress from the simplest
+ornamentation to fully-developed black-figured wares. In the earliest
+(Plate I. fig. 52) oriental influence is very marked, the surface being
+so covered with the figures and patterns that the background disappears
+and the designs are at times almost unintelligible. The general effect
+is thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely
+chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian art, such
+as the sphinx and gryphon. The vases are mostly small, the ground varies
+from cream to yellow, and the figures are painted in black and purple.
+
+Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th century
+the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a unification of
+styles under the growing influence of Athens. In Ionia (see above)
+figure subjects become more common, and the technique approaches
+gradually nearer to the black-figure method. Similarly at Corinth the
+ground ornaments diminish and disappear, the friezes of animals are
+restricted to the borders of the designs, and human figures are
+introduced, first singly, then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged
+in some definite action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last
+stages Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new development,
+traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of Athens, was the
+distinguishing of female figures by the use of white for flesh tints. A
+somewhat similar development was in progress at Athens, though
+represented by comparatively few vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian
+and Ionian technical improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th
+century the fully developed black-figure style which by degrees
+supplanted or assimilated all other schools.
+
+II. _Black-figured Vases_.--At the head of this new development stands
+the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi in 1844 (Plate I.
+fig. 53). Its shape is that of a _krater_ or mixing-bowl, and it bears
+the signatures of its maker and decorator in the form "Ergotimos made
+me, Klitias painted me." It might be described as a Greek mythology in
+miniature, with its numerous subjects and groups of figures all from
+legendary sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager,
+or the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their names
+inscribed.
+
+The general technique of the black-figured vases has already been
+described. It may be noted as a chronological guide that the use of
+purple for details is much commoner in the earlier vases, white in the
+later, but towards the end of the century when the new fashion of red
+figures was gaining ground, both colours were almost entirely dropped.
+The drawing of the figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and
+conventional, though it advanced considerably in freedom before the
+style went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully and
+delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and
+affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias (Plate I.
+fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication of date, ranging
+from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing lines of angular falling
+folds.
+
+The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters of this period
+are the _amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe_ and _lekythos,_ the
+first-named being the most popular. A special class of _amphorae_ is
+formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given as prizes in the
+Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure of the patron goddess
+Athena on one side and a representation of the contest in which they
+were won on the other (fig. 26). They usually bear the inscription
+[Greek: tôn Athênêthen athlôn eimiruv] "I am (a prize) from the games at
+Athens." Some of these can be dated by the names of Athenian archons
+which they bear, as late as the 4th century, the old method of painting
+in black figures with a stiff conventional pose for the goddess being
+retained for religious reasons.
+
+FIG. 26.--Panathenaic amphora.
+
+The chief interest of the black-figured vases is really derived from
+their subjects, which range over every conceivable field, the proportion
+of myth and legend to scenes from daily life being much greater than in
+the succeeding period. They include groups of Olympian and other
+deities, and the various scenes in which they take part, such as the
+battle of the gods and giants, or the birth of Athena (treated in a very
+conventional manner, as on a fine _amphora_ in the British Museum);
+Dionysus and his attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits
+of Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy and
+other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life, battle scenes,
+athletics, the chase and so on. The same classification of course holds
+good for the later periods of vase-painting, with some exceptions. The
+proportion of genre-scenes subsequently becomes greater, and some myths
+disappear, others rise into prominence, new deities such as Eros
+(Love), and Nik[=e] (Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally
+speaking, the later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or
+tendency to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional
+stereotyped compositions of the 6th century artist.
+
+A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is that a
+stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted at least for the
+principal figures, but minor variations are generally to be found, as,
+for instance, in the number of bystanders; and it is almost an
+impossibility to find any two vase-paintings which are exact duplicates.
+The form of the composition, was partly determined by the field
+available for the design; when this took the form of a long frieze the
+space was filled up with a series of spectators or the repetition of
+typical groups, but when the design is on a framed panel or confined by
+ornamental borders the method of treatment is adapted from that of a
+sculptured metope, and the figures limited to two or three. In many
+cases it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether
+or no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological types are
+over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary life, even to the
+divine attributes or poses of certain figures.
+
+[Illustration: Vase by Andocides. Black figures on obverse.
+
+Vase by Andocides. Red figures on reverse.
+
+FIG. 27.]
+
+Among the artists of the period who have left their names on the vases,
+besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous is Nicosthenes, a
+potter of some originality, from whose hand we have over seventy
+examples, a few being in the red-figure method. He is supposed to have
+introduced at Athens a revival of the Ionic fashion of painting on a
+cream-coloured ground instead of on red, of which some very effective
+examples have been preserved. He was always a potter rather than a
+painter, and most of his vases are remarkable for their
+forms--introducing plastic imitations of metal vases--rather than for
+their painted decoration. Most of the artists of this period, as in the
+succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (_kylikes_), but this
+form did not receive so much attention from the painter as at a later
+period, and many of these examples bear only inscriptions and no painted
+decoration.
+
+III. _Red-figured Vases._--The sudden reversal of technical method
+involved in the change from black figures on a red ground to red figures
+on black is not at first sight easy of explanation. Some artists, like
+Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods, sometimes on the same
+vase, and there is no doubt that the two went on for some years
+concurrently. As, however, no intermediate stage is possible, there is
+no question of development or transition. The new style was in fact a
+bold and ingenious innovation. It may possibly have been suggested by a
+small class of vases in which the figures are painted in the
+black-figure _method_, but have the converse appearance, that is to say
+they are painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black. It
+may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could obtain the same
+effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted on the red clay and
+surrounding them with the black. The change, must, however, be closely
+associated with the career of the artist Andocides, who not only
+produced vases in each method, but also several in which the two are
+combined (fig. 27). In two or three cases the subject is actually the
+same on each side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the
+colouring is reversed.
+
+The date at which the change took place was formerly placed well on in
+the 5th century, on account of the great advance in drawing which most
+of the red-figured vases show, as compared with the black. They were
+thus regarded as contemporary with the painter Polygnotus, if not with
+Pheidias. But the excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many
+fragments in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier than
+480 B.C., that it has become necessary to find an earlier date for its
+appearance. This is now usually placed at about 520 B.C., overlapping
+with the preceding period.
+
+The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking the chief
+stages of development, and known respectively as the "severe," "strong,"
+"fine," and "late fine" periods. Their principal characteristics and
+representative painters may be briefly enumerated.
+
+In the _severe_ period there is no marked advance on the black-figured
+vases as regards style. The figures are still more or less stiff and
+conventional, and some vases even show signs of an analogous decadence.
+The real development is partly technical, partly in the introduction of
+new subjects. Although the change of style probably had its actual
+origin in the _amphora_, as treated by Andocides, the new developments
+are best seen in the _kylix_, a form of vase which now sprang into
+popularity and called forth the chief efforts of the principal artists.
+Its curved surface gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and
+decorative arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their
+attention to perfecting it as a work of decorative art. For other
+shapes, such as the _hydria_, and _lekythos_, the old method was for a
+time preferred.
+
+The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other famous
+cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias. The earliest cups
+are decorated in a quite simple fashion like those of the black-figure
+period, often with a single figure each side between two large
+"symbolical" eyes, and a single figure in a circle in the interior. To
+the latter the artist at first devoted his chief efforts, though even
+here his scope was at first limited. But although he had not yet
+attained to skill in composition, he did discover that the circular
+space was well adapted for exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a
+draughtsman and for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived
+attitudes. In all cases the object was to fill the space as far as
+possible, a characteristic of all the best Greek art. By degrees more
+attention was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single
+figures were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form of
+friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the end of
+this period. Epictetus was throughout his career a thoroughly "archaic"
+artist, but a considerable advance was made by Cachrylion, who stands
+on the verge of the succeeding stage.
+
+The _strong_ period centres round the name of Euphronius, the author of
+a really great artistic movement. His capacity for inventing new
+subjects or new poses--or otherwise overcoming technical and artistic
+difficulties--marks a great advance on all previous achievements, and he
+seems to represent the stage of development traditionally associated
+with the painter Cimon of Cleonae, the inventor of foreshortening and
+other novelties. Thus figures were no longer represented exclusively in
+profile, as in the black-figured vases which had made no advance beyond
+the conventions of Egyptian art. Ten vases signed by him are in
+existence (though it is not certain that all were actually painted by
+him), most of them having mythological subjects (fig. 28).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Cup by Euphronius.]
+
+Of his contemporaries, Duris, Hieron and Brygus take foremost rank, all
+three being, like Euphronius, essentially cup-painters, though they use
+other forms at times. For decorative effect and beauty of composition
+their vases have never been surpassed. As an example we may quote a
+_kotyle_ or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with a group
+of Eleusinian deities. The larger vases of this period are more rarely
+signed, but many of them rival the cups in execution, though the
+subjects are characterized by greater simplicity and largeness of style.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.]
+
+In _the fine_ style (460-440 B.C.) breadth of effect and dignity are
+aimed at, and although cup-painting had passed its zenith, and signed
+specimens become rarer, yet, considering the red-figured vases as a
+whole, this period exhibits the perfection of technique and drawing. In
+many of the larger vases the scenes are of a pictorial character,
+landscape being introduced, with figures ranged at different levels, and
+herein we may see a reflection of the style of the painter Polygnotus.
+One of the finest cups in this style is in the Berlin Museum, it is
+signed by the artists Erginus and Aristophanes, and the subject is the
+battle of the gods and giants. To the end of the period belongs a
+beautiful _hydria_ in the British Museum by the painter Meidias with
+subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29). Generally speaking,
+there is a reaction in favour of mythological subjects.
+
+In the _late fine_ style, which begins about 440 B.C., the pictorial
+effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the
+compositions deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once
+over-refined and careless. The figures are crowded together without
+meaning or interest. The fashion also arose of enhancing the designs by
+means of accessory colours--almost unknown in the previous stages--such
+as white laid on in masses, blue and green, and even with gilding.
+Athletic and mythological subjects yield place to scenes from the life
+of women and children or meaningless groups of figures (fig. 30).
+
+A good example of this style is an _amphora_ from Rhodes with the
+subject of Peleus wooing Thetis, in which polychrome colouring and
+gilding are introduced. There are also many imposing and elaborate
+specimens found (and perhaps made) in the colonies of the Crimea and the
+Cyrenaica; in particular one signed by Xenophantus with the Persian king
+hunting, and another representing the contest of Athena and Poseidon for
+the soil of Attica, both from the Crimea.
+
+Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the figures are
+painted on a white slip or _engobe_ resembling pipe-clay, with which the
+whole surface was covered; the figures are drawn in outline in red or
+black, and partly filled in with washes of colour, chiefly red, purplish
+red, or brown, but sometimes also with blue or green. This style seems
+to have been popular about the middle of the 5th century B.C. and was
+employed for the funeral _lekythoi_ which came into fashion at Athens
+about that time. These vases, which form a class by themselves, were
+made specially for funeral ceremonies and were painted with subjects
+relating to the tomb, such as the laying-out of the corpse on the bier,
+the ferrying of the dead over the Styx by Charon, or (most frequently)
+mourners bringing offerings to the tomb (fig. 31). They continued to be
+made well on into the 4th century, but the later examples are very
+degenerate and careless.
+
+Of other forms, especially the _kylix_ and the _pyxis_ (toilet-box),
+some exceedingly beautiful specimens have come down to us, which show a
+delicacy of drawing and firmness of touch never surpassed, although the
+lines were probably only drawn with a brush. The technique of these
+vases may reflect the methods of the painter Polygnotus and his
+contemporaries, who used a limited number of colours on a white ground.
+Among them no finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum
+with Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown
+outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and
+refinement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis,
+showing painted vases used to decorate a lady's room. On the left is a
+gilt pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right
+two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated
+with painted figures, and contain flowers.]
+
+In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same variety of
+choice as on the black-figured, but on the other hand there is
+infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The stereotyped form of
+composition is almost entirely discarded, and each painter forms his own
+conception of his subject. The class of slim _amphorae_, known as
+"Nolan" from the place where they were mostly found, are distinguished
+by having the design limited to one or at most two figures on each side,
+often on a large scale; these vases are also famous for the marvellous
+brilliance of their shining black (fig. 32).
+
+Towards the middle of the 5th century the patriotism of the Athenian
+artist finds expression in the growing importance which he attaches to
+local legends, especially those of Theseus, the typical Attic hero. He
+seems to have been regarded as the typical Athenian athlete or
+_ephebus_, and his contests as analogous to episodes of the gymnasium.
+Hence the grouping on some vases of scenes from his labours are like so
+many groups of athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general tendency of
+the red-figured vases, especially the cups, to become a sort of
+glorification of the Attic _ephebus_, the representations of whom in all
+sorts of occupations are out of all proportion to other subjects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Funeral lekythos showing vases placed inside
+tomb.]
+
+We find evidence of this, too, in another form. Many vases, especially
+the cups of the "severe" and "strong" periods, bear names of persons
+inscribed on the designs with the word [Greek: kalos], "fair" or
+"noble," attached; sometimes merely, "the boy is fair." The exact
+meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evidence seems to
+show that the persons celebrated must have been quite young at the time,
+and were probably youths famous for their beauty or athletic prowess.
+Some of the names are those of historical characters, such as
+Hipparchus, Miltiades or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be
+identified with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been
+obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases, Further,
+the practice of the vase-painter of adopting his own particular
+favourite name or set of names has enabled us to increase our knowledge
+of the characteristics of individual artists by identifying unsigned
+vases with the work of particular schools.
+
+IV. _Vases of the Decadence_.--For all practical purposes the red-figure
+style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the city in 404 B.C.
+Painted vases did not then altogether cease to be made, as the
+Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral _lekythoi_ testify, but at the
+same time a rapid decadence set in. The whole tendency of the 4th
+century B.C. in Greece was one of decentralization, and the art of
+vase-painting was no exception, for we find that there must have been a
+general migration of craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and
+to North Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief
+centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and flourishing
+Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Tarentum, Paestum and
+Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an addition to their many
+luxuries. In the character of the vases of this period we see their
+tendencies reflected, especially in their splendid or showy aspect; the
+only aim being size and gaudy colouring.
+
+The general method of painting remains that of the Athenian red-figure
+vases, but with entire loss of simplicity or refinement, either in the
+ornamentation, the choice of colours, or the drawing of the figures.
+Large masses of white are invariably employed, especially for the flesh
+of women or of Eros, the universally present god of Love, and for
+architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair or
+features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-purple
+uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have subjects, are devoid
+of all accessory colouring, and the figures are drawn with the greatest
+carelessness, as if not intended to be seen. There is throughout a
+lavish use of ornamental patterns such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves,
+or ornaments strewn over the field (a reversion to an old practice).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--"Nolan" amphora by Euxitheus (c. 450 B.C.),
+figure of Briseis; the other side has Achilles.]
+
+The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the opposite
+extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often effeminate. The
+fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of the figures and the
+frequent architectural settings seem to indicate that theatrical
+representations exercised much influence on the vase-painters. The great
+painters of the 4th century may also have contributed their share of
+inspiration, but rather perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to
+style; though the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly
+pictorial, they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic
+themes.
+
+The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as comedy
+plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others indirectly,
+from the plays of Euripides, such as the _Medea_, _Hecuba_ (Plate II.
+fig. 60), or _Hercules Furens_, and the arrangement of the scenes is
+essentially theatrical. The influence of comedy is seen in subjects
+derived from the _phlyakes_, a kind of farce or burlesque popular in
+southern Italy, and here again the setting is adapted from the stage,
+some vases having parodies of myths, others comic scenes of daily life.
+
+Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were
+expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear
+representations of the underworld, with groups of figures undergoing
+punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted--sometimes
+containing effigies of the deceased, at which the relatives make
+offerings--as on the Athenian _lekythoi_. But by far the greater portion
+of the subjects are taken from daily life, many of these being of a
+purely fanciful and meaningless character like the designs on Sèvres or
+Meissen china; the commonest type is that of a young man and a woman
+exchanging presents, the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes
+of courtship.
+
+The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four different
+types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania, Campania and
+Apulia, each with its special features of technique, drawing and
+subjects. In Lucanian vases the drawing is bold and restrained, more
+akin to that of the Attic vases; in Campania a fondness for polychromy
+is combined with careless execution. In Apulia a tendency to
+magnificence exemplified in the great funeral and theatrical vases is
+followed by a period of decadence characterized by small vases of
+fantastic form with purely decorative subjects. Besides these we have
+the school of Paestum, represented by two artists who have left their
+names on their vases, Assteas and Python. A well-known example of the
+work of the former is a _krater_ in Madrid with Heracles destroying his
+children, a theatrical and quasi-grotesque composition, and there is a
+fine example of Python's work in a _krater_ in the British Museum, with
+Alkmena, the mother of Heracles, placed on the funeral pyre by her
+husband Amphitryon, and rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig.
+55).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Cup with exploits of Theseus.]
+
+About the end of the 3rd century B.C. the manufacture of painted vases
+would seem to have been rapidly dying out in Italy, as had long been the
+case elsewhere, and their place is taken by unpainted vases modelled in
+the form of animals and human figures, or ornamented with stamped and
+moulded reliefs. These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and
+so-called "Samian" red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we
+see a tendency to the imitation of metal vases, which, with the growth
+of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced painted pottery
+both for use and ornament; the pottery of the period is reduced to a
+subordinate and utilitarian position, merely supplying the demands of
+those in the humbler spheres of life.
+
+  _Collections_.--The majority of the painted vases now in existence are
+  to be found in the various public museums and collections of Europe,
+  of which the largest and most important are the British Museum, the
+  Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come the collections at
+  Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and St Petersburg; isolated
+  specimens of importance are to be found in other museums, as at
+  Florence, Madrid or the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. Most of the
+  great private collections of the two preceding centuries have now been
+  dispersed. In recent years the Boston Museum has raised America to a
+  level with Europe in this respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New
+  York contains a vast collection of Cypriote pottery.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Important original articles are to be found in various
+  archaeological journals such as _American Journal of Archaeology_
+  (1885, &c); _Annual of the British School at Athens_ (1894, &c.);
+  _Athenische Mitteilungen_ (1876, &c.); _Bulletin de correspondance
+  hellénique_ (1877, &c.); _Comptes rendus de la commission impériale
+  archéologique_ (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); _Gazette archéologique_
+  (Paris, 1875-1889); _Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen
+  archäologischen Instituts, Berlin_ (1886, &c.); _Journal of Hellenic
+  Studies_ (1880, &c.); _Monumenti antichi_ (Milan, 1890, &c.);
+  _Monuments grecs_ (Paris, 1872-1898); _Monuments Piot_ (Paris, 1894,
+  &c.); _Revue archéologique_ (Paris, 1844, &c.). The older works have
+  been recently superseded by important publications embodying the
+  latest views such as Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen des
+  strengen rotfigurigen Stils_ (1893); Louvre, _Catalogue des vases
+  antiques de terre cuite_, by E. Pottier (1896, &c.); S. Reinach,
+  _Répertoire des vases peints_ (Paris, 1899-1900); H. B. Walters,
+  _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with
+  an excellent bibliographical list; also art. "Hischylos" in _J.H.S._
+  xxix. (1909) p. 103.
+
+ETRUSCAN POTTERY--Parallel with the development of the art of pottery in
+Greece runs the course of the art in Etruria, though with far inferior
+results; in its later stages it is actually no more than a feeble
+imitation of the Greek. The period of time which we must consider
+extends from the Bronze age (1000 B.C. or earlier) down to the 3rd
+century B.C., when Etruscan civilization was merged into Roman.
+
+The earliest civilization traced in Italy is not, strictly speaking,
+Etruscan, but may perhaps be more accurately styled "Umbrian." It is
+usually referred to as the "Terramare" period from the remains
+discovered in that district in the basin of the Po. These people were
+lake-dwellers, barely removed from the Neolithic stage of culture, and
+their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and roughly baked. Cups
+and pots have been found sometimes with simple decoration in the form of
+knobs or bosses, and many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a
+support for the thumb.
+
+The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as "Etruscan," is
+known as the "Villanova" period, from a site of that name near Bologna,
+or as the period of pit-tombs (_a pozzo_), from the form of the graves
+in which the pottery has been found (see VILLANOVA). It begins with the
+9th century B.C. and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs
+usually contain large cinerary urns or _ossuaria_ (containing the ashes
+of the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic clay
+known as _impasto Italico_. These vessels were irregularly baked in an
+open fire, and the colour of the surface varies from red-brown to
+greyish black. They appear to have been covered with a polished slip,
+intended to give the vases a metallic appearance. The shape of the urns
+is peculiar, but uniform; they have a small handle at the widest part
+and a cover in the form of an inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig.
+63). Their ornamentation consists of incised or stamped geometrical
+ornaments formed in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body;
+more rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery is also
+found showing little advance on that of the Terramare period except in
+variety of decoration. The technique and ornament are the same as in the
+case of the urns. They correspond in development, though not in date, to
+the early pottery of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive
+pottery of other races, but one marked difference is the general
+fondness of the Italian potter for vases with handles.
+
+Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (_tuguria_), though
+these are more often found in the neighbourhood of Rome. One of the best
+examples is in the British Museum; it still contains ashes which were
+inserted through a little door secured by a cord passing through rings.
+The ornamentation suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the
+cover or roof being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams.
+The surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted
+with patterns in white.
+
+In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs, the pit
+being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known as the
+"trench-tomb" or _a fossa_ period, and extends from the 8th century B.C.
+to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of Greek pottery now first
+make their appearance. The character of the local pottery actually
+remains for some time the same as that of the preceding period, but it
+improves in technique. By degrees an improvement in the forms is also
+noted, and new varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is,
+however, no evidence that the wheel was used.
+
+Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri (Caere)
+belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars ([Greek:
+pithoi]) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while the
+upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or friezes. These
+designs were either produced from single stamps or rolled out from
+cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The subjects are usually
+quasi-oriental in character, and it is not certain that this ware was
+made in Etruria, especially as similar vases have been found in Rhodes
+and Sicily; either it was imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek
+models.
+
+The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature of the
+clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in white outlines
+on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of _impasto Italico_, was first
+hardened by baking, and then a mixture of wax, resin and iron oxide was
+applied and polished; on this the pigments, a mixture of chalk and
+earth, were laid. The subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least
+Greek in character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the
+drawing is crude and un-Greek in the extreme.
+
+The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third; but the
+difference is defined firstly by the appearance of a new type of tomb in
+the form of a chamber (_a camera_), secondly, by the all-pervading
+influence of oriental art, and to a less extent of that of the Greeks.
+The period extends from about 650 to 550 B.C., and is further marked by
+the general introduction of the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance
+of inscriptions in an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the
+earlier tombs the typical local pottery is of hand-made _impasto
+Italico_ resembling that of the previous periods; in the later we find
+what is known as _bucchero_ ware--the national pottery of Etruria--which
+is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked tendency
+to imitate metal.
+
+To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or Grotto d'lside
+at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the British Museum and
+include some remarkable specimens of pottery. It dates from about
+620-610 B.C. The most remarkable of the vases is a _hydria_, of
+reddish-brown clay covered with a lustrous black slip on which have been
+painted designs in red, blue and a yellowish white. The colours have
+unfortunately now almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had
+been fired. The principal subject is from the story of Theseus and
+Ariadne. This tomb also contained a large wheel-made _pithos_ of red
+_impasto_ ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the
+Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri (about 650 B.C.) large cauldrons of
+red glossy ware were found, with gryphons' heads projecting all round,
+to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from Falerii on a high
+open-work stand is now in the British Museum.
+
+We now come to the _bucchero_ ware, which is characteristic of the later
+portion of this period, though the earliest examples go back to the end
+of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black paste of which it is
+composed, covered with a more or less shining black slip. Modern
+experiments seem to indicate that the clay was smoked or fumigated in a
+closed chamber after baking, becoming thereby blackened throughout, and
+the surface was then polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware
+have proved that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired.
+The oldest _bucchero_ vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with
+incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like metal-work.
+Oriental influence then appears in a series of chalice-shaped cups found
+at Cervetri with friezes of animals. From about 560 B.C. onwards the
+vases are all wheel-made, with ornaments in relief either stamped from a
+cylinder or composed of separate medallions attached to the vase. The
+subjects range from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants
+making offerings (fig. 34); in other cases we find meaningless groups of
+figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern
+Etruria, but at Chiusi (_Clusium_) a more elaborate variety found favour
+from about 500 to 300 B.C. The shapes are very varied and the ornament
+covers the vase from top to bottom, the covers of the vases being also
+frequently modelled in various forms. The figures are stamped from
+moulds, incised designs being added to fill up the spaces. The range of
+subjects is much widened, including scenes from Greek mythology and
+oriental types combining Egyptian and Assyrian motives, which must have
+been introduced by the Phoenicians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Etruscan oinochoe, of black bucchero ware, with
+figures in relief. (British Museum.)]
+
+Thus the technique of the _bucchero_ wares is purely native, but the
+decoration is entirely dependent on foreign types whether Greek or
+oriental, and throughout the whole series the tendency to imitate
+metal-work is to be observed in every detail, both in the forms and in
+the methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing work
+in bronze.
+
+The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for notice
+is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the [Greek:
+kanôpoi] in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their mummies. They
+are rude representations of the human figure, the head forming the
+cover, and in the tombs were placed on round chairs of wood, bronze or
+terra-cotta. An example of such a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be
+seen in the Etruscan Room of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65).
+Their origin has been traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest
+Etruscan tombs. From these a gradual transition may be observed from the
+mask (1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head
+modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at last the
+complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are found in the
+"pit-tombs" of the 8th century B.C., and the latest and most developed
+types belong to the 5th century B.C.
+
+The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-engraving never
+extended to their pottery, which is always purely imitative, especially
+when they attempted painted vases after the Greek fashion. The kinds
+already described are all more or less plastic in character and
+imitative of metal, except in the case of the Cervetri and Polledrara
+finds, which have little in common with anything Greek, and exhibit a
+quite undeveloped art. But towards the end of the 6th century B.C., when
+Greek vases were coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were
+made to imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular
+class of Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most
+museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from peculiarities of
+style, drawing and subject, as well as their inferior technique (fig.
+35).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting
+scene of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.]
+
+At a later date (4th-3rd century B.C.) they began to copy red-figured
+vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the exception of a small
+class of a somewhat ambitious character made at Falerii (Civita
+Castellana), of which there is a good example in the British Museum with
+the subject of the infant Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all
+marked by their inferior material and finish and their bizarre
+decoration. The style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as
+ineffective, and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are
+generally introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in
+the Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate into
+barbarism.
+
+Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the extreme south
+of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous races of the
+Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is partly geometrical,
+partly in conventional plant forms, and is the result of natural
+development rather than of imitation of Greek types. Some of the shapes
+are characteristic, especially a large four-handled _krater_. They cover
+the period 600-450 B.C., after which they were ousted by the
+Graeco-Italian productions we have already described.
+
+ROMAN POTTERY.--Roman vases are far inferior to Greek; the shapes are
+less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes not without merits
+of its own, owes most of its success to the imitation or adaptation of
+motives learnt from earlier Grecian, Egyptian or Syrian potters. They
+required only the skill of the potter for their completion, and, being
+made by processes largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower
+scale of artistic production.
+
+It has been noted that during a certain period--namely, the 3rd and 2nd
+centuries B.C.--ceramic art had reached the same stage of evolution all
+round the Mediterranean, painted pottery had been ousted by metal-work,
+and such vases as continued to be made were practically imitations of
+metal both in Greece and Italy. These latter we must regard as
+representing ordinary household pottery, or as supplying to those who
+could not afford to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in
+metal, a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta
+bowl of the 2nd century B.C. in the British Museum which is an exact
+replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same collection, and
+may serve as an illustration of this condition of things (Plate II. fig.
+56).
+
+These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy, a
+district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria, and we
+have already seen that the same principle had long been in vogue among
+the Etruscans. Hence it is not surprising that an important centre of
+pottery manufacture should have sprung up in Etruria, in the and century
+B.C., which for many years set the fashion to the whole Roman world. But
+before discussing such products it may be as well to say something on
+the technical character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general.
+
+  _Technical Processes_.--Roman pottery regarded in its purely technical
+  aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek, chiefly
+  owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters' apparatus in
+  western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which only
+  the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far the
+  greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull
+  earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red shining
+  wares, usually known to archaeologists as _terra sigillata_, clay
+  suited to receive stamps (_sigilla_) or impressions.
+
+  For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in
+  different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to
+  grey, drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in
+  quality; most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from
+  the ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at
+  St-Remy-en-Rollat and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In
+  Italy we find a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being
+  devoted to its preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration
+  and style there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the
+  Italian and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is
+  often very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured
+  where they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of
+  manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have been
+  common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain and
+  Germany, and perhaps even to Britain.
+
+  The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has been a
+  much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the excavator of
+  the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming that it was a
+  natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing of the surface,
+  by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now generally agreed
+  that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman lamps and many of
+  the commoner wares have a gloss produced by polishing only, varying in
+  colour and brightness with the proportion of iron oxide in the clay
+  and the degree of heat at which the pieces were fired. But the surface
+  finish of the finer or _terra sigillata_ wares is something quite
+  distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully uniform perfection.
+
+  It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman
+  world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it
+  does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant
+  glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to
+  leave no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated
+  attempts have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but
+  chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that
+  it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body than
+  glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface polish or
+  than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have to wait
+  for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at once
+  a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. Whatever its
+  nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze itself
+  was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour of the
+  clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the quality of
+  red coral.
+
+  In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes as the
+  Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of abnormal
+  size, such as the large casks (_dolia_), which were built up on a
+  frame. Specimens of potters' wheels have been found at Arezzo and
+  Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for the pivot, and
+  bearing small cylinders of lead round the circumference to give a
+  purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum of the wheel. For the
+  ornamental vases with reliefs an additional process was necessary, and
+  the decoration was in nearly all cases produced from moulds. The
+  process in this case was a threefold one: first the stamps had to be
+  made bearing the designs; these were then pressed upon the inside of a
+  clay mould which had been previously made on the wheel to the size and
+  shape required; finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the
+  vase was thus produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare
+  occurrence in Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete,
+  requiring only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in
+  various materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64).
+  The moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired
+  when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in clay.
+  Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III. fig. 61),
+  and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo. Those
+  discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable evidence as
+  to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their presence
+  obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of this
+  evidence is increased when they bear potters' names.
+
+  Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery[8] are very numerous in
+  western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are at
+  Lezoux near Clermont, at Châtelet in Haute-Marne, and near Agen in
+  Lot-el-Gäronne. In Germany good remains have come to light at
+  Heiligenberg in Baden, al Heddernheim near Frankfort, Rheinzabern near
+  Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In England the best kilns are
+  those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at Castor in Northamptonshire
+  (see fig. 4).
+
+  _Shapes_.--As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of
+  shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same
+  difficulties as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They
+  may, however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing
+  liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on.
+  In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of archaic
+  and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in sacrifices.
+
+  The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were:--The
+  _dolium_, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the _amphora_, a jar
+  holding about six gallons; and the _cadus_, a jar about half as large
+  as the _amphora_. The _dolium_ had no foot, and was usually buried in
+  the earth; it was also used for purposes of burial. The _amphora_
+  corresponds to the Greek wine-jar of that name, and had, like its
+  prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii stamped
+  with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. _Od._ in. 21. I), or with painted
+  inscriptions relating to their contents. The _cadus_ is mentioned by
+  Horace and Martial.
+
+  Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and
+  flasks, the principal were the _urceus_, answering to the Greek
+  [Greek: oinochoê], the _ampulla_, a kind of flask with globular body,
+  and the _lagena_, a narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups
+  the Romans had almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great
+  majority of the ornamented vases preserved to the present day were
+  devoted to this purpose. The generic name for a cup was _poculum_, but
+  the Romans borrowed many of the Greek names, such as _cantharus_ and
+  _scyphus_. The _calix_ appears to have answered in popularity, though
+  not in form, to the Greek _kylix_, and is probably the name by which
+  the ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are
+  _lanx_, _patina_ and _catinum_. Another common form is the _olla_
+  (Greek [Greek: chutra]), 	which served many purposes, being used for a
+  cooking-pot, for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn.
+  The form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or
+  elliptical body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases
+  the principal was the _patera_ or libation-bowl, corresponding to the
+  Greek [Greek: phialê].
+
+_Arretine Ware_.--The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny, mention
+numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere, which were famous
+for the production of pottery in Roman times. Pliny mentions with
+special commendation the "Samian Ware," the reputation of which, he
+says, was maintained by Arretium (Arezzo). Samian pottery is also
+alluded to by other writers, and hence the term was adopted in modern
+times as descriptive of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs,
+whether found in Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only
+accepted with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840
+discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases found
+there as a local product, now known as "Arretine" ware. The name
+"Samian" has, however, adhered to the provincial wares and at the
+present day is often used even by archaeologists. But recent researches
+have shown that nearly all the provincial wares can be traced to Gaulish
+or German potteries, and, since it is implied by Pliny that "Samian"
+pottery is older than "Arretine," the name may now be fairly rejected
+altogether, as we have rejected the name "Etruscan" for Greek pottery.
+The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak of
+"china," and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later Greek
+pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century B.C.
+
+There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery centres in
+Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere, as well as at Saguntum
+in Spain, but all were surpassed in excellence by Arretium. In more
+modern times its pottery came under notice even in the middle ages, and
+discoveries were made in the time of Leo X (about 1500) and again in the
+18th century. The Arretine ware may be regarded as _the_ Roman pottery
+_par excellence_, and its popularity extended from about 150 B.C. down
+to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height in the
+1st century B.C., after which it rapidly degenerated, and its place was
+taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general characteristics may be
+summed up as follows:--(1) The fine local red clay, carefully levigated
+and baked very hard to a rich coral red or a colour like sealing-wax;
+(2) the fine red glaze, which has already been discussed; (3) the great
+variety of forms employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work;
+(4) the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters' names. The
+majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself, but there
+was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing pottery almost equal
+in merit, and it was also exported to central and eastern Europe and
+Spain.
+
+The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red appears to
+have been introduced by 100 B.C., when the first potters' stamps appear.
+These are usually quadrangular in form, though other shapes are found,
+and are impressed in the midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or
+on plain wares on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters'
+names is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific than
+others, and to have employed a large number of slaves, whose names
+appear with their masters' on the stamps. The best known is Marcus
+Perennius, whose wares take highest rank for their artistic merit, the
+designs being copied from good Greek models. He employed seventeen
+slaves, of whom the best known is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing
+as M·PEREN and TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his
+finest vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of
+Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures were designed
+by the masters, but that the vases were actually moulded by the slaves.
+Other important artists are Calidius Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P.
+Cornelius, who had no less than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself
+A·TITI·FIGVL·ARRET; the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus, a
+degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish wares.
+
+The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed from metal
+shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37, Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11).
+They are mostly of small size and devoid of handles, but a notable
+exception is a bell-shaped _krater_ or mixing-bowl, of which there is a
+very fine example in the British Museum, found at Capua and decorated
+with the four seasons (Plate III. fig. 62). For the decoration and
+subjects the potters undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the
+"new-Attic" reliefs of the Hellenistic period, of which the _krater_
+just cited is an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing
+maenads or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes
+which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others again
+are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament, figures when
+they occur being merely decorative. There is throughout a remarkable
+variety both in the ornamentation and in the methods of composition.
+
+_Provincial Wares_.--The Arretine ware, as has been noted, steadily
+degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and the manufacture of
+ornamental pottery appears to have entirely died out in Italy by the
+time of Trajan. Its place was taken by the pottery of the provinces,
+especially by that of Gaul, where the transference of artistic
+traditions led to the rise of new industrial centres in the country
+bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine.
+
+As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is, of
+the ornamented wares or _terra sigillata_, the clay is fine and
+close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows a light
+red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a brighter yet
+darker red colour (i.e. less like coral) than that of Arretine ware, but
+the tone varies with the degree of heat used. The most important feature
+is the fine glaze with which it is coated, similar in composition to
+that of the Arretine; it is exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid
+equally over the whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of
+the clay. The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware,
+by which, however, it is indirectly inspired.
+
+The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various types
+of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are preferred
+almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently bear the stamp
+of the potter impressed on the inside or outside. Although this ware is
+found all over the Roman world, by far the greater portion comes from
+Gaul, Germany or Britain, and evidence points to two--and only
+two--districts as the principal centres of manufacture: the valleys of
+the Loire and the Rhine and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st
+century A.D. Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and
+isolated finds of it occur in Spain and other parts.
+
+The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. Déchelette have shown
+that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be clearly traced, both
+in the shapes employed and in the method of decoration; and, further,
+that it is possible--at least as regards Gaul--to associate certain
+potters' names and certain types of figures, though found in many
+places, with two centres in particular, Graufesenque near Rodez
+(department of Aveyron) in the district occupied by the Ruteni, and
+Lezoux near Clermont (department of Puy-de-Dôme) in the country of the
+Arverni. The periods during which these potteries flourished are
+consecutive, or rather overlapping, but not contemporaneous, the former
+being practically coincident with the 1st century A.D., the latter with
+the 2nd and 3rd down to about A.D. 260, when the manufacture of _terra
+sigillata_ practically came to an end in Gaul.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Bowl of Gaulish ware, with moulded patterns in
+slight relief.]
+
+There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a
+transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north of
+Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, e.g. St Remy-en-Rollat, and
+others of later date, as at Banassac and Montans in the latter district,
+but none of these produced pottery of special merit or importance. The
+early Rhenish wares are, strictly speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic
+character, while the later German _terra sigillata_, for which the
+principal centres were Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in
+Bavaria, are of similar character but inferior to the 2nd-century
+pottery of Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV.
+fig. 66.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine;
+18-65, Gaulish and German.]
+
+The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we have said,
+almost confined to two or three varieties, which follow one another
+chronologically. A shape favoured at first is the _krater_, which has
+been mentioned as one of the characteristic Arretine forms; but this
+enjoyed but a short term of popularity. Early in the 1st century we find
+a typical form of bowl in use, which, following the numeration of Dr
+Dragendorff's treatise, is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is
+characterized by its moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings,
+and by the division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes
+for the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative,
+consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds are
+introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular panels
+or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a second variety
+of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was introduced; this is
+cylindrical in form, and, being found both at Graufesenque and Lezoux,
+may be regarded as transitional in character. In the latter half of this
+century a new form arises (No. 37; fig. 37), a more or less
+hemispherical bowl which holds the field exclusively on all sites down
+to the termination of the potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new
+system of decoration is introduced, the upper edge being left quite
+plain. The panels and medallions at first prevail, but are then
+succeeded by arcading or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and
+finally after the end of the 1st century (and on form 37 only) we find
+the whole surface covered with a single composition of figures
+unconfined by borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze;
+this is known as the "free" style (Plate IV. fig. 69).
+
+As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down that the
+conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are obvious
+imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the absence of
+Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include representations of gods and
+heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters and animals, the two latter
+classes being pre-eminently popular.
+
+The potters' names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common Roman
+type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux are Gaulish in
+form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, Illixo or Laxtrucisa. This seems to
+imply that Roman influence was still strong in the earlier centre which
+drew its inspiration more directly from Arretium. But even the purely
+Roman names are sometimes converted into Gaulish forms, as _Masclus_ for
+Masculus, or _Tornos_ for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form,
+depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief; on the
+plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but on the
+ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the figures. The
+usual formula is OF (for _officina_) or M (for _manu_) with the name in
+the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for _fecit_ with the nominative.
+
+Besides the ordinary _terra sigillata_ with figures produced in moulds
+we find other methods of decoration employed. In the south of France,
+about Arles and Orange, vases were made with medallions separately
+moulded and attached round the body; these have a great variety of
+subjects, both mythological and gladiatorial or theatrical, or even
+portraits of emperors. There is a remarkable specimen in the British
+Museum with a scene from the tragedy of the _Cycnus_, on which Heracles
+and Ares are represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate
+IV. fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ.
+
+Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux. Here each
+figure is attached separately to the vase, and the background is filled
+in with foliage produced by the method known as _en barbotine_
+(slip-painting), of which we shall speak presently. The effect of these
+vases, which are mostly large jars or _ollae_ (Plate IV. fig. 70), is
+often very decorative, and there is a fine specimen in the British
+Museum from Felixstowe, on which the modelling is really admirable.
+Other good examples have been found in various parts of Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Jar of Castor ware, with reliefs of a stag
+pursued by a hound, executed in semi-fluid slip. 6 in. high.]
+
+The "slip-decoration" process is practically unknown in Italy, but it is
+found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany, and appears to
+have originated in the Rhine district. It is not confined to the red
+ware, but in the early German examples is applied on a dull grey or
+black background. On the continent its use is almost limited to simple
+decorative patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in Britain it was largely
+adopted, as in the well-known Castor ware made on the site of that name
+(_Durobrivae_) in Northamptonshire. Many of the vases found or made here
+have gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes, or chariots executed by this
+method (fig. 38). The decoration was applied in the form of a thick
+viscous slip, usually of the same colour as the clay, but reduced to
+this consistency with water, and was laid on by means of a narrow tube
+or run from the edge of a spatula. The Castor ware appears to date from
+the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.
+
+Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally produced in
+Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such ware seems to have
+been produced in the Rhine district, represented by small jars covered
+with a glossy black coating, on which are painted in thick white slip
+inscriptions of a convivial character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or
+VIVAS (Plate IV. fig. 68). A very effective ware, obviously imitating
+cut glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux in
+both the red and black varieties.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Dragendorff in _Bonner Jahrbücher_, xcvi. 37 ff.;
+  Déchelette, _Vases céramiques de la Gaule romaine_ (1904); Walters,
+  _Ancient Pottery_, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii.; _British Museum Catalogue
+  of Roman Pottery_ (1908).     (H. B. Wa.)
+
+
+PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH POTTERY[9]
+
+Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter's art, it was the custom
+to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman empire and the
+appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian pottery of the early
+middle ages, as if the intervening centuries had produced nothing worthy
+of note. Even yet the successive steps by which this beautiful art arose
+are largely matters of inference and deduction, but it must be borne in
+mind that while the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of
+glaze and painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and
+Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction. In
+discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already pointed out at
+what a very early period they had developed the production of rich and
+beautiful coloured glazes--the Egyptians as a jewel-like decoration of
+small pieces made in a very sandy paste, or actually carved from stone,
+and the Assyrians, on a bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured
+brickwork. Though the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the
+peoples of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried
+on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There is
+abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of Roman times and
+later with rich turquoise blue and yellow glazes, though the potters had
+learned to produce this glaze on a material containing more clay and
+less sand than that used in earlier days. We know also that they had
+learned that the addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to
+be applied on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to
+be shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt, but
+appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia Minor; and
+throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of pottery were made which
+were clearly the starting-points of much of the fine pottery produced in
+Europe in later times. We find, for instance, side by side, a
+manufacture of bowls, dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of
+two distinct materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise
+blue, green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda
+and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple painted
+patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2) similar vessels
+made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and porous, coated with a
+white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin) covered with a yellowish lead
+glaze. These vessels were decorated in a variety of ways: (1)
+_Graffiati_; patterns cut or scratched through the coating of white slip
+while it was still soft, down to the red ground, so that when the vessel
+was glazed it displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2)
+Yellow and red ochre and copper scales were rudely "dabbed" over the
+white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it presented a
+marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red, yellow, brown or
+green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the section on _Egyptian
+pottery_ above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron were added to the lead
+glaze, and the resulting green or yellow glazes were applied to plain
+vases or to vessels decorated with moulded reliefs. In all these methods
+we see the continuation of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall
+also see that these, in their turn, became the starting-point of much of
+the medieval pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other
+southern countries.
+
+In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian times
+seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters of Assyria,
+just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian device of raising
+strong brown outlines round a design to control the flow of coloured
+glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze of Archers in the Louvre, was
+carried on by them, for it appears unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque
+of Mahommed I. built at Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse
+between the Persian and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to
+a general diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of
+the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean, though
+our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient data for any
+definite placing of the progress made. Our information is mainly derived
+from the examination of the rubbish mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in
+Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat
+was built in A.D. 640 by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century;
+partially rebuilt, it was given over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke
+sultan, and all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the
+site being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same way
+Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the site of which
+lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about 1220 by Jenghiz
+Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but was destroyed again in
+the following century, so that its existence practically ceased in the
+14th century. Rhagae was once an important centre of the ceramic
+industry, but this was transferred to the neighbouring town of Veramin,
+in the 13th century. Excavations have also been made on the site of
+Rakka, near Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few
+others of minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on
+the development of the potter's art in these countries during the period
+between the 4th and 12th centuries. Yet, until systematic excavations
+have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the Delta, on the same
+scale as those which have proved so valuable in Greece, Crete, Cyprus
+and the valley of the Nile, we cannot hope to possess sound
+chronological data of the developments of the arts in these countries.
+Meantime the exact share which should be allotted to each district for
+its discoveries will remain ground of contention for scholars of
+conflicting schools, though there can be little doubt that Egypt and the
+southern part of Syria played a more important part than has generally
+been supposed in the development of the potter's art at this period.
+
+_Persian Pottery_.--The most important pottery of the nearer East,
+whether considered on its own merits or from the influence it has
+exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly valued by
+collectors under the distinctive name of Persian; though much that
+passes under that name may not have been made in Persia. From the 10th
+to the 16th centuries the craftsmen of Persia were perfect masters of
+decorative design and colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of
+the forms proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity
+ever exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly of metal
+than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling for the
+material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are not only true
+clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to exhibit the qualities of
+the glaze and colour with which they were to be decorated. Certainly
+from the 12th to the 16th centuries the pottery of the Persians must
+rank among the greatest achievements of the potter's art. The ware was
+shaped from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of--but
+whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large proportion of
+sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish or red tint, and
+was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous slip, or with a
+mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin, which made it whiter
+still--the one aim was to produce a white pottery. On this white
+ground--with a coarsish absorbent surface--beautiful patterns, in
+conventional floral or animal forms, were deftly painted in
+cobalt-blues, manganese-purples, copper-greens and turquoise, with
+mixtures for intermediate tints; while a strong brownish-black outline
+colour was compounded by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be
+turned into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and
+later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour, often used
+in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze, generally of
+considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused; and the resultant
+effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour relieved on a ground of
+slightly toned white. Judging from fragments which have been found at
+Rai, and which can scarcely therefore be later than the 13th century, we
+find the characteristic Persian style of ornament already developed;
+dumpy little figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between
+cypress trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with
+conventional borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known
+type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral ornament
+which often runs to a beautiful tracery of "arabesque" lines. The
+drawing is generally finely outlined with brown or black (a survival of
+the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the earliest pieces the flat
+washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-blue, turquoise or green
+from copper, and shades of purple and brown from manganese. From the
+16th century onwards Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the
+designs and in the colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted
+with patterns in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the
+imitation of Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks.
+Finally, Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number of
+Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan, and we find
+that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-tê-Chên, with blue
+decorations in the Persian taste, so that we cannot be surprised at the
+growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style of decoration. From this period,
+however, Persian pottery deteriorated both in its technical and artistic
+aspects. Crudely moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with
+an opaque yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and
+turquoise, began to make their appearance, especially on the famous
+Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black outlines of
+the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource) vanish, and we get
+brighter and more glittering, yet poorer colours, including a rose-red
+enamel fired over the glaze, evidently imitated from the Chinese
+_famille-rose_ porcelains of the 18th century.
+
+The finest work appears to have been produced from the 11th to the 14th
+centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge of what is truly Persian,
+Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced to accept many conventional names
+that have perhaps little but custom to recommend them. There is, for
+instance, an important class of pottery known, until recently, only from
+a few remarkably handsome vases, and once called "Siculo-Arab" because
+these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware is
+characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished
+ornament--leaf-shaped panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns;
+striped and dotted bands; friezes of animals or birds amidst flowers and
+foliage, inscriptions, &c.; all strongly and firmly drawn in black or
+brown outlines and washed in with a very pure cobalt-blue or with
+turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of these pieces to the oldest
+Persian wares, we know that bowls, dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of
+the same kind have been dug up on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar
+ware has been found at Fostat, together with evidences of local
+manufacture, and occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so
+that probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria between
+the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards made by Syrian
+potters both in Persia and Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria
+and Albert Museum.)]
+
+_Other Persian Wares_.--We have already spoken of the prevalent use of
+coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer East--from Egypt to
+Persia--from remote times, either as the sole colour decoration or in
+conjunction with modelled or painted ornament. The fragments from Rai
+and Fostat include rich turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient
+Egyptian), deep and light-green glazes containing lead and copper,
+imitations of ancient Chinese céladon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a
+coffee-brown glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze.[10] All these may be
+found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled ornament; or
+covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted in white slip or
+incised in the paste. Sometimes, even at this early period, there are
+traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but not fired, to the glaze.
+
+At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls, dishes and
+vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque patterns in a singularly
+still underglaze black, and covered with the blue turquoise or green
+copper glazes. This characteristic and beautiful ware is common to
+Persia, Syria and Egypt in Saracen times, and it was soon prized in
+Europe, as is shown by the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury
+Fortnum built into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was
+apparently placed in the 12th century.[11]
+
+At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance, and in the
+13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there is a comparatively
+modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces bearing patterns modelled
+in low relief.
+
+_Persian Porcelain_.--This beautiful and somewhat mysterious ware--often
+called "Gombroon" ware--apparently made its appearance in the 13th
+century, though the bulk of the known examples are not earlier than the
+17th or 18th century. The ware is quite translucent and is of soft and
+delicate texture. Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture
+of pipe-clay and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a
+fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary porcelain
+oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes, bowls (often
+mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are generally very thin and are
+either perfectly plain or bear flutings or simple wavy patterns incised
+in the paste. Most characteristic and beautiful is the decoration by
+means of delicate perforations either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the
+finest pieces the perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form
+a decoration analogous to the well-known "rice-grain" decoration of the
+Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour, either a
+delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright céladon, or the
+well-known Persian blue ground; and this is sometimes decorated with
+lustre patterns. Nowhere can this rare and delicately beautiful ware be
+so well studied as in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+_Lustred Ware_.--The decoration of pottery with iridescent metallic
+films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inventions ever made
+by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only coloured clays, coloured
+glazes, or colours fired under the glaze, but we are now brought face to
+face with a colour effect produced by refiring the finished glazed
+pieces, at a lower temperature, with pigments painted upon the glaze
+(fig. 40; see also Plate V. 13th-century Persian lustre). How such a
+practice originated is probably an idle speculation, but it may have
+come through repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold
+was painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably
+vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver, applied
+over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make it adhere,
+may have given the first films of iridescent colour. We know certainly
+that before the 13th century the elements of the process had been
+mastered, and that the potters of the nearer East had learnt that by
+mixing some compound of silver (doubtless the sulphide) with clay, and
+painting the mixture on the finished vase, which was refired in such a
+way that the pieces were only raised to a dull red heat and were then
+exposed to the vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were
+left on the ware that looked like metal--but metal shot over with all
+the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green. Numerous
+fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred from the site at
+Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the beautiful process was of
+Persian origin, particularly as most of the examples then known bore
+designs of distinctly Persian style. We are now inclined to think that
+the process really arose in Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward
+to Persia, just as it was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In
+support of this view there is the written record of the Persian
+traveller Nasiri Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the 11th century
+(1035-1042). He was apparently familiar with the pottery of his own
+country, and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of
+Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the traffic of
+East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He mentions, specially,
+certain translucent bowls of earthenware decorated with colours
+resembling a stuff called "bougalemoun," "the tints changing according
+to the position which one gives to the vase." Such a description could
+only apply to "lustred" pottery, and it would seem as if this process
+must have been known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia
+(see Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret was
+soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it was practised
+at Rhagae in the next century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in
+brown copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting is
+gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)]
+
+The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-shaped tile
+of the year A.D. 1217 (A.H. 614), decorated with spotted hares,
+heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre relieved by dots and
+curls, and surrounded by an inscribed border. A vase in the Godman
+collection bears the date A.D. 1231 (A.H. 629), and some of the
+well-known "star and cross" tiles from Veramin belong to the year A.D.
+1262. The early Persian lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles
+with which the walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the
+more ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller numbers
+and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives of decoration were
+animals and birds (sometimes showing Chinese influence), the hare and
+the deer being favourites; roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and
+women, mounted or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend),
+conventional foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in
+a lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots
+etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered all
+over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out of this when
+it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white tin-enamel with which
+the early wares are generally coated. The lustre itself when viewed
+directly may look like some golden or deep chocolate-brown colour, but
+as the piece is turned to catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to
+bear a thin iridescent film, which glows with golden, green, purple or
+ruby-red metallic _reflets_. On the earliest examples the decoration is
+often entirely in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a
+pattern painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the
+glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear
+14th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decoration,
+more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised in low
+relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class, belonging to the
+14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze, with designs in low
+relief, picked out with scrolls and arabesques in white enamel or bold
+floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is frequently found applied to the
+rich cobalt-blue ground, and there are still existing a few magnificent
+vases which show the artistic possibilities of this scheme of
+decoration. It should be noted that when the pieces are in the round,
+the pattern is usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre
+ground as on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was
+replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration continued in
+use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629). To the last
+period belong many charming bowls, narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown
+lustre, with ruby _reflets_, on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware
+is pure white in substance and generally translucent, and the pieces are
+occasionally signed (see _Persian porcelain_ above).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Lamp from the Mosque of Omar.]
+
+_Damascus Ware_.--This time-honoured name (for "Damas Ware" was often
+mentioned in medieval inventories, and appears to have included many
+varieties of oriental pottery which were highly prized in Italy, France
+and England in the middle ages)[12] forms rather a puzzle nowadays for
+the archaeologist, for many diverse wares have been included under this
+title, some of which were not made at Damascus. Yet Damascus is one of
+the oldest cities in the world, and has seen unnumbered dynasties come
+and go around its desert-fringed oasis. An important centre of caravan
+traffic, a nexus of palpitating life from east and west, north and
+south, we cannot wonder if it developed a special pottery of its own,
+tinged with something of a cosmopolitan spirit. Formerly the Damascus
+wares were treated as a variety of the Persian pottery we have just
+described, but the best examples of the class now known under this name
+exhibit a mingling of various influences such as we might expect, and
+have well-marked affinities both with the Persian wares and those
+brilliant productions now commonly recognized as Syrian and Turkish,
+while even far-off echoes of Chinese decorative mannerisms are not
+wanting. The characteristic Damascus ware of the collector is marked by
+its quality; the ground is of very clear white, the colours are pure and
+brilliant, and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made.
+The decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more
+formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish
+pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay pigment
+of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably occur in the
+design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple made from
+manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in quality. Fine
+examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the British Museum and in
+the Louvre; its characteristic style of pattern is well shown in the
+16th-century Damascus piece reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid
+example is the lamp from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the
+British Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the
+Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong rather to
+Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears a dated
+inscription, "In the year 956 in the month _Jemazi-l-oola_. The painter
+is the poor and humble Mustafa." This is reckoned as June A.D. 1549. It
+may be remarked that our difficulties of identification are increased by
+the fact that, under Arab rule, Syrian and Persian potters were at work
+in Damascus, in Old Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments
+classified by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian
+workmen. In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese
+blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the nearer East, and
+quantities of fragments have been found at Fostat, Ephesus and
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Rhodian Jug.]
+
+_Turkish Pottery_.--This beautiful and striking ware, formerly called
+Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a known centre of
+manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in all the countries overrun
+by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th century, so that the name "Turkish," in
+spite of some opposition, is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42;
+and the 16th-century Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine
+white body of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash
+of pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly
+blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped up in
+palpable relief--the whole of the ornament being outlined with black or
+dark green. The ware was glazed with an alkaline glaze of great depth,
+so that the colours soften and sometimes run, producing one of the most
+brilliant and attractive of all the oriental wares. In certain districts
+the white ground was not used, but over it a slip of the red colour
+(Armenian bole), varying in strength from bright red to pale salmon, was
+laid over the piece, reserving the pattern only in the white slip, which
+consequently lies lower than the red ground. Other examples are known
+where the ground has been covered with lavender, blue, sage, apple and
+turquoise greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect of
+the whole was often increased by the application of gold-leaf over the
+fired glaze. The decorative motives are distinguished from those of the
+Persian wares by a breadth and boldness which are in keeping with the
+brilliant, and not always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is
+true, the Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the
+thistle-bloom and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment which
+permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish flowers such as
+the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, cornflower and lily (some of
+which were imported into Europe by the Turks), is as original and
+distinctive as the arrangement of the different elements of the design
+is artistic and charming. Other styles of design include formal patterns
+and diapers, rarely human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial
+devices and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining
+the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile
+hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic articles,
+dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers, sprinklers, jugs,
+tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls and mosque lamps are also
+plentiful. The tiles are found in all parts of the Turkish empire,
+though they were probably made at certain centres, such as Nicaea (which
+gave its name to the ware in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many
+of the mosques in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other
+centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot be
+distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and Kutaia. A
+small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian inscription stating
+that it was made by "Abraham of Kutaia" in the 16th century. A few fine
+bowls and vases, painted in a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and
+rosette scrolls, recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but
+of very characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place;
+and later, in the 18th and up to the end of the 19th century, an
+inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware usually
+takes the form of small objects--plates, cups, jugs, egg-shaped
+ornaments, &c.--with a thin, well-potted, white body and slight patterns
+of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &c., in blue, black and yellow.
+Turkish pottery was at its best in the 16th and the early part of the
+17th century, and though good tile work of later date exists, the
+general pottery deteriorated before the 18th century. An inferior ware
+of poor colour is still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some
+attempt has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration, but
+the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old times.
+
+  _Collections_.--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest
+  collection of the medieval pottery of the nearer East--the British
+  Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent examples.
+  The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten collection of
+  Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The museums of the
+  Louvre and of Sèvres have also many beautiful examples. Berlin,
+  Frankfort and other German towns have collections, but much smaller in
+  extent. Private collectors in England and France own many fine
+  specimens, and mention may be made particularly of those owned by Mr
+  Ducane Godman and Mr George Salting.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Fortnum, _Majolica_ (1896) (also in South Kensington
+  Museum Handbook); Falke, _Majolica_ (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet,
+  _Contributions a l'étude de la céramique orientale_ (Cairo, 1900);
+  Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik," in _Monatsschrift fur den
+  Orient_ (1884); Lane-Poole, _Art of the Saracens in Egypt_ (1886);
+  Migeon, _Manuel de l'art musulman_, vol. ii. (1907); Sarre, _Persische
+  Keramik_; and _Jahrbuch der koniglichen preussichen Kunstsammlung_
+  (1905), part ii.; H. Wallis, _The Godman Collection_ (1) _Lustred
+  Vases_ (London, 1891); (2) _The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles_
+  (1894); _Notes on some Early Persian Lustre Vases_ (1885); _Egyptian
+  Ceramic Art_ (1898).     (R. L. H.; W. B.*)
+
+
+HISPANO-MORESQUE POTTERY
+
+With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round the eastern
+Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting to follow the
+westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see how in their wake there
+also sprung up in Spain a ware of high distinction and beauty. The
+Iberian peninsula had been the scene of pottery-making from prehistoric
+times--a red unglazed ware was made before the dawn of civilization as
+finely finished as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see
+EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_), and the Romans had one of their great
+provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when a great
+part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and distinctive
+pottery was produced. What is by no means clear is how it came to pass
+that when the traditional methods, learnt by the Arabs in Egypt and
+Syria, were carried westward they should have undergone such a radical
+change. Oxide of tin, the opacifying and whitening material in glazes
+_par excellence_, was certainly known and used in the East from at least
+the 6th century B.C.; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of
+white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and it was
+similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and not general in
+those countries, where we find instead a consistent development of the
+pottery made with a white slip-coating and a clear alkaline glaze.
+Perhaps it was that at this period tin was almost as costly as gold, and
+it was only when potters with an oriental training brought their skill
+to Spain, where tin abounded, that the relative cheapness of the
+material led them to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There
+is a wide distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced
+wares, glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental
+type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is
+finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or no lead:
+in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for the addition
+of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense coating of white
+enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color of the clay beneath.) Such
+colours as were used for painted patterns were painted over this enamel
+coating before it was fired, so that they became perfectly incorporated
+with it, and then this ground furnished a splendid medium for the
+development of those thin iridescent metallic films that we call
+"lustres." The knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from
+the East also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing
+use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver--until the
+red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter silver
+lustres--we get the simple technique of one of the most distinctive
+kinds of pottery known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and
+copper lustre.]
+
+Briefly, the wares were "thrown" upon the wheel or "pressed" on modelled
+forms--handles, ribs and dots of clay, or strongly incised patterns were
+often added by hand--and they were then fired a first time. A coating of
+the tin-enamel (rich in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this
+coating designs were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these
+colours were only used as masses to break up the background. Then the
+second firing took place and the piece came from the firing all shining
+and white, except where the blue or brownish purple had been painted
+(see fig. 43). The lustre pigments, a mixture of sulphide of copper or
+sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre or other earth, was then
+painted over the glazed surface with vinegar as a medium. The repainted
+piece was fired a third time to a dull red heat, and smoked with the
+smoke from the wood used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent
+ochre and metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent
+films in all their beauty.
+
+The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the composition of
+the lustre pigments are given in Cocks's account of the processes
+followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises receipt of 1785
+gives:--copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver 1 peseta piece, sulphur 3
+oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped off the pots after lustring 36
+oz.[13] Interesting documents have recently been published concerning
+the works executed by the "Saracen," John of Valencia, at Poitiers in
+1384, and it is certain, from the list of materials supplied to him,
+that he made there tiles that were enamelled and lustred.
+
+The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer
+Edrisi's mention of the manufacture of "golden ware" then carried on at
+Calatayud in Aragon in 1154. Ibn Sa'id (1214-1286) speaks of the glass
+and the golden pottery made at Murcia (city), Almeria and Malaga. From
+the 4th century the notices which have come down to us divide themselves
+into two main groups relating to the industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at
+various localities, but especially Manises in Valencia.
+
+_Malaga_--Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom of Granada,
+which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century, the last remnant of
+Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under the art-loving Nasride dynasty,
+Mussulman arts and learning flourished to an unprecedented degree. In
+1337 Ahmed ben-Yahya al-Omarí enumerates, among the craft productions of
+Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not to be
+met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta mentions (1350)
+the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada,
+in his description of Malaga. The principal monument of the period is
+the royal palace of Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th
+century, from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases
+were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the "Alhambra
+vase," is admittedly the most imposing product of Hispano-Moresque
+ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped body (4 ft. 5 in. high) is
+encircled by a band of Arabic inscription, above which are depicted
+gazelles reserved in cream and golden lustre upon a blue field; the rest
+of the body and the prominent handles are covered with compartments of
+arabesques and inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck,
+divided by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques. Vases
+similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic characters and
+arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in the museums at St
+Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to the exact date of these,
+experts are not agreed. Though presenting all the characteristics of the
+14th-century Hispano-Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were
+produced at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in
+the Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which is
+by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1409-1418), not to Yusuf
+I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a dish (Sarre collection,
+Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon its back, in Arabic, the word
+Malaga; it is ornamented with eight segmental compartments filled
+alternately with strap-work designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was
+reconquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its
+industry probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in
+1539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished.
+
+_Valencia._--The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by Aragon in 1238.
+The history of its lustred ware is known from 1383, when Eximenes (whose
+evidence has been erroneously held to date from 1499) mentions the
+golden ware (_Obra dorada_) of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind
+was an offshoot of the Malagan industry, as in documents lately
+published (ranging from 1405 to 1517) it is repeatedly designated Malaga
+ware (_Obra de Malaga_). Its decorative qualities became famous
+throughout the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly
+manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl or Boil
+family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output of the kilns,
+and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is distinguished as regards
+its ornamentation from the pottery of Malaga by the adoption of a more
+natural rendering of plant form motives and by the use of armory. The
+ware consists of drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates,
+aquamaniles, vases, &c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed
+during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic
+inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the vine,
+bryony, &c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently bear the
+arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of Manises, or other
+Valencian or Italian families for whom they were made. Great dexterity
+is shown in the execution of minute and complicated schemes of ornament
+and in the richness of the colour schemes; golden lustre of various
+hues, with blue and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the
+ruby, violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours a
+wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and manganese was
+gradually discontinued and the ornament quickly became nondescript, but
+the brilliancy of the lustre pigment nevertheless obtained a wide
+popularity for the ware, as is attested by Marineo (1539), Viciana
+(1564) and Escolano (1610). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609)
+the industry was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by
+Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their productions
+can be summed up in the word "decadence." In the course of the 15th
+century the manufacture of lustred pottery was carried on at various
+other small towns near Valencia; in 1484 it was produced at Mislata,
+Paterna and Gesarte. It is known to have flourished at Calatayud in
+1507, and at Muel, also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district
+much pottery for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also
+produced.
+
+_Majorca._--Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was
+imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these
+imitations "majolica," changing the letter in the name of the islands
+(then called Majorica) where they originated. The truth would appear to
+be that Valencian wares, being exported in Balearic vessels that called
+at Majorca on the voyage to Italy, acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin.
+There is extant a potter's petition praying for permission to establish
+himself in Majorca (1560), in which he states that "Manises ware," &c.,
+had to be imported, as it was not made there.
+
+  _Collections._--In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British
+  Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny Museum
+  collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains many fine
+  typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the archaeological
+  museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg museums, the Metropolitan
+  Art Museum at New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain
+  good specimens. The private collections of England, France and Italy
+  are rich in these wares, among the finest being those of Mr F.D.
+  Godman (Horsham), and of Don G.J. de Osma (Madrid).
+
+  LITERATURE.--A. Van de Put, _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the 15th
+  Century_ (1904); F. Sarre, "Die spanisch-maurischen Lusterfayencen des
+  Mittelalters," &c. (in _Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen_,
+  xxiv. (1903); G.J. de Osma, "Apuntes sobre cerámica morisca: textos y
+  documentos valencianos," No. 1, 1906, and "Los Letreros ornamentales
+  en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv." (in the review _Cultura
+  Española_, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Gumá, _Rajolas valencianas y
+  catalanas_ (1905); J. Tramoyeres Blasco, "Cerámica valenciana del
+  siglo xvii." (in the _Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico Las
+  Provincias de Valencia_; J. Gestoso y Pérez, Historia de los barros
+  vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J.C. Davillier, _Histoire des
+  faiences hispano-moresques à reflets metalliques_ (1861).
+       (A. v. de P.)
+
+
+MEDIEVAL AND LATER ITALIAN POTTERY[14]
+
+Little is known of the potter's art in Italy after the fall of the Roman
+empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the Roman potters appear
+to have been gradually lost, leaving behind only sufficient skill to
+make rude crocks for domestic use and to coat them, if required, with a
+crude yellowish lead glaze sometimes stained to a vivid green with
+copper oxide. Applied ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched
+designs were the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the
+same class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of
+Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with Asia
+Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had been highly
+developed in fresh directions, as we have seen, introduced into Italy as
+well as the rest of Europe those superior wares characterized by a white
+surface decorated with bright colours under a brilliant transparent
+glaze, and glorified by metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not
+long remain unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian
+and Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the households
+of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque wares from
+which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for a new ware of their
+own. The technique of a siliceous slip-coating with colour painted on
+that and covered with a transparent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly
+used, and then not very successfully; it is only the introduction of the
+tin-enamel that was turned to fruitful account and led to the production
+of the magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. In
+the same way the practice of lustre decoration might have been learnt
+from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares (16th century)
+and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain, rather than to the
+earlier lustres of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are further evidence that
+though oriental decorative motives gave the Italians certain early types
+of design, it is the Hispano-Moresque potters from whom the Italians
+learnt the art they were afterwards to develop so splendidly in a new
+direction.[15]
+
+All the Italian pottery above the level of common crocks may be
+conveniently grouped into four classes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Italian Graffiato Plate, 16th century. (South
+Kensington Museum.)]
+
+1. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay, coated with
+a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered with a crude lead
+glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of rendering this ware
+ornamental, and fitting it for more than vulgar use, led to a great
+development of the _graffiato_ process; where, while the vessel, with
+its white clay coating was firm yet soft enough, patterns were scratched
+or engraved through the white slip to the red body beneath. This
+decorative method has been already mentioned several times, for it was
+practised during the early middle ages in all the countries from India
+to Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor has its
+practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times when painted
+majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier and humbler pottery
+was used by those who could not afford the former; and the
+gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a fine decorative quality
+of their own. From the depth beneath the present soil at which fragments
+of this ware have been disinterred, it is obvious that the method was
+widely practised in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known
+except those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early
+examples have been found all over northern Italy--in Faenza, Florence,
+Pisa, &c., and particularly in Padua, where it seems to have been
+extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its manufacture, even to
+the end of the 17th century, and Citta di Castello must have been noted
+for it in the 16th century, for Piccolpasso describes this ware as "alla
+Castellana" (see fig. 44). Apparently in the latter half of the 15th
+century a sudden advance takes place in the colouring of this
+_graffiato_ ware. Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of
+the earlier productions, underglaze colours--green, purple, blue and a
+brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black where
+it is thick--were applied in bold splashes under the straw-coloured
+glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very simple means. As
+fine examples of this kind we may mention the dish with the mandoline
+players, and one with cupids disporting themselves in a tree, in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum; the tazza, supported by three modelled
+lions, in the Louvre; and the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two
+saints, in the museum at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite
+erroneously, _mezza-majolica_. It had nothing to do with majolica, being
+the natural development of a much older process; and its manufacture was
+carried on all through the period of majolica manufacture and has never
+ceased.
+
+2. _Mezza-Majolica_--This name is accurately applied to certain Italian
+wares that made their appearance in the 12th century or even earlier,
+when rude patterns--a clumsy star, a rude crossing of strokes or some
+equally elementary work--are found painted on a thin white ground
+covering a drab body. The pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms,
+are uncouth in the extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and
+then thinly coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first
+to have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were added
+to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the rude painting
+were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese, and the final glaze, which
+is generally thin and often imperfectly fused, seems to have been based
+on the alkaline glazes of the nearer East. The specimens so assiduously
+recovered by Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are to
+be found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert museums,
+are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller knowledge of
+Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew.
+
+3. _Majolica_--For the last three centuries the word majolica has been
+used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but comparatively soft buff
+body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel of varying degrees of whiteness
+and purity, on which a painted decoration was laid and fired. In the
+later pictorial wares, a fine coating of transparent alkaline glaze was
+fired over the painting to soften the colours--really to varnish them.
+The word itself appears to have been derived from the name of the island
+Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the lustred wares
+of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably arriving in
+ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do not believe that
+the ware was actually made in that island. That the secret of the
+tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian majolica, was known
+in Italy in the 13th century is practically proved; and there is both
+literary and archaeological proof of its use there in the 14th. Mention
+of it is made in the _Margarita Preciosa_ published at Pola by Pierre Le
+Bon in 1336, and the well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I.,
+discovered under the Manfredi palace at Faenza, must have been made
+shortly after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of
+the mezza-majolica, until it practically superseded the latter for
+painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples have little
+more than an archaeological interest, and it was only after the last
+decade of the _quattrocento_ or the first of the _cinquecento_ that it
+blossomed into an artistic creation. In its prime the production of
+majolica was confined to a very small part of Italy. Bologna on the
+north, Perugia to the south, Siena on the west, and the Adriatic to the
+east, roughly enclose the district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini,
+Pesaro, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena.
+Towards the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and in
+the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurian factories at Genoa, Albissola
+and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent styles, while, at the
+end of the 17th and in the early part of the 18th centuries, the
+southern town of Castelli, near Naples, produced a ware which closes the
+period of artistic majolica.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I
+
+  FIG. 52.--CORINTHIAN JAR.
+
+  FIG. 53.--FRANÇOIS VASE. (From Furtwängler and Reichhold, <i>Griechische
+  Vasenmalerei</i>, by permission of F. Bruckmann.)
+
+  FIG. 54.--BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA BY EXEKIAS.
+
+  FIG. 55.--VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY. Signed by Python.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II
+
+  FIG. 56.--BOWL MADE AT CALES IN IMITATION OF METAL. (2ND CENT. B.C.)
+
+  FIG. 57.--VASE OF 5TH CENT. B.C., MODELLED IN FORM OF HEAD.
+
+  FIG. 58.--VASE OF 6TH CENT. B.C., IN FORM OF HELMETED HEAD.
+
+  FIG. 59.--FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE. (ROMAN PERIOD.)
+
+  FIG. 60.--AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH SCENE FROM EURIPIDES'
+  "HECUBA."]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III
+
+  FIG. 61.--MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL.
+
+  FIG. 62.--JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA.
+
+  FIG. 63.--EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR. (VILLANOVA PERIOD.)
+
+  FIG. 64.--STAMP FOR ORNAMENTING ARRETINE VASE.
+
+  FIG. 65.--ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC" JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV
+
+  FIG. 66.--MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE. (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 67.--MEDALLION FROM VASE MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE FROM
+  TRAGEDY. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 68.--JAR OF RHENISH WARE WITH INSCRIPTION. (3RD CENT. AFTER
+  CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 69.--BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES IN "FREE" STYLE.
+  (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 70.--JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)]
+
+4. _Lustred Majolica_--This brilliant species of Italian pottery (to
+which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to have been
+mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though experiments were made at
+Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza and Siena. Considering how much the
+Italian majolist owed to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable
+that this beautiful method of decoration should have made so tardy an
+appearance, for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier
+than the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently
+abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of Deruta,
+probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-marked affinities
+with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier examples are hardly to be
+distinguished from Spanish wares, and to the last the ware remained
+technically like the earlier ware, though with perfectly Italian
+decorative treatment. Yet the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have
+a quality of tone that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a
+wash of very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the
+most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us through
+the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre is a magnificent
+ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability the lustre process was so
+quickly abandoned on the fine painted majolica, because the increasing
+efforts to make a "picture" were discounted by so uncertain a process.
+When one of the later majolica painters had spent weeks on the
+decoration of some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of
+carefully drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose
+it to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process
+were inordinately great--Piccolpasso says, "Frequently only six pieces
+were good out of a hundred"--so that its use was relegated only to
+inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished and forgotten
+until its rediscovery in the second half of the 19th century.
+
+The history of the development of these noble wares is by no means
+clear, nor is it always certain what part was played by each town in the
+successive inventions of technical methods, decoration and colouring, so
+that it is better, in such a general sketch as this, to treat the
+subject in its broadest features only. In the earlier painted wares the
+only colours used were manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green
+as on the mezza-majolica, but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was
+added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate of
+lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were largely
+influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain,
+specimens of which were so prized as to be used for the decoration of
+church fronts and the façades of public buildings. The lustre of the
+Saracenic wares was not yet understood, but its place was taken first by
+manganese and afterwards by yellow. The designs were chiefly
+conventional flower-patterns in the Persian or Moorish style,
+arabesques, and floral scrolls, the ground being filled at times with
+those tiny spirals, scrolls and dots to which the Eastern potters were
+so partial. Figures, human and animal, were introduced either among the
+formal ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the
+outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see the
+early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures were, in fact,
+drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and not the vessel made
+to display the figure-subject as in the majolica of the succeeding
+century. The earliest dated example of this period is the pavement laid
+down in the Caracciolo chapel in the church of San Giovanni a Carbonara,
+in Naples, about 1440. Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the
+British Museum, and from their style it has been suggested that they
+were made by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen
+Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period also have
+been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain drugs or confections,
+and decorated with bold scrolls of formal oak leaves enclosing spirited
+figures of men or animals, or heraldic devices. These are characterized
+by a rich blue colour generally piled up in palpable relief and
+sometimes verging on black; the outlines are usually in manganese, and
+transparent green is used for details and occasionally even as a ground
+colour. This ware has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem
+very inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as
+Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert itself, and
+it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that he soon freed
+himself from repeating the styles of the wares from which he obtained
+his methods, and produced a distinctive type of ornament of his own. He
+revelled in patterns with bold floral scrolls, or those based on
+peacocks' feathers (see fig. 45), and then he advanced to concentric
+bands of painted ornament, borrowed from classic art yet breathing the
+true spirit of the Renaissance; while cable borders, chequer and scale
+patterns, bands of stiff radiating leaves, festoons of fruit and
+flowers, zigzags and pyramidal scrolls occupied nearly the whole surface
+or framed an armorial or emblematic central subject. Figure-subjects
+occur with increasing frequency as the century advanced; Madonnas and
+other sacred subjects, portraits, and, occasionally, groups of figures
+after the early Italian masters, or scenes borrowed from the first
+illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the
+conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface of the
+piece. The provenance of these 15th-century pieces still remains
+uncertain--Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other places offering
+rival claims,--but there is no doubt that from the earliest times Faenza
+was the most fertile centre of their manufacture, and almost all the
+motives of the _quattrocento_ wares are found on fragments discovered
+there or on examples that can be traced to Faventine factories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Early Faenza plate, with peacock-feather
+design, in blues, yellow and orange-red. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Early Faenza Potter's mark.
+
+Late Faenza Potter's mark.]
+
+It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca della
+Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1399-1482), and his followers,
+Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members of the family, as
+belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than of pottery, and this is
+right, for there is nothing certainly known of the work of this great
+sculptor which connects it with painted majolica. The old theory that
+Luca invented the tin-glaze is long since exploded; what he did was to
+use coloured glazes made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly
+modelled terra-cottas--a very different thing,--and it is by no means
+certain that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert
+Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every kind; and
+one may see there these beautifully modelled figures in high relief
+covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a background of slatey blue
+or rich manganese purple and framed in wreaths of flowers and fruit
+which are coloured with blue, green, purple and sometimes yellow. There
+are altar vases too, of classic shape with low relief ornament, covered
+with the same peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with
+modelled fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of
+roundels painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months;
+but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method is not
+that of painted majolica.
+
+A remarkable development took place at the beginning of the 16th
+century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest perfection of
+manipulative skill, both in potting and painting, was attained.
+Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed methods of painting
+then adopted are too much allied to fresco-painting to be considered as
+fit treatment for enamelled clay; but this view was certainly not
+accepted at the time, nor is it subscribed to by many modern collectors;
+yet, regarded as decorated pottery, the 15th-century majolica, simpler
+and more conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable.
+The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry under
+their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite view and
+spared no expense to provide subjects for their pot-painters. During
+the first two decades the influence of Faenza was paramount, and though
+the encroachments of purely pictorial motives are clearly indicated on
+the wares, room was still found for ornamental patterns. The broad rims
+of the dishes were covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently
+including grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza
+Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.). Sometimes reserved in the white on
+a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and yellow, sometimes
+traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze (called _berettino_) or
+painted in darker tints on a ground of orange or full yellow, the
+Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous feature of the early wares of
+this century. Honeysuckle patterns and interlaced lines drawn in pure
+white on a toned tin-enamel (white on white or _sopra-bianco_
+decoration) commonly appear on the sides of the deep wells of the
+dishes, while in the centre is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a
+small figure-subject. A similar treatment, without the _sopra-bianco_,
+was accorded to the fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &c., with
+moulded gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to
+Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also noted for
+delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a rich
+brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too, the "grotesque"
+decoration was practised with marked success. Other developments of this
+style are the "_a candelieri_" designs, in which grotesques were
+symmetrically arranged round some central subject, such as a candelabrum
+or vase, and "_a trofei_" in which trophies of arms, musical
+instruments, and other objects were symmetrically disposed, or arranged
+in studied disarray throughout the design; these patterns are generally
+associated with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers' gifts,
+dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust of a girl
+or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective inscribed on a
+ribbon in the background, were common to Faenza, Castel Durante and many
+other factories. Elaborate figure-subjects also were attempted early in
+the century at Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a
+dish in the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of
+the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schöngauer, delicately
+painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500.
+
+In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are almost
+always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the grey-blue
+_berettino_ ground, and blue was the prevailing colour of the shading
+and details. In the third decade of the century the style affected at
+Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The majolica painter's palette was now
+complete; in addition to the primitive blue, manganese-purple,
+transparent green and yellow, we find black, white, orange, greens of
+varying shades, brown, and a great number of intermediate tints obtained
+by mixing the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the
+best periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing,
+and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a thing as
+painting in enamels on the finished ware and refiring them at a lower
+heat was unknown before the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th
+century. A true red colour seems to have been beyond the power of most
+of the Italian majolists, and was only attained at Faenza, and with less
+complete success at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery
+behaves very indifferently on tin-enamel.
+
+[Illustration: Urbino Potter's mark.]
+
+In the Urbino style, which now became general, the ware was given over
+entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes from history or romance,
+scriptural and mythological, copied from the compositions of the Italian
+painters and usually set in a background of Italian landscape.
+Guidobaldo II., duke of Urbino, spared no pains to develop this phase of
+the art; the cartoons of Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others,
+were placed at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the
+paintings of Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi,
+Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together with
+engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico and others,
+were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the majolica. Some of the
+painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli, were eclectic in their tastes
+and made up their subjects by taking a figure here or there from various
+pictures. Thus of three figures on a plate in the British Museum,
+painted with the Dream of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and
+another from Mantegna. These "_istoriati_" wares reached their zenith at
+Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops of the
+Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity was very
+general, and skilful painters at many other towns produced specimens
+that it is hard to distinguish from those of Urbino. Baldasara Manara
+was a prolific painter in this style at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel
+Durante were little behind Urbino in the skill of their artists, the
+Lanfranchi family in the former town having a well-deserved reputation,
+while the founders of the Fontana factories learnt their art in the
+latter; and a few pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini
+as their place of origin.
+
+There will always remain a large number of specimens of majolica which
+cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular factory, partly
+because the same style of painting was in vogue at many places at the
+same time, and partly because of the itinerant propensities of many of
+the painters, whose signed works prove that they moved from place to
+place to practise their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists
+whose touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear their
+signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion of the
+finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the founder of the
+Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante to Urbino in 1519, and
+worked at the latter place in the factory of his son, Guido Fontana.
+There is little doubt that he was the painter of the famous service in
+the Correr Museum at Venice, which marks the transition from the style
+of Faenza to that of Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces
+with strongly marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the
+careful landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily
+recognized in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the
+Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.). His pupil, who frequently signed his
+name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost Urbino
+painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring and fine
+figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish flesh tints. But
+Niccola's grandson, Orazio Fontana (see example, Plate VI.), was perhaps
+the most celebrated exponent of the pure Urbino style, and his free
+drawing and soft harmonious colouring, in which a brilliant blue is
+usually conspicuous, are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the
+period.
+
+[Illustration: Venetian Majolica Potter's mark.]
+
+Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been noted. Those
+with the grey-blue (_berettino_) glaze were principally made at the
+factory called Casa Pirota, though inferior imitations were also
+produced at Padua, and a blue glaze of paler tint was largely used at
+Venice. Dolphins are a frequent motive in the arabesque ornaments of the
+same Faventine workshop, and many of the wares are marked with a circle
+divided by a cross and containing a dot in one of the quarters. A
+capital P crossed with a line or paraph is another Faventine mark, and a
+somewhat similar monogram, with an S added to the upper part, is found
+in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has already been stated that a red colour
+is peculiar to Faenza and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo;
+it was used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto in
+the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici family, many
+fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faventine style; a deep blue,
+heavily applied and showing the marks of the brush, was freely used in
+backgrounds, and delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and
+reminiscent of Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see
+example, Plate VI). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the
+reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and Siena are
+richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric bands; those of
+Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or have one or two rings of
+yellow. A few pre-eminently beautiful dishes, with central figure
+subjects of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes with poplar
+trees in a peculiar mannered style, are probably the work of M.
+Benedetto of Siena. Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange
+ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps decorated by the same
+hand. The dishes covered, except for a few small medallions, with
+interlaced oak branches ("_a cerquate_" decoration), are no doubt the
+productions of Castel Durante; and a certain class of large dishes with
+figure subjects in blue on a toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal
+ornaments in relief, are of undisputed Venetian origin.
+
+[Illustration: Later Cafaggiolo Potter's mark.]
+
+Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle of the 16th
+century and synchronized with the decline of the pictorial style. The
+figure subjects were relegated to central panels or entirely replaced by
+small medallions, and the rest of the surface covered with fantastic
+figures among floral scrolls, inspired by Raphael's grotesques painted
+on the walls of the Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this
+ornament was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is
+always more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed over
+with a pure milk-white, known as _bianco di Ferrara_ or _bianco
+allatato_, said to have been invented by Alphonso I., duke of Ferrara,
+who took an active interest in his private factory founded at Ferrara,
+and managed by potters from Faenza and Urbino.
+
+The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara; at the
+first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi family, and
+lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica was now in full
+decline, partly through the falling off of princely patronage, and
+partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour of Chinese porcelain,
+which was becoming more plentiful and better known in Europe. The
+manufacture, however, never entirely ceased, and revivals of the old
+style were attempted at the end of the 17th century by Ferdinando Maria
+Campori of Siena, who copied Raphael's and Michelangelo's compositions,
+and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli. The
+majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the ware, good
+technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak colouring; it
+continued into the 18th century. A coarse and inferior ware was made at
+Padua and Monte Lupo; and the factories of Faenza were still active,
+producing, among other kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops
+and gadroons. The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the
+north. Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the
+17th century, and at Savona and Genoa blue painted ware in imitation of
+Chinese blue and white porcelain made its appearance. In the 18th
+century a new departure was made in the introduction of enamel painting
+over the glaze, a method borrowed from porcelain; but this process was
+common to all the faience factories of Europe at the time, and though it
+was widely practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any
+particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th century wares
+continue to be made in the factories of Ginori, Cantigalli and others,
+not excepting the lustred majolica of Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared
+with the old pieces, the modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in
+drawing, suspiciously wanting in the quality of the colours and the
+purity of the final glaze which distinguish the work of the best period.
+
+[Illustration: Turin Potter's mark.
+
+Savona Potter's marks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46--Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre
+only, made at Pesaro or Deruta, c. 1500. The motto on the scroll may be
+Englished as follows: "He who steers well his ship will enter the
+harbour." (Louvre.)]
+
+_Lustred Wares._--The lustred wares of Deruta have marked
+characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from the
+Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour of such a
+derivation. The most characteristic examples are large dishes and
+plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel on the upper face only, the
+back having a lead glaze. They are often decorated (see fig. 46) with a
+single figure or bust in the centre (with or without an inscribed
+ribbon), which is usually set against a dark blue background which
+covers only half the field, while in the other half is a formal flower,
+and in the borders are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with
+scale pattern, or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic,
+the designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a
+greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent _reflets_ recalling
+mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this _madreperla_ tint to a
+brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes modelled
+in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the Deruta lustred
+wares are scarcely older than the 16th century, and the style was
+continued as late as the second half of that century. Deruta pottery was
+not always lustred, and some of the pieces signed by the painter El
+Frate, who flourished between 1541 and 1554, are without the lustre
+pigment, though showing the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares.
+The lustred majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the
+work of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from Pavia,
+with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained citizenship in
+1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction of sculpture, and some
+of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia are still in existence;
+indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred majolica attributed to him is
+a plaque of 1501, with the figure of St Sebastian in relief, in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum. It is not known whence he learnt the secret
+of the beautiful transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or
+rosy lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares, and no
+doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter and developed by
+Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden, yellow, brown and opalescent
+lustres were also freely used at Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly
+applied. Finished painted pieces were sent from other factories to
+receive the addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be
+distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre is an
+integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred enrichment, the
+majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities, for its styles were
+various and almost all borrowed (see fig 47). The archaic taste of
+Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques of Faenza and Castel Durante, and
+in a lesser degree the "_istoriato_" style of Urbino, reigned in turn.
+Perhaps the most characteristic paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the
+central medallions of cups and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of
+a child or a cupid in _grisaille_. Giorgio's larger figure compositions,
+if indeed his signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted
+the designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising
+to a very high standard--as the dish with "the Three Graces" in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum, and the "Bath of Nymphs" in the Wallace
+collection--while in others the figure drawing is quite inferior. The
+arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio wares are usually of great
+merit. There are a few known pieces of unlustred Gubbio wares with
+figure subjects, painted chiefly in blue and in the style of the early
+Faventine artists. After 1517, when we may assume that the lustre
+process was thoroughly mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed
+with the initials or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly
+executed scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of
+the plates and dishes. The master's latest signed work is dated 1541,
+and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene assisted
+him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor of the lustre
+secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who signed his wares with
+the initial N, but this conjecture rests solely on the ingenious, but
+unsupported notion that N is a monogram of the first three letters of
+the name Vincentio. Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio
+plates, and the latest dated example of the ware is signed by one
+"Mastro Prestino" in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that
+it is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely
+disappear.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and
+blue outline. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Gubbio Potters' marks.]
+
+  The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows:--among the earliest
+  are small bowls (_scodette_), often with flattened sides; jugs
+  (_boccali_) with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil
+  form; large dishes with gradually shelving sides (_bacili_), or with
+  flat broad rims and deep centres; akin to these are the plateaux with
+  a raised flat disk in the centre; small dishes with broad flat rims
+  and deep though narrow central walls (_tondini_), suitable for handing
+  a wine-glass or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (_piatti_ or
+  _taglieri_); saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with
+  moulded sides (_tazze_ or _fruttieri_) suitable for holding fruit.
+  Among the vase forms ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat
+  handles are common in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars
+  for confectionery, drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form
+  with graceful concave sides known as the "_albarello_," in shape of
+  Eastern origin, and in name perhaps derived from the Persian _el
+  barani_ (a vase for drugs, &c.); other vase forms with spouts and
+  handles were used for the same purpose; ornamental vases after
+  classical designs (_vasi a bronzi antichi_); and in the best Urbino
+  period a great variety of fanciful forms--ewers, vases, cisterns,
+  shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots, &c., with applied masks and serpentine
+  handles, were made in the exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece
+  of furniture for the bedside of ladies in childbirth (_vaso
+  puerperale_) consisted of a bowl with a foot surmounted by a flat
+  trencher on which fitted an inverted drinking-bowl (_ongaresca_); and
+  above this again a salt-cellar with cover. Many of these shapes were
+  suited to daily use, but the richly decorated majolica was designed to
+  adorn the walls, the _credenze_, table-centres and cabinets of the
+  rich. This alone could have been the destination of the large dishes
+  (_piatti di pompa_) with rim pieces for suspension, and the smaller
+  dishes (_coppe amatorii_) with portraits of young men and girls and
+  lovers' symbols; and it is inconceivable that the costly lustred wares
+  of Gubbio or the fine _madreperla_ dishes of Deruta were designed for
+  anything but decorative use. The ware was in fact an article produced
+  for the wealthy in the century of Italy's glory, and under no other
+  conditions could such magnificent and expensive pieces have been made.
+
+  _Technical Methods._--This is a convenient place to give an account of
+  the methods used by the early medieval potters--(1) because they
+  represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th century,
+  and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because, besides
+  all that a potter could derive from an examination of the wares, we
+  have ample written accounts of the methods and processes followed by
+  the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published an epitome of
+  the account given in Biringuccio's _La Pyrotechnica_ (Venice, 1540),
+  and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a potter of Castel
+  Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and Albert Museum, which,
+  besides giving an account of the processes, contains illustrations of
+  kilns, mills, decorative motives, &c.[16]
+
+  1. The potter's clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds
+  prepared by (a) beating and picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing
+  with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic
+  clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the
+  potter's clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish,
+  Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known
+  geologically as "marls," which contain a large percentage of carbonate
+  of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and
+  give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other
+  kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see
+  Deck's _La Faience_). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares are
+  useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery
+  bodies for such purposes.
+
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
+    |                |  Delia  | Majolica. | Delft. |  French  |
+    |                | Robbia. |           |        | Faience. |
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
+    | Silica         |  49.65  |   48.00   | 49.07  |  48.65   |
+    | Alumina        |  15.50  |   17.59   | 16.19  |  17.05   |
+    | Lime           |  22.40  |   20.12   | 18.01  |  19.43   |
+    | Magnesia       |   0.17  |    1.17   |  0.82  |   0.27   |
+    | Oxide of iron  |   3.70  |    3.75   |  2.82  |   4.33   |
+    | Carbonic Acid, |         |           |        |          |
+    |   water, &c.   |   8.58  |    9.46   | 13.09  |  10.27   |
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
+
+  2. _Shaping._--The vessels were either "thrown" on the potter's wheel
+  (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian times), or
+  they were formed by "pressing" thin cakes of clay into moulds, made of
+  a composition of plaster (_gesso_), bone-ash and marble dust. In the
+  latter way all shapes that were not circular were made, as well as
+  those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated from embossed metal
+  forms. It is interesting, though not surprising, to note that for the
+  fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when sufficiently dry,
+  were recentred on the wheel or were placed in a joiner's lathe and
+  smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The Greek potters did the
+  same, and this practice must always be followed where fine painting or
+  gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the later florid vases of the
+  Urbino style the piece was built up of thrown parts and moulded parts
+  (handles, masks, spouts, &c.), luted together with slip when they were
+  dry enough to be safely handled, and then retouched by the modeller or
+  vase-maker, a method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of
+  pottery or porcelain.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.
+
+    Syro-Persian: 13th century.
+
+    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.
+
+    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.
+
+    Damascus: 16th century.
+
+    Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.]
+
+  3. _The Glaze._--The white enamel which formed at first both the glaze
+  and the ground for painting upon--_bianco_, as it was called--was
+  prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (_marzacotto_) was
+  made by melting together clean siliceous sand (_rena_) and the potash
+  salt left as the lees of wine (_feccia_). This corresponds to the
+  alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash for
+  soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian
+  potter, and accordingly the _bianco_ was made by melting together
+  thirty parts of _marzacotto_ and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes.
+  The white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and
+  potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin.
+
+  4. Pigments (_colori_) were compounded from metallic oxides or earths;
+  the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed with oxide of
+  iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper (the turquoise
+  tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide of copper is
+  impossible with a glaze of lead and tin); and the greens were made by
+  mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or oxide of iron; blue,
+  from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue glass (_smalto_, or
+  _zaffara_); brownish-purple, from manganese; black, from mixtures of
+  the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish brown, of Faenza and
+  Cafaggiolo was probably the same Armenian bole that was used so
+  magnificently by the makers of the Turkish pottery, but on the white
+  enamel ground this colour was most treacherous and uncertain. It must
+  be remembered that many of these colours owe their tint to the lead
+  used in their composition, or to the grounds containing oxides of lead
+  and tin on which they were painted. Piccolpasso describes the
+  preparation and composition of the various colours used in his day.
+
+  5. _Coperta_, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin
+  coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to give
+  a smooth bright surface. This _coperta_ was a soft lead glass
+  consisting of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts;
+  potash, 12 parts; and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then
+  finely ground in water.
+
+  6. _Methods of Glazing and Decorating._--In the mezza-majolica and the
+  early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in the
+  white bath to give it an envelope (_invetriatura_) before it was fired
+  at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much better
+  to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and brittle
+  as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel, by
+  dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This was
+  the practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel, the
+  thickness of glove leather, having been obtained, the piece was
+  carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the
+  absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes,
+  &c., in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other
+  colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second time to a
+  heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted on the
+  vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the same
+  operation. This method of painting on the unbaked enamel demanded a
+  bold direct treatment--for alteration or retouching was
+  impossible--and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due to
+  this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was
+  felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface,
+  and so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of _coperta_
+  and fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother
+  and more glossy. Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs
+  of pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The
+  white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy
+  surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could
+  execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film
+  of _coperta_ was then washed over the painting, and the piece was
+  fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances
+  it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method
+  has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally we
+  should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been
+  painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely
+  certain when delicate white patterns have been "picked out" in a
+  coloured ground.
+
+  Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica it
+  indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final
+  firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those
+  used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an
+  otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were
+  placed in a special kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just
+  visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was
+  allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films
+  (silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze.[17]
+
+  _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the
+  most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at
+  the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan
+  collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection is
+  valuable, being rich in "signed" pieces of the first quality. The
+  Wallace collection and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum
+  collection, &c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable
+  examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at Sèvres have
+  fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be found in the
+  Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum at Brunswick contains
+  one of the largest collections known, but many inferior and doubtful
+  examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St Petersburg have noteworthy
+  collections. In Italy, the Bargello at Florence and the museums of
+  Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, Pesaro, Urbino, Rome and Naples all have
+  collections, whilst interesting examples of local manufactures are to
+  be found in many of the smaller Italian towns. The American museums,
+  especially those in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine
+  examples.
+
+  LITERATURE.--F. Argnani, _La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine_ (Faenza,
+  1889 and 1903); D. Bonghi, _Intorno alle Majoliche di Castelli_
+  (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, "Siena," in the _Nineteenth
+  Century_, September 1900; Hensel, _Essai sur la majolique_ (Paris,
+  1836); G.I. Montanari, _Majoliche dipinte nella collezione del N.S.C.
+  Domenico Mazza_ (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, _Di un insigna raccolta di
+  majoliche_ (Bologna, 1844); also _Di un pavimento in majolica_
+  (Bologna, 1853); J.C. Robinson, _Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages_
+  (London, 1862); E. Darcel, _Musée du Louvre: Notice des faïences
+  peintes_; Drury E. Fortnum, _Contribution to the History of Pottery_
+  (London, 1868); Delange, _Recueil de faïences italiennes du XV^e au
+  XVII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, _Italienische Maiolika
+  Fliesen_ (Berlin); E. Molinier, _Les Majoliques italiennes en Italie_
+  (Paris, 1883), also _La Céramique italienne au XV^e siècle_ (Paris,
+  1888); C. Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, Castel
+  Durante 1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris,
+  1841 and 1860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari,
+  _Notizia della raccolta Correr_ (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, _A
+  Descriptive Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum_
+  (London, 1873); Beckwith, _Majolica and Faience_ (New York, 1877); G.
+  Corona, _La Ceramica_ (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, _Istoria delle
+  fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi_ (Pesaro, 1879); A. Genolini,
+  _Majoliche italiane_ (Milan, 1881); Mely, _La Céramique italienne_
+  (Paris, 1884); J.E. Jacobsthal, _Süd-italienische Fliesen_ (Berlin,
+  1886); Bertolotti, _Figulini, fonditori, e scultori_ (Milan, 1890); H.
+  Wallis, _Italian Ceramic Art_ (1897), _The Oriental Influence on the
+  Ceramic Art of the Italian Renaissance_ (1900), _The Art of the
+  Precursors_ (1901), _The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century_
+  (1902), _Oak-leaf Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware_ (1903), _The
+  Albarello_ (1904), also _Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana_ (1905),
+  and _Italian Ceramic Art: Figure Designs_ (1905); Tesorone, _L'Antico
+  Pavimento delle Logge di Raffaello in Vaticano_ (Naples, 1891);
+  Columba, _Il "Quos Ego" di Raffaello_ (Palermo, 1895); Drury E.
+  Fortnum, _Majolica_ (London, 1896); also _Fortnum Collection in the
+  Oxford Museum_ (London, 1896); O. von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin,
+  1896); also _Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italienischen
+  Majoliken_ (Leipzig, 1899); Antaldi Santinelli, _Museo di Pesaro_
+  (Pesaro, 1897); De Mauri, _L'Amatore di Majolica_ (Milan, 1898); E.
+  Hannover, _De Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence_
+  (Copenhagen, 1906).     (R. L. H.; W. B.*)
+
+
+FRENCH POTTERY FROM THE 15TH TO THE 19TH CENTURY
+
+The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here, for it was,
+in the main, similar to that which was made generally in Europe--rudely
+shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated with modelled ornament
+and glazed with yellow or brown lead glaze, or, if coated with white
+slip, decorated with bright green glazes, and towards the end of the
+15th century with greyish blue. The later specimens of this simple
+ware--pronouncedly Gothic in feeling--were often extremely decorative.
+Avignon, Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly
+national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work, the
+reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumulates that
+from time to time the princes and great nobles imported Spanish or
+Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decoration of their
+palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought Jehan de Moustiers and
+Jehan-le-Voleur, "_ouvriers en quarrieaux peints et jolis_," in 1391, to
+paint tiles for his palaces at Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we
+have already referred to the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at
+Poitiers by John of Valencia, the "Saracen," in 1384 for Duke Jean de
+Berry.[18] Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign
+work left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at a
+later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia from Italy to
+decorate his "Petit Château de Madrid" in 1529, or when Masseot
+Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at Rouen the painted tile pavements
+for the château of Ecouen, the cathedral of Langres, and other places,
+nothing came of the imported methods; the works were executed and left
+no traces on the general pottery of the country. During the 16th
+century, however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France of
+distinctive quality, and both eminently French--the Henri-Deux ware and
+the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators.
+
+_Henri-Deux_, _Oiron_ or _St Porchaire_ ware, for all these names have
+in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery, specimens
+of which are now valued at more than their weight in gold, was once
+believed to have been made by the librarian Bernard, and his assistant
+Charpentier, for their patroness Helène de Hangest about 1529 at her
+château at Oiron, near Thouars.[19] A few years ago this theory was
+discarded in favour of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of
+St Porchaire in the same region;[20] but even of this theory there is
+insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the maker and
+the place of origin. All we know is that the ware dates from the reign
+of Henry II., and that it was probably made somewhere near Oiron, as
+most of the specimens have been found in that district. The work is _sui
+generis_, for it had no direct ancestry, neither did it leave any mark
+on contemporary French pottery. Sixty-five pieces of the ware (see fig.
+48) are known to be in museums and private collections; the Louvre and
+the Victoria and Albert Museum have the best collections of their kinds,
+but the Rothschilds still hold the greater number of examples. The ware
+is fashioned in a simple whitish pipeclay, and ornamented with
+interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of the period, inlaid in
+yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The forms are generally graceful, but
+some examples are over-elaborate and overloaded with modelled ornament.
+The pieces were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas,
+ewers, holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been "thrown"
+and "turned" to a perfect shape, metal tools, such as were used by the
+bookbinders and casemakers of that day, were pressed into the clay, so
+as to form sunk cells of ornamental tooling. These cells were carefully
+filled with finely-prepared slips of other clays, that would burn
+yellow, buff or dark-brown; and when the whole was dry the piece was
+carefully smoothed again, and moulded reliefs were attached, or touches
+of colour were applied. After being fired the ware was glazed,
+apparently with the ordinary lead glaze of the time carefully prepared
+and fired again. At a later period the ornament was not inlaid in this
+elaborate manner, but was simply painted, as indeed it might all have
+been so far as decorative effect is concerned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Tazza of Oiron pottery. (Louvre)]
+
+[Illustration: Oiron Potter's mark.]
+
+_Palissy Ware._--Bernard Palissy was a genius of original talent, but,
+at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained a legendary rank as
+one of the great potters of the world which his pottery does not
+warrant. He is supposed to have spent sixteen years in the search for
+the white enamel which was being used all the time in Italy and
+Spain--probably he was searching for the mystery of Chinese
+porcelain--and when he settled down to make the "Palissy ware," he did
+nothing more than carry to perfection the methods of the village
+pot-makers of his own district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed
+groups of moulded plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with
+crude green, brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a
+well-prepared lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators, like A.
+Cléricy and B. de Blémont, who executed works quite as good as those of
+their master; but their works also vanished and left no permanent
+impression on the general trend of French pottery.
+
+Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed over the
+French border and attempted to introduce the manufacture of their
+tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works of Gambin and Tardessir of
+Faenza, established at Lyons about 1556; of Sigalon at Nîmes in 1548; of
+Jehan Ferro at Nantes about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed
+impetus came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague, became
+duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists, working under
+princely patronage, planting their decadent art in the centre of France.
+The first efforts met with little success until, with the appearance of
+the Conrades from Savona, who were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get
+the genuine ware of Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of
+the Conrades or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased
+majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder, the
+colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited. The first
+departure from Italian traditions is seen in the ware of the so-called
+"Persian style" of Nevers--probably adopted from contemporary work in
+Limoges enamels on metal--where conventional and fanciful designs of
+flowers and foliage, birds, animals or figures were thickly raised in
+white enamel on a ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the
+middle of the 17th century the Italian style of design appears to have
+been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in blue or in
+polychrome, but really imitated from the "Delft" copies of Chinese and
+Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and Moustiers became famous for their
+distinctive wares Nevers copied their designs also, and on a gradually
+descending scale the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th
+century, when France was flooded with the rude _Faiences patriotiques_
+from this centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Dish of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in
+blues and deep red.]
+
+The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces of Italian
+influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the famous Poterats in
+the later part of the 17th century. A new scheme of ornamentation was
+gradually evolved in the daintily-designed scalloped and radiating
+patterns adapted from oriental fabrics, lace and needlework, and from
+the ornamental devices of contemporary printers. These designs, having
+been skilfully drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue,
+strong yellow, light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief,
+applied as flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and
+sparkling ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian
+majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that rival
+factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny, Quimper, Lille,
+and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and Lille made fine pottery
+of this class at the end of the 17th and in the early 18th century. It
+was imitated at Nevers, the potters' marks shown being those of J.
+Bourdu and H. Borne. In the south of France, Pierre Clérissy established
+the industry at Moustiers in 1686, and, though the early Moustiers ware
+bears a strong resemblance to the debased Italian majolica of the time,
+the Moustiers painters soon left that behind, and on a glaze of
+inimitable whiteness and softness they deftly pencilled blue patterns
+based on the engravings of designs after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a
+later date Olerys, who had been to Alcora to introduce the French
+faience into Spain, returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale
+polychrome style very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are
+covered with patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale
+green and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the
+grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of Callot.
+Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as those at Apt, Ardus
+and Montauban, and even at Narbonne, Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just
+as the northern factories had sprung from Rouen.
+
+[Illustration: Nevers Potters' marks.]
+
+We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns in the
+Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly followed at all the
+French factories during the 18th century. At Strassburg a fresh impetus
+was given in this direction when, about 1721, Charles Hannong introduced
+the practice of painting his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze
+colours used by the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French
+potter to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and
+moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the coveted
+porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe. This new departure
+marks the end of the best period of French faience, but so successfully
+did it meet the demands of the time that it gradually displaced the old
+method of decoration where the colours were painted on the raw glaze and
+fired along with it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new
+ware in the first half of the 18th century at Niederviller, Lunéville
+and Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at Rouen,
+Sinceny, Marseilles, &c. With its general adoption the old French
+faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed, to make way for a
+tin-enamelled imitation of _famille-rose_ porcelain. But this last style
+was not of long life. The wealthy classes were no longer patrons of
+pottery but of porcelain, and when, after 1786, the newly perfected
+English earthenware was thrown upon the French market, the French
+faience-makers had to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of
+this neater and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery.
+This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary times,
+brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we shall treat
+of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a subsequent
+section.
+
+  _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British Museum
+  contain typical examples; but not such collections as are to be seen
+  in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sèvres, or the French
+  provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles, Lille, St Omer, &c.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Deck, _La Faience_ (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and Garnier,
+  _French Pottery_ (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks, 1884); Le
+  Breton, _Le Musée céramique de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1883); Milet, (?)
+  _Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1898);
+  Pottier, _Histoire de la faience de Rouen_ (Amiens, 1870); L'Abbé H.
+  Requin, _Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers_, tome I^er
+  (Paris, 1903); M.L. Solon, _The Old French Faience_ (London,
+  1903)--the best survey of the whole subject, with a very full
+  bibliography. The various volumes of the _Gazette des beaux-arts_
+  contain many valuable original articles.     (W. B.*)
+
+
+GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN POTTERY
+
+In northern Europe until the time of the Renaissance the making of tiles
+is the only branch of the potter's craft of artistic rank. The pavement
+tiles of Germany of the Gothic period, examples of which have been
+found in the valley of the Rhine from Constance to Cologne, often bear
+designs of foliage or grotesque animals full of character and spirit.
+Their decoration is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood
+or clay, or by "pressing" the tile in a mould to produce a design in
+relief. The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze--green, brown
+or yellow--but is generally left unglazed.
+
+Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as the 14th
+century for the construction of stoves, such as have continued in use in
+Germany to the present day. About 1500 a development took place in the
+combination of glazes of different colours on a single tile. In the
+middle of the 16th century Renaissance ornament appears in place of
+Gothic canopies and tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used
+in combination with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the costume
+of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches are a
+favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares of similar
+technique known as _Hafnergefässe_, which have been wrongly attributed
+to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were made not only in that city but
+also in Silesia and at Salzburg, Steyr, and elsewhere in Upper Austria;
+their manufacture continued into the 18th century.
+
+Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on a white
+enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany about 1525, and it
+is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel should really be
+associated. The same style survived for more than a century and a half
+in the stoves and pottery made by the Pfau family at Winterthur in
+Switzerland, from the end of the 16th century onwards. An interesting
+development is exhibited by certain rare productions, of Silesian
+origin, dating from about 1550, with decorations in coloured enamels
+which are prevented from flowing together by a strong outline incised in
+the clay.
+
+_Stoneware_.--The most important feature of the history of German
+pottery is the development of stoneware along the valley of the Rhine.
+This ware is of a highly refractory white or grey body of intense
+hardness, glazed by the introduction of salt into the kiln when the
+highest temperature was reached. It was exported in large quantities
+through the markets of Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England,
+France and other parts of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in
+its decoration of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the
+German potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers.
+
+The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at Siegburg
+near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to the neighbourhood,
+made from local clay, must have been made and exported in considerable
+quantities at least as early as the 15th century; plain beer-jugs of
+that date with cylindrical neck and slightly swelling body have been
+unearthed in London and the eastern counties of England. In the 16th
+century an artistic development took place, and the potters were formed
+into an exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture
+lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent
+attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a creamy
+white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely coloured by
+staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression with small stamps
+or by the application of reliefs pressed from separate moulds. The
+motives include sacred and classical figure subjects, portraits of
+contemporary sovereigns, and armorial bearings, with accessory foliage
+in which a survival of Gothic feeling is often perceptible.
+Characteristic forms are the high tankard (_Schnelle_) and the ewer with
+long spout (_Schnabelkrug_), but the fancy of the potter also found
+expression in various quaint or extravagant forms.
+
+At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained importance
+about 1550, and was continued for over seventy years; 1539 is the
+earliest date known to occur on this ware. The pieces were of two kinds,
+brown-glazed and grey; the latter usually decorated with blue. The
+favourite form is a baluster-shaped jug with heraldic designs or a
+frieze of figures round the middle. The subjects are from Scripture
+history or contemporary peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham
+and the German and French "Little Masters." Examples are known bearing
+dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among them Ian Emens and
+Baldem Mennicken; but it must not always be inferred that a piece is as
+old as the date introduced in its decoration, for the same set of moulds
+might be used for many years.
+
+Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen near
+Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as _Bartmänner_, from the bearded mask
+applied in front of the neck, covered with a brown glaze, which in later
+examples is often coagulated into thick spots, were first made here
+towards the end of the 15th century, and continued to be the staple
+product well into the 17th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards
+or Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England, Scandinavia
+and the Low Countries, were mostly made here. At Cologne itself there
+were also factories, probably before the 16th century, the later
+productions of which resemble those of Frechen.
+
+During the 17th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware centre was the
+district surrounding Höhr-Grenzhausen in Nassau known as the
+Kannebäckerländchen, where artistic ware was being made before 1600.
+Soon after that date manganese purple was first used in the decoration
+in addition to cobalt blue, and henceforward colour in combination with
+impressed and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede
+decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes, foliage on
+wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels of large size and
+fantastic shape appear beside the standard forms of the earlier
+factories. In the 18th century the forms of beer-vessels became
+stereotyped in the globular jug with cylindrical neck and the
+cylindrical tankard, while tea and coffee pots, inkstands and other
+vessels, hitherto unknown, began to be made. A stoneware manufacture
+dating back to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria. The
+productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries consist
+of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red body, covered
+with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently painted after the first
+firing in brilliant enamel colours with figures of the Apostles, the
+electors of the Empire, or other oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the
+wares of Raeren and Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi;
+other minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near Cologne
+and Bunzlau in Silesia.
+
+As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain Delft potters)
+and in Germany, attempts were made with some success, early in the 18th
+century, to imitate the Chinese red stoneware, known as _boccaros_. The
+early efforts of Böttger, the discoverer of the secret of true
+porcelain, at Meissen, belong to this category. His red ware is of such
+hardness that it was cut and polished on the lapidary's wheel. For some
+time after the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed
+brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration was made at
+Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories of this class cannot now
+be identified.
+
+Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery, such as the
+bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical devices modelled in
+relief and applied. Slip-covered wares with _graffiato_ decoration,
+apparently of indigenous growth and not inspired by foreign examples,
+were made well on into the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in
+Germany, at Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in
+Pennsylvania. In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made in the
+18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling the Dutch
+carved woodwork of the period.
+
+_Delft._--One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of pottery
+is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed state, of the
+manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at Delft. It was introduced
+in that town by Herman Pietersz of Haarlem, but whence he learned his
+art is unknown. The faience-makers (_plateelbackers_) were one of the
+eight crafts of Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 1611.
+About 1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years of
+the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more serviceable
+wares of the English potteries, Delft remained the most important centre
+of ceramic industry in northern Europe. The ware is of fine
+buff-coloured clay, dipped after the first firing in a white tin-enamel,
+which formed the ground for painted decoration; after painting, this was
+covered with a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that
+in its technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian
+majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly ranked
+among the greatest achievements of the potter's art.
+
+Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in blue
+monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular life in the style
+of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of the oriental porcelain
+imported by the Dutch East India Company were introduced about 1650 by
+Aelbregt de Keizer and continued for some time among the finest
+productions. At the same time the earlier tradition was developed in the
+finely painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and
+Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were Lambartus
+van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the large reeded vases with
+Chinese floral designs in polychrome, Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen
+Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale; to the last are attributed the pieces with
+yellow decoration on an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples
+with polychrome decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese
+lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker. With the 18th century came
+a largely increased demand and a consequent deterioration in artistic
+quality. The rise of the German porcelain factories had its effect in
+the introduction of overglaze painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified
+by the work of the Dextras, father and son. This innovation, by which
+the Delft potters attempted to compete with European porcelain,
+contributed to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch
+required for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but
+not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory (the
+rose, the peacock, the three bells, &c.), or the name or initials of its
+proprietor.
+
+A small faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff about 1755 at
+Arnhem; its productions were of good quality, chiefly in the rococo
+style, marked with a cock.
+
+The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned the rise of
+numerous factories in that country for making faience in imitation of
+the Dutch. Among these may be named Hanau (founded about 1670),
+Frankfort and Cassel. Others, such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their
+inspiration from the productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (q.v.). At
+Nuremberg a factory was founded in 1712, which was but little affected
+by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions are
+dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs with long
+necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted. Similar wares were
+made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French styles were carried by German
+potters into Scandinavia; factories were established at Copenhagen in
+1722, at Rörstrand and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1728 and 1758, and at
+Herrebĝe in Norway about 1759.
+
+At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported English
+earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops were established for
+painting the English cream-coloured ware with subjects suited to the
+Dutch taste; and in Germany cream-coloured wares and _steingut_ in
+imitation of Wedgwood's productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau
+and elsewhere. The "Delft" ware of Holland during the 17th century was a
+beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters caught
+successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value, of Chinese
+blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over the whole of Europe, and
+its styles were readily imitated by the potters of all other countries
+who made a similar ware. Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so
+beautiful as the "blue and white," is strongly decorative, and one sees
+in the polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more than a
+trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted by English
+earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that was technically
+superior displacing a more artistic product.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+  Calaggiolo: 16th century.
+
+  Faenza. Casa Pirota, 1525.
+
+  Urbino. Decorated by Orario Fontana.
+
+  Urbino. 1525 (?). A plate of the famous Gonzaga Este service.
+
+  Faenza: early 15th century.]
+
+  _Collections._--For German wares the German museums are naturally
+  best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid collections
+  of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany. Cologne has a
+  wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and Berlin and Hamburg
+  have good general collections. Copenhagen and Stockholm are especially
+  good for Scandinavian wares, and Zürich for Swiss. There are also good
+  collections of German stoneware in the Victoria and Albert and the
+  British museums, and in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum
+  at Sèvres; but there are no notable collections of the German
+  tin-enamelled wares out of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best
+  studied in the museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an
+  interesting collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchère in
+  Delft. The principal museums in England, France and Germany all have
+  fair to good collections of this renowned ware.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, _Geschichte
+  der europäischen Fliesen-Keramik_ (Strassburg, 1900; chapters on the
+  Netherlands and Germany); Walcher von Molthein, _Bunte Hafnerkeramik
+  der Renaissance in Österreich ob der Enns und Salzburg_ (Vienna,
+  1906); Hafner, _Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Öfen in Winterthur_
+  (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, _Tulip-ware of the Pennsylvania
+  German Potters_ (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware, see Solon, _The
+  Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Germany_ (London,
+  1892); Van Bastelaer, _Les Grès wallons_ (Mons, 1885). For Böttger's
+  red ware, see Berling, _Das Meissner Porzellan_ (Leipzig, 1900), chap.
+  iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, _Histoire de la faïence de Delft_
+  (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on "La Faïence d'Arnhem" in
+  _Gazette des beaux-arts_, 2nd series, vol. xx. (1879). For German
+  faience, see von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin, 1896), and articles by
+  Stieda, "Deutsche Fayencefabriken des 18. Jahrhunderts," in
+  _Keramische Monatshefte_, vols. ii. and iii. For Scandinavian pottery,
+  see Nyrop, _Danske Fajence og Porcellainsmaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1881);
+  Strċle, _Rörstrand et Marieberg_ (Stockholm, 1872); Grosch,
+  _Herrebĝe-Fayencer_ (Christiania, 1901). Excellent accounts of most
+  branches of the subjects are given by Brinckmann, _Das hamburgische
+  Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe_ (Hamburg, 1894).     (B. Ra.)
+
+
+LATER WARES OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
+
+We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds of pottery
+that have exerted real influence on the historical development of the
+art. Offshoots from the main stem that have developed little or no
+individuality can only be briefly mentioned. When the characteristic
+Spanish-Moorish lustre wares ceased to be desired by the wealthy they
+rapidly sank into insignificance, though as a decorative peasant pottery
+their manufacture never really ceased and has been revived again in our
+day. The course of pottery importation was changed and the now
+fashionable Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and 17th
+centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the opposite course
+two centuries earlier. Besides the influence which these imported wares
+had on the Spanish potters, a number of wandering Italian majolists
+found their way into Spain, so that we find the use of painted colour,
+particularly blue, yellow, orange, green and purple, making its
+appearance at various centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville,
+&c., but the most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of
+the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian majolica
+of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain designs, probably
+filtered through to the Spanish potters by the then popular enamelled
+Delft wares, is very apparent. The potteries of Talavera are mentioned
+as early as 1560, and they continued at work, with varying fortunes,
+down to the end of the 18th century. Many and varied wares were
+produced, including tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery
+pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, _tinajas_, holy-water vessels,
+drug-pots, and hanging flower vases, together with moulded and painted
+snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind of fruit.
+Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of ornament also rendered
+the ware much inferior to that of Italy or of France. The popular
+Talavera wares were imitated elsewhere in Spain, and a number of
+factories existed at Toledo in the 17th century, but their wares are
+very inferior. In the 18th century, besides debased imitations of this
+ware, some coarse but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo
+near Toledo.
+
+An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be found in
+the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from the early 17th
+century. It is said that Spanish potters were settled at this place by
+the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the making of a debased form of
+Spanish majolica continued there for nearly two centuries. See Barber's
+"Tin-Enamelled Pottery," _Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum_, 1907.
+During the 18th century determined efforts were made by King Charles
+III. and by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery
+wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain. The efforts
+of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain works at Buen Retiro
+near Madrid, which will be mentioned later, and considerable success
+also attended the revival of strong copper lustre, like that of the late
+Hispano-Moresque wares; but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those
+made at Alcora in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726,
+which continued in operation down to the French wars. For his purposes
+the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the famous French pottery
+centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a well-known pot-painter. He went to
+Alcora as chief draughtsman and designer, having charge of a number of
+Spanish potters and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of
+decoration, and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best
+period recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to
+add that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow
+and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to France in
+1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he introduced this new
+style of delicate polychrome decoration at Moustiers. The mixture of
+motives and ideas that animated the duke and his potters may be seen by
+the following list of wares produced about 1750. Vases of different
+shapes; small teapots; teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and
+covers, Dutch fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entrée dishes;
+salt-cellars, Chinese style; _escudillas_ (bowls) of Constantinople;
+_barquillos_ (sauce-bowls), Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of
+different kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work, and
+finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and refrigerators.
+Later in the century the manufacture of porcelain was introduced here,
+as well as white earthenware made in imitation of the productions of
+Wedgwood, and the tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did
+elsewhere.
+
+The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also practised in
+Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times; but the ware never
+attained to any distinction and is little known outside that country.
+The best-known specimens were made at Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory
+was founded in 1767 under the patronage of the court.
+
+Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain and
+Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots, and other
+domestic utensils are still made in these countries for ordinary
+domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of the most primitive
+kind. Many of these vessels, especially the _tinajas_ (wine-jars) and
+water-coolers, are based on ancient, classical or Arab forms, and in
+every country market-place it is still common to see groups of vessels,
+in unglazed pottery of fine shape and finish, exposed for sale--a very
+different state of things from what obtains in France, Germany, and
+particularly in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are
+being imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to the
+18th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known as
+_buccaros_ was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal. The body of
+the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, according to the special
+kind of clay. The curious point about this ware is that, if we may
+believe contemporary documents, the vessels were delicately scented,
+like a ware imported from Mexico; and the soft vessels are said to have
+been eaten--a custom common enough in certain parts of Central and
+Southern America. (See M.L. Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_, 1896.)
+     (W. B.*)
+
+
+ENGLISH POTTERY FROM THE 16TH TO THE 18TH CENTURY[21]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are
+shown]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Common forms of medieval pottery; the upper
+part of the slender jug is covered with a green vitreous lead glaze; the
+other is unglazed with stripes of red ochre.]
+
+The course of pottery manufacture in England followed, generally rather
+in the rear, that of France, Germany and other northern countries.
+Before the coming of the Romans much pottery of the late Stone age and
+the Bronze age was made in Britain. The Romans introduced their more
+advanced technique, and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery,
+they founded numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch,
+Castor, Uriconium, &c. With the departure of the Roman legions their
+simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery vanished, and Saxon and
+early Norman times have left us little but wares resembling those of the
+Germanic and Frankish productions (fig. 50). The early middle ages
+passed without much improvement, and, though rare specimens--like the
+ewer in the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum--proved that
+glazed wares were made in this country, the general run of our medieval
+pottery vessels never soared above the skill of the travelling brick or
+tile maker.[22] The monastic tile-makers, with their strong, Gothic tile
+pavements, produced artistic work of a very high order; but the patrons
+of the common potter remained content with his rudely made and simply
+glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even in the
+16th century the excellence of English pewter probably acted as a
+barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it was only the
+importation of foreign wares--Italian, German, Dutch and French--that
+stirred up our native clay-workers to the possibilities of their art. In
+early Tudor times there was some importation of Italian majolica as well
+as of the Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the
+constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to the eastern
+counties not only the stonewares of the Rhineland and the "Delft" wares
+of Holland, but also emigrant potters from those countries who tried to
+practise their native crafts amongst us. The Civil War appears to have
+been unable to check this new spirit, for we have the evidence of dated
+examples to show that various immigrants went on quietly practising
+their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the outskirts of
+London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent as well. It seems
+probable that the earliest influence was an Italian one, but before this
+was firmly domiciled it was supplanted by that of the Dutch and Germans.
+The first wares of an improved kind that were made in England are so
+closely related to the German stonewares and the "Delft" wares that it
+is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of English
+or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the greatest, of
+English potters was John Dwight, an educated man, who had held the
+office of secretary to three successive bishops of Chester, and who
+obtained a patent in 1671 for the manufacture of certain improved kinds
+of pottery. We have no knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the
+potter's art, for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan
+(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign potters had
+settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory at Fulham, where he
+resided till his death in 1703. He was always an eager experimenter, and
+from his diaries it seems certain that he was searching after the, then,
+mysterious Chinese porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he
+ever attained success in this search, for his known productions may be
+grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stoneware--mostly
+small vessels, teapots, mugs, &c., in imitation of the Chinese
+buccaros.[23] (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed stoneware made in
+imitation of, and often not to be distinguished from, the wares of the
+Rhineland. But Dwight produced a considerable number of modelled
+portrait-busts, statuettes, &c., all in stoneware of various tints,
+which entitle him to a place in the very first rank of potters. The
+portrait-bust of Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of
+Meleager (British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &c., are worthy of a
+sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy of Lydia
+Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the most beautiful works
+ever executed by an English potter.
+
+Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style of
+"Delft," was prosecuted with increasing industry in London on the south
+side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth. By the end of the 17th
+century the same imitation "Delft" wares were made at Bristol and
+Liverpool, continuing until, in the closing years of the 18th century,
+tin-enamelled earthenware was abandoned in favour of the perfected
+English cream-colour. There is a strong family likeness in all this
+English "Delft," whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body
+of the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares of the
+continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose, as it is
+generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually painted in cobalt
+blue of good tone, though inferior in softness and richness of tint to
+that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome painting was not so common,
+and it differs from that of the Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a
+pale yellow colour and the general absence of any good red like that
+found on the polychrome wares of Delft, Rouen, Sic.
+
+German stoneware also received a well-merited share of attention long
+before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible to distinguish the
+grey and brown ale-jugs, greybeards, &c., presumably of English
+manufacture in the 17th and early 18th centuries, from their German
+prototypes. Fulham remained an important centre of this manufacture, and
+a fine brown stoneware was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700;
+in each case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to this
+day.
+
+The development of a native English pottery took place in North
+Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters, who manufactured
+some strongly decorative English wares by very simple means, was
+established here from the middle of the 17th century. Rudely fashioned
+dishes, jugs, bottles, &c., were shaped in the local red-burning brick
+clays, and, while the pieces were still soft, simple but effective
+decorative patterns were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip),
+trailed on through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient
+and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic Egyptian, the
+Roman and the Byzantine potters) has furnished the peasant potters of
+every European country with characteristic wares, but nowhere was it
+used with greater skill than in England. The English slip-decorated
+wares are often spoken of as "Toft ware," because Thomas Toft, living in
+what is now Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his
+pieces (1670, &c.); but similar wares were made at Wrotham in Kent, in
+Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of the Staffordshire
+district must have spread by the time of the Revolution, for soon after
+1690 John Philip Elers, a Dutchman of good family, settled there and
+began to make a superior pottery to any previously made in the district.
+Elers is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds
+of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known to have
+made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite recently, records
+of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers and some other Staffordshire
+potters with suborning his workmen and infringing his patents have been
+brought to light. It is certain that, from the time of Elers, the
+Staffordshire potters made great advances in the fabrication of their
+wares, and during the 18th century they evolved two distinctively
+English kinds of pottery, (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English
+earthenware.
+
+_Staffordshire Salt-glaze._--It is uncertain when and how the
+Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could be
+glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height of the
+firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland more than a
+century before. Many writers have maintained that the practice was
+introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain. Early in the 18th century a
+fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware was made in Staffordshire, in many
+quaint and fanciful forms largely influenced by Chinese porcelain--still
+an object of wonder and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies,
+plates, dishes, bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great
+variety, and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a
+brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time, a
+distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent and to the
+American colonies.
+
+_English Earthenware._--The manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery
+scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the invention of the
+white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one of the greatest revolutions
+in the potter's art that the world has ever seen. This was nothing less
+than the abandonment of the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of
+white slip or of tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white
+throughout its substance, prepared by mixing selected white-burning
+clays and finely-ground flint (silica).[24] The change has generally
+been associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters, but he
+really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the Warburtons,
+Turners and others, the work of half a century's experiment and
+discovery. The ware compared most favourably, from the point of view of
+serviceableness, neatness and mechanical finish, with all that had gone
+before it, and as the tin-enamelled wares had almost everywhere in
+Europe sunk to the position of domestic crockery--for the Chinese,
+German, French and English porcelains had displaced it with the
+wealthy--this better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its
+final death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be met
+with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from Cadiz to
+Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the continental
+nations soon began a similar manufacture for themselves. Everywhere this
+great change was encouraged by the growing fondness for mechanical
+perfection, and it is not without a sigh that a lover of pottery can
+witness the gradual disappearance of the painted tin-enamelled
+wares--degenerate survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French
+faience and Dutch "Delft"--before the unconquerable advance of another
+form of pottery which in its inception was based on technical rather
+than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a century passed before
+the new material was turned to artistic account.
+
+By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been pre-eminently
+associated with this great change, and with good reason, for though he
+had many contemporaries who equalled or even excelled him in certain
+kinds of pottery, no other potter ever approached him in the range of
+his products and the varied applications to which he turned the exercise
+of his remarkable talents.[25] True, he soon abandoned the simple
+Staffordshire wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to
+which the names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the
+varied productions of his factory united the best work of a district
+fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial to Wedgwood
+himself. Thus he adopted and improved the green and yellow glazes which
+had come down from medieval times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate
+X.), and gave a new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert
+services, candlesticks, &c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-fired
+red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &c., introduced by
+Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he invented drab, grey, brown
+and other colours in similarly hard-fired unglazed bodies. He neither
+invented nor alone perfected the Staffordshire cream-coloured
+earthenware, but he made it so well that his "Queen's ware" was the best
+of its class. He undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on
+grounds of unglazed blue, green, black, &c., white figures and
+ornamental motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and
+other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to reproduce the
+painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours painted over a hard
+black body.
+
+Wedgwood's "Jasper ware," his most original production (see Plate X.),
+differed both in nature and composition from all the species of pottery
+that had preceded it. In an attempt to obtain the qualities of the
+finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood discovered, after years of
+experiment, that by mixing together a plastic white clay and "cawk" or
+barytes he could obtain a "body" which might be "thrown" on the wheel or
+"pressed" in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and
+sub-translucent pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual
+metallic oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and
+black. The ware resembled "biscuit" porcelain in that it needed no glaze
+to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the culmination of
+those "dry" or unglazed wares that had been so largely made in China,
+Japan and Europe, where the quality resides in the fired clay material
+without any adventitious aid from a glaze. The general practice was to
+make the body of the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this
+with applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in "white" of the same kind,
+"pressed" from intaglio moulds and then applied by wetting the surface
+and squeezing--leaving the fire to unite the vessel and its applied
+ornament into one piece. Sometimes the ornament was in a coloured clay
+applied on a white body, and we get in the same way black on red, buff
+on red or black, and red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety
+of bodies produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is
+exceedingly great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of their
+application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases, plates, dishes,
+jardinières, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers, inkstands,
+scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every kind of thing
+that could be made in clay. Many of the applied designs, whether of
+figures or ornament, were very beautiful in a way, being copied or
+adapted from Greek and Roman gems, vases, &c. At their best they are
+marvellous for the precision and delicacy of their execution, and it is
+impossible to imagine that anything better could have been done in this
+style. So perfectly did they represent the taste of their period that
+attempts were made at Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce
+something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can be
+compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great contemporary Turner
+(see Plate X.), in beauty of colour or perfection of workmanship.
+
+It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired by mistaken
+motives; that it was founded on an imperfect view of ancient art; and
+that it was marred by its mechanical ideals; but it must be remembered
+that it was in perfect harmony with the spirit of the times, and that
+while it emphasizes for us the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th
+century, it marks an advance in the technical skill of the potter, which
+is simply astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone
+further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally
+supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances were
+introduced for the performance of many portions of the potter's work
+that had hitherto been indifferently performed by rude and exhausting
+manual toil; and while the application of mechanism was pushed too
+far--so that in the first half of the 19th century we find the most
+inartistic pottery the world has ever seen--we must regard this even
+more as a cyclic movement of human feeling than as the work of any
+individual, or group of men. The late 18th century marks the period when
+pottery was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux
+ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen, Moustiers,
+Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the wealthy, but when it
+was largely in demand by the poorer classes, anxious in their turn to
+have a useful ware which should imitate the more costly porcelain used
+by the great. France, Germany, Sweden, Russia, and later the United
+States, all followed in the wake of the English potters, and the
+printing-press was applied in all countries to produce elaborate
+engraved patterns in blue, brown, green, &c., in order to get an
+effective-looking ware in harmony with the spirit of the times, and at
+the same time cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the
+vanquished tin-enamel.
+
+  _Collections._--The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums
+  naturally contain the most representative collections of English
+  pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and
+  Nottingham, also have good collections, while Birmingham, Manchester
+  and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall Museum, London,
+  is rich in early wares found or made in London and its vicinity.
+  Continental collections of English pottery are meagre in the extreme
+  and badly described, even in the ceramic museums at Sèvres and
+  Limoges. The collection at Dresden is interesting, as it was purchased
+  from the collection made by Enoch Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In
+  America, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of
+  New York, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia,
+  contain interesting examples of wares exported to America in the late
+  18th and early 19th centuries.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt's _Ceramic Art
+  in Great Britain_ (1878), and _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_ (1865);
+  Chaffers, _Marks and Monograms_ (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900);
+  Meteyard's _Life of Wedgwood_ (1865-1866), and Shaw's _History of the
+  Staffordshire Potteries_ (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always be
+  of interest as original sources of information; but the later works,
+  such as Church, _English Earthenware_ (1884; new edition, 1906);
+  _Josiah Wedgwood_ (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907); Solon, _Art of the
+  Old English Potter_ (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, _Catalogue of
+  English Pottery in the British Museum_ (1903); Burton, _English
+  Earthenware and Stoneware_ (1904), are the best authorities.
+       (W. B.*)
+
+
+CHINESE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN[26]
+
+In China, as in every other country where pottery-making has been
+practised for centuries, we find a natural progression from primitive
+pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture to the pottery of
+other primitive races the world over. We find too the early use of
+bricks, tiles, &c., as in Egypt and Assyria; and then the usual
+succession of domestic utensils, funeral vases, and vessels for
+religious ceremonials. There is nothing to show that the potter's wheel
+made its appearance in China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese
+potters have used the simple methods of carving and "pressing" from
+moulds which preceded the use of the potter's wheel, even more than
+other nations. In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 B.C.) the
+difference between the processes of "throwing" and of "pressing" from
+moulds is clearly described,[27] and it is instructive to note that many
+early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery are remarkably like their
+works in bronze. In the same way there is no definite date to which we
+can refer the introduction of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of
+glazed ware known are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han
+dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), a date much later than that of the
+earliest glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the intercourse
+between China and the West, at times historically remote, it is not
+impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with a glaze was
+carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any case the Chinese
+developed the potter's art on their own lines, for we have ample
+evidence that from very early times they fired their pottery to a much
+higher temperature than was common in the west of Asia, and so
+discovered types of glaze and of pottery that remained for centuries a
+mystery elsewhere. The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned
+are quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria, Egypt or
+Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can scarcely be
+scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze has become iridescent
+by age as though it contained oxide of lead. The easily-fired friable
+wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece seem to have had no attraction for
+the Chinese, and the glazes on their hard-fired wares were naturally
+different from those already described. The Chinese appear to have been
+the first potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high
+temperature pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed
+with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary refractory
+clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this technique lay the
+germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced form of pottery the world
+has yet seen. It is necessary to consider the pottery that preceded
+porcelain, for not only was it the matrix out of which porcelain grew,
+but in certain districts of China, where the necessary materials for
+porcelain are not found, similar wares have been manufactured without
+intermission to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the
+technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by
+developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the shaping
+and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured enamels or
+glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great authority on the
+Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on two outstanding types of
+Chinese pottery other than porcelain which have exercised considerable
+influence on the doings of European potters.
+
+  1: _Yi-Hsing-Yao_.[28]--This is the pottery, generally of unglazed
+  fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the province
+  of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these fine-coloured
+  clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished pieces,
+  such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-bottles and
+  wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under the Ming dynasty
+  (A.D. 1368-1643) and later.[29] It was imported into Europe by the
+  Portuguese, who applied to it the name _boccaro_, formerly given only
+  to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico and Peru.[30] This
+  pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder as the poles in nature
+  as well as origin, but the potters of northern Europe regarded every
+  kind of pottery coming from the Far East as a species of porcelain,
+  and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs, bowls, cups, &c., in
+  imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread during the late 17th and
+  early 18th centuries under the name of red porcelain. Dwight, Elers
+  and Böttger are notable names in this connexion.
+
+  2. _Kuang-Yao_.--The name given by the Chinese to the pottery made in
+  the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of manufacture
+  in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this article it is
+  sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are dense,
+  hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured grey,
+  red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with thick, variegated
+  or opalescent glazes, grey, blue, green, yellow or red, but flecked,
+  veined and streaked with other tints. The wares are so like the
+  productions of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) that modern pieces are
+  often confounded with the more precious productions of that epoch. One
+  of the first lessons to be learnt by the student of Chinese pottery is
+  that, with great reverence for their own antiquities, the Chinese of
+  every period have endeavoured to reproduce the famous wares of their
+  ancestors, and often with such skill as to deceive the most expert.
+  Even when the manufacture of porcelain was at its highest in
+  King-tê-chên, the potters in other parts of China carried on the
+  production of glazed or unglazed pottery in coloured clays, and,
+  further, the directors of the imperial factory from time to time
+  strove to reproduce the most archaic wares that could be found in the
+  Empire.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII
+
+  Chinese. Sang de Boeuf.
+
+  Chinese. Flambé.
+
+  Chinese. Turquoise glaze "crackled."
+
+  Purple Soufflé.
+
+  Coral red.
+
+  Peach blow. Pigeon's blood.
+
+  Lemon yellow.
+
+  Apple green.]
+
+_Porcelain._--By this word we distinguish broadly all those pieces of
+pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and translucent, and
+also, broadly speaking, in which the material is white throughout,
+unless minute quantities of metallic oxides have been definitely added
+to colour it. It is impossible to draw any hard and fast line between
+porcelain and stoneware, for both may be thoroughly vitrified and
+translucent in thin pieces--but generally the stonewares are drab, red
+or brown in the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the
+precious quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is
+not even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or
+earthenware. The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to fire
+their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified stonewares
+before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed these stonewares with
+fusible mineral substances, and from that stage the natural refinements
+of methods must necessarily have produced porcelain. In regions where
+beds of primary clay were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter
+than elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic
+rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance and one that
+was more readily fusible and Would spread better over the whole piece.
+How many centuries were needed before a ware white enough and
+translucent enough to be now classed as porcelain was produced we cannot
+know; but the process was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some
+Chinese writers in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote
+periods the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens
+are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution, and
+literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle such a
+difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present time is that
+something worthy of the name of porcelain was made during the Tang
+dynasty (A.D. 618-907), but we have no pieces earlier than the Sung
+dynasty (A.D. 960-1259), and the majority of these are perhaps more
+fitly described as stoneware than as porcelain.
+
+Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, and all
+the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery of distinguished merit was
+made in many districts, and much of it has been classified as porcelain
+because the body is whitish and vitrified, though it is much inferior in
+finish and in translucence to the perfect white porcelain of later
+times. It is necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any
+pottery with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th
+century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs incised
+or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration is to be found in
+the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, whether stoneware or
+porcelain, were covered. The glaze is never clear and white as at later
+times; it is generally uneven, imperfectly fused and presents all the
+marks of an imperfect technique. The nearest approach to white is found
+in an opalescent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The
+glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the _céladons_, a
+family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth and
+softness. Besides the _céladons_ which are the most uniform in tints of
+the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender, brownish yellow
+and brownish black, but these are all subtly or boldly mottled,
+splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones of red, blue, purple,
+opalescent grey and black. The most famous of these now very rare Sung
+wares were the stonewares of Chunchow, remarkable for their rich and
+varied glazes, the black variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province,
+"hare's fur cups" and "partridge cups" of collectors, and the four
+principal wares that may be called porcelain, viz.--the _Ju-Yao_, made
+at Ju-chow in Honan; the _Kuan-Yao_ (Kuan = "official" or "imperial"),
+made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; the _Ko-Yao_, made
+at Liu-t'ien; and the _Ting-Yao_, made at Tung-chow in Chih-li.
+
+This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known beyond its
+native country, for the first mention of porcelain outside China appears
+in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller, Sulaiman, who visited China
+in the 9th century and wrote: "They have in China a very fine clay with
+which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen
+through them";[31] and its first appearance in the west is always given
+as A.D. 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty pieces to
+the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an export trade was
+developed, particularly in the _céladon_ wares of Lung-chüan, a city in
+the south-west of the province of Chehkiang. This famous ware, the
+"green porcelain" of the Chinese, probably made as an imitation of jade,
+exists mostly in the form of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing
+incised or fluted patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green
+glaze of indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is
+white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the glaze have
+a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste, and when the ware was
+reproduced in later times this reddish-brown tint had to be imitated
+artificially. The ware was highly prized both in China and Japan, in the
+islands of the East Indies, and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia
+it was largely used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the
+last century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco.
+"Archbishop Warham's cup" at New College, Oxford, which is the first
+specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that we can now produce,
+is a _céladon_ bowl with a silver-gilt mount of the time of Henry
+VIII.[32]
+
+The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai Khan
+(grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in Tatar hands until
+1368, when the great native dynasty of the Mings was established. During
+this period (Yuan dynasty), roughly a century, one can say little of
+ceramic progress, for the wares of the period are singularly like those
+of Sung times. But two important changes took place which had a marked
+influence on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain--(1) the
+concentration of the industry at King-tê-chên, which was consummated in
+the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the introduction of painted
+decoration under a white transparent glaze, the idea of which (and
+perhaps the necessary cobalt mineral) was brought from Persia.
+
+King-tê-chên was already a pottery centre when its factories were
+rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who made it
+the imperial factory, so that the best porcelain workers were attracted
+thither, and in the other old centres the industry was abandoned or some
+earlier manufacture was continued, as in the southern province of
+Kiang-su. In the province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain
+manufacture has also continued. We have already mentioned the black
+glazed cups, "hare's fur," &c., made in this province in Sung times,
+and, while King-tê-chên was to be the scene of the developments of the
+coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien perfected the
+manufacture of the famous and beautiful white porcelain in bowls,
+dishes, cups and statuettes, best known under its French title of _blanc
+de Chine_.
+
+The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to the
+beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be older, speak
+strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. The pieces are massive
+both in form and substance, and the ornament, consisting of figures
+mounted or on foot, animals, bands of diaper or foliage, or pendant
+necklaces, is strongly silhouetted by a raised outline recalling the
+decorative methods of the Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also
+recall the methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was
+glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes, similar in
+nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and quite unlike the
+Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined spaces and melted at
+a lower temperature. The Grandidier collection in the Louvre, the
+Franks collection at the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+as well as all the great private collections of Chinese porcelain,
+contain samples of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.
+
+The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to take an
+entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with its brilliant
+painted decorations in blue, green and purple on a pure white ground,
+exercised its natural fascination over men as keen in colour-sense as
+the Chinese potters. With the concentration of the industry at
+King-tê-chên, and the rapid improvement in technical skill and knowledge
+that followed, the production of a fine porcelain with a transparent
+white glaze was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian
+pot-painter the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the
+Chinese porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and
+with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from copper, the
+foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. It would be idle to
+try and fix any specific date for this important development, which took
+more than a generation to perfect, but it is reasonably accurate to say
+that the blue and white painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th
+century and were fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century.
+Chinese collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of
+Suen-tê (A.D. 1426-1435), of Chêng-hwa (1465-1487), and next of Yung-lo
+(1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour used during these
+reigns is spoken of as "Mahommedan" blue, so that it was evidently
+brought from some country to the west. This 15th-century blue and white
+porcelain is admittedly the finest of its class, and though the Chinese
+never abandon an old method and have continued to make blue and white
+porcelain, often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may
+be, rarely equal these.
+
+The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already been
+mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours was largely
+used during the same period. At first it appears as a general ground
+colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then vessels were made in
+special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to display its qualities, finally
+it was used either alone or in conjunction with blue in painted designs
+under a white glaze of exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the
+15th century describes one of his pieces as being decorated with "three
+red fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly
+outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as to
+dazzle the eye."
+
+Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in Ming times are
+the marvellous "eggshell" porcelains, called by the Chinese "bodyless"
+from their extreme thinness. As early as the reign of Yung-lo
+(1403-1424) these delicate wares were in high repute, and their
+manufacture has been continued ever since with varying skill and
+success. In spite of their extreme thinness the specimens have designs
+of dragons in the midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c., engraved
+in the paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is so
+delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with
+liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured glaze
+which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized of these are
+the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi (1488-1505) and
+Chêng-tê (1506-1521).
+
+Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made its
+appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, commonly
+spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as "grain of rice"
+porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited consummate skill in the
+manufacture of perforated pieces of all kinds. Sometimes the
+perforations are left clear, but in the rice-grain pattern the incisions
+are generally filled up with the melted glaze so that they become like
+so many windows in the walls of the piece. We have already seen that the
+Persian potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century,
+but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated in
+China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional
+proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.
+
+It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find the first
+examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired over the glaze. It
+seems probable that the practice grew out of the use of enamels on
+metal, which had spread from Byzantium to China, and which the Chinese
+developed with remarkable skill. It is important to remember that the
+very nature of the glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high
+temperature to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to
+cobalt-blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the
+rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some other means
+must be found, and so the device was adopted of taking a finished piece
+of blue and white and decorating it further by very fusible colours
+painted over the fired glaze and then attached to it by refiring at a
+lower temperature equal only to that used by the enameller on metals. At
+first the on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in
+the Ming (_San ts' ai_) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and
+yellow. Then we get the Ming (_Wan-li Wu ts' ai_) five-colour scheme, in
+which the same three colours are combined with an over-glaze red and all
+are painted over a skeleton pattern in under-glaze blue. This
+development, as its name implies, only took place in the reign of Wan-li
+(1573-1620).
+
+At this time King-tê-chên must have produced a very large quantity of
+porcelain. The requirements of the court were enormous, for in 1583 one
+of the supervising censors, remonstrating with the emperor, declared
+that one year's demands comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell
+writes: "The colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the
+abundance of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present
+day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection of
+bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may be seen with
+sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter, or ladling syrup out of
+large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's shop without a cracked
+Wan-li jar standing on the counter to hold scraps of meat."
+
+Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the wares of
+this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship to the wares of
+the preceding and also of later periods, but the influence of the
+growing export trade doubtless told in the same direction. For several
+centuries the native Chinese porcelain had been exported to all the
+neighbouring countries, and through Persia and Cairo to the West. No
+long time elapsed before the Chinese adopted forms, colours and
+decorations for these export wares, not in accordance with Chinese
+usage, but presumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence
+the Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the 15th
+and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries. Now, for the
+first time, there came a direct European demand, and cargoes of ware
+were brought to Europe by the Portuguese and afterwards by the Dutch,
+which were increasingly decorated in fashions foreign to Chinese taste.
+The production of these export wares slowly modified the taste of the
+Chinese themselves and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th
+and early 18th centuries.
+
+The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty
+definitely separated the first great period of Chinese porcelain from
+its second and culminating period. The works at King-tê-chên were
+destroyed more than once in the 17th century, but in spite of these
+difficulties the potters must have remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi
+(1662-1722), Yung-chêng (1722-1735), and K'ien-lung (1736-1795) covered
+a century and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic
+production was reached and passed. It is only possible here to sketch in
+broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which has formed the
+subject of many learned works.
+
+It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, when a
+spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions of their ancient
+kilns should receive no less attention than the new methods of
+decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the same time many of the
+discoveries of the later Ming days were carried on to perfection. The
+first remarkable productions of the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green
+and blood-red _Lang-yao_ glazes, were made in the attempt to produce
+glazes like those of old times. With the more carefully prepared body
+and glaze the results are strikingly different and, as we think,
+superior, for it is difficult to believe that any example of the
+"sacrificial" red of the reign of Suen-tê can have been as glorious as
+the red _Lang-Yao_, the crown of all that group of glazes known from
+their general colour as _sang de boeuf_ (see example, Plate VII.). In
+the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming period was
+continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue pigment be not so
+pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative effect of the blue and
+white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example, Plate VIII.) has never been
+equalled in Europe. The subjects of the blue and white pieces of this
+period are very varied, including religious, ceremonial, battle and
+hunting subjects, homely scenes such as ladies and children amusing
+themselves in gardens, or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous
+monsters disporting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called
+"hawthorn ginger jars" form a class by themselves in the opinion of
+modern collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen
+being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility of the
+painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and white of this
+reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the harmonious relation
+between the tones of the white and the blue, especially when it is seen
+_en masse_, as in the famous Dresden collection.[33]
+
+The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that the
+pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened by the use of
+slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of powder-blue appear to
+have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment was not applied by a
+brush, but was blown on through a tube, one end of which was covered
+with fine muslin, in a rain of minute drops. This ground was either
+carried over the whole piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating
+blue glaze--in which case it was generally covered with conventional
+designs pencilled in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze--or panels were
+reserved in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in
+on-glaze colours.
+
+In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived or
+re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as of so
+many others in our great European collections, date only from the
+beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and pierced or reticulated
+pieces were made to great perfection, and the coloured glazes in light
+green, turquoise, purple and black (see Plate VII.) reached their
+height. The early glazes of this type appeared in Sung times (see
+above), but on the finely prepared K'ang-hi wares much more striking and
+brilliant colour effects were obtained. As in old times, for the
+production of some of these glazes a departure was made from the general
+Chinese methods. The vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
+and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese were
+fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give the
+"peacock-blue," "kingfisher-green" and "aubergine-purple" glazes. Many
+varieties of single-coloured glazes were made by covering a white glazed
+piece with on-glaze colour, and in this way new shades of coloured
+glaze, such as the coral-reds (Plate VII.), were obtained. The various
+brown or bronze-coloured grounds, so well known in the so-called
+"Batavian" porcelain, were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of
+some ochreous clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do
+not exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for
+they carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze
+colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance of a
+vivid green enamel (_famille verte_; see Plate VIII.), and finally, in
+the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and purple colours
+predominate (_famille rose_; see Plate VIII.). It is probable that these
+latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, were introduced into China
+from Europe, but the Chinese employed them whole-heartedly, until in
+fact they largely ousted all the earlier types of colour decoration.
+
+During the reign of Yung-Chêng (1723-1735) the diverse styles seem to
+have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng was an ardent
+collector of ancient Chinese porcelains, and he sent to King-tê-chên
+specimens of the most ancient wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to
+be reproduced, while at the same time he and his court patronized the
+wares in foreign styles and colours (Japanese and European.)
+
+The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th century, but
+in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the "iron-rust" and
+"tea-dust" glazes of the reign of K'ien-lung in harmony with old Chinese
+effects, what we must regard as the inferior decorative style triumphed,
+and we see the gradual disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of
+(1) wares of a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze
+colours, principally those of the _famille rose_, and (2) a very large
+production of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated with
+on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste of the 18th
+century.
+
+This "armorial" china, so much of which was once foolishly ascribed to
+Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material is seldom of the best
+quality, and the Chinese rendering of European arms and crests, or stiff
+copies of European engravings surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of
+diaper, &c., does nothing to recommend it. A great deal of this ware,
+though manufactured at King-tê-chên, was decorated at Canton, and the
+school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this export
+trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure Chinese taste,
+especially some of the ruby-backed plates and dishes and the small cups
+and saucers decorated with deftly-painted designs of cocks, peonies, &c.
+
+It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the replacement
+of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by those painted in colours
+over the glaze profoundly influenced the style of painting. In the
+earlier wares the treatment is bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery
+colour, and the softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the
+artistic charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting
+on glass--fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or
+cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are impossible
+or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering takes the place of
+conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate minuteness of finish
+supplants the broad freedom of direct brushwork. During the 18th century
+the same leaven was at work on the porcelains of China and of Europe,
+the East influenced the West, and the West in its turn bore down the
+East. If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European
+counterfeits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter
+and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.
+
+There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th century.
+The European demand was practically killed by the growth of porcelain
+works at home, and the imperial patronage, so great a factor in the
+production of artistic wares, was fitful and uncertain. Tao-Kwang
+(1821-1850) gave some attention to porcelain, and the pieces made for
+him and marked "_Shen-te-t'ang_" are valued by collectors. The so-called
+Peking bowls of his reign (made of course at King-tê-chên) are also of
+repute. But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for
+the cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and England
+served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past (see the Musée
+Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign of the next emperor
+Hien-fêng (1851-1861) the T'aipings overran the province of Kiang-si and
+destroyed King-tê-chên and its factories. Since then the town has been
+rebuilt and is once again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless
+by the high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the
+Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the
+single-coloured, _sang de boeuf_, _flambé_ and other glazes are being
+made, while the highly prized "hawthorn" jars and black-ground vases are
+receiving the same undesirable attention.
+
+  _Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain._--For many centuries
+  after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from every other
+  known species of pottery both in its material and its manufacture.
+  While the pottery of all other countries was generally made of
+  coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken "shards" and fired at a
+  comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain was compounded from
+  the purest white clays, sand and fusible rock; it was glazed with
+  fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that the entire mass became
+  vitrified and translucent. The germ of the manufacture lay in the
+  discovery of large masses of primary clay (kaolin) mixed with
+  finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of which were carefully
+  washed, levigated and purified. The body of Chinese porcelain varied
+  from time to time within wide limits, but, broadly speaking, it always
+  consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and quartz (sand), mixed in
+  various proportions, sometimes with additional ingredients, according
+  to the quality of ware desired. For the glaze the purest and cleanest
+  portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse) were selected and mixed
+  with lime--all being ground to fine powder. The lime causes the glaze
+  to melt at a lower temperature than would be necessary for petuntse
+  alone. The lime also gives the Chinese glazes their luscious softness
+  of aspect and the faint greenish or bluish tone, while it enabled them
+  to receive the later decorations in piled-up enamels, impossible on
+  the harder European porcelain glazes of the 18th century. The
+  finely-prepared glaze was applied to the clay vessels, before they had
+  been fired, either by dipping, by painting, or by insufflation; and
+  then glaze and body were fired together at a very high temperature.
+  For certain glazes--turquoise, purple, &c.--which were not of the
+  felspathic type, the vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
+  and the glazes were then applied and fired at a much lower
+  temperature--the usual practice of the potters of other countries.
+  When painted wares in blue and red were first introduced, the
+  necessary pigments were painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze
+  was applied over them, and then all was finished at one and the same
+  firing. With the later enamel colours the piece was first fired as
+  above described, and the fusible colours were then painted on the
+  glaze, which was of course like glass. A second firing at a lower
+  temperature fused these on-glaze colours to the ware. For information
+  on Chinese materials and methods the reader is referred to the letters
+  of Père d'Entrecolles in the collection of Jesuit letters known as
+  _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_. The English reader will find
+  reliable translations of the essential parts in Bushell's _Oriental
+  Ceramic Art_, Dillon's _Porcelain_, and Burton's _History of
+  Porcelain_. Later information will be found in Brongniart's _Traité
+  des arts céramiques_, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and in an
+  article by G. Vogt, _Bulletin de la Société d'encouragement pour
+  l'industrie nationale_, April 1900, pp. 530-612.
+
+  _Collections._--The Franks collection in the British Museum; the
+  Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr George
+  Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections
+  belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at the
+  Louvre; the collection at the Musée Guimet; the Sèvres Museum.
+  Fontainebleau, the Musée Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain
+  Collection--the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of Fine Arts. New
+  York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the Garland and other
+  collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection; as well as
+  magnificent private collections, at the head of which is that of the
+  late W.T. Walters of Baltimore.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The older European works on Chinese porcelain have been
+  superseded by the later books. The following list contains the best
+  recent books:--S.W. Bushell, _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (New York, 1897;
+  text separately 1899); _Chinese Porcelain before the present Dynasty_
+  (Pekin, 1886); _Chinese Art_, vol. ii., Victoria and Albert Museum
+  Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd
+  edition, with valuable supplements by Salvétat, 1877); Dillon,
+  _Porcelain_ (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, _Catalogue of Oriental Pottery
+  and Porcelain_ (1878); Grandidier, _La Céramique chinoise_ (1894);
+  Griggs, _Examples of Armorial China_ (1887); Hippisley, _Ceramic Arts
+  in China_ (Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1890); Hirth, _Ancient
+  Chinese Porcelain_ (Leipzig, 1888); Julien, _Histoire et fabrication
+  de la porcelaine chinoise_ (Paris, 1856); Meyer, _Lung-chuan Yao, oder
+  alter Seladon Porzellan_ (Berlin, 1889); Monkhouse, _History of
+  Chinese Porcelain_ (1901); O. du Sartel, _La Porcelaine de Chine_
+  (Paris, 1881); Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); Bushell and Laffan, _The
+  Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York_ (1907).
+       (W. B.*)
+
+
+EUROPEAN PORCELAIN TO THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY
+
+Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the white and
+translucent pottery _par excellence_, for when the first specimens of
+Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps as early as the 11th
+or 12th century, they excited the greatest wonder and admiration. Cairo
+was at this time the great mart for the exchange of the products of East
+and West, and from this centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i
+Khosrau, the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in A.D. 1035-1042,
+was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also speaks of a
+translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which may well have been the
+progenitor of the glassy porcelains of Persia, as well as of those made
+in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries. In A.D. 1171 the famous
+Saladin sent from Cairo a present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain
+to the sultan of Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent
+records of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the
+treasuries of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the
+potter's art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural that
+efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious and
+beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods was _nil_, and
+for a further two centuries all that Europe manufactured in the shape of
+translucent pottery was the artificial porcelain made with glass, which
+can only be looked upon as a substitute for true porcelain. In Italy
+during the 16th century, and in France during the century from 1670 to
+1770 roughly, this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At
+Meissen in Saxony the famous Böttger made a true porcelain from
+materials analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture
+was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe (even in France,
+the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after 1770), so that by the
+end of the 18th century, when Chinese porcelain had reached and passed
+its zenith, the manufacture of a similar material was well established
+in Europe, and the glassy porcelains had been generally abandoned. The
+only country which offered any departure from this general rule was
+England. The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French,
+and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts
+were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758-1781) to introduce the
+manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German counterparts,
+but these failed and the English potters finally invented a third kind
+of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones were added to the clay and
+ground rock to give a white translucent porcelain capable of receiving
+any form of decoration. This distinctively English porcelain, perfected
+about 1800, is not only the principal kind made in England in our own
+times, but its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France,
+Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States.
+
+It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European potters
+without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the 18th century all
+the three kinds of European porcelain were struggling for supremacy. It
+is advisable, therefore, to keep clearly in mind which kind of porcelain
+is in question, for many problems of manufacture and decoration are
+absolutely determined by the nature of the materials.
+
+If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest European
+porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again in 1519; while we also
+read of its manufacture at Ferrara in 1561.[34] Unfortunately,
+documentary evidence alone is not conclusive, and the first European
+porcelain, known from actual specimens as well as by documentary
+evidence, was that made at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de'
+Medici, between 1575 and 1585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to
+be found only in great museums and private collections, where they rank
+among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the Florentine
+potters never fully mastered their difficult material, for the ware is
+always imperfect and compares indifferently in whiteness and
+translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze is neither smoothly
+melted nor free from defects. Obviously the effect of Chinese blue and
+white porcelain was aimed at, the decorations, reminiscent of the style
+of the Persian pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone. These
+rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive marks; for at their period
+the use of painters' marks or monograms had become fairly general on
+artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best known marks is the "palle"
+or balls of the arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters "F M M E
+D II." for "Franciscus Medici Magnus Etruriae Dux II."; while other
+pieces have a rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence and the
+letter "F."
+
+[Illustration: Florentine Potter's mark.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VIII.
+
+  Chinese. K'ang-hsi period.
+
+  Chinese. Black ground. K'ang-hsi period.
+
+  Chinese (_Famille Verte_). K'ang-hsi period.
+
+  Chinese (_Famille Rose_). Ch'ien-lung period.
+
+  Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K'ang-hsi period.]
+
+Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine porcelain that
+have survived to our day a manuscript has been found in the
+Magliabechian Library at Florence which states that the paste was
+composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass (powdered rock crystal 10
+and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth of Faenza. To 12 parts of this
+mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic clay of Vicenza were to be added, and
+the pieces glazed with a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of
+the Italian faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a
+material unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine
+porcelain being the first of a long line of European porcelains the
+artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large quantity of
+glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they may almost be regarded
+as a species of glazed and painted glass. The technical methods used in
+their manufacture and decoration, however, were those of the potter and
+not of the glass maker.
+
+With the death of Francesco de' Medici in 1587 it seems probable that
+this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end, and we hear no more
+of porcelain in Italy for more than a century. During this century
+(1587-1687) there can be no doubt that efforts were made all over Europe
+to discover the secret of porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable
+date we can point to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of
+Rouen, obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture of
+porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased with the
+death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are extant in the shape of
+salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few vases, the latter of
+considerable size. The pieces are usually decorated in blue with
+patterns in the Rouen style and were evidently painted by an expert
+faience painter. In composition, the porcelain of Rouen, like that of
+Florence, was of the artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a
+similar ware made its appearance at the faience works of St Cloud near
+Paris, and at various works in the city of Paris. Well-known pieces,
+bearing the marks here shown, formerly supposed to be the earliest
+specimens of French porcelain and the work of Poterat at Rouen, are
+probably experimental pieces made in Paris after the date of Poterat's
+discovery, as they differ in important particulars from his ware.
+
+[Illustration: Paris Potters' marks.]
+
+[Illustration: St Cloud Potters' marks.]
+
+Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under the patronage
+of the French court or of some great French noble, rapidly assumed a
+position of importance. The works at St Cloud received letters-patent
+from Louis XIV. in 1696, and the manufacture was continued there down to
+1773. The appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic,
+for though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine quality with a
+clear and brilliant glaze. The first efforts appear to have consisted in
+frank imitations of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces
+decorated only with branches of flowering plum in relief, or pieces
+modelled with imbricated or scale pattern or with delicate flutings,
+were made. The earliest colour decoration was naturally in under-glaze
+blue, and while quasi-oriental designs were largely used, the commonest
+feature is the prevalence of painted borders like those used on the
+faience of Rouen and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze
+colours and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never reached
+to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory at
+Sèvres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most distinctive French
+porcelains of the 18th century.
+
+_German Porcelains._--While the glassy porcelains of France were being
+developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent order was reached in
+Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed
+an extensive collection of Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be
+seen in the Dresden Museum, and he had established experimental pottery
+works, bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief
+investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Böttger, both
+alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first European
+to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the nature of its
+materials, and in the appearance of its paste and glaze. It may be
+surmised that Böttger was guided toward this momentous discovery by
+information brought from China, though such an idea is always stoutly
+denied by German authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that
+Böttger at the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European
+experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the problems
+offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production was an
+extremely hard redstone-ware--often erroneously called "Böttger's red
+porcelain"--resembling the Chinese "boccaros" or red teapots of the
+Yi-hsing potteries. He had been anticipated in this direction by Dwight
+of Fulham, but the red pottery of Böttger was so intensely fired that it
+became dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were
+a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the
+Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity, as
+well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At the same time
+(1710) Böttger exhibited a few crude specimens of greyish-white
+porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in 1713, and by 1716 its
+manufacture was definitely established, though the pieces were still far
+from perfect. Böttger died in 1719, having had the rare fortune, in his
+short and eventful life, to establish in Europe the manufacture of true
+porcelain.
+
+The life of Böttger reads like a page of romance, and the story of the
+subsequent development of porcelain manufacture throughout the German
+empire is hardly less romantic. When the importance of Böttger's
+discovery was recognized, he and his workmen were removed from Dresden
+to the Albrechtsburg, a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so
+that the manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All
+concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme rigour
+doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped from time to
+time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a knowledge of the
+manufacture, found patrons among the German princes all eager to gain
+reputation as experimenters in the new art of porcelain. Some of these
+wandering "Arcanists," like Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt
+from them, travelled all over the empire, and the following list of
+dates will show how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent
+factory at Meissen:--
+
+  Meissen        1710    |    St Petersburg  1744
+  Vienna         1718    |    Berlin         1750
+  Ansbach        1718    |    Nymphenburg    1758
+  Bayreuth       1720    |    Ludwigsburg    1758
+
+_Meissen._--Although the factory which was founded at Meissen as a
+result of Böttger's discovery remained on its old site until 1863, the
+porcelain made there has been commonly known as Dresden porcelain;
+probably because Dresden was the seat of the Saxon court, and the
+enterprise was conducted at the expense of the electors of Saxony. So
+jealously were the secrets of this factory guarded that when Napoleon,
+the master of Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use
+at Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer, the
+director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain the
+processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best example by
+which we may follow the changes of fashion and taste that governed the
+styles of porcelain decoration in Europe during the 18th century. The
+early Meissen porcelain was made from the kaolin found at Aue, near
+Schneeberg, and while there is no mention of any other material, we may
+be sure that clay and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese _kaolin_
+and _petuntse_, were obtained from the same quarries, and were used
+together. Until after the death of Böttger in 1719 it cannot be said
+that the venture was more than a _succès d'estime_. The specimens
+preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the pieces were generally
+thick in substance and clumsy in shape, being often made from the moulds
+that had been designed for Böttger's red-stoneware. Naturally enough
+these early examples were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and
+decoration. As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were
+common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains, the
+decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the blue colour
+being much run and blistered; and when attempts were made at decoration
+in enamel colours (i.e. colours fired on the finished glaze) the result
+was unsatisfactory, as, owing to the refractory nature of the hard
+felspathic material, these colours frequently scaled off. The later
+success of the Meissen factory must be attributed to Herold or Höroldt
+(who joined the staff in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to
+Kandler, a sculptor, who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of
+these two men the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese
+and Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while the
+composition of the body and the glaze, and the application of colours
+and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was appointed director of
+the works a few years after 1720, and retained that post until 1765,
+while Kandler was chief modeller from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730
+(when the work definitely emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775
+(when Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen
+porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen porcelain of
+this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples of _Alt-Meissen_
+command high prices in the sale rooms, especially in Germany. This
+appreciation was quite as apparent in the 18th century, for by 1740
+Meissen porcelain had won the greatest renown in Europe, and was
+actually exported by way of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries
+of the Nearer East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers
+as being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was its
+vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen--a large number
+for those days--were employed, and the industry brought large profits as
+well as great reputation to the Saxon court. Each year saw some fresh
+departure from the original inspiration of the work, some fresh
+innovation of European style in design. After 1730 the rude
+reproductions of Chinese forms and decorations in white or blue and
+white were replaced by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially
+those decorated in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a
+race with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations in
+red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain
+factories of Europe. Gradually European _motifs_ became predominant. The
+simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively European shapes
+with architectural mouldings, handles and feet. Instead of the dainty
+Japanese patterns, we perceive the gradual introduction of "Rococo"
+scroll-work (as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or
+border for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins,
+figure-subjects, hunting scenes, &c., executed in the limited palette of
+on-glaze colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from
+oriental influence is to be found in the numerous "armorial" services
+produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same period we find the first
+appearance of a style of decoration that has persisted to our own times,
+as a means of passing off pieces with small flaws in body or glaze, by
+hiding them among sprays of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly
+or some other winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the
+surface of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used
+at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general, and a
+device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture was elevated
+into a distinct style of decoration by later European factories (e.g.
+Strassburg, Niederviller, &c.).
+
+The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory
+attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve apostles, an
+equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic proportions, and many
+models of animals intended for the decoration of the Japanese palace at
+Dresden. Many of these latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and
+create an unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame
+of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the little
+statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed in a steady
+stream from his facile hand; for though these figures have prettiness
+rather than grace, and _flair_ rather than style, they are instinct with
+the spirit of the middle 18th century, and were eagerly imitated or
+boldly copied at every factory in Europe. Only in the _biscuit_
+porcelain figures of Sèvres, and in some few of the portrait figures of
+Derby, do we find anything artistically superior. These Meissen
+statuettes look their best when they are simply in white; many are
+grotesque and ugly, and the colour decorations are usually in very poor
+taste, the harsh, shining colours contrasting unpleasantly with the
+pronounced white of the porcelain.
+
+Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at Meissen.
+Originating in the simple application of modelled branches of prunus,
+&c. in imitation of the white porcelains of Fu-kien, the method
+developed until we get not only the characteristic "May-flower"
+decoration (see example, Plate IX.), but also independent sprays and
+bouquets modelled in porcelain and coloured with the utmost mechanical
+precision. It is not quite clear whether this production of porcelain
+flowers was first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,[35] but it was
+largely practised at both places.
+
+Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames and
+clock cases were modelled in the most _outré_ rococo forms with applied
+scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their modelled details
+picked out in gold and colours, while the success of the French styles
+of decoration is still further shown by the copies of Watteau figures
+and groups on the more important vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the
+Great made sad havoc with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven
+Years' War. He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on
+the latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models, working
+moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks the end of the most
+distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this time Sèvres became the
+most important porcelain factory in Europe, and the later productions of
+Meissen were, for the most part, German versions of the styles initiated
+at the French royal factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was
+at the head of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler.
+They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like a
+blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under the
+directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen, fallen from
+its high estate, was content to follow the lead of Sèvres.
+
+After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of Meissen. The
+old productions of the factory had become valuable, and the custom of
+reproducing them, marks included, was adopted. Such a practice was not
+likely to lead to further progress, and, though the factory was removed
+from its old site in the Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to
+have added anything to the progress of European porcelain during the
+19th century.
+
+[Illustration: "Dresden" Potter's mark.]
+
+  During the initiatory period the "Dresden" pieces bore the monogram
+  "A.R." interlaced (Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716 pieces
+  intended for sale and not for the use of the court were marked with
+  the sign of Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff). From about
+  1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze, with or
+  without accompanying stars, crosses, &c., formed the general mark, but
+  the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that, in itself,
+  it is of slight value as a means of identification.
+
+_Vienna._--The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in Vienna
+occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier, was granted a
+patent. He had secured two runaways from Meissen, Stölzel and Hunger,
+yet little progress was made until after 1744, when the factory was
+bought by the empress Maria Theresa. At first the traditional styles of
+Meissen were continued, but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was
+produced after 1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours
+and elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner.
+Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period, succeeded in
+producing a more extensive and brilliant palette of colours than was in
+use at any other European porcelain factory in the last quarter of the
+18th century; and the gilding was rich and elaborate. Apart from its
+technical merits the ware has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of
+decoration showed pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the
+saving merits of the French work in the same style. The works was closed
+in 1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should be
+reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small Viennese
+factories, are to be found on the market.
+
+[Illustration: Wegeli's mark.]
+
+_Berlin._--The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper Wegeli,
+aided by workmen from other German factories, as early as 1750. This
+business was unsuccessful and came to an end in 1757, but its
+productions are highly prized on account of their rarity. Success only
+came when Frederick the Great brought workmen, moulds and materials from
+Meissen in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works in 1763, founded
+the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory. Though Meissen workmen and
+methods had been imported, and the Meissen style governed the earliest
+productions, Frederick's well-known _penchant_ for French art was
+doubtless responsible for the fact that the rococo style of decoration
+was more determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The
+colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being seldom
+decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured enamel, a
+favourite colour with the great Frederick, is quite characteristic. The
+Royal Berlin Factory passed under a cloud in the troubled condition of
+the Prussian monarchy during the early years of the 19th century, and
+down to 1870 it was content to follow in the wake of Sèvres like most of
+the other European factories. Since about the year 1880, however, it has
+developed into the most scientific of European porcelain works, and it
+was here that Seger manufactured his special porcelain, made to
+reproduce the qualities of the finest Japanese wares. In spite of this
+scientific success it must be remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is
+artistically disappointing, being too exuberant for our taste and
+recalling anything rather than porcelain in its treatment.
+
+  _Minor German Factories._--It is unnecessary to describe the
+  productions of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for
+  not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at
+  producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin.
+  In every case the industry was established under the patronage or at
+  the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate the
+  success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and generally
+  the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron or from his
+  unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his purse.
+
+  The factory at Höchst was started about 1720 by wanderers from
+  Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the
+  patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The general
+  style of Höchst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary wares of
+  Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures and
+  groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780). He
+  modelled, at Höchst, more than three hundred figures, as well as many
+  portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end during the
+  French invasion of 1794.
+
+  Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs of
+  Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector palatine
+  from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end to its
+  activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Höchst after 1780,
+  and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sèvres and Dresden were
+  made.
+
+  Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal factory
+  in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of fine quality,
+  but without special distinction. Melchior came on here about 1800,
+  remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg figures are as
+  highly esteemed as those he modelled at Höchst and Frankenthal. In the
+  early years of the 19th century elaborate painting became the rule
+  here, as at the other royal factories, and copies were made on
+  porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the Munich galleries. The
+  works is still in existence, in the hands of a private company, who
+  unfortunately sell many reproductions of the 18th-century wares.
+
+  Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory from
+  1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Württemberg.
+  Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because the
+  ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been
+  called "Kronenberg" porcelain.
+
+  Fürstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick.
+  Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced
+  before 1770. Fürstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known
+  styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its
+  "biscuit" statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in operation
+  until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction, imitations of
+  the old pieces are now common.
+
+  Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth,
+  Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.
+
+  Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous decorators,
+  like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both German and
+  oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim, produced
+  effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a diamond and
+  rubbing black colour into the lines.
+
+While France and Germany were each developing their own particular type
+of porcelain, it was only natural that the kings and princes of other
+countries should strive to emulate them in the manufacture of this still
+rare and highly esteemed form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the
+countries to the north and east seem to have been influenced most by
+German methods, whilst those to the south and west followed the French
+example.
+
+  _Holland._--The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as
+  1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude
+  Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L.
+  After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the "Amstel"
+  porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The ware resembled
+  the German both in material and decoration. The best porcelain made in
+  Holland was produced at a factory at the Hague, founded some time
+  after 1775. There is a choice collection of this ware in the Gemeente
+  Museum at the Hague. No porcelain appears to have been made in Holland
+  after about 1810 until 1890 or later.
+
+  _Denmark._--It has been stated that porcelain of the German type was
+  made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite record
+  of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when potters,
+  modellers and painters from some of the German works founded the
+  enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII. in 1779 and
+  converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king's patronage, fine
+  porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely made down to the
+  end of the 18th century. The collection in the castle of Rosenburg
+  contains many examples of the work of this period. In the early years
+  of the 19th century the Empire style of decoration was adopted, and
+  the artistic influence of Sèvres became paramount. Large sums of money
+  were continually required from the crown to maintain the establishment
+  until, in 1867, it was sold into private hands to get rid of an
+  encumbrance. The subsequent new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen
+  porcelain works must be noted in the next section.
+
+  _Sweden._--The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is
+  connected with the factories at Rörstrand and Marieberg, both in the
+  environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both these
+  places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the 18th
+  century, though the Rörstrand works was reopened some fifty years ago
+  and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains were of
+  two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the German, and the
+  other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at Mennecy in France. It
+  is interesting to note that the decorative styles in both cases are
+  distinctly French in character.
+
+  _Russia._--Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain
+  factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony,
+  but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the
+  empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal
+  fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian
+  porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype.
+  In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian factory
+  followed the example of Sèvres in producing costly dinner services and
+  extravagant vases of large dimensions.
+
+  Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of
+  Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and another by
+  A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these Moscow
+  factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes, the most
+  interesting being those representing Russian peasant types.
+
+  _Hungary._--The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at
+  Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this
+  factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived many
+  collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the word
+  "Herend" in the paste.
+
+  _Switzerland._--Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland, and
+  considering the geographical position of the country it seems natural
+  that porcelain of the German type should have been made at Zurich and
+  of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but these
+  productions are of no particular importance.
+
+_French Porcelains._--The beginnings of French porcelain at Rouen and St
+Cloud have already been mentioned, as they preceded Böttger's discovery
+of true porcelain; but as nothing was known in France of the methods and
+materials used by the German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy
+porcelain held sway in France through the greater part of the 18th
+century. The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded at
+Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince de Condé, an
+enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese porcelains. One
+distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain is its imitation of the
+Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century, especially those bearing
+delicate patterns in the Kakiemon style. This imitation was not confined
+to the decoration alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the
+delicious tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the body of
+the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel used by the French
+faience makers. Similar imitation of the Kakiemon style of decoration
+became the rage all over Europe, and was largely followed at Meissen and
+in England as well as in France; but no European imitations equalled
+those of the famous Chantilly ware.
+
+[Illustration: Lille and Chantilly Potters' marks.]
+
+Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy and at Lille,
+but the most important French factory was that founded at Vincennes
+about 1740, not only because of the many beautiful pieces produced
+there, but also because the works was taken under the direct patronage
+of the king in 1753 and was transferred to Sèvres in 1756, becoming
+ultimately the most important porcelain factory in Europe.
+
+  Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition
+  of the artificial porcelain (_pâte tendre_) of Sèvres, and a brief
+  account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the glassy
+  porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by preparing a
+  glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt, gypsum,
+  soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered and
+  washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded by
+  adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or marl
+  and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in water
+  until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled to a
+  thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap or
+  parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for the
+  workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were made from
+  this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of considerable
+  thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and were then either
+  turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper to reduce them to
+  sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other ornaments in
+  relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary with every
+  other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then fired into
+  what is known as the "biscuit" condition; the most difficult part of
+  the whole process. During this firing the pieces frequently went out
+  of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of the material and its
+  tendency to soften as it approached the melting point of the frit.
+  Consequently an elaborate system of "propping" the pieces had to be
+  resorted to, and even then a very large proportion became deformed.
+  When the porcelain was drawn from the oven after the first firing, the
+  supports were removed and the pieces were rubbed with sand to clean
+  the surface, and were then coated with glaze by sprinkling with a
+  brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very rich in lead. The glaze
+  coat was melted by refiring the piece at a lower temperature; and it
+  was frequently necessary to repeat this process several times in order
+  to get a perfectly even and brilliant result. The difficulties of such
+  a process were enormous, and it was only by the financial support of
+  wealthy patrons, or of the state, that such a method of manufacture
+  was ever carried on for any length of time. At its best the material
+  is an exceedingly beautiful one, lending itself especially to
+  decoration in on-glaze colours, and the pieces produced at Vincennes
+  and at Sèvres, between 1745 and 1770 or thereabouts, form a distinct
+  class by themselves. Skilful chemists like Hellot and Macquer were
+  employed to direct the operations, and many beautiful ground colours,
+  such as the famous _gros-bleu, bleu de roi, rose Pompadour_, pea-green
+  and apple-green were invented.
+
+_Sèvres Porcelains._--The forms of the Sèvres porcelain are exceedingly
+varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by Duplessis, the king's
+silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are more proper to metal than
+to pottery; but the French glassy porcelain is such an artificial
+material in every respect that such a point should not be strained too
+far. Owing to the want of plasticity in the paste the pieces were always
+made in moulds of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were
+moulded in separate parts and these united together with metal screws or
+mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for actual use
+were usually painted on a plain white ground with the full palette of
+on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich gilding. The decorative
+pieces such as vases, candelabra, jardinières, &c., were decorated in a
+much more sumptuous fashion by covering the greater part of the piece
+with a ground of one of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned,
+reserving only panels in white on which delicate miniature-like
+decorations of the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired
+(see fig. 52; and examples of Sèvres, Plate IX.). Such collections as
+the Wallace at Hertford House, or the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum, show at once the variety and perfection to which the work
+attained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sèvres vase, _pâte tendre_; green body and gilt
+imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+This Sèvres porcelain is entirely devoid of the broad decorative
+treatment and rich full colour of any of the great kinds of fine pottery
+or porcelain. Artistically considered, it has no place beside the
+triumphs of the Chinese or Persian potters, or of the Italian majolists.
+Its shapes are too formal, and are not sufficiently imbued with a sense
+of the qualities of the material. The ground colours defy every natural
+tendency of pottery colour for they are even, flawless and mechanical,
+with none of the palpitating richness that comes so naturally from the
+potter's processes. The paintings, whether of flowers, birds or
+figure-subjects, are extraordinarily skilful regarded as miniatures, but
+as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to the swift,
+apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters of earlier times. So
+pronounced was the demand of the period for smooth even finish that such
+ground colours as _gros-bleu_ and _bleu de roi_, where the colour
+naturally came varied and uneven, were subsequently decorated with small
+diapers or lines of gold in the form of _[oe]il de perdrix_ or
+_vermicelle_, so as to produce a more regular and even effect. The most
+elaborate and costly of all the varieties of old Sèvres is what is known
+as "jewelled Sèvres," which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such
+as turquoises, pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones.
+These imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased
+mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found examples
+of the punches and other tools used in making these mounts. On account
+of the enormous expense involved in the production of such costly
+triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled Sèvres are rare even in the best
+collections, but the English student is fortunate in the fact that the
+Wallace collection contains a considerable number of them.
+
+[Illustration: Sèvres Potters' marks, 1753 and 1772.]
+
+Many reasons--the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory, the
+knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of cost, the
+mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and decoration, as well as
+the fact that the glassy porcelain was abandoned as too costly and risky
+after about 1780--have all conspired to raise the prices which modern
+collectors are prepared to pay for fine examples of _vieux Sèvres_. It
+is doubtful whether even the prices paid for paintings by old masters
+have advanced so rapidly as those paid for Sèvres porcelain of the best
+period. In the 'seventies of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of
+remark that a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction for
+three old Sèvres vases; thirty years later one such piece would probably
+fetch the same price. It should be added that the extravagant prices now
+paid for Sèvres porcelain, which is much more a triumph of technical
+than of artistic skill, have led to an extensive system of "faking" and
+even forging specimens which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.
+
+Beautiful as the old Sèvres porcelain was, those who were responsible
+for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that the porcelain made
+at Meissen and other German factories was both harder and whiter in
+substance, more truly resembling the oriental porcelain in every
+respect. It was also known that these German porcelains were not so
+difficult, and therefore so costly to manufacture as the French, and all
+these causes combined to make the directorate of Sèvres unremitting in
+their efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to those
+used by the German and Chinese potters. Père d'Entrecolles, the famous
+Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France long before an account of the
+methods used by the Chinese, as well as samples of the materials they
+employed; and after many years' research Millot and Macquer discovered
+the precious materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, _History
+of French Porcelain_, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of this
+French porcelain, similar in material to the German and Chinese, appear
+to have been made about 1769; but it was some years after this before
+the manufacture of the new product was firmly established, and then to
+the end of the 18th century more and more of the hard porcelain and less
+of the glassy porcelain was made at Sèvres. Speaking broadly, we might
+say that after 1780 comparatively little of the original French
+porcelain was made in France; and from that time to this practically all
+French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain, viz.
+made with china clay and felspathic rock. This technical change in the
+nature of the materials had a profound influence on the artistic
+qualities of French porcelain, and the change was doubtless accentuated
+by the neo-classical rage which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii. The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern
+renderings of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague,
+and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter of the 18th
+and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a definite period in
+pottery design and decoration. The introduction of hard-paste porcelain
+rendered the manufacture of large vases and other pieces possible; and
+after 1780 we find the manufactory at Sèvres engaged in the production
+of enormous vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been
+continued there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first
+production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies of
+well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The earliest of
+these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this material it was
+only possible to make them of quite modest dimensions; with the
+introduction of hard-paste porcelain very large slabs were manufactured,
+and a series of these are to be seen in the museum at Sèvres.
+
+The most artistic of all the productions of Sèvres are undoubtedly the
+"biscuit" figures and groups. These were modelled with great skill by
+many of the best French sculptors of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle,
+Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri, Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The
+best of these Sèvres "biscuits" have a real artistic value which places
+them in a class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at
+Meissen, Frankenthal and Höchst.
+
+  _Paris_.--Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges and
+  prerogatives had been given to the Sèvres manufactory, such as the
+  exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the
+  breakdown of the monarchical régime, which was rapidly accelerated
+  after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris
+  and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of
+  hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal
+  manufactory of Sèvres. In order that the royal edicts might be more
+  easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the patronage
+  of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen Marie
+  Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of these
+  Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them, such as
+  those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king's eldest
+  brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette); Rue de
+  Bondy (patronized by the duc d'Angoulême), compare not unfavourably
+  with those of Sèvres itself.
+
+  It is impossible to do more than mention the other important French
+  factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg,
+  Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years
+  of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these
+  factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal
+  factory at Sèvres passing through a kind of lingering death between
+  1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the
+  glories of Sèvres that modern French porcelain really came into being.
+
+Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into Holland,
+Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c., we find the manufacture of a glassy
+porcelain analogous to the early French arising in Belgium, Italy, Spain
+and England. The materials and methods were so like those used in France
+that it would be ridiculous to claim for them an independent origin,
+even were we unable to prove by documentary evidence that workmen
+trained in the French factories had migrated into those countries.
+
+  _Italy_.--In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano
+  (1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese
+  Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and
+  Capo-di-Monte near Naples (1736-1820); with minor factories like those
+  at Vinovo, Treviso, and the Volpato factory at Rome. The most
+  important of these were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte. The
+  porcelain made at Doccia was famous for its soft translucent texture,
+  so that it lent itself beautifully to the production of white glazed
+  porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of Fu-kien.
+
+  [Illustration: Capo-di-Monte Potters' marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.]
+
+  The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of Charles
+  III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions are in
+  pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces, though
+  modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and
+  seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides
+  groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have
+  the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers,
+  plates, &c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high
+  relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly
+  admired because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period
+  the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but after
+  about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and
+  decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.
+
+  [Illustration: Buen Retiro Potters' marks.]
+
+  _Spain_.--Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in 1759
+  and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the Capo-di-Monte
+  factory, as well as the best moulds and models. He established a new
+  china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a palace outside Madrid.
+  As long as Charles III. lived immense sums were lavished on this
+  factory, and the ware was not allowed to be sold, but was either used
+  for the decoration of the royal palaces or for presentation to other
+  European sovereigns. Enormous vases were made, following the example
+  of Sèvres, and these were often filled with bouquets of flowers
+  modelled in porcelain. The most famous productions of this factory,
+  however, were the plaques and slabs of porcelain used for lining the
+  walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of these rooms still
+  remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish _rococo_ style. The
+  factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the French war, and
+  since that date no porcelain of any importance has been made in Spain.
+
+_English Porcelains of the 18th century._--There can be no doubt that
+whatever experimental work may have been conducted by our early English
+potters, such as the famous John Dwight of Fulham, nothing like an
+established manufacture of porcelain existed in this country prior to
+about 1740-1745. There are records of many tentative experiments before
+this date, but no real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important
+porcelain works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby,
+and when we examine the productions of these factories it is impossible
+to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been imported from
+France. The early English porcelains, like all the French porcelains of
+that date, were composed of artificial or glassy mixtures.
+
+We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as typical of the
+earliest English porcelain of which there is any definite record. The
+material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand from Alum Bay in the Isle of
+Wight, and glass, while the glaze was a fusible English flint-glass rich
+in lead. It is obvious, therefore, that we are dealing with substances
+very similar to those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above),
+and such mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to
+great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries
+the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on at the
+expense of some royal or princely patron; in England, however, the
+manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and it is probably for this
+reason that at a very early date we find the English porcelain-makers
+experimenting with other materials than glass and clay in order to make
+their processes more certain. In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas
+Frye of the Bow works we find mention of the use of bone-ash--the
+material that was to make English porcelain a distinct species by
+itself. From 1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large
+proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the English
+porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced into the paste in
+order to obtain a more refractory material; yet it was not until about
+1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent abandoned entirely the use of
+glass and composed his porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic
+rock for the body, glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the
+foundation of distinctively English porcelain. The material has many
+merits both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more
+easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better for
+ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it permits the
+fullest range of decoration.
+
+Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English
+factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the various
+influences that were at work in determining what the porcelain-maker
+should do, both in the way of shape and decoration. The eyes of all men
+were, of course, turned first to the porcelain brought from the far
+East; and in the early efforts of the English factories, as of those of
+France and Germany, we notice a predominance of white pieces or of
+pieces decorated with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously
+inspired by the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea
+produced large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early days
+of the Worcester factory little else was made there than white, or blue
+and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese. Another oriental
+influence was to be found in the Imari patterns of Japan, particularly
+those in the style of Kakiemon. It has been noted that Meissen,
+Chantilly and other continental factories had already created a vogue
+for these reproductions of Japanese decorations, and in our own country
+Bow, Chelsea and Worcester followed suit. The later Imari patterns,
+heavily decorated with blue and red and gold for the use of "the
+foreigner," furnished another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and
+the vogue of these English "Japan" patterns, in the last quarter of the
+18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great that
+they represent a large proportion of the output of our English porcelain
+works during that period. The productions of the German and French
+factories also exerted a profound influence on English potters; so that
+throughout the 18th century English porcelains largely consisted of
+imitations of the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.
+
+We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration which
+undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of transfer-printing,
+whereby patterns printed on paper from engraved copper plates are
+transferred to porcelain or pottery and subsequently fired, either under
+or on the glaze. At the best these printed patterns are in no way
+superior to the stencilled work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at
+the worst, European and American printed patterns have been perhaps the
+most inappropriate decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world. It
+has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it enables
+elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so brings decorated
+pottery within the reach of the humblest. The truer view is, that the
+simplest brushwork patterns, or even no pattern at all, would be
+preferable to the tawdry results that the cheapest forms of
+transfer-printing have rendered possible.
+
+_Chelsea._--Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was the most
+important of all the English porcelain works, and fine specimens of this
+period command high prices in the saleroom to-day. We know little of the
+origin of this important factory, though it is believed to have been in
+existence from some time after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally
+demolished and some of the workmen and part of the plant were removed
+to the then important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles
+Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750. Sprimont retained
+possession of the works until 1769, and died in 1771. It was during his
+management, from 1750 to 1770, that the finest and most characteristic
+pieces of Chelsea porcelain were made.
+
+Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely varied, little was
+produced there that was really English in character. The earliest pieces
+appear to have been either in pure white or in white decorated with
+paintings in under-glaze blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish
+salt cellars, the shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats,
+small cups and saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the
+decorations, mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed by
+reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain. Afterwards we
+find the appearance of table wares modelled in imitation of leaves,
+animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently adopted from current
+French and German practice.
+
+In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown by the
+production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.), and of the
+small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of which there is such a
+fine collection in the British Museum. In the latter days of the factory
+(say after 1758) we find Chelsea following in the wake of Sèvres in the
+production of large and elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and
+covers, scroll-work bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen
+in the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of this
+elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine blue,
+turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour, while white
+panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and painted in enamel
+colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects in absolute rivalry with
+the pieces manufactured at Sèvres.
+
+The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the ill-health
+of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury, the proprietor of
+the Derby works. He carried on the establishment from 1770 to 1784, but
+in this period a great change is noticeable in the product of the
+factory. The "rococo" forms and decorations of the true Chelsea
+porcelain were replaced by works in the neo-classical style already
+rendered popular by the success of Josiah Wedgwood, and the
+Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite a distinct production from the early
+works of Chelsea. The most distinctive mark of the Chelsea porcelain is
+an anchor--either embossed in the paste or painted in gold or colour.
+Often the anchors occur in pairs, and it is frequently associated with
+other marks such as a dagger or a cross. Some of the Derby-Chelsea
+pieces are marked with a conjoined D and an anchor.
+
+[Illustration: Chelsea Potters' marks.]
+
+_Bow._--The date of the establishment of the factory at
+Stratford-le-Bow, in what is now the East End of London, is quite
+uncertain, but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected
+with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture of porcelain.
+The materials mentioned in this patent are not such as would produce
+porcelain at all, and it appears likely that the specification was made
+purposely defective. In 1748 a further patent was applied for in which
+we get the first mention of bone-ash, so that from the technical point
+of view the wares made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance
+as indicating the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain in
+which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the works at Bow
+belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and was then known as "New
+Canton," and as 300 workpeople were employed, the operations must have
+been conducted on a large scale; but ultimately, from causes that can
+only be surmised, the partnership was dissolved and the business failed,
+so that in 1775 the works was bought for a very small sum by the William
+Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the plant and moulds
+to his more prosperous works at Derby. It would appear from what we know
+of the factory and its productions that the business was conducted on
+simpler lines than at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no
+elaborate vases in imitation of Sèvres, and no important groups of
+figures which might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is
+common with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the
+production of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted
+with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then followed
+the well-known "Quail," or "Partridge," and "Wheat-sheaf" patterns in
+red and green and gold in imitation of the Japanese patterns; and the
+manufacture of table ware decorated with these simple yet bright and
+pleasant devices seems to have formed the greater part of the work at
+the factory. Many figures and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but
+they are fewer in number and less cleverly made and decorated than the
+contemporary productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise that
+there was considerable rivalry between these two works situated on the
+outskirts of the metropolis, for we find the "anchor" mark, which is the
+best recognized mark of Chelsea porcelain, often occurring on specimens
+that from internal evidence or from the piece itself we should rather
+attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are not very certain, but some of the
+likeliest are here given.
+
+[Illustration: Bow Potters' marks.]
+
+_Worcester._--The third of the early English factories, and ultimately
+the most important of all, was that founded at Worcester in 1751 by Dr
+Wall, a man of unusual attainments, and a number of his friends. How Dr
+Wall came to learn the secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown,
+but even assuming that he acquired some information from wandering
+workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon developed on
+original lines. The nature of the paste and the glaze of the early
+Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety of their decorations,
+stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen really developed a
+native porcelain. Between 1751 and 1770, the first period of Worcester
+porcelain, the prevalent influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white,
+and the pieces of that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for
+their artistic quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in
+England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied, and a
+collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory from
+the aesthetic point of view. The productions at this time were tea and
+coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and plates. The cups were usually
+made without handles in imitation of the oriental practice, but large,
+two-handled covered cups for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made
+during the early period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed
+pattern resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced
+at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets were also
+made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.
+
+The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was introduced
+at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock, an engraver, came
+from York House, Battersea, where the process was first employed for the
+decoration of the Battersea enamels. The early Worcester prints
+comprised portraits of celebrities of the time (the Frederick the Great
+mug), or adaptations of the works of great artists such as Gainsborough
+and Watteau, or copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The
+first printing was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the
+fired glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of
+printing in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to
+note that for many years this process of transfer printing was developed
+side by side with the older method of porcelain painting, and until the
+end of the 18th century the processes appear to have been used at
+Worcester quite independently. The closing of the Chelsea factory in
+1770 led to the migration of some of the Chelsea painters to Worcester,
+and from about that date a considerable amount of Worcester porcelain
+was decorated on the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the
+styles that had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only
+fair to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always
+distinguished by a certain English character both in the style and the
+workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and most artistic period
+of Worcester porcelain came to an end before 1783, when, after the death
+of Dr Wall, the works passed under the control of Thomas Flight and his
+two sons, who had been jewellers. The Flight influence was soon
+noticeable from the fact that the new shapes were more and more based on
+those of Sèvres and Meissen, while the decoration became more mechanical
+and precise as befitted the work of jewellers rather than potters. King
+George III. and Queen Charlotte visited the works in 1788 and bestowed
+upon the firm the privilege of styling themselves "China Manufacturers
+to Their Majesties," since when the works has always been known as the
+Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793 Martin Barr was taken into
+partnership; the "Flight & Barr" period, so well known to collectors,
+lasted until 1807.
+
+[Illustration: Early Worcester Potters' marks.]
+
+Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after 1784, viz. the
+Chamberlain factory, which was working in rivalry with the original
+establishment; but its productions are of no particular artistic merit,
+and in 1840 the two firms became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the
+present Worcester Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the
+productions of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th century
+were the "Armorial" services made for various royal and noble families,
+and those adaptations of Imari patterns known as "Old Japan."
+
+_Derby._--Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear to have
+been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee, Andrew Planché;
+but the business, which was afterwards to attain such a great
+development, was only founded in 1756 with William Duesbury as its
+manager. Duesbury was originally a decorator of china figures in London,
+and his career proves that he was a man of great industry and energy,
+for within twenty-five years he not only built up a large business at
+Derby, but he absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in
+the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important china
+manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a commercial success
+like this implied the absence of any distinct artistic impulse. The
+porcelain produced at Derby is for the most part only an echo of the
+successes of Meissen, Sèvres, or the earlier English factories. It is
+only fair to remark that a very deep and rich under-glaze blue was
+attained at the Derby works, and that this was associated with very
+mechanical painting of birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional
+quality. At this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with
+exceptional vigour, until "Crown-Derby Japan" became a standard trade
+name for this clobbered oriental style.
+
+[Illustration: Derby Potters' marks.]
+
+Mention has already been made of the "biscuit" porcelain figures made at
+Derby, which are superior in style to anything else made in-Europe in
+the 18th century except the "biscuit" porcelains of Sèvres. The Derby
+"biscuits" of the best type range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest
+specimens have a "waxy" surface, though there is little or no sheen and
+every detail remains as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its
+maker. The most famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and
+statuettes of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an
+artist named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups
+adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a workman named
+Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic figures and animals.
+
+_Plymouth and Bristol._--The porcelain factories at Plymouth and
+Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only English
+factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous to the Chinese
+was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a Quaker druggist of
+Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting to discover in Cornwall
+and Devonshire minerals similar to those which were described in the
+letters of Père d'Entrecolles as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain.
+After many years of travel and research he ascertained the nature of the
+Cornish stone and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at
+Plymouth for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from
+these native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise,
+from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only be
+referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the factory
+was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards transferred to
+Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant, who had already been dabbling in
+the fashionable pursuit of porcelain making. Champion's Bristol factory
+lasted from 1773 to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number
+of Staffordshire potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed.
+The Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true
+felspathic porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the china
+clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder and whiter
+than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh, glittering glaze
+marks it off at once from the wares of Bow, Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.
+
+The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much in its
+style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One can point to
+nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens now command very
+high prices in the salerooms it is on account of their rarity rather
+than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that they possess.
+
+Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the production of
+the Bristol works, but a considerable number of figures are known, in
+many cases obviously copied from those of Meissen, and a few large
+hexagonal vases similar in style to specimens produced at Chelsea and at
+Worcester. The most distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are
+certain small plaques or slabs in "biscuit" porcelain, usually bearing
+in the centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by a
+wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these choice
+productions are to be seen in the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and Swansea marks.]
+
+The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its general mark the
+alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was also used to a limited extent
+at the Bristol factory, though the general Bristol mark was a cross or a
+copy of the crossed swords of Meissen. The Staffordshire potters who
+bought the rights of the Bristol porcelain factory from Champion
+established a works at Shelton, near Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire,
+under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they never manufactured
+anything of artistic account.
+
+  _Minor English Factories._--A number of other porcelain factories were
+  founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but none of
+  these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain made at
+  Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy and ugly in
+  form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic of the
+  factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by William
+  Duesbury.
+
+  The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain
+  amount of porcelain, as well as "Delft" and other earthenwares, and
+  the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their productions.
+
+  A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th
+  century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because
+  certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of
+  "Armorial" porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China.
+  Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was
+  only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing cheap
+  wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the more
+  important English factories.
+
+  Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English
+  porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of
+  Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English
+  factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English
+  factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as
+  Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred to
+  the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.
+
+  _Collections._--The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum
+  contain the best general collections of English porcelain. The museums
+  at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local wares; while
+  the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works has an admirable
+  collection of the wares of that factory. Many noteworthy private
+  collections are in existence, of which we may mention those of Mr
+  Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Alex. Brongniart, _Traitié des arts céramiques_ (1844);
+  Jacquemart, _Histoire de la céramique_ (Eng. ed. 1873); Jännicke,
+  _Grundriss der Keramik_ (1879); Dr Brinkmann, _Handbook of European
+  Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum_; Marryat, _History of Pottery and
+  Porcelain_ (1857); Jewitt, _Ceramic Art of Great Britain_ (1878);
+  Auscher, _A History and Description of French Porcelain_ (1905);
+  Burton, _A History and Description of English Porcelain_ (1902);
+  Dillon, _Porcelain_ (1904); Solon, _Old English Porcelain_ (1903);
+  Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); R. Almstrom, _Lervarorna och deras
+  Tillverkning_ (1903).     (W. B.*)
+
+
+POTTERY AND PORCELAIN DURING THE 19TH CENTURY
+
+The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain in Europe
+and America throughout the 19th century need not be treated in such
+detail as the history of its growth up to that period, for modern means
+of communication and the general diffusion of knowledge have tended to
+destroy the individual character which was so marked a feature of the
+pottery of different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century
+was distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it
+witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those methods of
+handicraft which made the older pottery individual and interesting even
+in its simplest forms. Collectors are prepared to pay very large sums
+for choice examples of the potter's art of bygone centuries, but it is
+doubtful if much of the pottery of the 19th century will ever be
+collected for its intrinsic merits, though it may be preserved as an
+illustration of the spirit of the age.
+
+In preceding sections of this article the development of the brightly
+painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated porcelains of
+various European countries have been traced down to the end of the 18th
+century, because that date marks, quite distinctly, the period when the
+old handicraft of the potter was for various reasons displaced by
+organized manufacture. The disturbed economic condition of Europe in the
+last quarter of the 18th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early
+19th century proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain
+works where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional
+methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and
+cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood and his
+contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more perfectly finished
+and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled pottery of the
+continent. It vied in finish with the expensive continental porcelains,
+and for nearly half a century it carried all before it, not only in
+England, but throughout the world. An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de
+Saint Fond, writing in the beginning of the 19th century, remarks of
+English pottery that "Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the
+advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine
+glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and
+the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and
+so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg, from
+Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the
+extremity of the south of France one is served at every inn upon English
+ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are supplied with it; and vessels are
+loaded with it for the East Indies, the West Indies, and the continent
+of America."[36] It was calculated that at this time three-fourths of
+the pottery manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of
+things was not likely to continue, and in most of the European
+countries, after the settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as
+had survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose,
+adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases experienced
+Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these works, and so far as
+ordinary domestic pottery was concerned, the first half of the 19th
+century witnessed the establishment in every country of Europe and in
+the United States of America of pottery works managed by Englishmen,
+where earthenwares were made after the English fashion. We shall refer
+presently to the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and
+porcelain, but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one
+or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England itself
+witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture, which became
+more and more aggregated in that district of North Staffordshire
+designated emphatically "The Potteries," where, in spite of later
+developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters of all the pottery and
+porcelain made in the British Isles is still produced. This
+concentration of the industry in England has resulted in a race of
+pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere in the world, and while it
+was the supply of cheap coal and coarse clay which first gave
+Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-eminence is now retained as
+much by the traditional skill of the workmen of the district as by the
+enterprise of its manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IX.
+
+  Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin.
+
+  Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pâte-dure.
+
+  Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pâte-dure.
+
+  Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1756.]
+
+While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the methods of
+manufacture which have placed England in the first rank as a
+pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have brought within the
+reach of the humblest domestic utensils of high finish and great
+durability, it is impossible to say much for the taste or art associated
+with them. Neatness, serviceableness and durability, English domestic
+wares undoubtedly possess in a degree unknown to any earlier type of
+pottery, but the general use of transfer-printing as the principal
+method of decoration, and the absence of any distinctive style of
+ornament, must cause them to take a low rank in comparison with the
+wares of past centuries, when mechanical perfection was impossible and
+rich colour and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of
+the pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition of
+1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of art as
+applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as marking the period
+when many of the old handicrafts had been extinguished by the use of
+mechanical appliances and the growth of the factory system, and when the
+delight of men in these current developments was so great that they were
+regarded as triumphs in themselves, when they were only "means to an
+end."
+
+Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain has followed
+two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of manufacturers to
+produce the most artistic results possible with modern processes and
+methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable efforts of those
+individual potters in every country with whom art was the first
+consideration and commercial production was disregarded.
+
+Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount importance
+in the first half of the 19th century, it must be remembered that some
+of the oldest factories in Europe were still alive and active. The royal
+factories in Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and
+elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the Napoleonic Wars, continued at the
+expense of their respective states, to produce porcelains which were the
+legitimate development of their work during the 18th century.
+
+_Meissen and Berlin._--At Meissen, efforts were made to improve the
+technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen wares had
+already become valuable, and they were reproduced, marks included, until
+all initiative was destroyed, and the factory continued to live, mainly,
+on its old reputation.
+
+At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy throughout
+the early years of the 19th century were severely felt, so that a
+cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured. The only innovations that
+can be ascribed to the factory during this period, though highly
+esteemed at the time, form striking examples of the artistic decadence
+of the period. Such was the lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in
+porcelain slip so that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a
+porcelain facsimile; another was the production of slabs of porcelain
+modelled in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it
+appeared like a picture painted _en grisaille_.
+
+From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the
+majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in the world
+has greater attention been paid to the technical and scientific problems
+of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment has rendered the
+greatest service in the development of the important chemical and
+electrical industries of Germany by the splendid appliances it has
+invented for scientific use.
+
+Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been conducted
+with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger perfected his soft
+porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the best Japanese
+porcelains, and here also he developed the manufacture of copper-red
+glazes in imitation of the old _sang-de-boeuf_ and _flambé_, glazes of
+the Chinese, at the same time establishing some of the scientific
+principles underlying their production. At Berlin, too, all the modern
+methods of decoration, whether in coloured glazes, raised enamels, _pâte
+sur pâte_, the elaborate paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the
+use of crystalline glazes, have been followed with great success; but
+the factory has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to
+the decorative side of porcelain.
+
+_Vienna._--Few European factories were so little affected by the general
+trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have already
+referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding which became the
+distinguishing feature of its wares towards the end of the 18th century,
+and this style, once perfected, seems to have been continued with little
+change. It has been stated by a renowned German authority, that the
+Viennese porcelain was at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this
+period the plan of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was
+developed to its utmost, and this, in combination with the richest
+gilding, marks the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to
+an end in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap
+porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and therefore styled
+"Viennese porcelain," has during the last twenty years overwhelmed the
+English and American markets.
+
+_Sèvres._--The important part played by the Royal French manufactory at
+Sèvres has already been sketched. During the troublous years of the
+French Revolution the works practically came to a standstill, and under
+the Directory it was a question whether this manufactory, along with
+certain other state establishments in France, should be closed.
+Napoleon, however, decided that for the glory of France and as a means
+of encouraging its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the
+English potters, the establishment at Sèvres should be conducted as a
+national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brongniart, a man
+of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was appointed director,
+and retained that post under the successive governments of France until
+his death in 1847. In the hands of Brongniart the establishment at
+Sèvres became at once a school of research and a centre of practical
+accomplishment--the influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its
+products were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French
+monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose ideas of
+Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of his victories, and
+after every campaign a fresh table service or new suite of vases was
+produced to commemorate the emperor's successes. The most striking piece
+of this kind was the vase made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon
+and Marie Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled
+with figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than
+115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the
+acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures. This vase
+was three years in making, and is said to have cost something like
+£1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary example of the productions
+of Sèvres, for under every successive government of the 19th century the
+factory has been called to produce enormous vases which are to be found
+in the rooms or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and
+while these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their
+manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered, very few of
+them possess either spontaneity or charm. They are correct, frigid,
+cold, and compare most unfavourably from the artistic point of view
+with the masterpieces of oriental pottery.
+
+Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again the
+influence of Sèvres became paramount in Europe, and its styles of
+painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830 to 1870 by all
+those European potters who were attempting to make anything beyond
+useful domestic wares. As an instance of its aims in the period between
+1830 and 1850, large sums were spent in the production of great slabs of
+porcelain many feet in area; on which were painted copies of some of the
+famous portraits and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of
+the Louvre. A number of these are preserved in the museum at Sèvres, and
+must always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical
+accomplishment.
+
+The most noticeable invention of Sèvres in the middle part of the 19th
+century was the _pâte sur pâte_ decoration in which porcelain clays of
+various colours are used as the artist's medium. The idea appears to
+have been adopted from an old Chinese vase by Robert, the chief painter,
+and at the London International Exhibition of 1862 some small cups
+decorated in this method, by Gely, were first shown. The most successful
+work in this style was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked
+at Sèvres until 1870. In that year he came to England and was employed
+at Minton's, where for about thirty-five years he continued this method
+of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of pottery
+decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M. Solon the _pâte sur
+pâte_ decoration took the form of paintings of figure subjects or dainty
+ornamental designs in white slip on a coloured porcelain ground of
+green, blue, dark-grey or black. On such grounds a thin wash of the slip
+gives a translucent film, so that by washing on or building up
+successive layers of slip, sharpening the drawing with modelling tools,
+or softening or rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate
+gradations of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip
+to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly adopted by all
+the principal European factories, though nowhere was it carried to such
+perfection as at Sèvres and at Minton's. M. Taxile Doat has executed
+many extraordinary pieces in this style of decoration at Sèvres, and in
+the British Museum there is a large vase of his, presented by the French
+government at the beginning of the present century. One great feature of
+French porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the development
+of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district of central
+France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain production in the period
+between 1780 and 1850, but after the latter date it rapidly developed
+into a pottery centre second only in importance to that of the Potteries
+district in England. We can do no more than mention this fact, because,
+for the most part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the
+production of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art.
+
+The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sèvres, and all work came to
+a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory, which was almost
+completed before the outbreak of the war, was opened by Marshal MacMahon
+in 1876, but for many years the work was continued under great
+discouragement. Between 1879 and 1889 attention was paid to the study
+and imitation of old Chinese methods, and this resulted in the
+reproduction of many of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the
+despair of European potters.
+
+At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sèvres was perhaps
+the most notable feature of the magnificent collection of ceramics
+gathered there. The collection included many varieties of porcelain,
+both hard and soft paste, decorated in all the current styles of the
+period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze painting, flambé glazes and
+crystalline glazes, but most beautiful of all were the magnificent
+groups of "biscuit" figures designed as table garnitures by some of the
+best French sculptors of the time.
+
+_English Progress._--The demand for elaborate specimens of painted
+porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between 1851 and 1880, and
+this demand was undoubtedly fostered by the series of international
+exhibitions held during that period, when every European pottery works
+of note produced large and costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware,
+smothered with painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced
+something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of European
+factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton at
+Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the Arnoux's of Apt,
+an old family of French potters, was at this time the technical and
+artistic director of Messrs Minton's works, and he was the only pottery
+director during the 19th century who could in any sense be compared with
+M. Brongniart of Sèvres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree
+artistic with technical skill, and under his management the works of
+Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in Europe.
+Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse, and Protat, and
+pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill, E. Lessore and L.
+Solon were engaged at this factory and produced many of the most
+characteristic European decorations of the middle of the 19th century.
+
+To this period, too, we must refer another English invention, that of a
+special porcelain known as "Parian." This in its finest expression was a
+"biscuit" porcelain used for the production of statuettes and groups
+rivalling the finest 18th century "biscuit" figures of Sèvres and Derby.
+It seems probable that this Parian was first made at the works of
+Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-upon-Trent; but it was immediately
+adopted at Minton's, Wedgwood's, and at Worcester; and each of these
+firms used it in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured
+at the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain
+works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by the
+Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of Longton, and other
+English manufacturers until it became an important branch of the English
+porcelain made in the period under review.
+
+_Japanese Influence._--At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great
+collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm, and there
+was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese art in Europe once
+more; not as in the 18th century, when the old Japanese patterns were
+copied or frankly imitated, but a European-Japanese style arose, based
+on the methods and ideas of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen,
+the workers in metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the
+Worcester Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and
+skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and minute
+execution must be ranked before all other European works of their kind.
+
+The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese art was,
+however, developed at the Royal Copenhagen works, the productions of
+which are not only famous all over the world, but have set a new style
+in porcelain decoration which is being followed at most of the
+continental factories. By the use of the pure Swedish felspar and quartz
+and the finest china clays from Germany or Cornwall a material of
+excellent quality is prepared, and on this naturalistic paintings of
+birds, fishes, animals and water or northern landscapes and figure
+subjects are painted in delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens.
+The Royal Copenhagen works has also produced a profusion of skilfully
+modelled animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately
+tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours.
+
+Not only have Berlin, Sèvres and other European factories adopted the
+modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the Japanese are now
+imitating these skilful productions which were originally inspired by
+their own early work.
+
+_Stonewares._--Mention must be made of the revival of the manufacture of
+artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and Villeroy and Boch, the
+great German potters. Doultons, besides reviving the older forms of
+English stoneware, made some entirely new departures, and their pieces
+with designs etched in the clay are admirable examples of the right use
+of a refractory material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish
+stonewares, and many interesting new departures in addition, but mostly
+in German forms that have not commended the wares to other nations.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE X.
+
+  Chelsea porcelain; 1745-1770 Figure after Watteau.
+
+  Worcester Porcelain; c. 1760-1770.
+
+  Whieldon and Wedgwood, cauliflower ware; c. 1750-1760.
+
+  Wedgwood's jasper; c. 1780.
+
+  Turner's jasper; c. 1780.]
+
+_Artistic Results._--While the great potteries of Europe have been
+employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in consolidating
+their knowledge on the technical and scientific side, so that they are
+able to produce pottery more perfect in shape, with a higher degree of
+finish and greater certainty of result than was ever known before, it
+cannot be said that the artistic results have been commensurate with the
+labour expended. Fortunately, however, the success of these important
+industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited a
+considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists, to become
+artist-potters and producers of individual wares, often recalling the
+works of the great schools of bygone centuries. This movement, which
+to-day has its exponents in every European country as well as in the
+United States of America, originated in France between 1840 and 1850,
+when the formation of the earliest ceramic museums and the new-born
+interest in the old French faience led to various attempts at
+pottery-making by the old methods of handwork and rule of thumb.
+Avisseau of Tours (1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859)
+began to make pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863)
+revived painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand
+for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs, and in
+France and other countries artists began to dabble in the painting of
+pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom, painting pieces
+obtained from some pottery manufacturer, which he sold on his own
+account after they had been decorated and fired; or he became attached
+to a particular factory and his productions were sold by the potter; or
+the artist became an amateur potter, and either worked alone or
+encouraged other artists to co-operate with him.
+
+It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent men in
+each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their own day, but are
+also likely to be regarded always as among the distinguished productions
+of the 19th century. Emile Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who
+were attracted by the technique of the potter. For some time they bought
+specimens of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at
+Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial art
+for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours in a
+delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from old
+engravings. He worked for a short time at Sèvres, and then, like so many
+other French pottery artists of this period, he came to Minton's in
+England, and finally entered into an engagement with the old firm of
+Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which continued almost to his death (1860-1876).
+On their fine cream-coloured earthenware he sketched many thousands of
+fanciful designs which had a great vogue in the 'seventies and 'eighties
+of the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His first
+innovation was a method known as "Barbotine" or slip-painting, in which
+coloured clays were used "impasto," often in considerable thickness, so
+that after the work had been fired and glazed it bore some resemblance
+to an oil painting. For a few years this style of decoration became the
+rage all over Europe, but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it
+had found favour, and is now only used for the decoration of common
+wares. Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the
+discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first European
+potter to produce flambé glazes after the manner of the Chinese, and a
+fine collection of these productions of his is preserved in the museum
+at Sèvres.
+
+The greatest of all the French innovators was, however, Théodore Deck,
+who had been trained as a working potter and was led to forsake the
+management of an ordinary tile and pottery business in Paris to
+experiment on his own account. He started a little workshop in the
+Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and rapidly gathered round him a number
+of young painters all eager to experiment in the magnificent colours
+which Deck with his passionate love of Persian and other oriental
+pottery could place at their disposal. Within a few years this venture
+was so successful that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a
+great potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier,
+Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased by the
+lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of his career came in
+1887, when he was appointed director of the National Manufactory at
+Sèvres, for he was the only practical potter who had ever occupied that
+position; but he died in 1890 before he had been able to impress his
+personality on the work of Sèvres.
+
+The same movement that was active in France found its exponents in other
+countries as well. In Italy and the south of France the last quarter of
+the 19th century witnessed a revival of Italian majolica and of lustre
+decoration. Prominent in this direction were the productions of
+Cantegalli of Florence and of the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near Cannes;
+while in England William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his
+tiles and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours
+recalling those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages.
+This departure in England was, however, followed up by many
+manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of pottery
+colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw & Company of Jackfield,
+and Minton's of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced much excellent work, in tiles
+and vases inspired from the same oriental sources.
+
+Meantime, in America there had been growing up a manufacture of pottery
+after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey; East Liverpool,
+Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these centres English workmen
+had been attracted, and earthenware after the current English styles was
+manufactured; but, as was the case in Europe, individual efforts were
+made to produce artistic pottery. The first and best known of these
+artistic departures was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and
+again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an enterprise
+which has since produced some very original work. From 1880 to 1889 the
+work was mainly carried on at the expense of this lady, but since that
+date the enterprise has been self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery
+has become known throughout the world.
+
+The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development of
+new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes--and it is not
+too much to say that much of the improved sanitation of modern dwellings
+and towns has been rendered possible by the special appliances invented
+by potters for these purposes. In this direction the English potters
+undoubtedly led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated
+abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large works in
+Germany, France and the United States of America. Varieties, too, of
+hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares, stonewares and porcelains,
+have been invented for use in the chemical and electrical industries.
+But these belong to the great modern branch of pottery manufacture, not
+to pottery art. In the same way, the revived attention paid to the
+various forms of pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings
+belongs rather to the question of mural decoration than of pottery.
+
+At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and Germany the
+leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany excelling in the amount
+of its output, and England in the fineness and finish of its
+productions. France, in addition to the National Manufactory at Sèvres,
+as much as ever divorced from commerce, has its porcelain industry at
+Limoges and large manufactories of tiles and earthenware in many
+departments; while there are also a number of artist potters like
+Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic
+pottery in hard-fired stonewares (_grès_) and porcelain, while the
+production of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been
+developed by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Müller. A great
+development has also taken place in the production of decorative pottery
+and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides producing
+quantities of painted blue and white earthenware (made in the English
+and not in the old Dutch fashion), has been experimenting largely in the
+development of crystalline and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while
+the Rozenburg factory at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near
+Amsterdam, have made some distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery
+and porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has already
+been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of Bing &
+Gröndhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles of decoration
+initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there are two important
+factories at Rörstrand and Gustafsberg. Under the accomplished director
+of the Rörstrand factory, Mr Robert Almström, a great variety of
+products have been successfully manufactured, including hard-paste
+porcelain, English bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy,
+Spain and Belgium have also important modern pottery works.
+
+In the United States of America there are large establishments for the
+manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all after the English
+fashion, while in addition there are a number of experimental kilns at
+work producing artistic pottery. The Rookwood factory has already been
+mentioned, but the wares produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs
+Robineau and T. Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See "Report on
+American Art Pottery," pp. 922-935 of _Special Reports of the U.S.
+Census Office, Manufactures_, pt. iii., 1905.)
+
+  _Technical Pottery Works._--It is only possible to give a selection of
+  the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical side
+  of pottery production. Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd
+  ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvétat; E. Bourry,
+  _Traité des industries céramiques_ (Paris, 1897); Théodore Deck, _La
+  Faïence_ (Paris, 1887); A. Granger, _La Céramique industrielle_
+  (Paris, 1905); E.S. Auscher, _La Céramique cuisant à haute
+  température_ (Paris, 1899); _Technologie de la Céramique_ (Paris,
+  1901); _Les Industries céramiques_ (Paris, 1901); Seger, _Gesammelte
+  Schriften_ (Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., Eastern, Pa., U.S.A., 1902);
+  Langenbeck, _The Chemistry of Pottery_ (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895);
+  William Burton, _Porcelain_ (London, 1906).     (W. B.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin
+    of some example of ancient pottery--was it made in the district where
+    it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre? When we
+    possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the use of
+    one general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will
+    frequently enable such a question to be answered, where now all is
+    doubt and speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto
+    are often not worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose,
+    the older methods of silicate analysis being only approximate.
+
+  [2] It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the
+    production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft
+    of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less
+    interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British
+    Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France,
+    Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant pottery
+    little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical skill
+    from the country work of the middle ages. In England the cheapness of
+    machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such village industries.
+
+  [3] _I tre libri dell' Arte del Vasajo_, by Cipriano Piccolpasso of
+    Castel Durante, A.D. 1548.
+
+  [4] The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once
+    dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called
+    pottery at all, though we have no other name for them. The material
+    is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass.
+
+  [5] Foreign pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early as
+    the XIIth Dynasty, e.g. the Cretan polychrome ware of the Middle
+    Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib ("Kahun") and
+    the Cypriote (?) "punctuated" black ware from the same site, and from
+    Khata'anah (17). The date between the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties is
+    certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom Egyptians do not seem to have
+    imitated these earlier foreign forms. British Museum, No. 17,046, is,
+    however, probably an instance of an Egyptian idea imitated by the
+    foreign potter (17).
+
+  [6] Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture of
+    sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy
+    porcelain--the earliest porcelain of which we have any record.
+
+  [7] On this subject see in particular Mazard, _De la connaissance par
+    les anciens des glaçures plombifères_, a scientific and valuable
+    monograph (1879); also Rayet and Collignon, _Hist. de la céramique
+    grecque_, p. 365 (or _B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery_, Introduction).
+
+  [8] For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters,
+    _Ancient Pottery_, ii. 443-454.
+
+  [9] See examples in colour on Plate V.
+
+  [10] A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many
+    shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving
+    the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground of
+    the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance--probably
+    an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, manganese and
+    iron--and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it.
+
+  [11] See Drury Fortnum, _Archaeologia_, vol. xlii.
+
+  [12] Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with
+    elaborate English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these
+    were doubtless included under the name of "Damas Wares."
+
+  [13] See Riaño, _Spanish Arts_, Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook,
+    pp. 149-151; and _Sobre la manera de fabricar la antigua loza dorado
+    de Manises_ (1878).
+
+  [14] See examples in colour, Plate VI.
+
+  [15] There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the
+    lustred pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th
+    century onwards; and it is important to note in this connexion that
+    almost all the fine examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern
+    collections have been obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian
+    families.
+
+  [16] Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, dated 1548. It
+    has been several times translated both into modern Italian and
+    French. The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this
+    interesting MS. in the volumes on _Majolica_ by Drury E. Fortnum.
+
+  [17] For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, _Comptes
+    rendus_ for December 1905, and W. Burton, _Society of Arts Journal_,
+    2846, vol. lv., 1907.
+
+  [18] See Magne, _Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers_ (Paris, 1904);
+    also Solon in _Burlington Magazine_ (November 1907).
+
+  [19] See B. Fillon, _Les Faiences d'Oiron_ (1862).
+
+  [20] See E. Bonaffe, _Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire_ (1898).
+
+  [21] See examples in colour, Plate X.
+
+  [22] An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval pottery
+   will be found in Hobson's "Medieval Pottery found in England,"
+   _Archaeological Journal_, vol. lix.
+
+  [23] Böttger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the
+   discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwight's death.
+
+  [24] For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved
+    the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A.H. Church's
+    _English Earthenware_, and W. Burton's _English Earthenware and
+    Stoneware_.
+
+  [25] It is amusing or annoying to find in European museums the wares
+    of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all lumped
+    together as "Wedgwood," and yet one can hardly wonder at it,
+    remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and how little of
+    the other English potters of the 18th century.
+
+  [26] See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII.
+
+  [27] S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_ (Victoria and Albert Museum
+    Handbooks, ii. 5-6).
+
+  [28] _Yao_ is the Chinese term equivalent of the English "pottery" or
+    "ware."
+
+  [29] See Brinkley, _Japan and China_, ix. 353-365.
+
+  [30] Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_ (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896).
+
+  [31] M. Reinand, _Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les
+    Persans dans l'Inde el à la Chine dans le IX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1845).
+
+  [32] The suggestion has been made that the _céladon_ wares found in
+    Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the Chinese,
+    but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point consult
+    Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik" in _Österreichische
+    Monatsschrift für den Orient_, vol. x., 1884; A.B. Meyer, "Über die
+    Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane" under "Über die Marta banis,"
+    ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, _Ancient Porcelain_ (1888), and Bushell,
+    _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (1899).
+
+  [33] It is of interest to note that the "Delft" of Holland, also a
+    product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest
+    approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese.
+
+  [34] See Drake, Sir W., _Venetian Ceramics_; and Davillier, Baron
+    Ch., _Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe_.
+
+  [35] A perfect _tour de force_ in this inartistic style of work,
+    preserved in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen,
+    has been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See _Gaz. des
+    beaux-arts_, September 1904.
+
+  [36] _Travels in England and Scotland_ (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33295-8.txt or 33295-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/2/9/33295/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33295-8.zip b/33295-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cf7b1b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-8.zip
diff --git a/33295-h.zip b/33295-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a5d91f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h.zip
diff --git a/33295-h/33295-h.htm b/33295-h/33295-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2cc2d3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/33295-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,18349 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume V Slice VI - Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics.
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body    { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; }
+    p       { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.c     { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    h2,h3        { text-align: center; }
+    hr           { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; }
+    hr.art       { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899;
+                          margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em }
+    hr.foot      {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+    hr.full      {width: 100%}
+
+    table.ws      {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                   margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+    table.reg     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; }
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.pic     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;}
+    table.math0 td  {text-align: center;}
+    table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;}
+
+    table.reg td  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.reg td.tc5p  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr td { white-space: normal; }
+    table.pic td    { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;}
+    table.nobctr p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+    table.pic td p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+
+    td.tcc        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tccm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tccb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcr        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tcrb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcrm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tcl        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tclm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.vb         { vertical-align: bottom; }
+
+      .caption    { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;}
+      .caption1   { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+
+    td.lb       {border-left: black 1px solid;}
+    td.ltb      {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb       {border-right: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb2      {border-right: black 2px solid;}
+    td.tb, span.tb  {border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb       {border-bottom: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb1      {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.rlb      {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;}
+    td.allb     {border: black 1px solid;}
+    td.cl       {background-color: #e0e0e0}
+
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link, a:visited, link  {text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;}
+    .center1  {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    .f80      {font-size: 80%}
+    .f90      {font-size: 90%}
+    .f150     {font-size: 150%}
+    .f200     {font-size: 200%}
+
+    .sp       {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .sp1      {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su       {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su1      {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;}
+    .spp      {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .suu      {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scs      {font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 70%;}
+    .ov       {text-decoration: overline}
+    .cl       {background-color: #f5f5f5;}
+    .bk       {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;}
+    .bk1      {margin-left: -1em;}
+
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt;
+                  background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0;
+                  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; }
+    span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em;
+	           font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold;
+                   font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;
+                   background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    .fn       { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5;
+                text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+
+    div.poemr        { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    div.poemr p      { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; }
+    div.poemr p.s     { margin-top: 1.5em; }
+    div.poemr p.i05   { margin-left: 0.4em; }
+    div.poemr p.i2    { margin-left: 2em; }
+    div.poemr p.i4    { margin-left: 4em; }
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figleft1  { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figcenter   {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    .figcenter1  {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;}
+    .figure      {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;}
+    .bold        {font-weight: bold; }
+
+     div.minind   {text-align: justify;}
+     div.condensed, div.condensed1  { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+     div.condensed1 p  {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%}
+
+     div.list   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list p {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -1em;}
+     div.list1   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    .pt05       {padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    .pt1        {padding-top: 1em;}
+    .pt2        {padding-top: 2em;}
+    .ptb1       {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6
+       "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 30, 2010 [EBook #33295]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME V SLICE VI<br /><br />
+Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CELTES, KONRAD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CENTO</a> (town of Italy)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CELTIBERIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CENTO</a> (composition)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CEMENT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CENTRAL AMERICA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CEMETERY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CENTRAL FALLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CENCI, BEATRICE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CENTRALIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CENOBITES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CENTRAL INDIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CENOMANI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CENOTAPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CENTUMVIRI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CENSOR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CENTURION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CENSORINUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CENTURIPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CENSUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CENTURY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CENTAUREA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CEOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CENTAURS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CEPHALIC INDEX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CENTAURUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CEPHALONIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CENTAURY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CEPHALOPODA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CENTENARY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CEPHEUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CENTERVILLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CEPHISODOTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CENTIPEDE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CERAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CERAMICS</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CELTES, KONRAD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin
+poet, the son of a vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the
+Greek translation), was born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He
+early ran away from home to avoid being set to his father&rsquo;s
+trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to find a generous
+patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola. After
+the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of
+a scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of
+the continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere
+establishing learned societies on the model of the academy of
+Pomponius Laetus at Rome. Among these was the <i>Sodalitas
+litteraria Rhenana</i> or <i>Celtica</i> at Mainz (1491). In 1486 he published
+his first book, <i>Ars versificandi et carminum</i>, which created
+an immense sensation and gained him the honour of being
+crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony
+being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of
+Nuremberg in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor
+Maximilian I. professor of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in
+1502 was made head of the new Collegium Poetarum et Mathematicorum,
+with the right of conferring the laureateship. He
+did much to introduce system into the methods of teaching, to
+purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the study
+of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a
+mere classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in
+history and topography, especially in that of his native country.
+It was he who first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at
+Regensburg) the remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha
+of Gandersheim, of which he published an edition (Nuremberg,
+1501), the historical poem <i>Ligurinus sive de rebus gestis Frederici
+primi imperatoris libri x.</i> (Augsburg, 1507), and the celebrated
+map of the Roman empire known as the <i>Tabula Peutingeriana</i>
+(after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He projected a
+great work on Germany; but of this only the <i>Germania generalis</i>
+and an historical work in prose, <i>De origine, situ, moribus et
+institutis Nurimbergae libettus</i>, saw the light. As a writer of
+Latin verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He
+composed odes, elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an unfinished
+epic, the <i>Theodoriceis</i>. His epigrams, edited by Hartfelder,
+were published at Berlin in 1881. His editions of the
+classics are now, of course, out of date. He died at Vienna on
+the 4th of February 1508.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full list of Celtes&rsquo;s works see Engelbert Klüpfel, <i>De vita et
+scriptis Conradi Celtis</i> (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann Aschbach,
+<i>Die früheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes</i> (Vienna, 1869);
+Hartmann, <i>Konrad Celtes in Nürnberg</i> (Nuremberg, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CELTIBERIA,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a term used by Greek and Roman writers to
+denote, sometimes the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes
+the north-east part of the central plateau of the peninsula.
+The latter was probably the correct use. The Celtiberi, in this
+narrower sense, were not so much one tribe as a group of cantons&mdash;Arevaci,
+Pelendones, Berones and four or five others. They were
+the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time offered a
+stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian
+mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar
+capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the
+first mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however,
+keep faith, and several campaigns were undertaken against them.
+In 179 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> the whole country was subdued by T. Sempronius
+Gracchus, who by his generous treatment of the vanquished
+gained their esteem and affection. In 153 they again revolted,
+and were not finally overcome until the capture of Numantia
+(133). The twenty years&rsquo; war waged round this city, and its
+siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) form only
+the most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its
+mark in entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1906-1907
+by German archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still
+more after the death of Sertorius (72 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), the Celtiberians
+became gradually romanized, and town life grew up among their
+valleys; Clunia, for instance, became a Roman municipality,
+and ruins of its walls, gates and theatre testify to its civilization;
+while Bilbilis (Bambola), another municipality, was the birthplace
+of the eminently Roman poet Martial. The Celtiberians
+may have been so called because they were thought to be the
+descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain),
+or because they were regarded (cf. Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race
+of Celts and Spaniards (Iberians); in either case the name represents
+a geographer&rsquo;s theory rather than an ascertained fact.
+That a strong Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by
+numerous traditions and by the more trustworthy evidence of
+place-names. The Celtic place-names of Spain, however, are
+not confined to Celtiberia or even to the north and east; they
+occur even in the south and west.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi
+is given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough
+and unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being
+chiefly used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a
+nomadic life or occupied small villages; large towns were few.
+Their infantry and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they
+adopted the wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried
+double-edged swords and short daggers for use hand to hand, the
+steel of which was hardened by being buried underground; their
+defensive armour was a light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler,
+and greaves of felt round their legs. They wore brazen helmets
+with purple crests, and rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept
+on the bare ground. Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with
+urine instead of water. They were said to offer sacrifice to a nameless
+god (Strabo iii. p. 164) at the time of the full moon when all the
+household danced together before the doors of the houses. Although
+cruel to their enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate
+meat of all kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hübner&rsquo;s article
+in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. (1886-1893), collects all
+the ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strabo&rsquo;s notice
+(bk. iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEMENT<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>caementum</i>, rough pieces of stone, a
+shortened form of <i>caedimentum</i>, from <i>caedere</i>, to cut), apparently
+first used of a mixture of broken stone, tiles, &amp;c., with some
+binding material, and hence of any material capable of adhering
+to, and uniting into a coherent mass, fragments of a substance
+not in itself adhesive. The term is often applied to adhesive
+mixtures employed to unite objects or parts of objects (see below),
+but in engineering, when used without qualification, it means
+Portland cement, its modifications and congeners; these are all
+hydraulic cements, <i>i.e.</i> when set they resist the action of water, and
+can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to set under water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydraulic Cements</i>.&mdash;It was well known to builders in the
+earliest historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist
+the action of water, <i>i.e.</i> were hydraulic; it was also known that
+this property could be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture
+of silicious materials such as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here
+the two classes into which hydraulic cements are divided.</p>
+
+<p>When pure chalk or limestone is &ldquo;burned,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> heated in a
+kiln until its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime.
+This slakes violently with water, giving slaked lime,
+which can be made into a smooth paste with water
+<span class="sidenote">Pozzuolanic cement.</span>
+and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The
+setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime
+(a purely physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring
+between the lime and the sand). The function of the sand is
+simply that of a diluent to prevent undue shrinkage and cracking
+in drying. Subsequent hardening of the mortar is caused by
+the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the air by the lime,
+a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the action is
+superficial. Mortar made from pure or &ldquo;fat&rdquo; lime cannot withstand
+the action of water, and is only used for work done above
+water-level. If, however, such &ldquo;fat&rdquo; lime is mixed in the
+presence of water, not with sand but with silica in an active
+form, <i>i.e.</i> amorphous and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate
+containing silica in an active condition, it will unite with the
+silica and form a silicate of lime capable of resisting the action
+of water. The mixture of the lime and active silica or silicate is a
+pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of all pozzuolanic cements
+would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated silica, but though
+the latter is prepared artificially for various purposes, it is too
+expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar obstacle
+lies in the way of using a certain native form of active silica,
+viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of nitroglycerine,
+for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available for
+making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span>
+substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be
+used. They are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice,
+tufa, santorin earth, trass and pozzuolana itself. The following
+analyses show their general composition:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Neapolitan<br />Pozzuo-<br />lana<br />(per cent)</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Roman<br />Pozzuo-<br />lana<br />(per cent)</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Trass<br />(per cent)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soluble silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Insoluble silicious residue</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">50.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>19.80</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>22.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.35</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.37</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">Trace</td> <td class="tcc rb">Trace</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Combined water (H<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>4.27</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>8.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Moisture</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.04</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alkalis and loss</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.58</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is
+granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a
+high percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused
+into abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the
+same slag allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy
+which it possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified.
+It bears to ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that
+borne by plastic sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This
+potential energy becomes kinetic when the slag is brought into
+contact with lime in the presence of water, and causes the formation
+of a true hydraulic silicate of lime. The following analysis
+shows the composition of a typical slag:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Per Cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble residue</td> <td class="tcr">1.04</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">31.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">18.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Manganous oxide (MnO)</td> <td class="tcr">0.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">42.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">3.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Soda (Na<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr">0.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur (S)</td> <td class="tcr">2.21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">1.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">99.20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime
+until both materials are in a state of fine division and intimately
+mixed. The usual proportions are three of slag to one of slaked
+lime by weight. The product termed slag cement sets slowly,
+but ultimately attains a strength scarcely inferior to that of
+Portland cement. Although it is cheap and suitable for many
+purposes, its use is not large and tends to decrease. Pozzuolanic
+cements are little used in England. Generally speaking, they
+are only of local importance, their cheapness depending largely
+on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit
+of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured
+by the careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime,
+but are mixed roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being
+employed. This excess does no harm, for that part which fails
+to unite with the lime serves as a diluent, much as does sand in
+mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic cement made on the spot
+where it is to be used may be regarded as a better kind of common
+mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic mortars may
+be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as the
+pozzuolanic constituent.</p>
+
+<p>Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the
+pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and
+active silica ready to unite under suitable conditions,
+but consist of definite chemical compounds of lime and
+<span class="sidenote">Portland Cement</span>
+silica and lime and alumina, which, when mixed with
+water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of great
+mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert
+material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a
+high temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance
+and an argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances
+in England are chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand
+it, limestone, marl, shale, slag or any similar material may be
+used, provided that the correct proportions of lime, silica and
+alumina are maintained. The earliest forms of cements of the
+Portland class were the hydraulic limes. These are still largely
+used, and are prepared by burning limestones containing clayey
+matter. Some of these naturally possess a composition differing
+but little from that of the mixture of raw materials artificially
+prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement itself.
+Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient
+times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to
+water have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity
+to hydraulic lime is Roman cement, prepared by heating an
+indurated marl occurring naturally in nodules. Its name must
+not be taken to imply that it was used by the ancients; in point of
+fact the manufacture of this substance dates back only to 1796.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th
+century arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply
+of materials containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium
+carbonate and clay being limited, attempts were made to produce
+artificial mixtures which would serve a similar end. Among those
+who experimented in this direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds,
+who added clay to finely ground limestone, calcined the mixture,
+and ground the product, which he called Portland cement.
+The only connexion between Portland cement and the place
+Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles
+Portland stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture
+Portland cement from Portland stone (after adding a suitable
+quantity of clay), but this is merely because Portland stone is
+substantially carbonate of lime; any other limestone would serve
+equally well. Although Portland cement is later in date than
+either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account of its
+greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an
+artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition
+and properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The
+greater part of the Portland cement made in England is manufactured
+on the Thames and Medway. The materials are chalk
+and Medway mud; in a few works the latter is replaced by gault.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in
+the following analyses:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2" style="background-color: #d0d0d0;">Chalk.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina + ferric oxide (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span> + Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">55.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">43.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99.92</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="5" style="background-color: #d0d0d0;">Clay.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Insoluble silicious matter</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.67</td> <td class="tcl rb">Consisting of</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">31.24</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;Quartz (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.60</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.19</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="4" style="background-color: #d0d0d0;">Feldspar<br />7.34%</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferric Oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.66</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.25</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.91</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;Soda (Na<span class="su">2</span>0)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soda (Na<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potash (K<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.45</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.67</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Combined water, organic matter, and loss</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span></p>
+
+<p>These materials are mixed in the proportion of about 3:1 by weight
+so that the dried mixture contains approximately 75% of calcium
+carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may be
+effected in several ways. The method once exclusively
+<span class="sidenote">Mixing.</span>
+used consists in mixing the raw materials with a large quantity of
+water in a wash mill, a machine having radial horizontal arms driven
+from a central vertical spindle and carrying harrows which stir up
+and intermix any soft material placed in the pit in which the
+apparatus revolves. The raw materials in the correct proportion
+are fed into this mill together with a large quantity of water. The
+thin watery &ldquo;slip&rdquo; or slurry flows into large settling tanks (&ldquo;backs&rdquo;)
+where the solids in suspension are deposited; the water is drawn off,
+leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk and clay in the form
+of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being dried on floors heated
+by flues is ready for burning. This process is now almost obsolete.
+According to present practice the raw materials are mixed in a wash
+mill with so much water that the resulting slurry contains 40 to
+50% of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow, is ground
+between millstones so as to complete the process of comminution
+begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are of the
+utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced
+will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is
+generally effected by the waste heat of the kilns, so that while one
+charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the
+kilns. The kilns commonly employed are &ldquo;chamber kilns,&rdquo; circular
+<span class="sidenote">Loading the kiln.</span>
+structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but
+having the top closed and connected at the side with a
+wide flue in which the slurry is exposed to the hot products
+of combustion from the kiln. The farther ends of the flues of several
+such kilns are connected with a chimney shaft. The slurry, in
+drying on the floor of the flue, forms a fairly tough cake which cracks
+spontaneously in the process of drying into rough blocks suitable
+for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of the kiln is a grate of
+iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled to start the fire. A
+layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a layer of coke, then a
+layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is filled with coke and slurry
+evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on to the drying floors, and
+the kiln is started. The construction of an ordinary chamber kiln
+may be gathered from the accompanying diagram (fig. l). The
+operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln, which will
+contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will take two
+days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three days in
+burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and
+unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run.
+The output will be about 30 tons of &ldquo;clinker&rdquo; ready to be ground
+into cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker
+is effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills,
+tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the manufacture,
+because the finished cement should be as fine and &ldquo;floury&rdquo;
+as possible. The foregoing description represents the procedure in
+use in many English factories. There are various modifications in
+practice according to local conditions: a few of these may be
+described. In all cases, however, the main operations are the same,
+viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the mixture, if
+necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature (about 1500° C.
+=2732° F.). Thus when hard limestone is the form of calcium
+carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and mixed with the
+correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The mixture is
+slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and burned. A
+possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix the resulting
+lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By this
+method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an extra
+expenditure of fuel in the double burning.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:280px" src="images/img655a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:383px; height:554px" src="images/img655b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland
+cement. Besides the chamber kilns which have been described,
+there are the old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar
+to the chamber kilns, but are bottle-shaped and open
+<span class="sidenote">Other kilns.</span>
+at the top; they do not dry the slurry for their next
+charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also stage kilns
+of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical shafts, one above
+the other, but not in the same vertical line, connected by a horizontal
+channel. At this middle portion and in the upper part of the lower
+shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper shaft is full of unburnt
+raw material which is heated by the hot gases coming from the
+burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker already burned
+and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies that necessary
+for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of Dietzsch kilns,
+built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are other forms of
+shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a burning zone,
+a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no horizontal
+stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane. Another
+form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of compartments
+arranged in a ring and connected with a central chimney;
+in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw
+materials are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled.
+At a given moment one of these compartments is burning and at its
+full temperature; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or
+more compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and
+is thereby strongly heated; the products of combustion pass away
+through one or more compartments in front of it and heat their
+contents before they are subjected to actual combustion. It will
+be seen that the principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage
+kiln. In each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully
+hot serves to heat
+the air-supply to
+the compartment
+where combustion
+is actually
+proceeding;
+in like manner
+the raw materials
+about to be
+burned are well
+heated by the
+waste gases from
+the compartment
+in full activity
+before they themselves
+are burned.
+(It may be noted
+that here and
+generally in this
+article &ldquo;burn&rdquo;
+is used in the
+technical sense;
+it is technically
+correct to speak
+of cement clinker
+being &ldquo;burned&rdquo;,
+although it is not
+a fuel; in accurate
+terms it is
+the fuel which is
+burned, and it is
+the heat it generates
+which
+raises the clinker
+to a high temperature,
+<i>i.e.</i> technically
+&ldquo;burns&rdquo;
+it.) By this device
+a great part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is
+effected.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent.
+They are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because
+the cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in
+fixed kilns. These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in
+length, an ordinary length in modern practice being 100
+<span class="sidenote">Rotatory kilns.</span>
+to 120 ft.; their diameter correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft.
+6 in. The cylinders are made of steel plate, lined with refractory
+bricks, are carried on rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal,
+and are rotated by power. At the upper end the raw material is fed
+in either as a dry powder or as a slurry; at the lower end is a powerful
+burner. In the early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was
+used as a fuel, but with little success; about 1895 petroleum was
+used in the United States with complete success, but at a relatively
+heavy cost. At the present time, finely powdered coal injected by
+a blast of air is almost universally employed, petroleum being used
+only where it is actually cheaper than coal. In the working of this
+type of kiln the rotation and slight inclination of the cylinder cause
+the raw material to descend towards the lower end. At the upper
+end the raw material is dried and heated moderately. As it descends
+it reaches a part of the kiln where the temperature is higher; here
+the carbonic acid of the carbonate of lime, and the combined water
+of the clay are driven off, and the resulting lime begins to act chemically
+on the dehydrated clay. The material is then in a partially
+burnt and slightly sintered state, but it is not fully clinkered and
+would not make Portland cement. The material continues to
+descend by the rotation of the kiln and reaches the lower end nearest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+the burner where the temperature is highest, and is there heated so
+highly that the union of the lime, silica and alumina is complete,
+and fully burnt clinker falls out of the kiln. It is extremely hot,
+and is cooled usually by being passed down one or more rotating
+cylinders, similar to the first, but smaller, and acting as coolers
+instead of kilns. On its way down the cylinders the clinker meets
+a current of cold air and is cooled, the air being correspondingly
+warmed and passing on to aid in the combustion of the fuel used
+in heating the kiln. This regenerative heating is similar in principle
+and effect to that obtained by means of the shaft and ring kilns
+described above. The output of these kilns varies from 200 to 400
+tons per kiln per week according to their size and the nature of the
+raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per week for an ordinary
+chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also secured. The rotatory
+system presents many advantages and is rapidly replacing the older
+methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents diagrammatically a
+rotatory cement plant on the Hurry &amp; Seaman system, which was
+one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process successfully
+on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory kilns of
+various other makes are now in use, but the same principles are
+embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder
+for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and
+a blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling
+tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly
+heated on its way to the burner.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:830px; height:287px" src="images/img656.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another method of making Portland cement which has been
+proposed and tried with some success consists in fusing the raw
+materials together in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace.
+The high temperature necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this
+process difficult to accomplish commercially, but it has many
+inherent merits and may be the process of the future, displacing
+the rotatory method.</p>
+
+<p>Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like
+substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The
+product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt
+and properly vitrified; that from an ordinary fixed kiln
+<span class="sidenote">Cement clinker.</span>
+of whatever type is apt to contain a certain amount (5
+to 15%) of underburnt material, which is yellowish and friable and
+is not properly clinkered. This material must be picked out, as such
+underburnt stuff contains free lime or unsaturated lime compounds.
+These may slake slowly in the finished cement and cause such expansion
+as may destroy the work of which it forms part. Well-burnt,
+well-picked clinker when ground yields good Portland cement.
+Nothing is added during or after grinding save a small amount
+(1 to 2%) of calcium sulphate in the form either of gypsum or of
+plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the cement
+slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water
+(up to 2%) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by
+blowing steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This
+small addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate,
+but the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone
+and blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights,
+is adulteration and therefore fraudulent.</p>
+
+<p>The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively
+narrow limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending
+<span class="sidenote">Composition.</span>
+to become smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture
+increase. The following analysis may be taken as typical
+of cements made from chalk and clay on the Thames and
+Medway:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">22.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble residue</td> <td class="tcr">1.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">7.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">3.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">62.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">1.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">1.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water (H<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr">0.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alkalis</td> <td class="tcr">0.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">There may be variations from this composition according to the
+nature of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range
+from 19 to 27%, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7
+to 14%, the lime from 60 to 67%.    All such variations are permissible
+provided that the quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient
+to saturate the whole of the lime and to leave none of it in a &ldquo;free&rdquo;
+condition, likely to cause the cement to expand after setting. Other
+things being equal, the higher the percentage of lime within the limits
+indicated above the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed
+cement is less easy to burn than cement containing about 62% of
+lime; and unless the burning is thorough and the raw materials are
+intimately mixed, the cement is apt to be unsound.   Although the
+ultimate composition of cement, that is, the percentage of each base
+and acid present, can be accurately determined by analysis, its
+proximate composition, <i>i.e.</i> the nature and amount of the compounds
+formed from these acids and bases, can only be ascertained indirectly
+and with difficulty. The foundations of our knowledge on this
+subject were laid by H. le Chatelier, whose work
+has since been supplemented by that of Spenser
+B. Newberry, W.B. Newberry and Clifford Richardson.
+As the outcome of these inquiries it has been
+established that tricalcium silicate 3CaO·SiO<span class="su">2</span> is the
+essential constituent of Portland cement. The constituent
+of next importance is an aluminate, but
+whether this is dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, or
+tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is still in doubt.
+In the following description it is assumed to be the
+tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and
+aluminates present, and ferric oxide and magnesia,
+if existing in the moderate quantities which are
+usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of
+minor importance and may be regarded as little more
+than impurities. The silicates and aluminates of
+which Portland cement is composed are believed to
+exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of each other, these
+solid solutions taking the form of minerals recognizable as individuals.
+The two principal minerals are termed alite and celite; according
+to the best opinion, alite consists of a solid solution of tricalcium
+aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and celite of a solid solution of
+dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium silicate. Celite is little affected
+by water, and has but small influence on the setting; alite is decomposed
+and hydrated, this action constituting the main part of
+the setting of Portland cement. Both the components of alite react,
+and for simplicity their reactions may be stated in separate equations,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">(1)  2(3CaO·SiO<span class="su">2</span>) + 9H<span class="su">2</span>O = 2(CaO·SiO<span class="su">2</span>)·5H<span class="su">2</span>O + 4Ca(OH)<span class="su">2</span><br />
+&emsp;Tricalcium silicate.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Hydrated mono-&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Calcium<br />
+&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;calcium silicate.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;hydroxide.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">(2)  3CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + 12H<span class="su">2</span>O = 3CaO·Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·12H<span class="su">2</span>O<br />
+&emsp;Tricalcium aluminate.&emsp;&emsp;Hydrated tricalcium aluminate.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral,
+is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to tricalcium
+aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary; but, whatever
+the proportions, each of these substances will react in its characteristic
+manner according to the equations given above.</p>
+
+<p>The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland
+cement is not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous
+to that of the setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution
+of the compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more
+soluble form, their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent
+supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus
+of the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a
+coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a
+small quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition
+of a substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less
+soluble form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an indefinitely
+large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there
+should be present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the reacting
+substance at any one time; it is sufficient if there is enough for
+hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive
+stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the aluminate
+is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that
+its ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the
+tricalcium silicate.</p>
+
+<p>As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium
+silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of
+minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in
+ordinary cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of
+silica, alumina and lime in the clinker; its role in the setting of the
+cement is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement
+can be prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free
+also from manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed
+for exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement
+in quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is
+evidence that in larger proportion, <i>e.g.</i> 10-15%, it may hydrate
+and set after the general setting of the cement, and may give rise
+to disruptive strains causing the cement to &ldquo;blow&rdquo; and fail. In
+so-called natural cement which is comparatively lightly burnt, the
+magnesia appears to be inert, and as much as 20 to 30% may be
+present. Another constituent of Portland cement which influences
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span>
+its setting time is calcium sulphate, naturally formed from the
+sulphur in the raw materials or fuel, or intentionally added to the
+finished cement as gypsum or plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable
+retarding effect on the hydration of the calcium aluminate, and
+consequently on the setting of the cement; thus it is that a little
+gypsum is often added to convert a naturally quick-setting cement
+into one which sets slowly. It will be observed that in the hydration
+of tricalcium silicate, the main constituent of Portland cement, a
+large portion of the lime appears as calcium hydroxide, <i>i.e.</i> slaked
+lime. It is evident that this will form a pozzuolanic cement if a
+suitable silicious material such as trass is added to the cement. The
+ultimate product when set may be regarded as a mixed Portland
+and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this manner as an
+adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W. Michaelis,
+and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but it has
+not become general.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis
+and by determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength
+and soundness. A good sample will usually have a composition
+within the limits cited above and approximating
+<span class="sidenote">Testing.</span>
+to the typical figures given above. It will be ground so finely that
+not more than 3% will be left on a sieve of 76 × 76 meshes per sq.
+in., the wires of the sieve being 0.005 in. in diameter. It will have,
+when freshly burned, a specific gravity not lower than 3.15, and
+briquettes made from it and kept in water will possess a tensile
+strength of 400-500 &#8468; per sq. in. seven days after they are made,
+while briquettes made from a mixture of 3 parts by weight of sand
+and 1 of cement will give about 225 &#8468; per sq. in. at twenty-eight
+days. Formerly the soundness of cement was determined by keeping
+thin pats of the cement in cold water for twenty-eight days,
+or in warm water (110°-120° F.) for twenty-four hours, and examining
+for cracks or other signs of expansion. Modern practice is to
+measure the expansion of a test piece of cement kept in water at a
+temperature of 212° F. The simplest and most generally used
+method is due to H.L. le Châtelier, and consists in measuring the
+increase in circumference of a cylinder of cement 30 mm. in diameter
+by means of a split ring encircling the cylinder, the motion of which
+is magnified by two light rods extending radially. Another quantitative
+test for soundness is that formulated by L. Deval, who has
+shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of cement kept in water
+for two days at 80° C. = 176° F. attain approximately the same
+strength as similar briquettes attain at seven days in water at the
+ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes kept at 176° F.
+for seven days are approximately equal in strength to those kept at
+the ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A cement not
+perfectly sound will give low results in the hot test, and a cement of
+indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The test is admittedly
+severe, but can be passed without difficulty by cement
+made with proper care and skill. There are many modifications and
+elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement
+for all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing
+and analysis before it is accepted and used.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hydraulic Lime</i> is a cement of the Portland as distinct from
+the pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is that
+known as Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at
+Ardèche in France. This limestone consists of calcium carbonate
+most intimately intermixed with very finely divided silica. It
+contains but little alumina and oxide of iron, which are the
+constituents generally necessary to bring about the union of
+silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the silica is so
+finely divided and so well distributed that it unites readily with
+the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently high
+temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class;
+they contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in
+composition resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm">Chaux de Theil.<br />Per cent.</td> <td class="tccm">Blue Lias.<br />Per cent</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble silicious matter</td> <td class="tcr">0.3</td> <td class="tcr">2.39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">21.7</td> <td class="tcr">14.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">1.8</td> <td class="tcr">6.79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.6</td> <td class="tcr">2.34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">74.0</td> <td class="tcr">63.43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">0.7</td> <td class="tcr">1.54</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">0.3</td> <td class="tcr">1.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcrm" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>0.6</td> <td class="tcr">3.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water (H<span class="su">2</span>0)</td> <td class="tcr">2.69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alkalis and loss</td> <td class="tcr">· ·</td> <td class="tcr">1.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has
+to be slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking
+is conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime
+being sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking
+proceeds slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncombined
+lime is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious
+compounds, notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In
+English practice hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that
+regular and perfect slaking is more easily attained when working
+systematically on a large scale and by storing the material for a long
+period, the French method is the better and more rational. The
+product may then be regarded as a cement of the Portland class
+mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with water and made into
+a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes almost as strong as
+Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage for some purposes,
+<i>e.g.</i> for foundations and abutments where settlements may occur.
+The structure is free to take its permanent position before the lime
+sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in point is the employment
+of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement as grouting outside
+the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made by the shield
+system.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Roman Cement</i> is another cement of the Portland class which
+came into use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Portland
+cement was attempted. It is still in use, though only for
+special purposes where a quick-setting material is required. It
+is made from septaria nodules which are dredged up on the Kent
+and Essex coasts and consist of about 60% of calcium carbonate
+mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently indurated to remain
+coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared in any
+way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but approximates
+to the following figures:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm">Per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Insoluble silicious matter</td> <td class="tcr">5.86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">19.62</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>0<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">10.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">7.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Manganese dioxide (MnO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">1.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">44.54</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">2.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuric anhydride (SO<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">2.61</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbonic anhydride (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">3.43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water (H<span class="su">2</span>O)</td> <td class="tcr">0.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alkalis and loss</td> <td class="tcr">1.46</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives
+the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also
+differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains
+appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of
+alumina causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard
+in about five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh,
+very well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is
+likely to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The term <i>Natural Cements</i> is applied to cements made by
+burning mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occurring
+in approximately suitable proportions. They may be
+regarded as badly-mixed Portland cements, and need no special
+description. American &ldquo;natural&rdquo; cements are of a somewhat
+different class. They are usually made from a silicious limestone
+containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly burned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm">Per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Silica (SiO<span class="su">2</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">24.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>0<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">7.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ferric oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="tcr">5.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lime (CaO)</td> <td class="tcr">33.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Magnesia (MgO)</td> <td class="tcr">20.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss</td> <td class="tcr">8.78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building
+materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good
+artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Passow Cement</i> is a recent product which is in a class by itself.
+It is made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable composition
+and finely grinding the product, either alone or with an
+admixture of about 10% of Portland cement clinker. It differs
+from ordinary slag cement (see above) in that it is not a pozzuolanic
+cement depending on the interaction of granulated slag
+and lime. The particular method of granulating slag for Passow
+cement produces a material which sets <i>per se</i> and attains a
+strength comparable with that of Portland cement. Passow
+cement has been successfully made from slag of different
+compositions in Germany, England and America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span></p>
+
+<p>The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic
+or Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which
+is to be exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote
+antiquity it was found that the jointing of masonry
+<span class="sidenote">Uses of hydraulic cements.</span>
+which was to be immersed required the use of a cement
+indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar
+failed in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from
+limestones or chalks containing a little clay was found to stand;
+mortar made from lime mixed with trass or similar active
+silicious material was also found to stand. On this observation
+rests the whole of the present enormous employment of hydraulic
+cements. It was a natural transition to utilize these cements
+not merely for jointing masonry but also for making concrete,
+and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct from
+cements which are not hydraulic (<i>e.g.</i> ordinary mortar), are used
+for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their
+use in above-water work is checked by the low price of common
+brick. Even in such work, where it would be thought that
+masses of burnt clay would be the cheapest conceivable material,
+concrete is at least on level terms with its rival. It must be
+remembered that one of the great advantages of concrete is that
+five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from local sand and
+gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement, on
+which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose
+incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that
+the largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock
+and harbour work, and for the making of foundations. It is also
+employed for the building of light bridges, floors, and pipes
+constructed of cement mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron
+rods. Such composite structures take advantage at once of the
+high tensile strength of iron and of the high compressive strength
+of cement mortar. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Concrete</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials
+provided certain conditions be observed. It might be supposed
+that hydraulic cements from their nature would be indifferent
+to the action of water, but this is only true if the structures of
+which they form part are sufficiently compact. In this case the
+action of the water is checked by the film of carbonate of lime
+which eventually forms oh the surface of calcareous cement.
+This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the
+ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and
+ultimate destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or
+mortar is not well made and is porous, the continual passage of
+water through it will gradually break up and dissolve away the
+calcareous constituents of the cement until its strength is utterly
+destroyed. This destructive action is increased if the water
+contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of which act
+chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As
+sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is
+especially necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every
+care to produce an impervious structure. There are various
+minor external causes for the failure and ultimate destruction
+of cement mortar and concrete, but their discussion is a matter
+for the specialist. Failure from inherent vice in the cement has
+been already touched on; it can always be traced to want of
+skill and care in manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calcium Sulphate Cements.</i>&mdash;Under this term are comprehended
+all cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the
+hydration of calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris,
+Keene&rsquo;s cement and many variants of these two types. The
+raw material is gypsum (<i>q.v.</i>). This may be almost chemically
+pure, when it is generally used for Keene&rsquo;s cement; or it may
+contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which
+case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster
+of Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum
+at temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be
+produced. If plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is
+carried out at about 204° C. (= 400° F.); at this temperature,
+gypsum, CaS0<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>0, loses three-quarters of its combined
+water and becomes 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>0. If a cement of the Keene&rsquo;s
+cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is higher,
+<i>e.g.</i> 500° C. (= 932° F.), and the whole of the combined water of
+the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaSO<span class="su">4</span> being
+obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking
+the mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both
+processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory
+kilns, a process which may be regarded as the method of
+<span class="sidenote">Plaster of Paris; Keene&rsquo;s cement.</span>
+the present and the immediate future. Keene&rsquo;s cement
+and its congeners are made in fixed kilns so constructed
+that only the gaseous products of combustion come into
+contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid contamination
+with the ash of the fuel.</p>
+
+<p>The setting of plaster of Paris depends on the fact that when
+2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O is treated with water it dissolves, forming a supersaturated
+solution of CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. The excess held temporarily in
+solution is then deposited in crystals of CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. In the light
+of this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes
+clear. The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to
+make it into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite insufficient
+to dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part,
+and gives a supersaturated solution of CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. In a few minutes
+the surplus hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution,
+and the water is capable again of dissolving 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, which in
+turn is fully hydrated and deposited as CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. The process
+goes on until a relatively small quantity of water has by instalments
+dissolved and hydrated the 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, and has deposited
+CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O in felted crystals forming a solid mass well cemented
+together. The setting is rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and
+is accompanied by a considerable expansion of the mass. There is
+reason to suppose that the change described takes place in two stages,
+the gypsum first forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystallizing
+in the monosymmetric system. Gypsum thus crystallized
+is in its normal monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary
+conditions than the orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process
+of dehydration to form plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum
+is converted into the orthorhombic form before it begins to be
+dehydrated.</p>
+
+<p>The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the
+other class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene
+class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of knowledge
+on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential
+difference between the setting of Keene&rsquo;s cement and that of plaster
+of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying
+hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion
+which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less
+marked.</p>
+
+<p>It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low
+temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, to soak
+the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to
+recalcine them at about 500° C. On grinding they give Keene&rsquo;s
+cement. Instead of alum various other salts, <i>e.g.</i> borax, may be
+used. The quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of
+Keene&rsquo;s cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium
+sulphate, and make it difficult to explain what, if any, influence
+these minute amounts of alum and the like can exert on the setting
+of the cement. It seems probable that the effect of the salts is
+inconsiderable, and that the governing condition is the temperature
+at which the cement has been burnt. The setting of Keene&rsquo;s cement
+takes place by the same sort of process which has been described for
+the setting of plaster of Paris, the chief differences being that the
+substance dissolved is anhydrous calcium sulphate and that the
+operation takes a longer time.</p>
+
+<p>All cements having calcium sulphate as their base are suitable only
+for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They
+form excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white
+colour and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter
+quantity being due to their expansion when setting.</p>
+
+<p>See D.B. Butler, <i>Portland Cement</i> (London, 1905);  E.C. Eckel,
+<i>Cements, Limes and Plasters</i> (New York, 1905);  G.R. Redgrave and
+Charles Spackman, <i>Calcareous Cements</i> (London, 1905);  F.H. Lewis,
+&ldquo;Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States,&rdquo; <i>The
+Mineral Industry</i> (New York, 1898);  W.H. Stanger and Bertram
+Blount, &ldquo;Cement Manufacture in Great Britain,&rdquo; <i>The Mineral
+Industry</i>, New York, 1897 and 1905; <i>Id</i>. &ldquo;The Testing of Hydraulic
+Cements,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,</i> 1894, 13, p. 455; <i>Id., Proc. Inst.
+Civ. Eng.</i>, 1901;  B. Blount, &ldquo;Recent Progress in the Cement
+Industry,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,</i> 1906, 25, p. 1020;  H.L. le
+Chatelier, <i>Recherrhes experimenlales sur la constitution des mortiers
+hydrauliques;</i> Desch, <i>Concrete</i>, No. 2, pp. 101-102; Davis, <i>Journ.
+Soc. Chem. Ind.,</i> 1905, 26, p. 727.</p>
+<div class="author">(B. Bl.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Adhesive Cements.</i>&mdash;Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral
+substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making
+joints, mending broken china and other objects, &amp;c. A strong
+cement for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared
+by mixing 12 parts of Portland cement, 8 of fine sand and 1 of infusorial
+earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of
+soda; the object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone,
+marble, and earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be
+made as follows:&mdash;skimmed-milk cheese is boiled in water till of a gluey
+consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span>
+with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar
+cement is a mixture of dried fresh curd with <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span>th of its weight
+of quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with
+water when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china,
+&amp;c., is composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster
+of Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to
+be united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement,
+the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg,
+hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also
+useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before
+their application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of
+wine is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are
+solutions of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha.
+For use with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of
+wooden cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed oil
+boiled with litharge, and 8 parts of melted glue; other strong
+cements for the same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine
+in cold water and dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or by mixing
+glue with one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little
+bichromate of potash. <i>Mahogany cement</i>, for filling up cracks in
+wood, consists of 4 parts of beeswax, 1 of Indian red and yellow-ochre
+to give colour. <i>Cutler&rsquo;s cement</i>, used for fixing knife-blades in
+their hafts, is made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin,
+or of 4 parts of rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For
+covering bottle-corks a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is
+employed. A cheap cement, sometimes employed to fix iron rails
+in stone-work, is melted brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust.
+For pipe-joints, a mixture of iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac,
+moistened with water, is employed. <i>Japanese cement</i>, for uniting
+surfaces of paper, is made by mixing rice-flour with water and boiling
+it. <i>Jewellers&rsquo;</i> or <i>Armenian cement</i> consists of isinglass with mastic
+and gum ammoniac dissolved in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep
+their work firm by means of a cement of pitch and rosin, a little
+tallow, and brick-dust to thicken. <i>Temporary cement</i> for lathe-work,
+such as the polishing and grinding of jewelry and optical glasses, is
+compounded thus:&mdash;rosin, 4 oz.; whitening previously made red-hot,
+4 oz.; wax, ĵ oz.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEMETERY<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koimêtêrion">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="koiman">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#8118;&#957;</span>, to sleep), literally
+a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to the
+places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally
+extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of
+interment in churches or churchyards being unknown in the
+first centuries of the Christian era. The term cemetery has,
+therefore, been appropriately applied in modern times to the
+burial-grounds, generally extra-mural, which have been substituted
+for the overcrowded churchyards (<i>q.v.</i>) of populous
+parishes both urban and rural.</p>
+
+<p>From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the
+condition of the London churchyards by correspondence in the
+press and by the reports of parliamentary committees, the first
+of which, that of Mr Chadwick, appeared in 1843. The vaults
+under the pavement of the churches, and the small spaces of
+open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins.
+In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products
+of corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease
+and death to those who frequented them. In the churchyards
+coffins were placed tier above tier in the graves until they were
+within a few feet (or sometimes even a few inches) of the surface,
+and the level of the ground was often raised to that of the lower
+windows of the church. To make room for fresh interments the
+sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal of bones and
+partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents of
+the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the
+site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles
+and nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the
+churchyards was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the
+gaseous emanations from the graves, and the water, wherever
+it was obtained from wells, containing organic matter, the source
+of which could not be mistaken. In all the large towns the evil
+prevailed in a greater or less degree, but in London, on account
+of the immense population and the consequent mortality, it
+forced itself more readily upon public attention, and after more
+than one partial measure of relief had been passed the churchyards
+were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of
+1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of
+ground to the north, south, east and west became henceforth
+the burial-places of the metropolis. Several of them had been
+already established by private enterprise before the passing of
+the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green cemetery dates from 1832),
+but that enactment forms the epoch from which the general
+development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland began.
+Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost everywhere
+abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by
+such safeguards as make it practically innocuous. This tendency
+has been conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the
+United States. The increasing practice of cremation (<i>q.v.</i>) has
+assisted in the movement for disposing of the dead in more
+sanitary conditions; and the proposals of Sir Seymour Haden
+and others for burying the dead in more open coffins, and
+abandoning the old system of family graves, have had considerable
+effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving
+the sanitary aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the
+cemeteries themselves as fit as possible for this purpose, and
+beautiful in arrangement and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery
+on the Harrow Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of
+Highgate Hill; the cemetery at Abney Park (once the residence
+of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead cemeteries to the
+south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton;
+the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria
+cemetery and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London;
+and at a greater distance, accessible by railway, the great
+cemetery at Brookwood near Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery
+at New Southgate. The general plan of all these cemeteries
+is the same, a park with broad paths either laid out in curved
+lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each other
+at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery.
+The ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave
+spaces, and trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between
+them. The buildings consist of a curator&rsquo;s residence and one or
+more chapels, and usually there is also a range of family graves
+with imposing tombs, massive structures containing in their
+corridors recesses for the reception of coffins, generally closed
+only by an iron grating. The provincial cemeteries in the main
+features of their arrangements resemble those of the metropolis.
+One of the most remarkable is St James&rsquo;s cemetery at Liverpool,
+which occupies a deserted quarry. The face of the eastern side
+of the quarry is traversed by ascending gradients off which open
+catacombs formed in the living rock,&mdash;a soft sandstone; the
+ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand hundreds
+of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through
+a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery
+chapel, built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle
+porticos.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries.
+One of the largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn
+near Boston. Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery
+(1836) at Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at
+Brooklyn (New York); the Lake View cemetery at Cleveland,
+Ohio; while the cemeteries at New Orleans (<i>q.v.</i>) are famous
+for their beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The chief cemetery of Paris is that of Père la Chaise, the
+prototype of the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes
+its name from the celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom
+as rector of the Jesuits of Paris it once belonged. It was laid out
+as a cemetery in 1804. It has an area of about 200 acres, and
+contains about 20,000 monuments, including those of all the great
+men of France of the 19th century&mdash;marshals, generals, ministers,
+poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors and musicians.
+Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the scene
+of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian
+column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 1871 the
+Communists made their last stand among the tombs of Père la
+Chaise; 900 of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were
+shot there after its capture, and 200 of them were buried in
+quicklime in one huge grave and 700 in another. There are
+other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and Montmartre, besides the
+minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles, Passy, La
+Villette, &amp;c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being more
+or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the
+plateau of Méry sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span>
+it is connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit
+fully 2 sq. m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs
+in many respects from the English. Every city and town is
+required by law to provide a burial-ground beyond its barriers,
+properly laid out and planted, and situated if possible on a rising
+ground. Each interment must take place in a separate grave.
+This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the dead are
+buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the <i>fosses communes</i>, the poor
+being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being
+made in all other cases. The <i>fosse</i> is filled and left undisturbed
+for five years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed,
+the level of the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and
+interments begin again. For a fee of 50 francs a <i>concession
+temporaire</i> for ten years can be obtained, but where it is desired
+to erect a permanent monument the ground must be bought by
+the executors of the deceased. In Paris the undertakers&rsquo; trade
+is the monopoly of a company, the <i>Société des pompes funèbres</i>,
+which in return for its privileges is required to give a free burial
+to the poor.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Leichenhäuser</i>, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich
+form a remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The
+object of their founders was twofold&mdash;(1) to obviate even the
+remotest danger of premature interment, and (2) to offer a
+respectable place for the reception of the dead, in order to
+remove the corpse from the confined dwellings of the survivors.
+At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of the wings of the
+propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the cemetery.
+It consists of the warder&rsquo;s room, where an attendant is always on
+duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated,
+kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on
+which a corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a
+ring connected by a light cord with a bell which hangs outside
+in the warder&rsquo;s room. The use of the dead-house is voluntary.
+The bodies deposited there are inspected at regular intervals by
+a medical officer, and the warder is always on the watch for the
+ringing of the warning bell. One revival, that of a child, has been
+known to take place at Frankfort. The Leichenhaus of Munich
+is situated in the southern cemetery outside the Sendling Gate.
+At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular building with
+an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which
+contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At
+both Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the
+attendants receive the dead confided to them with respect, and
+no interment is permitted until the first signs of decomposition
+appear; the relatives then assemble in one of the halls adjoining
+the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place. In any case
+there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature interment,
+but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of
+great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which
+result from the prolonged retention of the dead among the
+living. Mortuaries for this purpose have also been established
+in many places in England.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy the <i>Campo Santo</i> (Holy Field) is best illustrated by
+the famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to
+other Italian burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use
+in southern Europe the catacombs (<i>q.v.</i>) of Sicily are the most
+curious. There is one of these under the old Capuchin monastery
+of Ziza near Palermo, where in four large airy subterranean
+corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in the wall, many of
+them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or hanging
+with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation
+for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then
+dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end
+of the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely
+ornamented with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones.</p>
+
+<p>Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations
+from time immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton
+and Macao are crowded with tombs, many of them being in the
+form of small tumuli, with a low encircling wall, forcibly recalling
+the ringed barrows of western Europe. But the most picturesque
+cemeteries in the world are those of the Turks. From them it
+was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern cemetery, with
+its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around Constantinople
+the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under whose
+branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never
+reopened; a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so
+the dead now occupy a wider territory than that which is covered
+by the homes of the living. The Turks believe that till the body
+is buried the soul is in a state of discomfort, and the funeral,
+therefore, takes place as soon as possible after death. No coffin
+is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few boards are arranged
+round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care being taken to
+leave a small opening extending from the head of the corpse to
+the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently enlarged
+by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone
+of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban
+in the case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low
+relief if the grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying
+form indicates not only the rank of the sleeper below but also
+the period of his death, for the fashion of the Turkish head-dress
+is always changing. A cypress is usually planted beside the grave,
+its odour being supposed to neutralize any noxious exhalations
+from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a forest, where by
+day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or perching on the
+trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at night.
+Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite
+resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside
+the narrow openings that lead down into a parent&rsquo;s, a husband&rsquo;s,
+or a brother&rsquo;s grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constantinople
+contrast rather unfavourably with the simple dignity
+of those which belong to the Turks. That of the Armenians
+abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of the death of
+whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones there
+are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging
+on the gallows.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial and Burial Acts</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cremation</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Churchyard</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENCI, BEATRICE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1577-1599), a Roman woman, famous
+for her tragic story; poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance
+about her, which modern historic research has to a large extent
+destroyed. Born at Rome, she was the daughter of Francesco
+Cenci (1549-1598), the bastard son of a priest, and a man of
+great wealth but dissolute habits and violent temper. He seems
+to have been guilty of various offences and to have got off with
+short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous
+cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely
+legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve
+children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia
+Petroni, a widow with three daughters, by whom he had no
+offspring. He was very quarrelsome and lived on the worst
+possible terms with his children, who, however, were all of them
+more or less disreputable. He kept various mistresses and was
+even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his sons were equally
+dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter Beatrice was
+probably due to his discovery that she had had an illegitimate
+child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards (A.
+Bertolotti, in his <i>Francesco Cenci</i>, publishes Beatrice&rsquo;s will in
+which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that
+he tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The
+eldest son Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel,
+who cheated his own father and even attempted to murder him
+(1595). Two other sons, Rocco and Cristoforo, both of them
+notorious rakes, were killed in brawls. Finally Francesco&rsquo;s
+wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and Beatrice,
+assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him.
+Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according
+to Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice&rsquo;s lover), and Francesco was
+assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom
+of Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos
+murdered, but the other was arrested by the Neapolitan
+authorities and confessed everything. Information having been
+communicated to Rome, the whole of the Cenci family were
+arrested early in 1599; but the story of the hardships they
+underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra escaped;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span>
+Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and
+Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture,
+also ended by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain
+mercy for the accused, but the crime was considered too heinous,
+and the pope (Clement VIII.) refused to grant a pardon; on
+the 11th of September 1599, Beatrice and Lucrezia were
+beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with red-hot
+pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered.
+Bernardo&rsquo;s penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to
+perpetual imprisonment, and after a year&rsquo;s confinement he was
+pardoned. The property of the family was confiscated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The romantic character of the history of this family has been the
+subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley&rsquo;s tragedy is well
+known as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts
+a purely fictitious version of the story. Nor is F.D. Guerrazzi&rsquo;s
+novel, <i>Beatrice Cenci</i> (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first
+attempt to deal with the subject on documentary evidence is
+A. Bertolotti&rsquo;s <i>Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia</i> (2nd ed., Florence,
+1879), containing a number of interesting documents which place
+the events in their true light; cf. Labruzzi&rsquo;s article in the <i>Nuova
+Antologia</i>, 1879, vol. xiv., and another in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>,
+January 1879.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENOBITES<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="koinos">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, common, and <span class="grk" title="bios">&#946;&#943;&#959;&#962;</span>, life),
+monks who lived together in a convent or community under a
+rule and a superior,&mdash;in contrast to hermits or anchorets who
+live in isolation. The Basilians (<i>q.v.</i>) in the East and the Benedictines
+(<i>q.v.</i>) in the West are the chief cenobitical orders (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENOMANI,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose
+territory corresponded generally to Maine in the modern department
+of Sarthe. Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum
+(corrupted into Subdinnum), afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum
+(whence Le Mans), the original name of the town, as usual in
+the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that of the people.
+According to Caesar (<i>Bell. Gall.</i> vii. 75. 3), they assisted Vercingetorix
+in the great rising (52 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) with a force of 5000 men. Under
+Augustus they formed a <i>civitas stipendiaria</i> of Gallia Lugdunensis,
+and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii. About
+400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large
+number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans
+southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of
+Cato (in Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> iii. 130), that some of them settled near
+Massilia in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route
+taken by them. The limits of their territory are not clearly
+defined, but were probably the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the
+east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps the Addua) on the west, and
+the Padus on the south. Livy gives their chief towns as Brixia
+(Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona. The Cenomani
+nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies
+of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>),
+when the Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and
+during the war against Hannibal. They certainly joined in
+the revolt of the Gauls under Hamilcar (200), but after they had
+been defeated by the consul Gaius Cornelius (197) they finally
+submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia Transpadana, they
+acquired the rights of citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel
+of Cenomani have given rise to discussion. According to
+Arbois de Jubainville, the Cenom&#259;ni of Italy are not identical
+with the Cenom&#257;ni (or Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the
+latter, the survival of the syllable &ldquo;man&rdquo; in Le Mans is due to
+the stress laid on the vowel; had the vowel been short and
+unaccented, it would have disappeared. In Italy, Cenomani
+is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of the
+Aulerci.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Voisin, <i>Les Cénomans anciens et modernes</i> (Le Mans, 1862);
+A. Desjardins, <i>Géographic historique de la Gaule romaine,</i> ii. (1876-1893);
+Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Les Premiers Habitants de l&rsquo;Europe</i>
+(1889-1894); article and authorities in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>;
+C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. pt. 2 (1899);
+full ancient authorities in A. Holder, <i>Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz</i>, i.
+(1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENOTAPH<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kenos">&#954;&#949;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, empty, <span class="grk" title="taphos">&#964;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>, tomb), a monument or
+tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere.
+The custom arose from the erection of monuments to those
+whose bodies could not be recovered, as in the case of drowning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENSOR<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>censere</i>, assess, estimate; in Gr. <span class="grk" title="timaetaes">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>).
+I. <i>In ancient Rome</i>, the title of the two Roman officials who
+presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens
+for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to
+the community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea
+of the arbitrary assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines
+<i>census</i> as <i>arbitrium</i>, and derives the name <i>censores</i> from the
+position of these magistrates as <i>arbitri populi</i> (Varro, <i>de Ling.
+Lat.</i> v. 81; <i>ap.</i> Non. p. 519). This original idea of &ldquo;discretionary
+power&rdquo; was never entirely lost; although ultimately
+it came to be more intimately associated with the appreciation
+of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the point
+of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman
+manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not
+unusual feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome
+possessed sumptuary laws, and laws dealing with moral offences,
+which it was the duty of other magistrates to enforce; but the
+organization for the control of conduct was mainly exhibited
+in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited, was at once simple and
+comprehensive.</p>
+
+<p>The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+to relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the
+periods of registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous
+office; but its tenure does not seem to have been fixed until
+434 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when a <i>lex Aemilia</i> provided that the censors should
+hold office for eighteen months. This magistracy was at first
+confined to patricians; a plebeian censor is first mentioned in
+351 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> A <i>lex Publilia</i> of 339 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> is said to have enacted that
+one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian censors were for
+the first time elected in 131 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The election always took place
+in the Comitia Centuriata (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>). The censorship,
+although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the
+right of summoning the senate and the people, was not only one
+of the higher magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a
+political career. It was an irresponsible office; and the only
+limitations on its powers were created by the restriction of
+tenure to a year and a half, the fact that re-election was forbidden,
+and the restraint imposed on each censor by the fact that no act
+of his was valid without the assent of his colleague.</p>
+
+<p>The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration
+of citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries;
+(2) the taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their
+property; (3) the right of exclusion from public functions on
+moral grounds, known as the <i>regimen morum</i>; (4) the solemn
+act of purification (<i>lustrum</i>) which closed the census. Two
+other functions were subsequently added:&mdash;(5) the selection of
+the senate (<i>lectio senatus</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senate</a></span>), and (6) certain financial
+duties such as the leasing of the contracts for tax-collecting and
+for the repair of public buildings. The first four of these functions
+were those of the census, which was a detailed examination of
+the citizen body as represented by heads of families (<i>patres
+familiarum</i>) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select
+portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights
+took place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equites</a></span>).
+It was in connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and
+the knights, as well as with the choice of senators, that the
+censors published their edicts stating the moral rules which
+they intended to enforce. The offences which they punished
+were sometimes concerned with family life and private relations,
+sometimes with breaches of political duty. Certain professions,
+such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked their stigma,
+and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were the
+consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. <i>Infamia</i>
+was the general name given to the disabilities pronounced by
+the censor. These varied in degree from the deprivation of a
+senator of his seat, or a knight&rsquo;s loss of his horse, to exclusion
+from the tribes or centuries, an exclusion which entailed the loss
+of voting power. All the disabilities pronounced by one pair of
+censors might be removed by their successors.</p>
+
+<p>The censorship, although its control over the senate came to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+be weakened (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senate</a></span>), lasted as long as the republic; and
+it was only suspended, not abolished, during the principate.
+Although the princeps exercised censorial functions, he was
+seldom censor. Yet the office itself was held by Claudius I. and
+Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title of life censor (<i>censor
+perpetuus</i>), but the precedent was not followed. A fruitless
+attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was made
+in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Mommsen, <i>Romisches Staatsrecht</i>, ii. 331 foll.
+(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Daremberg-Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités
+grecques et romaines</i>, i. 990 foll. (1875, &amp;c.); Lange, <i>Romische
+Alterthumer</i>, i. 572 foll. (Berlin, 1856, &amp;c.); de Boor, <i>Fasti Censorii</i>
+(Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, <i>Die romische Censur in ihrem Verhaltnisse
+zur Verfassung</i> (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, &ldquo;Über die Census&rdquo;
+in <i>Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil.</i> lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt,
+&ldquo;Die Lustra der Römer&rdquo; in <i>Rhein. Museum</i>, xxv. 465, xxvi. i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. J. G.)</div>
+
+<p>II. In modern times the word &ldquo;censor&rdquo; is used generally for
+one who exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of
+other persons. In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it
+is the title of the official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate
+students (<i>i.e.</i> those who are not attached to a college, hall or
+hostel). In Oxford the censor is nominated by the vice-chancellor
+and the proctors, and holds office for five years; in Cambridge
+he is similarly appointed, and holds office for life. The censors
+of the Royal College of Physicians are the officials who grant
+licences.</p>
+
+<p><i>Council of Censors</i>, in American constitutional history, is the
+name given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsylvania
+from 1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont
+from 1777 to 1870. Under both constitutions the council of
+censors was elected once in seven years, for the purpose of
+inquiring into the working of the governmental departments,
+the conduct of the state officers, and the working of the laws,
+and as to whether the constitution had been violated in any
+particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in number
+to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required
+amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose.
+A convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the
+constitution by abolishing the censors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the censorship of the press, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Press Laws</a></span>; for the censorship
+of plays, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theatre</a></span>: <i>Law</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Chamberlain</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENSORINUS,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer,
+flourished during the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> He was the author of a
+lost work <i>De Accentibus</i>, and of an extant treatise <i>De Die Natali</i>,
+written in 238, and dedicated to his patron Quintus Caerellius
+as a birthday gift. The contents are of a varied character: the
+natural history of man, the influence of the stars and genii,
+music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the Greek
+philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and
+mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining
+the principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is
+full of curious and interesting information. The style is clear
+and concise, although somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity,
+for the period, good. The chief authorities used were Varro
+and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold that the entire
+work is practically an adaptation of the lost <i>Pratum</i> of Suetonius.
+The fragments of a work <i>De Natali Institutione</i>, dealing with
+astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually
+printed with the <i>De Die Natali</i> of Censorinus, are not by him.
+Part of the original MS., containing the end of the genuine work,
+and the title and name of the author of the fragment are lost.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Lindenbrog
+(1614); the most recent critical editions are by O. Jahn (1845),
+F. Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English
+translation of the <i>De Die Natali</i> (the first eleven chapters being
+omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENSUS<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>censere</i>, to estimate or assess; connected
+by some with <i>centum, i.e.</i> a count by hundreds), a term used to
+denote a periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times,
+to population, and occasionally to industries and agricultural
+resources, but formerly extending to property of all kinds, for
+the purpose of assessment.</p>
+
+<p>Operations of this character have been conducted with
+different objects from very ancient times. The fighting strength
+of the children of Israel at the Exodus was ascertained by a
+count of all males of twenty years old and upwards, made by
+enumerators appointed for each clan. The Levites, who were
+exempted from military duties, were separately enumerated
+from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was
+ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute
+amongst them the functions assigned to the priestly body in
+connexion with the temple. The census unwillingly carried out
+by Joab at the behest of David related exclusively to the fighting
+men of the community, and the dire consequences ascribed to it
+were quoted in reprobation of such inquiries as late as the middle
+of the 18th century. It appears, too, that a register of the
+population of each clan was kept during the Babylonian captivity
+and its totals were published on their return to Jerusalem. In
+the Persian empire there was apparently some method in force
+by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the
+purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumeration
+of somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in
+connexion with the provincial revenues and military liabilities.
+In Egypt, Amasis had the occupation of each individual annually
+registered, nominally to aid the official supervision of morals
+by discouraging disreputable means of subsistence; and this
+ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced by Solon
+into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed
+later into an electoral record.</p>
+
+<p>It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the
+name of the inquiry is derived was first established upon a
+regular footing. The original census was ascribed to Servius
+Tullius, and in the constitution which goes by his name it was
+decreed that every fifth year the population should be enumerated
+along with the property of each family&mdash;land, live-stock,
+slaves and freedmen. The main object was to ensure the
+accurate division of the people into the six main classes and
+their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations
+of combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the
+city the operation grew in importance, and was followed by an
+official <i>lustrum</i>, or purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the
+people by the censors or functionaries in charge of the classification.
+Hence the name of lustrum came to denote the intercensal
+term, or a period of five years. The word census, too, came to
+mean the property qualification of the class, as well as the
+process of registering the resources of the individual. Later,
+it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in which it has
+survived in the contracted form of <i>cess</i>. Unfortunately the
+statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the
+fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed
+down relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood.
+In the time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole
+empire. In the words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered
+&ldquo;the whole world to be <i>taxed</i>,&rdquo; or, according to the revised
+version, to be <i>enrolled</i>. The compilation of the results of this
+the most comprehensive enumeration till then attempted was
+engaging the attention of the emperor, it is said, just before his
+death, but was never completed. The various inquiries instituted
+during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book and the
+Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that
+they took little or no account of the population, the feudal
+system probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary
+for the purposes of taxation or military service.</p>
+
+<p>The foundations of the census on the modern system were
+laid in Europe towards the middle or end of the 17th century.
+Sweden led the way, by making compulsory the parish record
+of births, deaths and marriages, kept by the clergy, and extending
+it to include the whole of the domiciled population of the parish.
+In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered the extension to the rural
+communes of the system which had for many years been in force
+in Paris of registering and periodically publishing the domestic
+occurrences of the locality. Five years before this, however,
+a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been
+established in the colony of New France, and was continued in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span>
+Quebec from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered
+to be the earliest of modern censuses.</p>
+
+<p>Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by
+statistical experts in periodical conference to bring about a
+general understanding, first, as to the subjects which may be
+considered most likely to be ascertained with approximate
+accuracy at a census, and secondly&mdash;a point of scarcely less
+importance&mdash;as to the form in which the results of the inquiry
+should be compiled in order to render comparison possible
+between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard
+to the scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practicable
+in a country where the agency of trained officials is employed
+throughout the operation which cannot be expected to be
+adequately recorded where the responsibility for the correctness
+of the replies is thrown upon the householder. The standard
+set up by eminent statisticians, therefore, may be taken to represent
+an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere under present
+conditions, but towards which each successive census may be
+expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance
+is attached from the international standpoint are age, sex,
+civil condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities.
+Occupation, too, should be included, but the record of so detailed
+a subject is usually considered to be better obtained by a special
+inquiry, rather than by the rough and ready methods of a
+synchronous enumeration. This course has been adopted in
+Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach to it is made
+in the decennial census of Canada and the United States.
+Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested,
+is of considerably more importance in some countries than in
+others, and the same may be said of nationality, which is often
+usefully supplemented by the return of mother-tongue. Nor
+should it be forgotten that the internal classification and the
+combinations of the above subjects are also matters to be treated
+upon some uniform plan, if the full value of the statistics is to
+be extracted from the raw material. On the whole, the progress
+towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of the
+questions here mentioned which has been made in the present
+generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long
+laboured in the cause of efficient enumeration.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">The British Empire</p>
+
+<p><i>England and Wales.</i>&mdash;Up to the beginning of the 19th century
+the number of the population was a matter of estimate and
+conjecture. In 1753 a bill was introduced by a private member
+of the House of Commons, backed by official support, to provide
+for the annual enumeration of the people and of the persons in
+receipt of parochial relief. It was violently opposed as &ldquo;subversive
+of the last remains of English liberty&rdquo; and as likely to
+result in &ldquo;some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper.&rdquo;
+After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by
+the House of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of
+England the weakness of the country in fighting-material was
+one of the main objections offered to the proposal. By the end
+of the century, however, owing to a great extent to the publication
+of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum had swung far in the
+opposite direction, it was thought desirable to possess the means
+of judging from time to time the relations between an increasing
+population and the means of subsistence. A census bill, accordingly,
+again brought in by a private member, became law without
+opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under
+it took place in March of the following year, the operations being
+confined to Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England
+to the overseers, acting under the justices of the peace and the
+high constables, and in Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under
+the sheriffs. A supplementary statement of births, deaths and
+marriages for each parish was required from the clergy, who
+transmitted it to parliament through the bishops and primates
+successively. There was no central office or control. The
+schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise,
+the population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under
+one of the three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or
+industry, or (c) other than these two. The results, which were
+not satisfactory, were published without comment. Ten years
+later, the chief alteration in the inquiry was the substitution of
+the main occupation of the family for that of the individual.
+The report on this census contained a very valuable exposition
+of the difficulties involved in such operations and the numerous
+sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of questions.
+In 1821 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it was
+not repeated in 1831, when the attention of the enumerators
+was concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record.
+Their efforts were successful in getting a better, but still far from
+complete result. The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and
+the establishment, in 1836, of civil registration districts, as a
+rule coterminous with them, provided a new basis for the taking
+of a census, and the operations in 1841 were made over accordingly
+to the supervision of the registrar-general and his staff.
+The inquiry was extended to the sex, age and occupation of
+every individual; those born in the district were distinguished
+from others, foreigners being also separately returned. The
+number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction
+respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of
+births, deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the
+last time. The most important innovation, however, was the
+transfer of the responsibility for filling up the schedule from
+the overseers to the householders, thereby rendering possible
+a synchronous record.</p>
+
+<p>With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated
+has been since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head
+of the family, civil condition, and the blind and deaf-mute were
+included in the inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing
+for the census was interpreted to authorize the collection of
+details regarding accommodation in places of public worship
+and the attendance thereat, as well as corresponding information
+about educational establishments. A separate report was
+published on the former subject which proved something of a
+storm centre. The census of 1871 obtained for the first time a
+return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums.
+During the next ten years, the separate areas for which population
+returns had to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the
+creation of sanitary districts, to the number of 966. The necessity,
+for administrative or other purposes, of tabulating separately
+the returns for so many cross-divisions of the country constitutes
+one of the main difficulties of the English census operations,
+more particularly as the boundaries of these areas are frequently
+altered. In anticipation of the census of 1891, a treasury
+committee was appointed to consider the various suggestions
+made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its proposals
+were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation
+column into employer, employed and independent worker, and
+as to the record upon the schedule of the number of rooms
+occupied by the family, where not more than five. Separate
+entry was also made of the persons living upon property or
+resources, but not following any occupation. No action was
+taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that
+midway between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and
+age should be effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for
+Wales, of those who could speak only Welsh, only English, and
+both languages, but, owing to the inclusion of infants, the results
+were of little value. In 1901 the same information was called
+for, excluding all under three years of age. The term tenement,
+too, was substituted for that of storey, as the subdivision of a
+house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited houses,
+those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately recorded.
+The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be returned
+only for British subjects, was called for from all not born within
+the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scotland.</i>&mdash;In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to
+1851, provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with
+that for England and Wales, allowance being made for the
+differences in procedure, which mainly concerned the agency
+to be employed. In 1855, however, civil registration of births
+and deaths was established in Scotland, and the conduct of the
+census of 1861 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the registrar-general
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+of that country. The same course was followed at the
+three succeeding enumerations, but in 1901 the former practice
+was resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though
+far less than in England, was simplified, and the census compilation
+proportionately facilitated, by the passing of the Local
+Government Act for Scotland, in 1889. In 1881, the definition
+of a house in Scotland was made identical with that in England,
+since previously what was called a house in the northern portion
+of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south, and vice
+versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of
+the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of
+children of school-age under instruction is also included in the
+inquiry. The number of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded
+for the first time in 1881. The question was somewhat expanded
+at the next census, and in 1901 was brought into harmony with
+the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ireland</i>.&mdash;An estimate of the population of Ireland was made
+as early as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 1712, in connexion
+with the hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a
+regular census was made in 1811, through the Grand Juries.
+It was not successful, and in 1821 again, the inquiry was considered
+to be but little more satisfactory. The census of 1831 was
+better, but the results were considered exaggerated, owing to
+the system of paying enumerators according to the numbers they
+returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a revisional
+inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good
+basis for the newly introduced system of public instruction.
+The completion of the ordnance survey and the establishment
+of an educated constabulary force brought the operations of
+1841 up to the level of those of the sister kingdom. The main
+difference in procedure between the two inquiries is that in
+Ireland the schedule is filled in by the enumerator, a member
+of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the metropolitan police,
+instead of being left to the householder. The tabulation of the
+returns, again, is carried out at the central office from the
+original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into
+which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency.
+The inquiry in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great
+Britain. It includes, for instance, a considerable amount of
+information regarding holdings and stock. The details of house
+accommodation are fuller. A column is provided for the degree
+of education, and another for religious denomination, an addition
+which has always been successfully resisted in England. This
+last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the following
+enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the
+record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to
+those <i>temporarily</i> incapacitated from work, whether at home
+or in a hospital. There is also a column for the entry of persons
+speaking the Irish language only or able to speak both that and
+English. In the report of 1901 for England and Wales (p. 170)
+a table is given showing, for the three divisions of the United
+Kingdom, the relative number of persons speaking the ancient
+languages either exclusively or in addition to English.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Colonies and Dependencies.</i>&mdash;A simultaneous and
+uniform census of the British empire is an ideal which appeals
+to many, but its practical advantages are by no means commensurate
+with the difficulties to be surmounted. Scattered
+as are the colonies and dependencies over the world, the date
+found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother country and
+the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the tropics
+and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope
+of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information
+is thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the
+inquiry, too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the
+locality allow, and the population dealt with is likely to be able
+and willing to answer. By prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity
+may be obtained in regard to most of the main statistical facts
+ascertainable at a census, at all events in the more advanced
+units of the empire, and proposals to this effect were made by
+the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report upon
+the figures for 1901. Previous to that date, the only step towards
+compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare
+statement of area and population, appended without analysis;
+comparison or comment, to the reports for England and Wales,
+from the year 1861 onwards. In 1905, however, the returns
+published in the colonial reports were combined with those of
+the United Kingdom, and the subjects of house-room, sex, age,
+civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and, where available,
+instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as fully as
+the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command
+paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states,
+colonies and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of
+their population are set forth below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canada</i>.&mdash;The first enumeration of what was afterwards
+called Lower Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and
+dealt with the legal, or domiciled, population, not with that
+actually present at the time of the census, a practice still maintained,
+in contrast to that prevailing in the rest of the empire.
+The record was by families, and included the sex, age and civil
+condition of each individual, with a partial return of profession
+or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour of a
+fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has
+remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British
+occupation, a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually
+from 1824 to 1842, the information asked for differing from
+time to time. Enumerations were conducted independently
+by the different states until 1871, when the first federal census
+was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since then, the
+enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more
+recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North-West,
+where an intermediate census was found necessary in 1885-1886.
+The census of Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the
+United States rather than in accordance with British practice,
+and includes much which is the subject of annual returns in the
+latter country, or is not officially collected at all. The details
+of deaths in the year preceding the census, for instance, are
+called for, there being no registration of such occurrences in the
+rural tracts. In consideration of the large immigrant population
+again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded, with details as
+to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration. Occupation
+is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary
+unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other
+particulars. No less than eleven schedules are employed, most
+of them relating to details of industries and production. The
+duty of filling up so comprehensive a return, involving an answer
+to 561 questions, is not left to the householder, but entrusted
+to enumerators specially engaged, working under the supervision
+of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to the sparse population
+and difficulties of communication in a great part of the
+dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not
+completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator
+for the collection of his returns and their revision and transmission
+to the central office. A special feature in the operations
+is the provision, necessitated by the record of the <i>legal</i> population,
+for the inclusion in the local return of the persons temporarily
+absent on the date of the census, and their adjustment in the
+general aggregates, a matter to which considerable attention is
+paid. The very large mass of detail collected at these inquiries
+entails an unusually long time spent in compilation; the
+statistics of population, accordingly, are available considerably
+in advance of those relating to production and industries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Australasia</i>.&mdash;As the sphere of the census operations in Canada
+has been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the
+east coast to the immense territories of the north-west, so, in
+the island continent, colonization, first concentrated in the
+south-east, has extended along the coasts and thence into the
+interior, except in the northern region. The first act of effective
+occupation of the country having been the establishment of a
+penal settlement, the only population to be dealt with in the
+earlier years of British administration was that under restraint,
+with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated
+from 1788 onwards by official &ldquo;musters,&rdquo; at first weekly, and
+afterwards at lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+that it had no statistical value until 1820, when the muster was
+taken after due preparation and with greater care, approximating
+to the system of a regular census. The first operation, however,
+called by the latter name, was the enumeration of 1828, when
+an act was passed providing for the enumeration of the whole
+population, the occupied area and the live-stock. The details
+of population included sex, children and adults respectively,
+religion and <i>status</i>, that is whether free (immigrants or
+liberated convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar
+inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate
+census was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively.
+The scope of the inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat
+extended and made to include occupations other than agriculture
+and stock-breeding. Five years later, the increase of the population
+justified the further addition of particulars regarding
+birthplace and education. The record of <i>status</i>, too, was made
+optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In that
+year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony,
+took its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated
+in 1846, ten years after its foundation as a colony. From 1861
+the census has been taken decennially by all the states except
+Queensland, where, as in New Zealand, it has been quinquennial
+since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up to and including the census
+of 1901 each state conducted separately its own inquiries. The
+scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great Britain, modified
+to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered population.
+The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under
+district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the
+whole number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the population
+in the rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In
+more than one state the police are employed as enumerators,
+but elsewhere, a staff has to be specially recruited for the purpose.
+The operations were improved and facilitated by means of an
+interstatal conference held before the census of 1891, at which
+a standard schedule was adopted and a series of general tables
+agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail according
+to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in
+addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition,
+birthplace, occupation and house-room, includes education and
+sickness as well as infirmities, and leaves the return of religious
+denomination optional with the householder. Under the head
+of occupation, the bread-winner is distinguished from his dependants
+and is returned as employer, employed, or working on his
+own account, as is now the usual practice in census-taking.
+Each state issues its own report, in which the returns are worked
+up in the detail required for both local administrative purposes,
+and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the
+neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and
+Victoria are especially valuable in their statistical aspect from
+the analysis they contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively
+young community under modern conditions of progress.</p>
+
+<p><i>South Africa.</i>&mdash;Almost from the date of their taking possession
+of the Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East
+Indian Company instituted annual returns of population,
+live-stock and agricultural produce. The results from 1687 for
+nearly a century were recorded, but do not appear to have been
+more accurate than those subsequently obtained on the same
+method by the British government, by whom they were discontinued
+in 1856. The information was collected by district
+officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or
+procedure. The first synchronous census of the colony, as it
+was then constituted, took place in 1865, on a fairly comprehensive
+schedule. Ten years later the inquiry was extended
+to religion and civil condition, and for the census of 1891, again,
+a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The next census
+was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the disorganization
+produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same lines
+as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries and
+religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration
+of the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with
+special attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more
+ignorant classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy
+was enlisted. In some tracts it was found advisable to substitute
+a less elaborate schedule for that generally prescribed.
+In Natal, indeed, where the first independent census was
+taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was not on that occasion
+enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were counted on a
+very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to 40
+years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair
+indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable
+extent and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from
+the white population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable
+difference between the European and the Oriental in the matter
+of age distribution and civil condition. The Transvaal and the
+Orange River colonies were enumerated in 1904. In the latter,
+a census had been taken in 1890, in considerable detail, but that
+of the Transvaal, in 1896, seems to have been far from complete
+or accurate even in regard to the white population. In Southern
+Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in 1891, but it
+was not until 1904 that the whole population was included in
+the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring
+a sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large
+and illiterate native population has to be taken into account.
+For this reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up
+to 1906 of Northern Rhodesia, the British possessions and
+protectorates of eastern Africa, or, again, of Nigeria and the
+protectorates attached to the West African colonies of Gambia,
+Sierra Leone and Lagos.</p>
+
+<p><i>The West Indies.</i>&mdash;Each of the small administrative groups
+here included takes its census independently of the rest, though
+since 1871 all take it about the date fixed for that of the United
+Kingdom. The information required differs in each group, but
+the schedule is, as a rule, of a simple character, and the results
+of the inquiry are usually set forth with comparatively little
+comment or analysis. In some of the groups distinctions of
+colour are returned in general terms; in others, not at all. On
+the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding the
+indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class
+who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad.
+No census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados,
+in 1901.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ceylon</i>.&mdash;Here the census is taken decennially, on the same
+date as in India, in consideration of the constant stream of
+migration between the two countries. The schedule is much the
+same as in India with the substitution of race for caste. Until
+1901, however, it was not filled in by the enumerator, as in India,
+but was distributed before and collected after the appointed
+date as in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p><i>India</i>.&mdash;The population of India is the largest aggregate yet
+brought within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumeration.
+It amounts to three-fourths of that of the British Empire,
+and but little less than a fifth of the estimated population of the
+world. Between 1853 and 1881 each province conducted its
+own census operations independently, with little or no attempt at
+uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In the latter year the
+operations were placed for the first time under central administration,
+and the like procedure was adopted in 1891 and 1901, with such
+modification of detail as was suggested by the experience of the
+preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be brought
+within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the
+use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than
+the standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to
+the inquiry, and the efficiency of the administrative agency
+increased. Not more than 5% of the householders in India can
+read and write, and the proportion capable of fully understanding
+the schedule and of making the entries in it correctly is still
+lower. From the literate minority, therefore, agency has to be
+drawn in sufficient strength to take down every particle of the
+information dictated by the heads of families. As it would be
+impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the
+course of the census night for more than a comparatively small
+number of houses, the operation is divided into two processes.
+First a preliminary record is made a short time before the night
+in question, of the persons ordinarily residing in each house.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span>
+Then, on that night, the enumerator, reinforced if necessary by
+aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat, and brings the record
+up to date by striking out the absent and entering the new
+arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include
+about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men
+were required for enumeration alone. To this army must be
+added the controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above
+number, charged with the instruction of their subordinates, the
+inspection and correction of the preliminary record, and the
+transmission of the schedule books to the local centre after the
+census has been taken. The supply of agency for these duties is,
+fortunately, not deficient. Irrespective of the large number
+of clerks, village scribes and state and municipal employés
+which can be drawn upon with but slight interruption of official
+routine, there is a fair supply of casual literary labour up to the
+moderate standard required. The services, too, of the educated
+public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of the local
+authorities for the census night, with no desire for remuneration
+beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps, of
+a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district.
+By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the
+preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in
+1901 were given to the public within a fortnight of the census,
+and differed from the final results by no more than 94,000, or
+.03%. The schedule adopted contains in addition to the
+standard subjects of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupation
+and infirmities, columns for mother-tongue, religion and
+sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed in about 20 languages.
+The results for each province or large state are tabulated
+locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final compilation
+is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own
+report upon the operations and results. This work has usually
+an interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the
+prominent place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical
+variety of the population.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Foreign Countries</p>
+
+<p>Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of
+taxation, such as the hearth-tax in France, were instituted in
+continental Europe as early as the 14th century; but as the
+basis of an estimate of population they were intrinsically untrustworthy.
+Going outside Europe, an extreme instance of the
+results of combining a census with more definite administrative
+objects may be found in the census of China in 1711, when the
+population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and liability
+to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty years
+later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief
+of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103
+millions! The notion of obtaining a periodical record of population
+and its movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities,
+originated, as stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth
+and death registers, till then kept voluntarily by the parish
+clergy, were made compulsory and general, the results for each
+year being communicated to a central office. A census, as a
+special undertaking, was not, however, carried out in that country
+until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in the next
+year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the
+parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring
+state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the
+18th century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate.
+Amongst them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census
+was not obtained until 1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small
+states of Italy, too, recorded their population in the middle of
+the above century, but the first general census of that country
+took place in 1861, after its unification. In Austria, a census was
+taken in 1754 by the parish clergy, concurrently with the civil
+authorities and the military commandants. Hungary was in
+part enumerated thirty years later. The starting-point of the
+modern census, however, in either part of the dual monarchy, was
+not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal
+countries began the current series of their censuses between
+1825 and 1860. The German empire has taken its census
+quinquennially since its foundation, but long before 1871 a
+census at short intervals used to be taken in all the states of
+the Zollverein, for the purpose of ascertaining the contribution
+to the federal revenue, the amount of which was revisable every
+three years. The last great country to enter the census field
+was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of the
+population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and
+police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials
+without central direction or systematic organization. In 1897
+a general census was taken as synchronously throughout the
+empire as was found possible. It embraced a population second
+to that of India alone, as China, probably the most populous
+country in the world, has not yet been subjected to this test.
+The inquiry was made in great detail, under central control,
+and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the requirements of so
+varied a country and population. As in India, the schedules
+had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were
+dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The
+principal regions of which the population is still a matter of mere
+conjecture are the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China
+and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of
+Africa, and a considerable portion of South America.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. A. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">United States</p>
+
+<p>Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United
+States. Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative
+work, &ldquo;It was no European state, but the United States of
+America that made a beginning of census-taking in the large
+and true sense of that word,&rdquo; and Professor H. Wagner, writing
+of the censuses of Sweden, said to have been taken in the 18th
+century, uses these words, &ldquo;Since 1749 careful parish registers
+have been kept by the clergy and have in general the value of
+censuses.&rdquo; The same authority, although mentioning a reported
+census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first
+real census of that country was in 1815. Sweden, Norway and
+the United States are the only countries with any claim to have
+taken the first modern census, as distinguished from a register
+of tax-payers, &amp;c., the lineal descendant of the old Roman census,
+and the innovation seems to be due to the United States. If so,
+the first modern census was the American census of 1790. At
+the present date more than three-fifths of the estimated population
+of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is of
+interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated.</p>
+
+<p>The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken
+every ten years since under a mandate contained in the Constitution
+of the United States, was the outgrowth of a controversy
+in the convention which prepared the document. Representatives
+of the smaller states as a rule claimed that the vote, and
+so the influence, of the states in the proposed government should
+be equal. Representatives of the larger states as a rule claimed
+that their greater population and wealth were entitled to recognition.
+The controversy ended in the creation of a bicameral
+legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the larger
+states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each
+state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were
+to be distributed in proportion to the population, and the convention,
+foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an
+enumeration of the inhabitants and a redistribution or reapportionment
+of seats in the House of Representatives every ten years.</p>
+
+<p>The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as follows:&mdash;
+&ldquo;Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among
+the several states which may be included within this Union
+according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined
+by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those
+bound to service for a term of years and excluding Indians not
+taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration
+shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the
+Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent
+term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and
+free, the free classed as white and others, the free whites as males
+and females, and the free white males as under or above sixteen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span>
+years of age. In 1800 and 1810 the same classification was
+preserved, except that five age-groups instead of two were given
+for free white males and the same five were applied also to free
+white females. In connexion with the census of 1810 an attempt,
+perhaps the earliest in any country, was made to gather certain
+industrial statistics showing &ldquo;the number, nature, extent,
+situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United
+States.&rdquo; In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white
+males, an age classification of four periods was applied to the free
+coloured and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens
+and of persons engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in
+commerce was called for. The inquiry into industrial statistics
+begun in 1810 was also repeated and extended.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of
+each sex, and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex.
+The number of aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were
+also gathered.</p>
+
+<p>The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained
+a novel provision for the preparation in connexion with the
+census of statistical tables giving &ldquo;such information in relation
+to mines, agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as
+will exhibit a full view of the pursuits, industry, education and
+resources of the country.&rdquo; This was about the first indication
+of a tendency, which grew in strength for half a century, to load
+the Federal census with inquiries having no essential or necessary
+connexion with its main purpose, which was to secure an accurate
+enumeration of the population as a basis for a reapportionment
+of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency was
+largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under
+the Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical
+inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i> by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent
+member of the party whose contention he states:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the
+general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether
+purely statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of
+apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other
+authority than that of the states themselves. That large party
+which advocates a strict and jealous construction of the constitution
+would certainly oppose any independent legislation by the national
+Congress for providing a registration of births, marriages and deaths,
+or for obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the
+satisfaction of the publicist or for the guidance of the legislature.
+Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to
+be within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust
+and opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of
+the people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now
+mainly of historic importance, exerted great influence upon the
+development of the American census prior to 1900.</p>
+
+<p>The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educational
+statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes
+and of causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects.
+Public discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifications
+of scope and method at the census of 1850. Before the
+census law was passed, a census board, consisting of three members
+of the president&rsquo;s cabinet, was appointed to draft plans for the
+inquiry, and the essential features of its report prepared after
+consultation with a number of leading statisticians were embodied
+in the law.</p>
+
+<p>The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free
+inhabitants, one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding
+year, one for agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social
+statistics. The last asked for returns regarding valuation,
+taxation, educational and religious statistics, pauperism, crime
+and the prevailing rates of wages in each municipal division.
+It was also the first American census to give a line of the schedule
+to each person, death or establishment enumerated, and thus to
+make the returns in the individual form indispensable for a
+detailed classification and compilation. The results of this
+census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary
+analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them
+with European figures.</p>
+
+<p>The census of 1860 followed the model of its predecessor with
+slight changes. When the time for the next census approached
+it was felt that new legislation was needed, and a committee of
+the House of Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards
+president of the United States, at its head, made a careful and
+thorough study of the situation and reported an excellent bill,
+which passed the House, but was defeated by untoward influences
+in the Senate. In consequence the census of 1870 was taken with
+the outgrown machinery established twenty years earlier, a law
+characterized by Francis A. Walker, the superintendent of the
+census, who administered it, as &ldquo;clumsy, antiquated and barbarous.&rdquo;
+It suffered also from the fact that large parts of the
+country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four years
+of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb
+of American census work. Tie accuracy of the results is generally
+denied by competent experts. The serious errors were errors of
+omission, were probably confined in the main to the Southern
+states, and were especially frequent among the negroes.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1870 the development of census work in the United
+States has been steady and rapid. The law, which had been
+prepared for the census of 1870 by the House committee, furnished
+a basis for greatly improved legislation in 1879, under which the
+tenth census was taken. By this law the census office for the
+first time was allowed to call into existence and to control an
+adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators. The scope
+of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto
+volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of
+the population, but also of the products and resources of the United
+States. Probably no other census in the world has ever covered
+so wide a range of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India
+and the eleventh American census has extended through so many
+volumes. The topics usually contained in a census suffered from
+the great addition of other and less pertinent matter, and the
+reputation of the work was unfavourably affected by the length
+of time required to prepare and publish the volumes (the last
+ones not appearing until near the end of the decade), the original
+underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent
+supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the
+superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability
+and death of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh
+census was taken under a law almost identical with that of the
+tenth, and extended through twenty-five large volumes, presenting
+a work almost as encyclopaedic, but much more distinctively
+statistical.</p>
+
+<p>The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States,
+depends largely upon the degree to which its figures for the
+population of the country, of states, and especially of cities,
+meet or fail to meet the expectations of the interested public.
+Judged by this standard, the census of 1890 was less favourably
+received than that of 1880. The enumerated population of the
+country in 1880 was larger than had been anticipated; and in
+the face of these figures it was difficult for local complaints, even
+where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance. But
+according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth
+of population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had
+shown between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade
+of the century, except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%,
+in spite of an immigration nearly double that of any preceding
+decade. For this change no adequate explanation was offered
+by the census office. Hence the protests of those who believed
+that the figures for population were too small swelled into a
+general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census was probably
+more correct than the critics. Most of the motives influencing
+popular estimates of population in the United States tend to
+exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution
+of the United States attempted to secure a balance of interests
+by apportioning both representatives in Congress and direct
+taxes according to population. A passage in <i>The Federalist</i>
+suggests the motives of the convention as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will
+necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if
+not co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the
+states should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+amount of their numbers. Were their share of representation
+alone to be governed by this rule, they would have an interest in
+exaggerating their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their
+share of taxation alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By
+extending the rule to both objects the states will have opposite
+interests, which will control and balance each other, and produce
+a requisite impartiality.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal
+revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population
+disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many representatives
+in Congress has been reinforced by the more influential
+feelings of local pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat
+similar size. Hence a complaint that the population is overstated
+is seldom heard, and hence, also, popular charges of an under-count
+afford little evidence that the population was really larger
+than stated by the census.</p>
+
+<p>After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown
+that the number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was
+surprisingly small, and that this deficiency in children was a
+leading cause of the slow growth in population. Before the
+tabulation had been made Francis A. Walker wrote:&mdash;&ldquo;If the
+birth-rate among the previously existing population did not
+suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot be vindicated.
+To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of
+the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of
+the inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years
+of age.&rdquo; These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the
+count of 1890. Efforts to invalidate the census returns by comparison
+with the registration records of Massachusetts cannot be
+deemed conclusive, since in the United States, as in Great Britain,
+the census must be deemed more accurate and less subject to
+error than registration records. A strong argument in favour
+of the eleventh census, apart from its self-consistency, is that its
+results as a whole fit in with the subsequent state enumerations.
+In eleven cases such enumerations have been taken; and on
+computing from them and the results of the federal census of
+1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census
+should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform,
+it appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon,
+was the difference between the enumerations and these estimates
+over 4%. In Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in
+1890 than the estimate would lead one to expect; in New York
+city, about 100,000 less. It seems not improbable that in the
+latter, where the difficulties incident to a count during the
+summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions occurred.
+Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh
+census as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the
+argument that would maintain the eleventh census to be
+inaccurate because it showed a smaller rate of increase in population
+during the preceding decade than had been recorded by
+other censuses during earlier decades. The rate of increase during
+the decade ending in 1900 was even less than that for the
+preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off so marked
+could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer
+inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating
+from the computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian
+Territory and Indian reservations, was 20.7; the rate of increase
+if these places are included&mdash;in which case the figures of the
+population of Hawaii in 1890 must be taken from the census of
+the Hawaiian government in that year&mdash;was 21%.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with
+those of 1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws
+relative to census work. By this law the census office was far
+more independent than ever before. Appointments and removals
+were made by the director of the census rather than by the secretary
+of the interior, and in all plans for the execution of the law the
+head of the office was responsible for success. The law divided the
+subjects of census inquiry into two parts&mdash;first, those of primary
+importance, requiring the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly,
+those of subsidiary importance, capable of production without the
+aid of the enumerator. The former had to be finished and published
+by 1st July 1902; the latter were not to be undertaken until the
+former were well advanced towards completion. By this means
+the attention of the office could be concentrated on a small number
+of subjects rather than distributed over the long list treated in the
+volumes of the tenth and eleventh censuses.</p>
+
+<p>Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all
+residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no
+system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is
+no such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a
+national system of registration, and the country depends upon
+the crude method of enumerators&rsquo; returns for its information on
+vital statistics, except in the states and cities which have established
+a trustworthy registration system of their own. These are
+the New England states and a few others in their vicinity or influenced
+by their example. Enumerators&rsquo; returns in this field are so
+incomplete that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred
+in any community during the preceding year are obtained by an
+enumerator visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the computation
+of death-rates is afforded, and the returns have comparatively
+little scientific value. In the regions where census tables and
+interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the
+several states or cities they are often made more complete than
+those in the state or municipal documents. The census of agriculture
+is also liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm
+accounts and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or
+the value even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to
+the calendar year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless
+answers about the preceding year&rsquo;s crop are almost sure to have been
+given by many farmers in the midst of the summer&rsquo;s work.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different
+character. A large proportion of the industries of the country
+keep satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some
+correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects
+of the census, and to fear that the information given will be open
+to the public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manufacturing
+schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of
+accounting among different companies or lines of business, and this
+is often lacking. Another source of error in the manufacturing
+census of the United States is that the words of the census law are
+construed as requiring an enumeration of the various trades and
+handicrafts, such as carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns
+are gross and notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek
+for them and to report what it finds, however incomplete or incorrect
+the results may be. Even on the population returns certain
+answers, such as the number of the divorced or the number unable
+to read and write, may be open to question.</p>
+
+<p>The wide range of the American census, and the publication of
+uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the development
+of accurate census work requires a long educational process
+in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough approximations
+must always precede accurate measurements; and these
+returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably
+improve with each decade.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, the breadth of its scope, in which the American census
+stands unrivalled, the most important American contribution to
+census work has been the application of electricity to the tabulation
+of the results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties
+which this method reduced were two. The production of tables
+for so enormous a population as that of the United States through
+the method of tallying by hand requires a great number of clerks
+and a long period of time, and when complete cannot be verified
+except by a repetition of the process. The new method abbreviates
+the time, since an electric current can tally almost simultaneously
+the data, the tallying of which by hand would be separated by
+appreciable intervals. The method also renders comparatively
+easy the verification of the results of certain selected parts.</p>
+
+<p>Judged by European standards the cost of the American census
+is very great. The following table gives the total and the per
+capita cost of each enumeration.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date.</td> <td class="tccm tb lb rb2 bb" colspan="2">Cost.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Cost.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total in<br />dollars.</td> <td class="tccm tb lb rb2 bb">Per Capita<br />in cents.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Total in<br />dollars.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Capita<br />in cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1790</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,377</td> <td class="tcc rb2">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,423,351</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,109</td> <td class="tcc rb2">1.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,969,377</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">178,445</td> <td class="tcc rb2">2.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,421,198</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">208,526</td> <td class="tcc rb2">2.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,790,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">378,545</td> <td class="tcc rb2">2.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,547,127</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1840</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">833,371</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">4.88</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">16,116,930</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21.16</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita
+cost of the English census of 1901 was 2.24 cents, or little more than
+one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in
+part to the greater scope and complexity of the American census,
+and in part to the fact that in the United States the field work is
+done by well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most
+cases by the heads of families, who are not paid.</p>
+
+<p>The course of events has clearly established the fact that the
+authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than
+the strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span>
+by General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be.
+Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled
+practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to supplement
+the state governments in the gathering of statistics that may furnish
+a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has allowed the
+Federal census office in its discretion to compile and publish the
+birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately kept; one
+Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces throughout
+the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in 1889,
+and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published in
+1908-1909; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for
+about half the population of the country, including all the states
+and cities which have approximately complete records of deaths;
+Federal agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of corporations
+have been created for the purpose of gathering certain
+social and industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has
+been made a permanent statistical office.</p>
+
+<p>The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation
+and publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important
+lines of work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton
+ginning season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental
+census reports upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on
+further interpretation of various population tables, reports on
+street and electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light
+and power plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900-1904,
+on benevolent institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses,
+on the social statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures
+in 1905. Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties,
+and it has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal
+government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial
+Statistical Office in Berlin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTAUREA,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae,
+containing between four and five hundred species, and
+of wide distribution, but with its principal centre in the Mediterranean
+region. The plants are herbs with entire or cut often
+spiny-toothed leaves, and ovoid or globose involucres surrounding
+a number of tubular, oblique or two-lipped florets, the outer of
+which are usually larger and neuter, the inner bisexual. Four
+species are native in Britain. <i>C. nigra</i> is knapweed, common
+in meadows and pastureland; <i>C. Cyanus</i> is the bluebottle or
+cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; <i>C. Calcitrapa</i> is star-thistle,
+a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of
+England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads
+enveloped by involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine.
+Besides cornflower, a few other species are worth growing as
+garden plants; they are readily grown in ordinary soil:&mdash;<i>C.
+Cineraria</i>, a half-hardy perennial, native of Italy, is remarkable
+for its white downy foliage; <i>C. babylonica</i> (Levant) has large
+downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow flowers; <i>C. dealbata</i>
+(Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger rose-coloured heads;
+<i>C. macrocephala</i> (Caucasus) has large yellow heads; <i>C. montana</i>
+(Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and <i>C. ragusina</i> (S.E.
+Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow flowers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTAURS,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse
+part man, dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia.
+The name has been derived (1) from <span class="grk" title="kentein">&#954;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span> (goad) and <span class="grk" title="tauros">&#964;&#945;&#8166;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>
+(bull), implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from
+<span class="grk" title="kentein">&#954;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span> and the common termination <span class="grk" title="-auros">-&#945;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="aura">&#945;&#8020;&#961;&#945;</span> (&ldquo;air&rdquo;)
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;spearmen.&rdquo; The former is unsatisfactory partly from the
+philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is
+preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele
+(the rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some
+Magnesian mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known
+for their fight with the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to
+carry off Deidameia on the day of her marriage to Peirithous,
+king of the Lapithae, himself the son of Ixion. Theseus, who
+happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the Centaurs
+were driven off (Plutarch, <i>Theseus</i>, 30; Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xii. 210;
+Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented
+drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in
+allusion to their drunken and amorous habits. Their general
+character is that of wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the
+slaves of their animal passions, with the exception of Pholus and
+Chiron. They are variously explained by a fancied resemblance
+to the shapes of clouds, or as spirits of the rushing mountain
+torrents or winds. As children of Apollo, they are taken to
+signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested as the origin of the
+legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom riding was
+unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as one
+and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur
+as half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus,
+the contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between
+civilization and barbarism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with
+the body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they
+were men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae,
+and the adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5;
+Diod. Sic. iv. II) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney
+Colvin, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article
+in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>). Fig. 34 in article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>
+(the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the
+attempt of the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTAURUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (&ldquo;<span class="sc">The Centaur</span>&rdquo;), in astronomy, a constellation
+of the southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), Ptolemy catalogued
+thirty-seven stars in it. <i>&alpha;-Centauri</i> is a splendid binary star.
+Its components are of the 1st magnitude, and revolve in a period
+of eighty-one years; and since its parallax is 0.75&Prime;, it is the
+nearest star to the earth; <i>&omega;-Centauri</i>, the finest globular star-cluster
+in the heavens, consists of about 6000 stars in a space
+of about 20&prime; diameter, of which about 125 variables have been
+examined. <i>Nova Centauri</i>, a &ldquo;new&rdquo; star, was discovered in
+1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTAURY<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<i>Erythraea Centaurium</i>, natural order Gentianaceae),
+an annual herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched
+above, and a terminal inflorescence with numerous small red or
+pink regular flowers with a funnel-shaped corolla. The plant
+occurs in dry pastures and on sandy coasts in Britain, and
+presents many varieties, differing in length of stem, degree of
+branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or closeness of
+the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are grown
+as rock-plants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTENARY<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>centenarius</i>, of or belonging to a
+hundred, from <i>centeni</i>, distributive of <i>centum</i>, hundred), a space
+of a hundred years, and particularly the celebration of an event
+on the lapse of a hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The
+word &ldquo;centennial&rdquo; (from Lat. <i>centennis</i>, from <i>centum</i>, and <i>annus</i>,
+a year), though usually an adjective as in &ldquo;the Centennial
+State,&rdquo; the name given to Colorado on its admission to statehood
+in 1876, is also used as a synonym of centenary.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTERVILLE,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Appanoose
+county, Iowa, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about
+90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop. (1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905,
+state census) 5967 (487 being foreign-born); (1910) 6936. Centerville
+is served by the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago,
+Rock Island &amp; Pacific and the Iowa Central railways. Among
+the principal buildings are the county court-house and the
+Federal building, and the city has a public library and a hospital.
+It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the state;
+it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works,
+and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products,
+woollen goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted
+in 1846, was called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name
+was adopted, was incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870
+was chartered as a city of the second class. The city limits were
+extended in 1906-1907.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTIPEDE,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda,
+a class of the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda
+(Millipedes), the Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute
+the now abandoned group Myriapoda. The resemblance between
+the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is principally superficial and
+due to the elongation and vermiform shape of the body, which
+in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar somites
+not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida
+and most Crustacea, into series or &ldquo;tagmata&rdquo; of varying
+function. Until 1893 no one doubted the correctness of the
+assumption that the Chilopoda and Diplopoda were orders of a
+class Myriapoda of the same systematic status as the Arachnida
+or Hexapoda. But in that year, R.I. Pocock and J.S. Kingsley
+independently pointed out that they differ as much from each
+other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span>
+rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely
+associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the
+Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the
+Progoneata (Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda
+and Symphyla. As the basis for this classification was taken
+the position of the generative orifices which open in the Opisthogonea
+at the posterior end and in the Prosogonea near the anterior
+end of the body. As a matter of fact, in the Chilopoda they are
+situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic somite; in the
+Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a little
+farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of
+Heymons into the embryology of <i>Scolopendra</i>, one of the
+Chilopods, has shown a close correspondence in the number of
+cephalic metameres between the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a
+correspondence which has not yet been established in the case
+of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last discovery bears out
+the view of relationship between the centipedes and insects, to
+the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda.
+But even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups
+can be brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the
+head, the position of the generative orifices will remain as a
+fundamental and constant character, distinguishing the Chilopoda
+from the other groups of so-called &ldquo;Myriapods&rdquo; and the
+Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in many particulars they
+resemble.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Structure of the Chilopoda.</i>&mdash;The exoskeletal elements of a typical
+somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or sternum,
+a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with chitinous
+sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior extremity
+there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when present,
+and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the <i>Scutigeridae</i>,
+the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply reflexed, ventrally
+forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior edge of this bears
+the labrum, which is usually represented by a small median, and two
+large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a single pair
+of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable number of
+walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or gonopods. The
+antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and preoral in
+position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or more segments.
+The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and bi-segmented,
+with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair
+or maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They
+are foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera
+(<i>Scutigera</i>, <i>Lithobius</i>) the inner branch consists of two distinct segments
+meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The
+outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four segments.
+Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches
+are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments
+of the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The
+above described condition seen in <i>Scutigera</i> suggests that two pairs
+of jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the
+Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second
+pair of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five
+or six segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its
+fellow. The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-jaws,
+are long and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of
+six segments, whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its
+fellow to form a large coxal plate, the second is small and generally
+suppressed by fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also
+small, while the sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at
+the tip of which opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within
+the appendage.</p>
+
+<p>The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, mandibles
+and maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield
+or cephalite. The tergal element of the somite bearing the palpognath
+is usually suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes
+of large size as in some Geophilomorpha (<i>Himantarium</i>), sometimes
+small as in <i>Scutigera</i>, <i>Lithobius</i>, <i>Craterostigmus</i>, sometimes suppressed
+probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite
+as in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-bearing
+somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite
+of the toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the
+somites bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements
+are preserved without fusion with the corresponding plates of the
+preceding or succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body
+is retained. The only exception to this is presented by <i>Scutigera</i>,
+where the terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen
+pairs of legs are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The
+walking legs are articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural
+or lateral area of the somites close to the external margins of the
+sterna, which widely separate those of the left from those of the
+right side. Generally speaking the legs resemble each other, although
+as a rule they progressively increase in length towards the posterior
+end of the body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the
+basal is termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is
+armed with a single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilomorpha
+and a few genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial
+transverse joint into two segments, as is the case in <i>Scolopendra</i> and
+<i>Lithobius</i> for example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-footed
+centipedes of the order Lithobiomorpha (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Henicops</i>,
+<i>Cermalobius</i>) the tarsi are further subdivided. The multiplication
+of sub-segments reaches its maximum in <i>Scutigera</i>, where the tarsi
+are extremely long, slender, flexible and annulated. The legs of
+the last pair are directed backwards in a line parallel with the long
+axis of the body, so that their coxae, fused in some cases with the
+pleural sclerites (<i>Scolopendra</i>, <i>Geophilus</i>), or free and of large size
+(<i>Scutigera</i>, <i>Lithobius</i>), serve to protect the small genital and anal
+somites. They are often greatly modified. In the males of some
+species of <i>Lithobius</i> one or more of the segments is inflated or furnished
+with tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilomorpha
+the whole limb is thickened in the male sex. In most
+Scolopendromorpha the basal segment is armed beneath with spines
+or spikes (<i>Dacetum</i>, <i>Scolopocryptops</i>); sometimes the whole appendage
+is thickened and terminated by a sharp and serrate claw
+(<i>Theatops</i>, <i>Plutonium</i>). In these cases the legs act as weapons of
+defence and offence. In other cases (<i>Newportia</i>) the tarsi lose the
+claw, become many-jointed and act as feelers, while in <i>Alipes</i> the
+terminal segments are flattened, leaf-like and furnished with a
+peculiar stridulating organ. The genital somite is always small
+and sometimes retractile within the somite bearing the last pair
+of legs. Its tergal plate is usually retained, but its sternal plate is
+generally suppressed. In females of the Lithobiomorpha and
+Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this somite&mdash;the gonopods&mdash;are
+jointed, forcipate and relatively well developed although small.
+In the females of the other orders they are greatly reduced or absent.
+In the males their development varies considerably. They are well
+developed in <i>Scutigera</i>, where they form two pairs of digitiform
+sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they are reduced to a pair
+of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal somite is always small
+and limbless. In <i>Craterostigmus</i> the genital and anal somites are
+represented by a pair of elongate valves projecting between the legs
+of the last pair. The structure of the gonopods is unknown, and
+the homology between the two valves and the skeletal elements
+of the somites in question not clearly understood.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:177px; height:339px" src="images/img670.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1 f80">Modified from Heymons, <i>Bib. Zool.</i>, 1901,
+by permission of E. Nagele.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">A, Diagram of anterior extremity
+of an early embryo of
+<i>Scolopendra</i>, ventral view; <i>cl</i>,
+clypeus; <i>lb</i>, labrum; <i>m</i>, mouth;
+<i>p.a</i>, preantennal appendage; <i>a</i>,
+antenna; <i>int</i>, premandibular rudiment;
+<i>mdl</i>, mandible; <i>mx</i>, maxilla;
+<i>p.g</i>, palpognath; <i>t.g</i>, toxicognath;
+<i>lg. 1</i>, first pair of walking
+legs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">B, Posterior end of a later
+embryo of <i>Scolopendra</i>, ventral
+view, showing the anal segment
+or telson (<i>t</i>); the legs of the last
+pair in the adult (<i>lg.</i> 21) and the
+two rudimentary pairs of legs
+(<i>lg.</i> 22, <i>lg.</i> 23).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A study of the development of <i>Scolopendra</i> has shown that the
+antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral
+metamere and the mandibles
+those of the fourth, the first
+postoral metamere, which has a
+pair of transient preantennal
+appendages, and the third, which
+has no appendages, being excalated
+at an early stage of
+embryonic growth. Furthermore,
+behind the legs of the last
+pair two pairs of appendages are
+present. The second of these
+persists as the gonopods of the
+adult, but the first is suppressed.
+Possibly, however, it is represented
+in the male of <i>Scutigera</i>
+by the anterior branches of
+the gonopods. The cerebral or
+cephalic portion of the nervous
+system consists of a quadrilobate
+mass. From the two upper
+lobes, which are set transversely,
+arise the ocular nerves; from
+the two lower lobes, which are
+united by a transverse commissure,
+spring the antennal nerves
+in front and the chords which
+form the oesophageal collar behind.
+These chords unite below
+the oesophagus to form the compound
+suboesophageal ganglion,
+whence the nerves for the four
+pairs of jaws arise. The ventral
+system consists of a double
+chord uniting in each of the leg-bearing
+segments in a ganglionic
+swelling which gives off four
+pairs of nerves to the limbs and
+tissues of the somite. There is
+a single ganglion in the genital
+segment.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Eyes are frequently absent.
+When present they may be either
+simple or compound, <i>i.e.</i> consisting
+externally of a single lens
+(monomeniscous) of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous).
+Simple eyes vary in number on each side of the head from one, as in
+<i>Henicops</i>, to many as forty, as in some species of <i>Lithobius</i>. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+<i>Scolopendra</i>, where there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thickening
+of the cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath
+the lens consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer
+continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area.  Thus
+the eye is monostichous.  The arrangement of the cells, however,
+is peculiar.  They are invaginated to form what may be described
+as a very deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly
+narrow median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed
+by the inner or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by
+their outer or distal ends. It results from this arrangement that
+the cells forming all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizontally,
+<i>i.e.</i> at right angles to the vertical axis of the eye.  From the
+distal ends of the cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming
+a rhabdom which occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup
+beneath the middle of the corneal lens.  The outer ends of the cells
+are nucleated and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve,
+which passes from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the
+brain. Compound eyes are found only in the <i>Scutigeridae</i>. Externally
+the eye consists of one hundred or
+more little lenses or lenticles.  The retinal
+portion is composed of a corresponding
+number of ocular units or ommatidia.
+Each ommatidium is an elongated cone
+with its broad extremity abutting against
+the corneal lenticle.  It consists of a
+non-nucleated crystalline cone developed
+from embryonic cells, and is enveloped
+in three tiers of large nucleated cells.
+The cells of the outermost tier are heavily
+pigmented; those of the middle and
+innermost (proximal) tiers, the retinal
+cells, are at their inner extremities produced
+into threads continuous with the
+fibres of the optic nerve.  In the space
+between these cells and the crystalline
+cone which they surround, there is a layer
+of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by
+the cells.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:817px; height:349px" src="images/img671a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">A and B after Heymons, <i>Bibl Zool</i>, 1901, by permission of E.  Nagele.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">A, Brain of <i>Scolopendra</i>.  <i>n. ant</i>, Antennal nerves;
+<i>n. opt</i>, ocular nerves; <i>n. pr. ant</i>, preantennal nerves;
+<i>oes. comm</i>, oesophageal commissure.</td>
+<td class="caption">B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra.  <i>len</i>,
+Corneal lens; <i>ret</i>, retinal or visual cells;
+<i>n. opt</i>, optic nerve.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:243px; height:567px" src="images/img671b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc" colspan="2">Fig. 2.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc f80" colspan="2">C after Adensamer, <i>Verh.  z.  b.  Verein</i>, Vienna, 1893, pl.  vii.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">C, Ocular unit or ommatidium
+of compound Eye of <i>Scutigera</i>.
+<i>len</i>, corneal lenticle; <i>c.c</i>, crystalline
+cone; <i>1</i>, pigmented cells of
+outermost tier; <i>2</i>, <i>3</i>, retinular
+cells of middle and innermost
+tiers; <i>rbd</i>, rhabdomeres; <i>n. opt</i>,
+optic nerve; <i>pg</i>, pigment cells.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:139px; height:483px" src="images/img671c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Diagram of Alimentary Canal of <i>Lithobius</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>mg</i> Mid-Gut.</p>
+<p><i>hg</i>, Hind-Gut.</p>
+<p><i>mt</i>, Malphighian tubule.</p>
+<p><i>s.gl</i>, Salivary gland.</p>
+<p><i>lg.</i> 1, <i>lg.</i> 15, Legs of first
+  and fifteenth pairs.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The alimentary canal is a simple tube
+running without convolutions from the
+mouth to the anus.  Its anterior portion
+or pharynx, which arises from the stomodaeal
+invagination in the embryo, is
+short; a pair of large, so-called salivary
+glands open into it.  The mesenteric part
+of the canal is relatively wide and
+receives at its junction with the hind-gut
+the excretory products of a pair of very
+long and slender malpighian tubes of
+proctodaeal origin.  The posterior end of
+the canal, arising from the proctodaeum,
+is relatively short and narrow.</p>
+
+<p>The generative organs vary in structural
+details in different centipedes. In
+the male of <i>Lithobius</i> the testes consist
+of a single coiled tube lying above the
+alimentary canal. The slender vas deferens
+which proceeds from its hinder
+end divides posteriorly into a right and
+left branch, embracing the gut and uniting
+beneath it to form a common chamber or atrium within the
+genital orifice. The atrium receives the secretion of two pairs of
+large accessory glands; and a pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales,
+open, one on each side, into the divided sperm ducts close to their
+point of origin above the intestine.
+The organs of the female are very
+similar.  There is a large median
+ovary followed by a short oviduct
+forming a circum-intestinal collar
+and a common atrium.  Into the
+latter open a pair of short receptacula
+seminis and the slender
+duct of two pairs of large accessory
+glands. There is nothing in
+the female corresponding to the
+supra-intestinal vesiculae seminales
+of the male.  In the male of
+<i>Scolopendra</i>, on the contrary, there
+are as many as twelve pairs of
+somewhat sausage-shaped testes,
+approximated two by two.  From
+each pair proceed two slender
+ducts which open into a median
+duct coiled in the posterior third of the body and much expanded
+in the last three of the leg-bearing segments. The right and left
+portions of the intestinal ring of the genital duct are unequally developed,
+and there are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of
+accessory glands communicate with the genital atrium as in
+<i>Lithobius</i>. In the female <i>Scolopendra</i> the right and left portions
+of the intestinal collar are also unequally developed, and only a
+single pair of accessory glands besides the receptacula seminis open
+into the atrium.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:379px" src="images/img671d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Heymons, <i>Bibl.  Zool</i>, 1901, by permission of E.  Nagele.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Posterior portion of generative organs of male of
+<i>Scolopendra</i> (A), of female (B).  <i>t</i>, Testes; <i>v.d</i>, vas deferens; <i>ov</i>,
+ovary; <i>r.s</i>, receptaculum seminis; <i>gl. acc</i>, accessory glands; <i>g.o</i>,
+generative orifice.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span>
+beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers corresponding
+roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a blood-sinus
+formed by a pericardial membrane whence large alary muscles
+extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in <i>Scolopendra</i>
+a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its posterior
+extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood re-enters the
+organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior chamber,
+which lies in the first or second leg-bearing segment, proceed three
+arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to supply
+the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow of the
+opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the sides
+of the latter arise vessels to the gnathites, and from its inferior portion
+an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and another backwards
+above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the body,
+supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral branch.
+In <i>Scolopendra</i> the chambers of the heart, excepting the first and
+last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms like <i>Scutigera</i>
+where the terga are very unequal in size a corresponding inequality
+in the size of the chambers is manifested.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:544px; height:359px" src="images/img672a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">A after Newport, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1843.
+B after Haase, <i>Zool. Beitrage</i>, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J.N. Kern.
+C after Haase, <i>loc. cit.</i><br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">A, Anterior extremity of
+<i>Scolopendra</i>, showing two
+chambers of the heart (h), the
+aortic ring (a), the alae cordis
+(a.m) and a cardiac orifice (o).</td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">B, Two segments of <i>Scolopendra</i>,
+showing the branching
+and anastomosing tracheae and a
+spiracle (sp).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:248px; height:154px" src="images/img672b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc" colspan="2">Fig 5.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">C, A pair of tufted tracheae
+of <i>Scutigera</i>. d, Dorsal plate;
+t.s, tracheal sac; tr, tracheal
+tubes.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In all centipedes, except <i>Scutigera</i>, respiration is effected by
+chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications
+throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of
+spiracles perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or
+fewer of the somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never
+present upon the anal, genital and last leg-bearing somites, and only
+rarely, as in <i>Henicops</i>, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first
+pair. In the majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid
+or slit-like orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like
+integumental infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal
+tubes which soon anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks.
+In <i>Dacetum</i>, one of the <i>Scolopendridae</i>, there is no pocket-like infolding,
+the small tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on
+a large subcircular plate where their apertures fuse to form a complicated
+network. The apertures, as in the case of other
+genera, are protected by fine hairs; and the tracheae
+themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral filament. In the
+<i>Lithobiidae</i> the tracheae do not anastomose; but in <i>Scolopendra</i>
+and <i>Geophilus</i> the main trunks in each segment fuse transversely
+with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally with those
+of the preceding and succeeding segments.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Scutigera</i> the tracheae differ both in structure and position
+from those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and
+seven in number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into
+a short sac from which five tracheal tubes depend into the pericardial
+blood-sinus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders
+referable to two subclasses&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Subclass I.</td> <td class="tcl">Pleurostigma.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Order 1</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Geophilomorpha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Order 2</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Scolopendromorpha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Order 3</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Craterostigmomorpha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Order 4</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Lithobiomorpha.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Subclass II.</td> <td class="tcl">Notostigma.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Order 5</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Scutigeromorpha.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Subclass 1, Pleurostigma</span>.&mdash;Chilopods furnished with a rich
+system of branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are
+paired and open upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the
+somites.   Each leg-bearing somite contains a distinct tergum
+and sternum, the number of sterna never exceeding that of
+the terga.    Eyes are either preserved or lost; when preserved
+they are represented either by a single one-lensed ocellus or
+by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head.
+The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent
+sharply downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior
+portion lying behind the antennae, so that these appendages,
+approximated in the middle line, project directly forwards
+from the margin of the head formed by this retroversion of
+the labral area.    The maxillae are short and have no sensory
+organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and the
+toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single
+coxal plate.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:232px; height:568px" src="images/img672c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, Upper view of anterior extremity
+in <i>Geophilus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, Basal segments of antennae.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Cephalic plate.</p>
+<p><i>t.palp</i>, Tergal plate of somite, bearing palpognaths.</p>
+<p><i>t.tox</i>, Tergal plate of somite, bearing toxicognaths (<i>tox</i>).</p>
+<p><i>t.lg.</i>1, Tergal plate of somite, bearing legs of first pair.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>B, Toxicognaths of <i>Scolopendra</i>,
+showing the large coxal plate and
+the reduced penultimate and antepenultimate
+segments.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>C, Terminal segment or fang of
+the same, showing the orifice of the
+poison gland.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="f80">(After Latzel, <i>Die Myr. öst.-ung. Mon.</i> vol.
+i. &ldquo;Chilopoda,&rdquo; Vienna, 1880.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Order 1. Geophilomorpha</i>.&mdash;Chilopods
+with a large and indefinite
+number of somites, most
+of which are partially or completely
+divided into a smaller
+anterior segment, represented by
+a pretergal and two presternal
+sclerites, and a larger posterior
+segment bearing the spiracles and
+legs. Spiracles are present upon
+all the leg-bearing somites except
+the first and last; and the legs
+which are short and subequal in
+length consist of six segments,
+the basal of which remains small.
+There are no eyes, and the antennae
+consist invariably of fourteen
+segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the toxicognaths
+always remains distinct and separates the head-shield from
+the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and
+antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the
+preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial integumental
+folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the distal
+segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In the
+last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the coxa
+of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this
+appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal
+somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and
+the gonopods typically persist in
+the male as small two-jointed
+appendages and in the female as
+jointed or unjointed sclerites. The
+young are hatched with the full
+number of segments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Geophilomorpha
+are universally distributed in suitable
+localities. The number of
+families into which the order should
+be divided is as yet unsettled, some
+authors admitting several groups of
+this rank, others referring all the
+genera to a single family, <i>Geophilidae</i>.
+In habits the <i>Geophilidae</i>
+are mostly subterranean, living in
+the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms. Occasionally
+they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the sake of
+moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive to
+light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to the
+nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using
+the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority
+of the family in habits are the two species <i>Linotaenia maritima</i> and
+<i>Schendyla submarina</i>, which live under stones or seaweed between
+tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the
+species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and
+secrete a fluid which in some forms (<i>Himantarium</i>) is blood-red, while
+in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form <i>Orphnaeus phosphoreus</i>
+the fluid is known to possess this property; and its luminosity
+has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in the
+case of <i>Linotaenia acuminata</i> and <i>L. crassipes</i>.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between
+thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding
+discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being
+less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example
+recorded, a specimen of <i>Notiphilides</i> from Venezuela, was 11 in.
+long and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> of an inch wide.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:461px" src="images/img673a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;<i>Scolopendra
+morsitans</i> (after Buffon).<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>A, <i>a</i>, Cephalic plate.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Tergum of segment, bearing first pair of legs (<i>d</i>).</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Tip of palpognath.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Antenna.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Toxicognath.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Last pair of appendages, enlarged and directed backwards.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking
+up a spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for
+that purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered
+spot, sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them
+with her body, keeps guard until the young
+disperse and shift for themselves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Order 2. Scolopendromorpha.</i>&mdash;Chilopods
+differing principally from the Geophilomorpha
+in that the number of leg-bearing
+somites is definitely fixed at twenty-three
+or twenty-one. These are differentiated
+into larger and smaller, which alternate
+with nearly complete regularity. The
+anterior portion of each somite is only
+partially cut off as a subsegment. The
+tergal plate of the somite bearing the
+toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by
+fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing
+somite. The antennae consist of a
+number of segments varying from seventeen
+to about thirty, and usually differing in the
+individuals of a species. The second segment
+(trochanter) of the legs of the last pair
+is coalesced with the third (femur). In
+only one genus, namely <i>Plutonium</i>, which
+occurs in Italy, is there a pair of spiracles
+for each leg-bearing segment, except the
+first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha.
+In most genera there are only nine pairs of
+spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th,
+10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-bearing
+segments, as in <i>Scolopendra</i>, <i>Cormocephalus</i>,
+<i>Cryptops</i>, &amp;c. In genera with
+twenty-three pairs of legs, like <i>Scolopocryptops</i>,
+there is an additional pair of
+spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous
+segment; and a few genera such as <i>Rhysida,
+Edentistoma</i>, possess a pair upon the
+7th segment. Eyes, when present, are
+always four in number on each side. The
+newly hatched young has the full complement
+of appendages.</p>
+
+<p>This order is divided into four families:&mdash;<i>Scolopendridae</i>
+(<i>Scolopendra</i>, <i>Rhysida</i>),
+<i>Cryptopidae</i> (<i>Cryptops</i>, <i>Theatops</i>), <i>Scolopocryptopidae</i>
+(<i>Scolopocryptops</i>, <i>Otocryptops</i>)
+and <i>Newportudae</i> (<i>Newportia</i>). Apart from
+the frigid zones it is cosmopolitan in distribution,
+though only one genus (<i>Cryptops</i>) extends into north temperate
+latitudes. In the tropics and warmer countries of the southern
+hemisphere the genera and species are particularly abundant, and
+individuals reach the greatest dimensions, some specimens of the
+tropical American species <i>Scolopendra gigantea</i> exceeding 12 in. in
+length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet consisting of any
+animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to be overcome.
+They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or stones, and
+are nocturnal, shunning, like the <i>Geophilidae</i>, exposure to light; and
+as in the <i>Geophilidae</i>, the females guard their eggs and young until
+the latter disperse to lead an independent life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Order 3. Craterostigmomorpha</i>.&mdash;Chilopods with twenty-one tergal
+plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with
+only fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some
+members of the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side
+of the head, the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the
+toxicognaths are complete on the postaxial side of the appendage,
+and spiracles are present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th
+leg-bearing somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxicognaths,
+of the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing
+somite, great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (<i>e.g.
+Mecistocephalus</i>) is presented; but in the structure of the posterior
+end of the body this order differs from all the other orders of Chilopoda.
+The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are welded
+together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and anal
+somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of
+opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:322px; height:458px" src="images/img673b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1 f80">After Pocock. <i>Q.J.M.S.</i> vol. 45, pl. 23, 1902.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+
+<p>A,   Anterior end of <i>Craterostigmus</i> from above.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>,   Basal segments of antennae.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,   Cephalic plate with eyes (<i>o</i>).</p>
+<p><i>t.tox</i>, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxicognaths (<i>tox</i>).</p>
+<p><i>t.lg</i>.1, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of the first pair.</p>
+<p>B,   Maxillae.</p>
+<p>C,   Palpognath.</p>
+<p>D,   Toxicognath.</p>
+<p>E,   Last segment with genital capsule (<i>g.c</i>), and
+     basal segments of legs of 14th and 15th
+     pairs (<i>lg</i>. 14, <i>lg</i>. 15).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This order, containing the family <i>Craterostigmidae</i>, is based upon
+a remarkable genus and species <i>Craterostigmus tasmanianus</i>, of
+which only two specimens are known. These were collected under
+stones upon the
+summit of Mount
+Rumney in Tasmania.
+They are
+about 1½ in. in length;
+but nothing has been
+recorded of their
+habits. The chief
+morphological interest
+attaching to
+<i>Craterostigmus</i> is
+that, apart from certain
+structural peculiarities
+of its own,
+it presents features
+previously believed
+to be found exclusively
+either in the
+Scolopendromorpha,
+or the Geophilomorpha,
+or the Lithobiomorpha;
+and it
+shows how the Lithobiomorpha
+may be
+derived from a Scolopendromorphous
+type most nearly resembling
+<i>Plutonium</i>
+by the excalation
+of the third, sixth,
+ninth, eleventh, fourteenth
+and seventeenth
+leg-bearing
+somites.</p>
+
+<p><i>Order 4. Lithobiomorpha.</i>
+Chilopoda
+with fifteen pairs of
+leg-bearing somites
+differentiated into
+larger and smaller,
+the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th,
+8th, 10th, 12th and
+14th being large, the
+others small. Spiracles
+present upon all
+the larger with the
+exception sometimes
+of the 1st. The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders
+hitherto considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused
+mesially. In correlation with their weaker muscularity the first
+leg-bearing segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present
+and usually jointed in both sexes, are especially well developed
+and forcipate in the female, and arise from a large ventral plate
+resulting from the fusion of their coxae with the sternum of the
+genital somite. The antennae are many-jointed, and there is a
+single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli on each side of the head. The
+coxae of the legs are large, and those of the last four or five pairs
+usually contain glands opening by large orifices. The newly-hatched
+young has only seven pairs of legs, the remaining pairs being successively
+added as growth proceeds.</p>
+
+<p>The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the
+<i>Lithobiidae</i> (<i>Lithobius, Bothropolys</i>), <i>Henicopidae</i> (<i>Henicops, Haasiella</i>),
+the <i>Cermatobiidae</i> (<i>Cermatobius</i>). <i>Cermatobius</i>, based upon a
+single species, <i>martensii</i>, from the isl. of Adenara, is of peculiar
+interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length and
+multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it approaches
+more nearly to <i>Scutigera</i> than does any other pleurostigmous Chilopod.
+It is also stated that the spiracles have assumed a more dorsal
+position, thus foreshadowing the completely dorsal situation they
+have taken up in the Notostigma. The <i>Henicopidae</i>, containing
+centipedes of small size, attains its maximum of development in
+the southern continents and islands, more particularly Australia,
+New Zealand, South Africa and South America. One genus (<i>Lamyctes</i>)
+however, occurs in Europe. The <i>Lithobiidae</i>, on the contrary, are
+almost exclusively northern in range, being particularly abundant and
+of large size individually in Europe, extra-tropical Asia, and North
+and Central America. In habits the <i>Lithobiidae</i> closely resemble the
+<i>Scolopendridae</i>. They are, however, comparatively far more agile
+with their shorter, more compact bodies and stronger legs. They
+are mostly of small size, the largest species, <i>Lithobius fusciatus</i>, of
+south Europe measuring only 2 in. in length of body. The females
+do not guard their eggs, but coat them with soil and leave them to
+their fate.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:276px" src="images/img674a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;A, <i>Scutigera rubrolineata</i> (after Buffon). B, Tergum and
+part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of the
+stigmata <i>o, o; p</i>, hinder margin of tergum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:328px" src="images/img674b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p class="f80">After Latzel, <i>Die Myr öst-ung. Mon.</i> vol. i.
+&ldquo;Chilopoda,&rdquo; Vienna, 1880.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Gnathites of <i>Scutigera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I. Mandibles.</p>
+<p>II. Maxillae.</p>
+<p>III. Palpognaths.</p>
+<p>IV. Toxicognaths.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Subclass 2, Notostigma</span>.&mdash;Chilopods with a series of median
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+dorsal tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the
+pericardial blood space, and opening each by an unpaired
+spiracle upon the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing
+somites. This characteristic is accompanied by the
+complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th, either by
+fusion with that of the 8th or by excalation, and by the evanescence
+of the terga of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and 13th
+pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not
+strongly reflexed inferiorly, and the eyes are large and compound.
+The maxillae are long and have a sensory organ, the palpognaths
+are long, spiny and composed of five segments, like the primitive
+Chilopod leg, and the toxicognaths have their basal segments
+disunited and independently movable. Gonopods duplicated
+in the male.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the
+family <i>Scutigeridae</i>. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs
+of legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young
+is hatched with only seven
+pairs of legs. The legs and
+antennae in the adult are
+extremely long and many
+jointed. In habits as well as
+in structure the <i>Scutigeridae</i>,
+of which <i>Scutigera</i> is the best-known
+genus, differ greatly
+from other centipedes.
+Although they hide under
+stones and logs of wood like
+<i>Lithobius</i>, they are not lucifugous
+but diurnal, and may
+be seen chasing their foes in
+the blazing sun. They run
+with astonishing speed and
+have the power of dropping
+their legs when seized. South
+of about the 40th parallel of
+north latitude they are universally
+distributed in suitable
+localities. In most
+species the body only reaches
+a length of about 1 in.; but
+twice that size or more is
+reached by examples of the
+Indian species  <i>Scutigera
+longicornis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda
+by Scudder, who refers them to two families, <i>Gerascutigeridae</i> and
+<i>Eoscolopendridae</i>. But until the specimens have been examined by
+zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken
+seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to
+existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. I. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (c. 1667-1723), English dramatic
+writer and actress, was born about 1667, probably in Ireland,
+whither her father, a Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman,
+had been forced to flee at the Restoration on account of his
+political sympathies. When sixteen she married the nephew of
+Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year she married
+an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in
+poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and
+some of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she
+married Joseph Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who
+survived her. Her first play was a tragedy, <i>The Perjured
+Husband</i> (1700), and she herself appeared for the first time at
+Bath in her comedy <i>Love at a Venture</i> (1706). Among her most
+successful comedies are&mdash;<i>The Gamester</i> (1705); <i>The Busy Body</i>
+(1709); <i>A Bold Stroke for a Wife</i> (1718); <i>The Basset-table</i> (1706);
+and <i>The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret</i> (1714), in which, as the
+jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots,
+verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing,
+though coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue
+fluent. She never seems to have acted in London, but she was
+a friend of Rowe, Farquhar and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on
+the 1st of December 1723. Her dramatic works were published,
+with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTO,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara,
+18 m. S.E. direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-level;
+it is reached by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station
+of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m. S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a
+steam tramway (18 m. N.) from Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on
+the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 4307 (town), 19,078
+(commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with Ferrara.
+It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco Barbieri
+(Guercino). The communal picture-gallery and several churches
+contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A
+statue of him stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Governativo.
+The town was surrounded by walls, the gates of which
+are preserved. The origin of the name is uncertain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTO<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <i><span class="grk" title="kentrôn">&#954;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span></i>, Lat. <i>cento</i>, patchwork), a composition
+made up by collecting passages from various works. The
+Byzantine Greeks manufactured several out of the poems of
+Homer, among which may be mentioned the life of Christ by
+the famous empress Eudoxia, and a version of the Biblical history
+of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the later empire and the
+monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing poems out
+of the verse of Virgil. Such were the <i>Cento Nuptialis</i> of Ausonius,
+the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th
+century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the
+hymns in honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace
+by Metellus, a monk of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the
+12th century. Specimens may be found in the work of Aldus
+Manutius (Venice, 1504; Frankfort, 1541, 1544). In 1535 Laelius
+Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the dissolute
+lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a <i>Petrarca
+Spirituale</i>; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one
+of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a <i>Virgilius Evangelizans,
+seu Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et
+versibus descripta</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL AMERICA,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> that portion of the American continent
+which lies between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British
+crown colony of British Honduras, and the six independent
+republics of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa
+Rica and Panama. These seven divisions are described in
+separate articles. Central America is bounded towards the N.
+by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific Ocean,
+and extends between 7° 12&prime; and 18° 3&prime; N. and between 77° 12&prime;
+and 92° 17&prime; W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and
+stretches for some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of
+three serpentine curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m.,
+between the Peninsula of Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras,
+and diminishing to 35 m. in the Isthmus of Panama. The
+eastern boundary of Central America was usually regarded as
+identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903, when the republic
+of Panama was formed out of the northern territories of Colombia;
+and the more modern definition given above does not command
+the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include
+the whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west,
+<i>i.e.</i> the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however,
+the support of political and historical considerations, as well as
+of common usage; and it may therefore be regarded as adequate,
+although, in respect of climate and natural products, it would
+be more accurate to define Central America as lying between
+Tehuantepec and Darien.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;The <i>Cordilleras</i>, or mountain chains of
+Central America do not form a complete link between the western ranges
+in the north and south of the continent, for their continuity is
+interrupted by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine
+basin of Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central
+America from end to end, their main axis trending from north-west
+to south-east. They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges
+or series of volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras
+are disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser
+chains radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude
+of 12,000 and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general
+character of the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active.
+Large tracts of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning
+of the 20th century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical
+climate, and the dense underwoods which impede exploration.
+In the northern part of Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same
+country, in British Honduras, along the Segovia river, on the Mosquito
+Coast, and in the basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river,
+there are broad stretches of comparatively flat country. The main
+line of watershed is everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the
+Atlantic, except in southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is
+almost equidistant from the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers
+of the Pacific seaboard are mostly short and swift,&mdash;mere mountain
+torrents, in many instances, until they reach the sands and swamps
+which border the sea. The rivers of the Atlantic littoral descend
+more gradually, and by longer channels. The largest of them is the
+Segovia, in Nicaragua and Honduras, which has a course of 450 m.
+Lake Nicaragua, the largest inland sheet of water, has an area exceeding
+3500 sq. m. There are also several mountain lakes of exceptional
+interest and beauty, such as Atitlán and Amatitlán, in
+Guatemala, besides two great land-locked salt-water lakes&mdash;the
+Pearl Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the Carataska Lagoon
+in Honduras.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:519px; height:422px" src="images/img675.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The neck of land which unites the continents of North
+and South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of
+either, but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were,
+between the other two. The folds in the earth&rsquo;s crust which form
+the Andes and the Western ranges of North America, are not continued
+along the connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the
+strata are folded from west to east, obliquely across the trend of
+the continent. It should, however, be noticed that the Andes, as
+they approach the Caribbean sea, bend round towards the east;
+and it is probable that the folds of the North American Cordillera
+similarly bend eastward beneath the volcanic rocks of Mexico.
+The folds of Central America are tangential to the two arcs thus
+formed.</p>
+
+<p>By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered
+by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic;
+but the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From
+the Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau
+the existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet
+unproved, but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico.
+South of the plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges
+composed of granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age,
+begin to appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front
+of the series of east and west folds which stand <i>en échelon</i> across
+the Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels
+of latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala,
+there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists
+with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear,
+for the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be
+Pre-Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at
+least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British
+Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also
+in Costa Rica and perhaps in Panama; and wherever the strike
+has been observed, it is approximately from west to east. The
+presence of Palaeozoic rocks has been proved in Guatemala and
+the adjacent state of Chiapas, where limestones have been found
+containing many unmistakable Carboniferous fossils, and below
+these is a considerable thickness of beds supposed to be Silurian.
+Nowhere else in the Central American region is there any
+palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks.</p>
+
+<p>The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow
+clays containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but
+the occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated
+outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in
+Central America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower
+series of clays, sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably
+by an upper series of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas,
+Guatemala and Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The
+upper series contains hippurites. The greater part of the eastern
+half of the Mexican plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds.</p>
+
+<p>The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two
+divisions. The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally
+of sand and clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line.
+The upper division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene
+(which have not yet been clearly distinguished from each other),
+is usually of shallow water origin; but in the northern part of
+Yucatan it includes beds of chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles,
+which may have been deposited in a deeper sea.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological
+epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved
+in the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undisturbed,
+and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the
+Miocene period, which appears to have been a period of great
+earth movement throughout the Caribbean region. From the
+southern extremity of the Mexican plateau to the Colombian border,
+the strike of the folds&mdash;of the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits,
+as well as of the older rocks&mdash;is in general from east to west; but
+there is one considerable exception. On both sides of the deep
+depression which crosses Honduras from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of
+Fonseca, the strike is commonly from north to south. The depression
+is probably a &ldquo;Graben&rdquo; or trough formed by faulting.</p>
+
+<p>The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon
+the Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land contracts
+to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the
+Caribbean shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great,
+and over a wide area they entirely conceal the original structural
+features of the country. The eruptions began towards the close
+of the Cretaceous period and continue to the present day. The rocks
+are lavas and ashes, chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition,
+but rhyolites and trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met
+with in one or two places.</p>
+
+<p>According to R.T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence
+of any Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and
+the Pacific, excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene
+period. It should, however, be stated that all authorities are not
+agreed upon this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones
+which he believes to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally
+at a height of about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Unfortunately
+the fossils obtained from these beds were lost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate of Central America is subject to the most
+marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the
+proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which
+render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands
+of British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike
+the alpine regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may,
+however, be roughly divided into a tropical zone (<i>tierra caliente</i>),
+from sea-level to about 1500 ft.; a temperate zone (<i>tierra templada</i>),
+from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (<i>tierra fria</i>), above 5000 ft.
+These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it
+often happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater
+on the Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on
+the Pacific slope varies in duration from four to six months, between
+April and December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On
+the coast, it corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west
+monsoon, the tempestuous <i>Cordonazo de San Francisco</i>, or &ldquo;Flagellation
+of St Francis,&rdquo; as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted
+by an interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known
+as the <i>Veranillo de San Juan</i>, or &ldquo;Little summer of St John.&rdquo; In
+the rainy season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two
+or three o&rsquo;clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great
+cumulus masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain
+crashes down; and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North
+winds are most usual during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast
+the trade-winds may bring rain in any month, and, owing to the moist
+atmosphere, the heat is more oppressive. The rainfall may vary
+in successive years from less than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to
+the occurrence of cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft.,
+but snow seldom falls.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The fauna of Central America is more closely connected
+with the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+region is comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are
+comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own.
+It is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous
+to man. Of felines it possesses the jaguar (<i>Felis onza</i>), popularly
+called the tiger; the cuguar (<i>Felis concolor</i>), popularly called the
+lion; the tigrillo (<i>Felis tigrina</i>), which is sometimes kept tame;
+and other species. Several species of monkeys (<i>Mycetes</i> and <i>Ateles</i>)
+are numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (<i>Cervus
+mexicanus</i>) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands.
+Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as
+the marrano de monte (<i>Sus torquatus</i>) and the jabali or javali
+(<i>Sus labiatus javali</i>). The <i>Edentata</i> are represented by a species
+of armadillo, the honey-bear (<i>Myrmecophaga tomandua</i>), and the
+<i>Myrmecophaga didactyla;</i> and among the rodents may be mentioned,
+besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit-eating cotorra and tepes-cuinte
+(<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i> and <i>Coelogenys paca</i>), and the troublesome
+<i>Geomys mexicana.</i> The manatee is common in all the larger streams.
+Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little marsupial
+called the tacuacine, or the <i>Didelphys carcinora,</i> its allied species.
+The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes had to be
+left to their undisputed occupancy. In the south-east of Costa Rica
+the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with all their
+live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires which in
+a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most of the
+domestic animals&mdash;the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit,
+common fowl, peacock and pigeon&mdash;are of European origin, and
+are popularly grouped together as <i>animales de Castilla.</i> For the
+bird collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National
+Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica alone possesses more
+than twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among
+birds of prey it is sufficient to mention <i>Corogyps atratus,</i> the
+commonest of the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger,
+the <i>Cathartes aura,</i> the beautiful <i>Polyborus vulgaris,</i> and the king of
+the vultures (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>). Neither the condor of the
+southern continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known.
+The parrot, macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow,
+blackbird, Mexican jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker,
+humming-bird and trogon are also widely distributed. A bird
+of the last-named genus, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (<i>Trogon
+resplendens</i>) is of special note, not only from the fact that its yellow
+tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long, were formerly worn as insignia by the
+Indian princes, but because it has been adopted as the emblematical
+figure on the national arms of Guatemala. The gallinaceous order
+is well represented, and comprises several peculiar species, as the
+pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey (<i>Meleagris ocellata</i>), which has
+a bronze sheen on its plumage; and aquatic birds, it is almost needless
+to add, are unusually numerous in a region so richly furnished
+with lagoons, rivers and lakes.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost
+endless varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless
+boba or chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous
+corali, taboba, culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great
+size, scorpions, edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous.
+In the rivers and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound;
+turtles and tortoises are exported; and there are valuable pearl and
+oyster fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the
+<i>Coleoptera</i>, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and
+the Chrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the <i>Lepidoptera</i>
+the prevalent genera are&mdash;<i>Ageronia, Papilio, Heliconia, Sphinx</i>
+and <i>Bombyx</i>. There are five species of bees, and the European
+honey-bee, known as <i>aveja de Castilla</i> or &ldquo;bee of Castile,&rdquo; has been
+naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen marching
+in a column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and
+locust are unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but
+their distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown
+in parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the <i>Timetes
+Chiron,</i> which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests
+of Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine
+to the tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another.
+Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to those
+of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is unsurpassed
+for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic districts, the
+soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated and irrigated,
+magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, coffee, cocoa and
+maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar yields two
+or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal supplying
+a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes, yams,
+arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical
+fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests
+abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum
+copal, vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods,
+medicinal plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst
+the forest trees are the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and the
+splendid Coyal palm (<i>Cocos butyracea,</i> L.), with feathery leaves 15
+to 20 ft. long, golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fermented
+produces the intoxicating <i>chicha</i> or <i>vino de Coyol.</i> In Guatemala
+occurs the remarkable <i>Herrania purpurea,</i> a &ldquo;Chocolate tree,&rdquo;
+whose seeds yield a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself.
+The same country is famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arborescent
+thistles, and a remarkable plant called by the Spaniards <i>Flor de
+la Calentura</i>, &ldquo;fever flower,&rdquo; from the heat which it is said to emit
+at the moment of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance
+of medicinal plants, notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (<i>Myrospermum
+salvatorense</i>); in Honduras there are immense forests
+of conifers, resembling those of the Landes in France; in Nicaragua
+a characteristic tree is the cortes (<i>Tecoma sideroxylori</i>) yielding
+timber as hard as ebony, and noteworthy for the golden blossom
+with which it is entirely covered after the leaves have fallen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants</i>&mdash;In 1905 the population of Central America
+numbered about 4,750,000, and this total tends to increase,
+despite the unhealthy climate of many districts, the terribly high
+average of infant mortality, and the slow progress of immigration.
+Some authorities estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of
+the inhabitants are of mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the
+Indian element predominates everywhere except in Costa Rica,
+where the whites are exceptionally numerous. The Indian races
+have not shown the same power to adapt themselves to modern
+civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there are tribes
+remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the
+Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture
+(see below under <i>Archaeology</i>). The density of population
+throughout Central America is little more than 25 per sq. m.;
+and it is clear that several large areas now thinly peopled once
+maintained a far greater number of inhabitants. Such are parts
+of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the flora consists in great
+measure of plants that were formerly cultivated by the Indians.
+The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by tribal
+wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the
+German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere,
+the foreign population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other
+centres of commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United
+States being largely represented among the wealthier classes of
+residents; while the foreign labourers are mostly Italians or
+negroes, with a few Chinese on the Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;Central America was discovered by Columbus in
+August 1502; and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica
+was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after
+1513. Between 1522 and 1525, the authority of Avila was
+superseded, and his work of conquest completed by Hernando
+Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama formed
+part of a distinct Spanish government, &ldquo;New Granada&rdquo;;
+British Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed,
+in the 18th century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British
+government exercised a nominal protectorate after 1665. Otherwise
+the rest of Central America remained a Spanish dependency
+bearing the general name of &ldquo;Guatemala,&rdquo; until 1821. It
+ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a military
+governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding
+in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras,
+Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it
+was administered by Spanish officials, who almost invariably
+devoted their whole energy to enriching themselves and the home
+authorities. The old Indian civilization was swept away; the
+native races were enslaved, maltreated and, for a time,
+demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to that of the
+West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced by
+hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not
+only survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro population,
+but quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of
+their masters, with whom they intermarried. By the close of
+the 18th century, the majority had attained something like
+uniformity of life and thought. Racial distinctions had been
+obscured by intermarriage; even the term <i>Ladino</i>, or &ldquo;Latin,&rdquo;
+came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish or Indian
+blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured
+race more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers;
+but so gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost
+unnoticed. Its result, the successful revolt of the Spanish
+colonies&mdash;colonies mainly peopled by Indians or half-castes&mdash;was
+no more a conflict of rival races or civilizations than the rebellion
+of the British colonies in North America.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;New Granada&rdquo; attained its independence in 1819; and in
+1821 &ldquo;Guatemala&rdquo; declared itself free. That the subsequent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+history of the Central American republics has been largely a
+record of civil war, maladministration and financial dishonesty, is
+perhaps due in part to racial inferiority. In part, however, it may
+be explained by the absence of any tradition of good government;
+perhaps also by the brevity and artificiality of the evolution
+which converted a debased slave-population into the citizens of
+modern democratic states. The five divisions of &ldquo;Guatemala&rdquo;
+were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican empire during
+1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras,
+Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a
+Mexican republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the
+Republic of the United States of Central America. The Liberal
+or Federalist party, which was supreme in Honduras, found itself
+opposed by the Conservatives, including the clergy and former
+Spanish officials, who were very influential in Guatemala. A
+bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In 1837-1839 a Conservative
+rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of Guatemala,
+resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General Francisco
+Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to
+restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A
+fresh union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in
+1842, and dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the
+conclusion, on the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty
+(<i>q.v.</i>) between Great Britain and the United States, which was
+designed to facilitate the construction of an interoceanic canal.
+The history of this project is given in detail under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panama
+Canal</a></span>. One important result of the treaty was the abandonment,
+in 1860, of the British protectorate over the Mosquito
+Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political
+disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had
+combined to restore federal unity; but their allied armies were
+defeated by the Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the
+American adventurer, William Walker, endeavoured to usurp
+the government of Nicaragua; in 1860 he invaded Honduras
+and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the slave-holders
+of the United States by adding new slave-states to the
+Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885,
+and its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala,
+lost his life. In 1895 the Greater Republic of Central America was
+formed by the union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras;
+and a constitution was framed providing for the admission of
+Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December 1898 it was dissolved,
+as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of November 1903
+Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia, declared
+itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immediately
+recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards
+by the European powers. The United States also forbade the
+landing of any Colombian force on the territories of Panama,
+and thus guaranteed the security of the new state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For a general description of Central America,
+and especially of its physical features, the following monographs by
+K. Sapper are of prime importance:&mdash;<i>In den Vulcangebieten Mittelamerikas
+und Westindiens</i> (Stuttgart, 1905); <i>Mittelamerikanische
+Reisen und Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bis 1900</i> (Brunswick, 1902),
+and <i>Das nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dem
+Hochland von Anahuac</i> (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many
+useful illustrations and maps. See also <i>Central America and the
+West Indies</i>, by A.H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London,
+1901, 2 vols., with maps and illustrations); <i>Central and South
+America</i>, by H.W. Bates (London, 1882); <i>The Spanish American
+Republics</i>, by T. Child (London, 1892); and <i>Expedition nach Zentral
+und Sudamerika</i>, by P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see
+&ldquo;The Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portions
+of Costa Rica,&rdquo; by R.T. Hill, in <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard</i>,
+vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the following by K. Sapper:&mdash;
+&ldquo;Grundzüge der physikalischen Geographic von Guatemala,&rdquo; in
+<i>Petermann&rsquo;s Mitt.</i> Ergänzungsheft, No. 113 (1894), &ldquo;Über Gebirgsbau
+und Boden des nördlichen Mittelamerika,&rdquo; ibid., No. 127 (1899),
+and &ldquo;Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des südlichen Mittelamerika,&rdquo;
+<i>ibid</i>., No. 151 (1905). <i>The States of Central America</i>, by E.G. Squier
+(New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are others of the numerous
+essays, pamphlets, &amp;c., on Central American affairs left by this
+author; see the bibliography of his writings published in New
+York in 1876. The <i>Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics</i>
+(Washington, from 1893) give ample information on commerce and
+industry. See also <i>History of Central America</i>, by H. Bancroft
+(San Francisco, 1881-1887. 3 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Archaeology of Central America</p>
+
+<p>Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th
+century have thrown much light on the splendid past of Central
+America. The still extant ruins of great buildings, unlike anything
+which is known in the old world, testify to the high culture
+attained in pre-Columbian days by several native peoples differing
+greatly from one another in speech and racial affinities. As a
+science the archaeology of Central America has scarcely yet
+emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly
+uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await
+solution must still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscriptions,
+which hitherto has not progressed beyond the discovery
+of calendar systems and the relative datings involved in such
+systems.</p>
+
+<p>For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it
+has been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central
+America, properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican
+territories south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The
+peoples inhabiting Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas
+and Oaxaca present at the first view striking ethnical differences.
+On a linguistic basis, however, they may be united into several
+large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater part of Guatamala
+are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included the still
+savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically
+are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels
+in Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam,
+Pokoman, Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these
+there are patches of country in which dialects of the Mexican are
+spoken. In Oaxaca there is an extraordinary mixture of languages,
+some of which, like that of the Huave of Tehuantepec,
+are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the population,
+however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the
+Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects
+also occur in isolated parts of Oaxaca.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mayan Culture.</i>&mdash;The civilization of the Mayas may well have
+been reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of
+which the ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than
+500 years. The date of its extinction is unknown, but in
+certain places, notably Mayapan and Chichenitza, the highest
+development seems to be synchronous with the appearance of
+foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below). This quite
+distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question
+played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which
+the scanty documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other
+hand the Mayan culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate
+heterogeneous elements, obliterating racial distinctions and
+imposing its own dominant character over a wide area. Oaxaca,
+the country of the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, became, as was natural
+from its geographical position midway between Yucatan and
+Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological traditions
+which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united.</p>
+
+<p>Central American architecture is characterized by a fine
+feeling for construction, and the execution is at once bold and
+aesthetically effective. Amongst the various ruins,
+some of which represent the remains of entire cities,
+<span class="sidenote">Architecture</span>
+while others are no more than groups of buildings or
+single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The commonest
+of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are
+occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with
+a covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top
+from one or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps.
+Usually the platform on the top of a pyramid is occupied by
+buildings, the typical distribution of which is into two parts,
+viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion with the pyramid
+there are various subsidiary structures, such as altars, pillars,
+and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of ritual and
+worship, besides habitations for officials and &ldquo;tennis-courts&rdquo;
+for the famous ball-game like that played by the Mexicans.
+The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the
+buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation
+to particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span>
+constitute one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure,
+within which are contained other pyramids, altars or other
+buildings of various dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which
+the front facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors.
+These divide it into a series of rooms, behind which again there
+may be a second series. Occasionally the rooms are distributed
+round a central apartment, but this is ordinarily done only when
+a second storey has to be placed above them. The gallery-buildings
+may rise to as much as three storeys, the height, size
+and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies of
+vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the
+vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls
+being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so
+narrow a space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At
+Mitla, where the material used in the construction of the buildings
+was timber instead of stone, the larger rooms were furnished with
+stone pillars on which the beams could rest. The same principle
+recurs in certain ruins at Chichenitza. The tops and sides of
+the doors are often decorated with carved reliefs and hieroglyphs,
+and the entrances are sometimes supported by plain or carved
+columns and pilasters, of which style the serpent columns of
+Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its external
+front one of these galleries may have a cornice and half-pillars.
+Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze which
+generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole
+building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic,
+serpents&rsquo; heads and human masks. The corners of the wall
+terminate in three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the
+frieze frequently show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated
+into trunks. The roof of the gallery is flat and occasionally
+gabled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Principal Sites.</i>&mdash;Such are the general characteristics of Central
+American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every
+site exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the
+ruined settlements even as at present known is very large. The
+most considerable are enumerated below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yucatan</i>.&mdash;Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed
+over Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still
+await exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted
+to one or two sites in the centre of the peninsula which have
+already become famous. At Uxmal the buildings consist of five
+considerable groups, viz.&mdash;the Casa del Adivino, which is a step-pyramid
+240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide and 80 ft. high, crowned by
+a temple 75 ft. long by 12 ft. wide; the Casa de Monjas, a striking
+erection of four oblong buildings on an extensive terrace; the
+Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa de Palomas,
+the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a court.
+At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite
+insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate
+importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist
+of eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The
+Casa de Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to
+several distinct periods; the Caracol, a round structure with
+dome in imitation of a snail-shell, showing evident traces of
+Mexican influence; El Castillo, a large temple standing on a
+base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached by staircases on all
+four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a kind unknown
+anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an
+unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of
+caryatid figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple,
+which contains marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures
+of warriors and place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively
+Mexican style. Yet another evidence of Mexican influence at
+Chichenitza is to be noted in five figures of the so-called Chac-mol
+type, that is to say, horizontal figures in which the arms are
+extended to the navel which is indicated by a cup-like depression.
+This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such sites as Tlascala
+and Cempoallan.</p>
+
+<p>Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine
+wall-paintings; Tantah, with remarkable pillared facades; the
+ruins of Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and
+Xlabpak de Santa Rosa, where there is a three-storeyed temple
+palace. Two sculptured reliefs are of great interest; they
+represent a person holding a staff on which is a figure of the
+god Ah-bolon-tzacab.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guatemala</i>.&mdash;The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide
+area. The most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta
+river. The most important sites in that district are Piedras
+Negras, and Yaxchilan or Menche Tinamit, where there are
+temples covered with sculptured reliefs and hieroglyphic inscriptions,
+and stelae and slabs carved with human figures placed in
+niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its splendid
+sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near
+the modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-Mixco.
+Chacujál, which Cortes visited on his expedition of
+1524-1525 is very possibly to be identified with the modern
+Pueblo Viejo on the river Tinaja. Chaculá and Quen-Santo
+between the headwaters of the Rio de Chiapas and the Rio
+Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local character.
+Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two settlements,
+as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms.
+Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character,
+which proves that Mayan science had penetrated into what was
+probably the home of an old Lacantun culture.</p>
+
+<p>Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras,
+is a very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settlement
+which had already been deserted before Alvarado&rsquo;s
+expedition of 1522. The sculptures of gods, goddesses and
+other figures, executed on enormous blocks of stone, show a distinctively
+Mexican character, with which, however, various Mayan
+features are blended. They may perhaps be attributed to some
+offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil Indians, which
+developed on lines of its own in this remote corner.</p>
+
+<p>Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of
+Quirigua, which rival Copan in importance and have suffered
+less from the ravages of the climate. The ruins of temples and
+palaces contain gigantic stone stelae of very fine workmanship,
+on which are sculptured human and animal figures representing
+hieroglyphs of the calendar dates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Honduras</i>.&mdash;Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan
+civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins
+comprise great buildings, temples, pyramids, &amp;c. and contain
+sculptures of the highest interest. Especially noteworthy are
+altars in the form of a turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs.
+The hieroglyphs are of the kind usually found in such ruins,
+the meaning of which is so far clear that it is known that the
+commencement of an inscription records certain dates in the
+complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of these
+dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated
+from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries.
+From this it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization,
+whether or not it was preceded by anything older, flourished for
+only a comparatively short period, the beginning of which cannot
+be placed many centuries before <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1000.</p>
+
+<p>According to Squier (<i>Honduras</i>, London, 1870, p. 75) the other
+principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the
+department of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and
+in the ruined town of Cururu. They are &ldquo;large, pyramidal,
+terraced structures, often faced with stones, conical mounds of
+earth and walls of stone.&rdquo; Further ruins, such as those of Calamulla,
+Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca and
+Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in
+the side valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting
+and most extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo),
+about 20 m. south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence
+works, terraced stone mounds and numerous large pyramids
+are to be found. Squier found further ruins in the west of
+Honduras, which have also been described in part by Stephens,
+and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de
+Palacio (<i>Carta dirigida al Rei de España</i>, published by Squier,
+New York, 1860).</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:775px; height:1077px" src="images/img678b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img678a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a
+large population in past days. Possibly they may be identified
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+with a site of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by
+Bernal Diaz (<i>Histoire véridique de la conquête de la Nouvelle
+Espagne</i>, translated by D. Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877,
+ch. 178, p. 690).</p>
+
+<p><i>Chiapas</i> (Mexico).&mdash;The principal site is Palenque, the ruins
+of which were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention.
+The style of architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular
+comb-shaped gables, distinguishes Palenque from Copan and
+Quirigua, which it surpasses also in the unequalled magnificence
+of its sculptures. Five out of the remarkably uniform series of
+buildings may be specially mentioned. They are the Great
+Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts commanded
+by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the Cross, which are
+galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known
+reliefs, the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the
+Temple of the Relief. The sculptured figures of Palenque are
+familiar from many reproductions. The most characteristic
+groups represent a deity standing between worshippers who hold
+a staff surmounted by the water-god Ah-bolon-tzacab, the &ldquo;god
+of the nine medicines.&rdquo; The inscriptions on the famous Cross
+and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which are
+remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and
+hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>A whole series of sites is included within the geographical
+limits of Chiapas, which from the archaeologist&rsquo;s standpoint
+must be considered as belonging properly to Guatemala. The
+country has been quite insufficiently explored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oaxaca</i> (Mexico).&mdash;The bulk of the population of the province
+of Oaxaca is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented
+by the Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time
+the intermediaries between the Nahua civilization of Mexico
+on the west and the Mayan on the east. The influence of the
+two separate currents may be detected in the bastard calendar
+system no less than in the still undeciphered inscriptions. The
+principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of the priests
+and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite distinct
+character, though presenting certain analogies with the Mexican.
+One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three steps
+to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides
+these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented
+necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and
+of the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the
+&ldquo;palaces&rdquo; are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that
+the deities represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon.</p>
+
+<p>Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character
+of its sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with
+extensive ruins including a fine tennis court.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Honduras</i>.&mdash;The antiquities of British Honduras have
+been but little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to
+them a few accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style
+these buildings closely resemble those of the neighbouring
+Yucatan. The ruins in the colony New Boston, mentioned by
+Froebel (<i>Central America</i>, p. 167), are of this kind. F. de P.
+Castells (see <i>American Antiquarian</i>, Chicago, 1904, vol. xxvi.
+pp. 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the colony, of
+&ldquo;Ixim chech,&rdquo; supposed to be the Indian form of the English
+name &ldquo;Indian Church.&rdquo; They are on the road to the Lake of
+Yaxha (green water), where further ruins are to be found.
+Thomas Gann gives detailed accounts of numerous mounds also
+in the northern part of British Honduras (see <i>19th Annual Report
+of the Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, Washington, 1900, part i.
+pp. 661-692, with plates). The most interesting ruins are those
+which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at the mouth of the
+New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful wall
+paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann
+could only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by
+Indians. It should be remarked that a number of the mounds
+in Santa Rita were erected over ruins of buildings which must
+therefore be of older date than the mounds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salvador</i>.&mdash;Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls
+this whole district <i>Cuscatan</i> (Mex. <i>Cozcatlan</i>), that is, &ldquo;Land of
+precious stones, of treasures, of abundance.&rdquo; A further description
+of the land is given by Palacio (l.c.) in 1576. Although
+there are numerous relics of Mayan civilization buried in the
+earth; few ruins are to be seen on the surface. Karl Sapper has
+described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near the capital, Tehuacan
+near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Güija in the extreme
+north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct affinity
+in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they
+are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and
+western districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the
+same race of Mayas, and these tracts of country were later
+settled by the Mexican-speaking Pipiles.</p>
+
+<p>A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is
+that the pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which
+are higher than they are broad, and this peculiarity may be
+attributed to the influence of the Maya tribes, who are related to
+the Mams of Guatemala.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs.</i>&mdash;The key to the
+decipherment, so far as this has progressed at present, was
+furnished by the <i>Historia de las Cosas de Yucatan</i>, a work written
+by Diego de Landa, the first bishop of the country. This professed
+to give, with much other more or less doubtful information,
+the full account of a calendar system analogous to that of the
+Mexicans, which was said to have been used by the Mayas (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mexico</a></span>). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18
+weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to
+compare these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the
+few Mayan picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus,
+Peresianus, Dresden Codex) which have survived the destructive
+fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries. Förstemann&rsquo;s acute
+analysis detected that the bars and dots which occur along the
+margin and in the body of the pictorial scenes represented
+numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five, while for
+five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in which
+these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are
+never more than five in a group. It was established that the
+first sign in such a group is that for the numeral 1 (<i>Kin</i>), the next
+that for 20 (<i>Uinal</i>), the third for 18×20 (<i>Tun</i>), the fourth for
+18×20×20 (<i>Katun</i>), and the fifth for 18×20×20×20, that is to
+say, a cycle.</p>
+
+<p>Had the available material for study been confined to the
+manuscripts, little more progress would have been made beyond
+establishing subsidiary details in the actual calendar. But
+when a similar analysis was applied to the numerous monuments
+discovered and figured by Maudslay and others, some important
+results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found that
+many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were
+also of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that
+they all referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-point
+or zero is no doubt the mythological date at which, according
+to Mayan cosmology, the world was created. It is placed at
+nine or ten cycles before the time when Copan and Quirigua were
+erected and the picture manuscripts made. And it is by reference
+to it in the inscriptions that such students as Seler, Goodman
+and others have been enabled, as already stated, to obtain a
+record of the relative chronology of the most famous monuments,
+to confine the period of their erection within the space of a few
+centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity.
+Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial
+results which have already been won from the study of the
+hieroglyphs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The <i>Antiquités mexicaines</i> of Dupaix (Paris,
+1834), the <i>Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d&rsquo;Yucatan</i>
+of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the <i>Monuments anciens du
+Mexique</i> of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are
+quite out of date and superseded. Stephen&rsquo;s <i>Incidents of Travel
+in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan</i> (New York, 1841 and
+1867), and B.M. Norman&rsquo;s <i>Rambles in Yucatan</i> (New York, 1843),
+are still of value, the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by
+Catherwood. Among the earlier writers may also be mentioned
+Charnay, <i>Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde</i> (Paris, 1885) and
+<i>Cités et ruines américaines</i> (Paris, 1863), the latter written in collaboration
+with Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily
+bibliophiles will be content to study the following:&mdash;Maudslay (in
+Godman and Salvin&rsquo;s <i>Biologia Centrali-Americana</i>, sect. <i>Archaeology</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span>
+London, 1889, &amp;c.), a pioneer work containing the admirably presented
+results of scientific exploration. Maler, in <i>Memoirs of the
+Peabody Museum</i>, vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and 1903);
+Holmes, <i>Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans</i> (Field
+Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895);  E. Seler, <i>Die alten Ansiedelungen
+von Chacula</i> (Berlin, 1901), <i>Wandmalereien von Mitla</i> (Berlin,
+1895), <i>Ges. Abhandlungen</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904),
+<i>Fuhrer von Mitla</i> (Berlin, 1906). E. Förstemann has contributed
+many valuable essays to <i>Globus</i> and the <i>Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie</i>
+(Berlin); especially important are his commentaries to the <i>Dresden
+Codex</i> (Dresden, 1901), to the <i>Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis</i>
+(Danzig, 1902), and to the <i>Codex Peresianus</i> (Danzig, 1903). See
+also &ldquo;The Archaic Maya Inscriptions,&rdquo; by F.T. Goodman (in
+<i>Biologia Centrali-Americana</i>, section <i>Archaeology</i>, viii., 1897), and
+<i>Report of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881</i>, by A.F. Bandelier
+(Boston, 1884).  Valuable bibliographies have been made by
+Bandelier (<i>Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America</i>,
+Worcester, U.S.A., 1881) and by K. Häbler (&ldquo;Die Maya Literatur
+und der Maya Apparat zu Dresden,&rdquo; in the <i>Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekwesen</i>,
+xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published
+in facsimile as follows:&mdash;the <i>Dresden Codex</i> by Förstemann (Leipzig,
+1880, and Dresden, 1892), and the <i>Codex Tro</i> by Brasseur de Bourbourg&mdash;<i>Manuscrit
+Troano, étude sur le système graphique et la langue
+des Mayas</i> (Paris, 1869-1870), the <i>Codex Cortesianus</i> by Léon de
+Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and
+F.L. de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the <i>Codex Peresianus</i>
+by Duruy and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de
+Rosny (Paris, 1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in
+Salvador:&mdash;<i>La Universidad</i>, by D. Gonzalez, vol. ii. ser. 3, No. 6,
+p. 283 (San Salvador, 1892-1893); <i>Le Salvador pré-Colombien, études
+archéologiques</i>, by F. de Montcasus de Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25 plates;
+Karl Sapper in <i>Arch. fur Ethnologie</i>, 9, p. 3 ff. (1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL FALLS,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
+U.S.A., on the Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence.
+Pop. (1900) 18,167; (1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792
+were foreign-born, 4164 being French-Canadian, 1587 being English,
+and 1292 being Irish; (1910) 22,754. It is served by the New
+York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railway. The Blackstone furnishes
+good water-power, and the chief industry of the city is the manufacture
+of cotton goods; other important industries are the
+refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and
+hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$5,090,984, being 12.9% more than in 1900. A settlement was
+established here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield,
+and then, after 1871, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill
+was erected, and from then until 1827 the settlement was known
+as Chocolateville. It was incorporated as the Central Falls Fire
+District of Smithfield in 1847, and in 1895 was chartered as a city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTRALIA,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
+S. part of the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890)
+4763; (1900) 6721 (571 foreign-born); (1910) 9680. The city
+is served by the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Illinois
+Central, the Illinois Southern, and the Southern railways; the
+first two have repair shops here. Centralia is situated in the
+central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as &ldquo;Egypt.&rdquo;
+Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars,
+concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and
+apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city
+is a shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled
+in 1853, and was first chartered as a city in 1859.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL INDIA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a collection of native states in India forming
+a separate agency, which must not be confounded with the
+Central Provinces. The Central India agency was formed in
+1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was appointed agent to the governor-general.
+It lies between 21° 24&prime; and 26° 52&prime; N. and between
+74° 0&prime; and 83° 0&prime; E., and may be said to consist of two large
+detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as a pivot, spread
+outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching northward
+to within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of the
+Nerbudda and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area
+is 78,772 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United
+Provinces, on the W. and S.W. by Rajputana, some native states
+of the Bombay presidency, and Khandesh. The Central Provinces
+and the Bengal district of Chota Nagpur enclose it on the
+S. and E., while the Jhansi district of the United Provinces
+separates the two tracts.</p>
+
+<p>Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions:
+the highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of
+some 1500 ft. above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft.
+above sea-level, comprising the greater part of the eastern section
+of the agency; and the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south.
+The Malwa plateau consists of great undulating plains, separated
+by flat-topped hills, whose sides are boldly terraced, with here
+and there a scarp rising above the general level; it is covered
+with long grass, stunted trees and scrub, which owing to the
+presence of deciduous plants is of a uniform straw colour, except
+in the rains. The foundation of this plateau is a bed of sandstone
+and shales belonging to the Vindhyan series. This bed, which
+stretches east and west from Sasseram to Neemuch, and north
+and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the whole of the
+agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the
+plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan
+trap, a blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high
+level tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows,
+the valleys of Central India being merely &ldquo;denudation hollows&rdquo;
+carved out by the action of rain and rivers. It is apparently
+the northern limit of what was once a vast basaltic plain stretching
+from Goona to Belgaum, &ldquo;one of the most gigantic outpourings
+of volcanic matter in the world.&rdquo; The sandstone bed on
+which it rests is visible at a point just north of Goona, and in a
+small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those places freed
+from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly that
+part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and
+comprises the greater part of the political divisions of
+Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior.
+The formation save in north Bundelkhand is sandstone of the
+Vindhyan series, free as a rule from &ldquo;trap.&rdquo; In the north of
+Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and quartz. The
+quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in many
+places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears
+here and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly
+to the south of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and
+Kaimur ranges are met with. The country is rough forest and
+jungle land little used for cultivation. The greater part of Central
+India is covered with the well-known &ldquo;black cotton soil,&rdquo;
+produced by the disintegration of the trap rock. It is a very
+rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and an unusual power
+of retaining moisture, which makes artificial irrigation little
+needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown upon
+it. The ordinary &ldquo;red soil&rdquo; covers a large part of northern
+Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a
+special feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as
+climatically the differences between the plateau and the eastern
+part of the agency are distinct and the languages markedly so.
+The plateau is inhabited by pure-blooded Rajput races, whose
+ancestry can be traced back for centuries, with all their numerous
+offshoots. The inhabitants of the low-lying country are also
+Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a rule the families
+of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with them.
+The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often
+flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but
+little affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of
+the climate of the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the <i>Ain-i-Akbari</i>,
+says: &ldquo;The climate is so temperate that in the winter
+there is no occasion for warm clothing, nor is it necessary in
+summer to cool the water with saltpetre. But in the four rainy
+months the night here is cold enough to render a quilt necessary.&rdquo;
+The rains of the south-east monsoon reach Central India as a
+rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end of September.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administrative Divisions.</i>&mdash;The Central India agency is
+divided for administrative purposes into eight units, two classed
+as residencies and six as agencies. These are the residencies of
+Gwalior and Indore, and the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal,
+Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and Malwa. But these
+divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the purposes of
+the British government, the original native divisions consisting
+of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 15 large states
+are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia,
+Orchha, Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch),
+Dewas (junior branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+Pindari War in 1818 the whole country that is now under the
+Central India agency was in great confusion and disorder, having
+suffered heavily from the extortions of the Mahratta armies
+and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of the great
+Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into
+complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands
+they seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of
+money. Many of these minor chiefs had been expelled from their
+possessions, had taken refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated
+upon the Mahratta usurpers by wasting the lands which they had
+lost, until the Mahrattas compounded for peace by payment of
+blackmail. In this state of affairs all parties agreed to accept
+the interposition of the British government for the restoration
+of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of pacification was
+effected. The policy pursued was to declare the permanency
+of the rights existing at the time of the British interposition,
+conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust and
+guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to
+their superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or encroachments;
+and to settle the claims of the ousted landholders,
+who had resorted to pillage or blackmail, by fixing grants of
+land to be made to them, or settling the money allowances to be
+paid to them. The general result was to place all the
+privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs under the
+guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all
+disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred,
+and whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to
+hereditary rights or rulership. The states have no general
+ethnological affinity, such as exists in Rajputana. Their territories
+are in many cases neither compact nor continuous, consisting
+of a number of villages here and there, with a nucleus of more
+or less importance round the chief town. Their relations to the
+government of India and to each other present many variations.
+Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government of
+India; others are held under <i>sanads</i> and deeds of fealty and
+obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states,
+are held under agreements mediated by the British government
+between them and their superior chiefs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The total population of the Central India agency
+in 1901 was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of
+16.4%. Considerable losses were caused by the famines of
+1897-1898 and 1899-1900, which were severely felt, especially
+in Bhopal and Malwa. The greater part of the population of
+Central India is of the Hindu religion, but a few Mahommedan
+groups still exist, either traces of the days when the Mogul
+emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the Deccan,
+or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired
+out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first
+Bhopal is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable
+instance of the other. Roughly there are four great sections of
+the population: the Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling
+circles; the Rajputs, who are also hereditary noblemen; the
+trading classes, consisting chiefly of Marwaris and Gujaratis;
+and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian stock. The Mahrattas
+are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater part of Central
+India, have no true connexion with the soil and are little met
+with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and administrative
+centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications form
+a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have
+so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost
+part of the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically
+all the trade of Central India, with the exception of the Bora
+class of Mahommedans. They are either Vaishnavite Hindus
+or else Jains. Their advent into Central India dates, except in
+the case of one or two families, from the time of the Mahratta
+invasion only. The Jain portion of this community is very
+wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly
+of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being
+the modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants
+of this country.</p>
+
+<p>The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore,
+and there are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and
+Nowgong. The whole country is fairly provided with railways,
+largely at the expense of Sindhia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a province of British
+India, which was formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation
+of the Central Provinces and the Hyderabad Assigned Districts.
+The total area of the provinces is 113,281 sq. m., and the population
+on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325. As is shown by its name
+the province is situated in the centre of the Indian peninsula,
+comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of hill and plateau
+country which separates the plains of Hindustan from the
+Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India
+states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the
+United Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the
+Khandesh district of Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the
+large <i>zamindari</i> estates of the Madras presidency; and on the
+E. by these latter estates and the tributary states of Bengal.
+In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five Oriya-speaking
+hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal,
+while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were transferred
+from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province, therefore,
+now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore, Nerbudda,
+Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into
+the twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla,
+Seoni, Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara,
+Wardha, Nagpur, Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur,
+Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur, Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen
+tributary states of Makrai, Bastar, Kanker, Nandgaon, Kairagarh,
+Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh, Sarangarh,
+Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura
+range of hills (<i>q.v.</i>), which runs south of the Nerbudda river from
+east to west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of
+districts north of the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura
+<span class="sidenote">Central Provinces.</span>
+plateau, and districts south of the Satpuras. North of
+the Satpuras is the rich valley of the Nerbudda, which may be said
+to begin towards the north of the Jubbulpore district and to extend
+westward through the district of Narsinghpur as far as the western
+limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of nearly 300 m. The elevation
+of the valley above the sea varies from 1400 ft. at Jubbulpore
+to 1120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about 30 m., extending
+between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the Vindhyas.
+This great plain, 10,613 sq. m. in extent, contains for the most
+part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley west
+of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of
+Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district
+of the Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts,
+this tract of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the
+base of the hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land
+which is highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great
+plain of Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft.;
+it has an area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the
+Mahanadi. Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the
+great plain of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general
+surface inclines towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at
+Nagpur to 750 ft. at Chanda. To the south the province is shut in
+by the wide mountainous tract which stretches from the Bay of
+Bengal through Bastar to the Godavari, and west of that river is
+continued onward to the rocky ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by
+a succession of ranges that enclose the plain of Berar along its
+southern border.</p>
+
+<p>Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura
+range of mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south.
+The Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura
+mountains, form the northern border. On the east the
+<span class="sidenote">Berar.</span>
+frontier is marked by the Wardha river down to its confluence with
+the Penganga, and on the south by the Penganga for about two-thirds
+of the frontier&rsquo;s length. The tract is half surrounded on the east,
+north and north-west by the Central Provinces, with which it is
+amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat mountain tract which
+walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into two sections, the
+Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north by the
+Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the Ajanta
+range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta ridge,
+sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead
+up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward
+between this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from
+40 to 50 m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It
+contains all the best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black
+alluvial soil, of almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates
+sufficiently to maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is
+nothing picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country.
+The upland tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+plains, high plateaus, fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is
+rendered picturesque by rivers and groves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Features</i>.&mdash;The provinces may be divided into two tracts
+of upland and three of plain, consisting of the Vindhya and Satpura
+plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the
+north the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary
+of the Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks
+are generally overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decaying
+trap, which is principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring
+crops, wheat and grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the
+lighter and more sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of
+the Nerbudda from Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep
+alluvial deposits of extreme richness and excellently suited to the
+growth of wheat. To the south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range
+stretches across the province, containing the greater part of five
+districts, its crystalline and sandstone rocks rising in places through
+the superficial stratum of trap, and with large areas of shallow stony
+land still covered to a great extent with forest interspersed by
+black-soil valleys of great fertility. In the latter are grown wheat
+and other spring crops, while the lighter kinds of rice and the hill
+millets are all that the poorer land can bear. To the south of the
+Satpuras and extending along its base from west to east lie successively
+the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of
+Berar is to a great extent a rich black vegetable mould; and where
+this surface soil does not exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow
+upper crust of inferior light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by
+the Wardha and Wainganga rivers, contains towards the west the
+shallow black soil in which autumn crops like cotton and the large
+millet, <i>juar</i>, which do not require excessive moisture, can be successfully
+cultivated. The eastern part of the Nagpur country and the
+Chhattisgarh plain, comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great
+rice tract of the province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil
+rendering it excellently adapted for the growth of this crop.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;As regards climate the districts of the Central Provinces
+are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division
+are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh,
+Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Satpura
+districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy,
+owing to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average temperature
+than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is
+from 3 to 4 degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in
+a cooler district being about 105° as against 108° in the hotter ones
+for the month of May, and 79° as against 83° for the month of
+December. In the cold weather the temperature in Nagpur and the
+other hot districts is about the same as in Calcutta and substantially
+higher than that of northern India. The climate of Berar differs
+very little from that of the Deccan generally, except that in the
+Payanghat valley the hot weather may be exceptionally severe.
+The rainfall of the province is considerably heavier than in northern
+India, and the result of this is a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere
+during the monsoon season. The average rainfall, before it was
+affected by the abnormal seasons which followed 1892, was 51 in.,
+varying from 33 in. in Nimar to 65 in Balaghat. In the autumn
+months malarial fever is prevalent in all thickly forested tracts and
+also in the rice country; but on the whole the province is considered
+to be healthy, and as the rains break fairly regularly in June and
+produce an immediate fall in the temperature, severe heat is only
+experienced for a period of from two to three months.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture</i>.&mdash;Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the province
+produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and
+grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the
+decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan
+and Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in
+all the Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur.
+Cotton and juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur,
+Wardha and the southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter
+also in Chanda. In the Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is
+principally devoted to hill millets. Rice is an important crop in
+Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief
+staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and the two eastern districts of
+Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of Berar are cotton and juar.
+The succession of bad seasons which marked the end of the decade
+affected the distribution of the principal crops, but with the advent
+of more prosperous seasons things tend to return to their old level.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries</i>.&mdash;The only important industries are connected with
+cotton and coal. In 1904 the total number of factories was 391,
+almost entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received
+an immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a
+brewery was established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are
+worked in the Central Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each
+of which there is a branch line of railway. In 1903-1904 there was
+a total yield of 160,000 tons, valued at about £45,000. In connexion
+with the Warora colliery there is a fire-clay business. The Mopani
+colliery, which dates back to 1860, is worked by a joint-stock
+company.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade</i>.&mdash;The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly
+by rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are
+cotton piece goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway
+materials, raw cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil.
+The chief exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and
+lac. The exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations,
+especially during famine periods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways</i>.&mdash;Until recently, the only railway in the Central Provinces
+was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one
+terminating at Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was
+continued by the East Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-Nagpur
+line has now opened up the eastern portion of the country,
+bringing it into direct connexion with Calcutta; and a new branch
+of the Indian Midland, from Saugor through Damoh, has been partly
+constructed as a famine work. Large portions, however, in the hilly
+centre and in the south-east, are still remote from railways.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration</i>.&mdash;The administration of the province is conducted
+by a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India
+in council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial
+civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant superintendents
+of police, and officers specially recruited for various departments.
+The form of the administration of Berar was in 1903
+entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by the
+treaties of 1853 and 1860 the revenues of the province were assigned
+primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent, such
+surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the nizam,
+while the province itself was administered in trust by the government
+of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November 1902
+a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in perpetuity
+to the British government in return for an annual rental of 25 lakhs.
+It remained under the administration of the resident until the 1st of
+October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the Central
+Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result of
+this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except the
+judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were
+amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central
+Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that
+province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional
+commissioner as its immediate head.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population</i>.&mdash;The population of the Central Provinces and Berar
+as now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and
+is of very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by
+immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There
+are six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who
+formerly held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the
+north and north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley
+and the open country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking
+immigrants from Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of
+Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking
+immigrants from Bombay into Berar, the Mahratta districts and the
+southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu castes in the Sironcha and
+Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of Bastar; and the Hindu
+immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed to have arrived
+many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of Ratanpur rose
+into power.</p>
+
+<p><i>Language</i>.&mdash;Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of language
+is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six
+dialects are found in the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight
+languages and sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these
+languages are Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi,
+Oriya, Telugu and Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief
+dialects are Gondi, Oraon or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of
+which Gondi is by far the most important. There are also the
+Munda languages, of which the chief are Korku, Kharia and Munda
+or Kol. The chief languages of Berar are Marathi, Urdu, Gondi,
+Banjari, Hindi, Marwari, Telugu, Korku and Gujarati.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;The authentic history of the greater part of the
+country embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till
+the 16th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> By the people of northern India the
+country was known as Gondwana, after the savage tribes of
+Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman invaders
+of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain
+fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscriptions
+show that parts of it had fallen from time to time under
+the dominion of one or other of the great kingdoms of the north,
+<i>e.g.</i> of Asoka, of the Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu
+kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar); and inscriptions and numerous
+discoveries of coins prove that, during the middle ages, the open
+spaces were occupied by a series of Rajput dynasties. Of these
+the most important was that of the Haihayas of Ratanpur, a
+family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda
+valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the
+Pandava dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled,
+though from the 16th century onwards over greatly diminished
+territories, until its overthrow by the Mahrattas in 1745. The
+second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja, was the founder of
+Ratanpur.</p>
+
+<p>The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century,
+and no more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span>
+dynasties from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The first of these
+is mentioned in 1398, when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said
+by Ferishta to have ruled all the hills of Gondwana. He was
+finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang Shah, king of Malwa.
+The 16th century saw the establishment of a powerful Gond
+kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th
+of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his
+dominions so as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan
+plateau, Jubbulpore and Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley,
+and Seoni on the Satpura highlands. Sangram Sah died in 1530;
+and the break up of his dominion began with the enforced cession
+to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of Saugor
+and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which afterwards
+formed the state of Bhopal.</p>
+
+<p>About 200 years after Sangram Sah&rsquo;s time, Bakht Buland,
+the Gond chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhindwara,
+having visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization
+he had there admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which
+his successor made his capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its
+widest extent, embraced the modern districts of Betul, Chhindwara,
+Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara and Balaghat.
+In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of another
+Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th
+century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deogarh
+and Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul emperors.
+In addition to the acquisitions made in the north at
+the expense of Garha-Mandla, the Moguls, after the annexation
+of Berar, established governors at Paunar in Wardha and Kherla
+in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states, however,
+they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over
+them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical
+independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful
+rule their territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul
+empire and the rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta
+powers, with the organized forces of which their semi-barbarous
+feudal levies were unable to cope, brought misfortune upon them.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived
+the Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the
+Nerbudda valley. In 1733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundelkhand;
+and in 1735 the Mahrattas had established their power
+in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa advanced to Mandla and exacted
+the payment of <i>chauth</i> (tributary blackmail), and from this time
+until 1781, when the successors of Sangram Sah were finally
+overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a Mahratta
+dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities
+of Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla
+of Berar established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had conquered
+the territories of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh.
+In 1741 Ratanpur had surrendered to the Mahratta leader
+Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput dynasty
+came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were
+suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a
+shadowy existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse
+for avoiding the claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though
+actually decisions in important matters were sought at Poona.
+Raghoji died in 1755, and in 1769 his son and successor, Janoji,
+was forced to acknowledge the peshwa&rsquo;s effective supremacy.
+The Nagpur state, however, continued to grow. In 1785 Mudhoji
+(d. 1788), Janoji&rsquo;s successor, bought from the Poona court the
+cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and between
+1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of Hoshangabad
+and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II.
+(d. 1816). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered
+practically the whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar,
+as well as Orissa and some of the Chota Nagpur states.</p>
+
+<p>In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the
+result was the defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the
+treaty of Deogaon, by which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack,
+Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to this time the rule of the
+Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant extraction, had been
+on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat, Raghoji now
+set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless exploitation
+of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of the
+British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of
+oppression. After Raghoji II.&rsquo;s death in 1816 his imbecile son
+Parsaji was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa
+Sahib. In spite of a treaty signed with the British in this year,
+Mudhoji in 1817 joined the peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi
+and forced to cede the rest of Berar to the nizam, and parts of
+Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul, Seoni and the Nerbudda
+valley, to the British. After a temporary restoration to the
+throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild of
+Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority,
+which lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a
+British resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without
+heirs, Nagpur lapsed to the British paramount power. Until
+the formation of the Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province,
+which consists of the present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and
+Chhatisgarh, was administered by a commissioner under the
+central government.</p>
+
+<p>The territories in the north ceded in 1817 by the peshwa (parts
+of Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820
+formed into the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent
+to the governor-general, and in 1835 were included in the newly
+formed North-West Provinces. In 1842, in consequence of a
+rising, they were again placed under the jurisdiction of an agent
+to the governor-general. Restored to the North-West Provinces
+in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur province to
+constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of
+October 1903 Berar also was placed under the administration of
+the commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berar</a></span>).
+In 1905 the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory
+states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were
+transferred to Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang
+Bhakar, Korea, Surguja, Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred
+from Bengal to the Central Provinces.</p>
+
+<p>During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered
+from famine more severely than any other part of India. The
+complete failure of the rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity
+to develop suddenly into famine, which lasted until the end of
+1897. The total number of persons in receipt of relief reached
+its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897. The expenditure
+on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the total cost
+of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly
+twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole
+province rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average,
+while the birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The
+Central Provinces were stricken by another famine, yet more
+severe and widespread, caused by the complete failure of the
+rains in 1899. The maximum of persons relieved for the whole
+province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition, about 68,000
+persons were in receipt of relief in the native states. During the
+three years 1899-1902 the total expenditure on famine relief
+amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered
+from the famines of 1897 and 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list
+of authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTUMVIRI<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (<i>centum</i>, hundred; <i>vir</i>, man), an ancient court
+of civil jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius
+Tullius.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Its antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula
+used in its procedure, the lance (<i>hasta</i>) as the sign of true ownership,
+the oath or wager (<i>sacramentum</i>), the ancient formula for
+recovery of property or assertion of liberty. It is probably
+alluded to in Livy&rsquo;s account of the Valerio-Horatian laws of
+449 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (Livy iii. 55, <i>Consules ... fecerunt sanciendo ut qui
+tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris nocuisset, ejus
+caput Jovi sacrum esset</i>). If the <i>judices</i> here mentioned are the
+<i>centumviri</i>, it is clear that they formed a tribunal which represented
+the interests of the <i>plebs</i>. This is in accordance with
+Cicero&rsquo;s account (<i>de Orat.</i> i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their jurisdiction.
+He says this was mainly concerned with the property
+of which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+their power to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided
+questions concerning debt. Hence the <i>plebs</i> had an interest in
+securing their decisions against undue influence. They were
+never regarded as magistrates, but merely as <i>judices</i>, and as such
+would be appointed for a fixed term of service by the magistrate,
+probably by the <i>praetor urbanus</i>. But in Cicero&rsquo;s time they were
+elected by the <i>Comitia Tributa</i>. They then numbered 105.
+Their original number is uncertain. It was probably increased
+by Augustus and in Pliny&rsquo;s time had reached 180. The office
+was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and
+plebeians. The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to
+the municipal senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Tigerström, <i>De Judicibus apud Romanos</i> (Berlin,
+1826); Greenidge, <i>Legal Procedure of Cicero&rsquo;s Time</i>, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff.,
+182 ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, <i>Der romische
+Civilprozess</i>, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>,
+iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. Cl.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mommsen (<i>Staatsrecht</i>, i³. 275, n. 4, ii³. 231, n. 1, 590 f.) believed
+that the <i>Centumviri</i> were instituted about 150 <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTURION<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (Lat. <i>centurio</i>), in the ancient Roman army, an
+officer in command of a <i>centuria</i>, originally a body of a hundred
+infantry, later the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There
+were therefore in the legion sixty centurions, who, though
+theoretically subordinate to the six military tribunes, were the
+actual working officers of the legion. For the most part the
+centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were arranged
+in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of the
+legion (<i>primus pilus</i>) was an officer of very high importance.
+Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were
+&ldquo;seconded&rdquo; for various kinds of special service, <i>e.g.</i> for staff employment,
+the command of auxiliaries. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Army</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTURIPE<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Centorbi</span>, anc. <span class="grk" title="Kentoripa">&#922;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#972;&#961;&#953;&#960;&#945;</span> or <i>Centuripae</i>),
+a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated
+2380 ft. above sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of
+the railway station of Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m.
+W. from Catania. Pop. (1901) 11,311. Thucydides mentions it
+as a city of the Sicels. It became an ally of the Athenians at
+the time of their expedition against Syracuse, and maintained
+its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell under
+the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero
+describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the
+largest and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of
+10,000, engaged in the cultivation of an extensive territory.
+It was granted Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears
+to have suffered much in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and
+not to have regained its former prosperity under the empire.
+Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in 1233, but it was soon
+rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city walls and of
+buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and numerous
+antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic <i>terra-cottas</i>, have been
+discovered in casual excavations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Ansaldi, <i>I Monumenti dell&rsquo; antica Centuripi</i> (Catania, 1851);
+P. Orsi in <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche</i> (Rome,
+1904), v. 177.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CENTURY<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>centuria</i>, a division of a hundred men),
+the name for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting
+to one hundred men, and for one of the divisions into which the
+Roman people was separated for voting purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>).
+The word is applied to any group of one hundred, and more
+particularly to a period of a hundred years, and to the successive
+periods of a hundred years, dating before or after
+the birth of Christ. The &ldquo;Century-plant&rdquo; is a name given to
+the Agave (<i>q.v.</i>), or American aloe, from the supposition that it
+flowered once only in every hundred years.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEOS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Keôs">&#922;&#941;&#969;&#962;</span>, mod. <i>Zea</i> or <i>Tzia</i>), an island in the Aegean
+Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of
+Syra, 14 m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about
+15 m. and its breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the
+centre, where it culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among
+its natural productions are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and
+honey; it also exports a considerable quantity of valonia.
+There were formerly four towns of some importance in the
+island:&mdash;Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore; Coressia,
+the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the
+neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of
+Apollo; and Poieëssa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is
+represented by the town of Zea, and Carthaea by the village of
+&rsquo;S tais Polais; traces of the other two can still be made out.
+Iulis was the birthplace of the lyric poets Simonides and
+Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and Ariston, and the physician
+Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was so generally
+recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a proverb.
+One of them forbade a citizen to protract his life beyond sixty
+years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at
+Artemisium and Salamis; they joined the Delian League and
+also the later Athenian alliance in 377 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> They revolted in
+363-362, but were reduced again, and the Athenians established
+a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth, which was one of the most
+valuable products of the island. In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1207 it was divided
+between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of the
+duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566.
+Silver coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating
+from the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: <i>Greek</i>, &ldquo;Cyclades
+and Sporades&rdquo;). The present population of the island is about
+4000, of which the capital has about 2000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pridik, <i>De Cei Insulae rebus</i> (1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEPHALIC INDEX,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> the term in use by anthropologists to
+express the percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The
+principle employed by Retzius is to take the longer diameter of
+a skull, the antero-posterior diameter, as 100; if the shorter or
+transverse diameter falls below 80 the skull may be classed as
+long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds 80 the skull is broad
+(brachycephalic) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Craniometry</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEPHALONIA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Cefalonia</i>, ancient and modern official
+Greek <i>Cephallenia</i>, <span class="grk" title="Kephallênia">&#922;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>), an island belonging
+to the kingdom of Greece, and the largest of those known as the
+Ionian Islands, situated on the west side of the mainland, almost
+directly opposite the Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally
+derived from Cephalus, the Attic hero who was regarded as
+having colonized the island. The tradition, which is repeated by
+Aristotle, is probably due solely to the similarity of the names
+(see J.G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias</i>, i. 37, 6 note). Pop. (1907) 71,235.
+Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies from about
+20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the projecting
+part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a distance
+of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The
+whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with
+rocky hills of varying elevation, the main range running from
+north-west to south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato,
+Monte Negro, or the Black Mountain (5315 ft.), frequently retains
+the snow for several months. It is not only the loftiest part of
+the sierra, but also the highest land in the whole Ionian group.
+The name &ldquo;Black&rdquo; was given from the darkness of the pine
+woods which still constitute the most striking feature in Cephalonian
+scenery, although their extent has been greatly curtailed
+by fire. The summit is called Megálo Sorós. The island is ill
+supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams
+except the Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers.
+In the western part of the island a gulf runs up from the south,
+a distance of about 7 m.; on its east side stands the chief town
+Argostoli, with about 10,000 inhabitants, and on its west side
+the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000. About a mile west of the
+town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea water running
+down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels. About
+5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of
+Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island.
+On an eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the
+ancient Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale;
+while on the other side of the island are the remains of Samos
+on the bay of the same name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south
+above the vale of Rakli and its blossoming oleanders, and of
+an unknown city near the village of Scala. The ruins of this
+city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple, rock-cut tombs,
+and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos are
+remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly
+of the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost
+unimpaired the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+of Cephalonia have all along been extremely active; and no
+slight amount of toil has been expended in the construction of
+terraces on the steep sides of the hills. Owing to the thinness
+of the population, however, but a small proportion of the soil
+is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain grown in the
+island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant, in
+the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit
+is smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it
+finds a market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The
+grape vine also is grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising
+industry. The olive crop is of considerable importance, and the
+culture of cotton in the low grounds has been successfully
+attempted. Manufactures are few and undeveloped, but lace
+from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and basket-work are produced
+by the villagers, and boats are built at both the principal
+towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and Zante are
+most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental
+activity.</p>
+
+<p>In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to
+be mentioned under the name of Same, and its inhabitants,
+among the subjects of Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes
+(see, however, under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ithaca</a></span>). In the Persian War they took but
+little part; in the Peloponnesian they sided with the Athenians.
+The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip of Macedon in
+218 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In 189
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span> all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards
+revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months.
+The island was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears
+again at a later date as &ldquo;free and autonomous.&rdquo; After the
+division of the Roman empire, it continued attached to Byzantium
+till 1082, when it was captured by Robert Guiscard, who
+died, however, before he could repress the revolt of 1085. In
+1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who accepted
+the protection of Venice in 1215; and after 1225 it was held
+along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of five counts
+of the Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice
+in 1350 by the prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured
+by the Turks in 1479; but the Hispanico-Venetian fleet under
+Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of Cordova effected their
+expulsion in 1500, and the island continued in Venetian possession
+till the fall of the republic. For some time it was administered
+for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the
+British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in
+the hands of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who
+displayed an industry and energy in the repression of injustice
+and development of civilization only outdone by the despotic
+vigour of Sir Charles Napier, who held the same office for the nine
+years from 1818 to 1827. During the British protectorate the
+island made undoubted advances in material prosperity, but
+was several times the scene of political disturbances. It retained
+longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence exerted
+by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming
+more democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight
+districts, and an elaborate system of police was in force; since
+its annexation to Greece it has been broken up into twenty
+demarchies, each with its separate jurisdiction and revenues,
+and the police system has been abolished.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia
+was written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland&rsquo;s <i>Travels</i> (1815);
+Ansted&rsquo;s <i>Ionian Islands</i> (1863); Viscount Kirkwall&rsquo;s <i>Four Years
+in Ionian Islands</i> (1864); Wiebel&rsquo;s <i>Die Insel Kephalonia</i>; parliamentary
+papers. Riemann, <i>Recherches archéologiques sur les Iles
+Ioniennes</i> (Paris, 1879-1880); Partsch, <i>Kephallenia und Ithaka</i>
+(1890); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corfu</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian Islands</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Gr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEPHALOPODA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the fifth of the classes into which the
+zoological phylum Mollusca is divided (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mollusca</a></span>). The
+Cephalopoda are mainly characterized by the concrescence of the
+foot and head. The foot grows forward on each side so as to
+surround the mouth, the two upgrowths meeting on the dorsal
+side of the head&mdash;whence the name Cephalopoda. The perioral
+portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like processes;
+these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or
+hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of
+muscular lobes right and left, which are bent round towards one
+another so that their free margins meet and constitute a short
+tube&mdash;the siphon or funnel. The hind-foot is either very small
+or absent. A distinctive feature of the Cephalopoda is their
+bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like the torsion of
+the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median
+line, is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is
+deeply produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber
+around the anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or
+paired apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only
+in <i>Nautilus</i>, in female Octopoda, female <i>Ommatostrephes</i> and male
+<i>Eledone</i>), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is
+elevated, and may be very much elongated in a direction almost at
+right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral
+hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or
+lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming
+habits of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is,
+enclosed in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented
+sacs, capable of expansion and contraction, and known as chromatophores,
+are usually present in the integument. The sexes are separate.</p>
+
+<p>The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as
+the efficient branchial organs (figs. 4, 24),</p>
+
+<p>The vascular system is very highly developed; the heart consists
+of a pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts
+are formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known
+to what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or
+whether there is a true capillary system.</p>
+
+<p>The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing
+among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary
+or testis&mdash;the viscero-pericardial sac&mdash;which opens to the exterior
+either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion
+with the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs,
+the walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29).
+They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in
+<i>Nautilus</i>. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla.
+Jaws (fig. 6, <i>e</i>) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws
+have the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (<i>Nautilus</i>),
+and are capable of inflicting severe wounds.</p>
+
+<p>Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives
+are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic
+region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are
+developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits
+a very special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a
+remarkable archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in
+all. The typical osphradium is not present, except in <i>Nautilus</i>, but
+other organs are present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory
+function is ascribed both in <i>Nautilus</i> and in the other Cephalopoda.</p>
+
+<p>Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female
+individuals always being differentiated. The genital aperture and
+duct is sometimes single, when it is the left; sometimes the typical
+pair is developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all
+Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar
+modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot, connected
+with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization
+is applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate spermatophores
+or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very
+usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nidamental
+glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fig. 4, <i>g.n.</i>). The
+egg is large, and the development is much modified by the presence
+of an excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm
+of the egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development
+are consequently not recognizable.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata
+and Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen)
+describe the number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are
+several characters, of as great importance as those derived from
+the gills, by which the members of these two orders are separated
+from one another.</p>
+
+<p class="center ptb1"><span class="sc">Order 1. Tetrabranchiata</span> (= Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera).</p>
+
+<p><i>Characters</i>.&mdash;The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are
+not fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circumoral
+lobes of the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles,
+not suckers (fig. 6). There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence
+Tetrabranchiata), and two pairs of renal organs, consequently
+four renal apertures (fig. 4). The viscero-pericardial chamber
+opens by two independent apertures to the exterior, and not into
+the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and left) in the
+female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in both
+sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or
+straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the last-formed
+of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the
+hinder ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. 1). The
+pair of cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14. A), opening to
+the exterior by minute orifices (pin-hole camera), and devoid of
+refractive structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base
+of the gills (fig. 4, <i>olf</i>). Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac
+is <i>not</i> present. Branchial hearts are <i>not</i> developed on the
+branchial afferent vessels.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:576px; height:496px" src="images/img686.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus, contracted by spirit
+and lying in its shell, the right half of which is cut away (from Gegenbaur,
+after Owen).<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%;">
+<p>a, Visceral hump.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Portion  of the free edge of the
+mantle-skirt reflected on to the
+shell,&mdash;the edge of the mantle-skirt
+can be traced downwards
+and forwards around the base
+of the mid-foot or siphon i.</p>
+
+<p><i>l, l</i>, Superficial origin of the retractor
+muscle of the mid-foot (siphon),
+more or less firmly attached to
+the shell, of which a small piece
+(<i>s</i>) is seen between the letters
+<i>l, l</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>s</i>, (farther back) points to the siphuncular
+pedicle, which is broken
+off short and not continued, as
+in the perfect state, through the
+whole length of the siphuncle of
+the shell, also marked s and s&rsquo;.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p>o, points to the right eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>t</i>, is placed near the extremities of
+the contracted tentacles of the
+outer or annular lobe of the
+fore-foot&mdash;the jointed tentacles
+are seen protruding a little from
+their long cylindrical sheaths.</p>
+
+<p><i>v</i>, The dorsal &ldquo;hood&rdquo; formed by
+an enlargement in this region
+of the annular lobe of the fore-foot
+(<i>m</i> in figs. 2, 3).</p>
+
+<p>V, A swelling of the mantle-skirt,
+indicating the position on its
+inner face of the nidamental
+gland (see fig. 4, <i>g.n.</i>).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Visceral Hump and Shell.</i>&mdash;The visceral hump of <i>Nautilus</i> (if
+we exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which
+it trails, as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the
+coiled form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always
+slips forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber
+which is practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted
+chambers thrown off instead of being accumulated behind the
+inhabited chamber as a coiled series of air-chambers, we should
+have a more correct indication in the shell of the extent and form
+of the animal&rsquo;s body. Amongst Gastropods it is not very unusual
+to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as growth
+advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the
+shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied
+cavity by a transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be
+formed, but in no Gastropod are these apical chambers known to
+contain a gas during the life of the animal in whose shell they
+occur. A further peculiarity of the nautilus shell and of that of
+the allied extinct <i>Ammonites</i>, <i>Scaphites</i>, <i>Orthoceras</i>, &amp;c., and of
+the living <i>Spirula</i>, is that the series of deserted air-chambers is
+traversed by a cord-like pedicle extending from the centro-dorsal
+area of the visceral hump to the smallest and first-formed
+chamber of the series. No structure comparable to this siphuncular
+pedicle is known in any other Mollusca. The siphuncle
+does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple
+vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous
+sinus, and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial
+artery. There appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers
+of the nautilus shell contain in the healthy living animal a gas
+which serves to lessen the specific gravity of the whole organism.
+This gas is said to be of the same composition as the atmosphere,
+with a larger proportion of nitrogen. With regard to its origin we
+have only conjectures. Each septum shutting off an air-containing
+chamber is formed during a period of quiescence, probably
+after the reproductive act, when the visceral mass of the nautilus
+may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from the dorsal
+integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by the
+animal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal
+when no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the
+loosening of the animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward
+when a new septum is formed, as well as the mode in which the
+air-chambers may be used as a hydrostatic apparatus, and the
+relation to this use, if any, of the siphuncular pedicle, is involved
+in obscurity, and is the subject of much ingenious speculation.
+In connexion with the secretion of gas by the animal, besides the
+parallel cases ranging from the protozoon <i>Arcella</i> to the physoclistic
+fishes, from the hydroid <i>Siphonophora</i> to the
+insect-larva <i>Corethra</i>, we have the identical phenomenon
+observed in the closely allied <i>Sepia</i> when recently hatched.
+Here, in the pores of the internal rudimentary shell, gas
+is observable, which has necessarily been liberated by
+the tissues which secrete the shell, and not derived from
+any external source (Huxley).</p>
+
+<p>The coiled shell of <i>Nautilus</i>, and of the majority of
+extinct Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the
+body of the animal, inasmuch as the curvature of the
+coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal area is towards the
+head or forwards, instead of away from the head and
+backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as
+<i>Planorbis</i>; the coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the
+two cases. Such a shell is said to be exogastric. But
+in some extinct forms, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Phragmoceras</i>, <i>Cyrtoceras</i>,
+<i>Ptenoceras</i>, the shell is coiled towards the ventral side,
+when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct
+allies of the nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of
+a variety of shapes, open coils such as <i>Scaphites</i>, leading
+on to perfectly cylindrical shells with chamber succeeding
+chamber in a straight line (<i>Orthoceras</i>), whence again we
+may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell
+of <i>Turrilites</i>. In some extinct genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Gomphoceras</i>,
+among the Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is contracted
+and the edge of the aperture is lobed. In these
+cases the animal was probably able only to protrude its
+appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part
+of the aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated
+from the dorsal part by a constriction. Hence it is
+possible to distinguish the ventral and dorsal sides of
+the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or
+endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be
+determined by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses
+the septa centrally, ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell
+apertures occur also in Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching
+an extreme in <i>Morphoceras</i>, where the original aperture is subdivided
+by the ingrowth of the sides, so that only five small
+separate apertures remain. Of these the central probably corresponded
+to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the remaining
+two to the pedal appendages.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Head, Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-pallial Chamber.</i>&mdash;In the pearly
+nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free
+flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, <i>d, e</i>). In the
+antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a little
+over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the postero-ventral
+region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive sub-pallial chamber,
+at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A view of the interior
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span>
+of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the mantle-skirt is retroverted
+and the observer faces in the direction indicated by the
+reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in fig. 4. With this
+should be compared the similar view of the sub-pallial chamber of
+the Dibranchiate <i>Sepia</i>. It should be noted as a difference between
+<i>Nautilus</i> and the Dibranchiates that in the former the nidamental
+gland (in the female) lies on that surface of the pallial chamber
+formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, <i>g.n.</i>; fig. 1, V), whilst
+in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the body-wall; in fact
+in the former the base of the fold forming the mantle-skirt comprises
+in its area a part of what is unreflected visceral hump in the latter.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:255px" src="images/img687a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus, removed from
+its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn from nature
+by A.G. Bourne).<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%;"><p><i>m</i>, The dorsal &ldquo;hood&rdquo; formed
+by the enlargement of the
+outer or annular lobe of the
+fore-foot, and corresponding
+to the sheaths of two tentacles
+(<i>g, g</i> in fig. 6).</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Tentacular sheaths of lateral
+portion of the annular lobe.</p>
+
+<p><i>u</i>, The left eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, The nuchal plate, continuous
+at its right and left posterior
+angles with the root of the
+mid-foot, and corresponding
+to the nuchal cartilage of
+Sepia.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p><i>c</i>, Visceral hump.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, The free margin of the mantle-skirt,
+the middle letter <i>d</i>
+points to that portion of the
+mantle-skirt which is reflected
+over a part of the
+shell as seen in fig. 1, <i>b</i>; the
+cup-like fossa to which b and
+d point in the present figure
+is occupied by the coil of the
+shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>g.a.</i> points to the lateral continuation
+of the nuchal plate
+b to join the root of the mid-foot
+or siphon.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:441px; height:267px" src="images/img687b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Lateral view of the same specimen as that drawn in fig. 2.
+Letters as in that figure with the following additions&mdash;<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%;"><p><i>e</i>, points to the concave margin
+of the mantle-skirt leading
+into the sub-pallial chamber.</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, The mid-foot or siphon.</p>
+
+<p><i>k</i>, The superficial origin of its
+retractor muscles closely
+applied to the shell and
+serving to hold the animal
+in its place.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p><i>l</i>, The siphuncular pedicle of
+the visceral hump broken
+off short.</p>
+
+<p><i>v, v</i>, The superior and inferior
+ophthalmic tentacles.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the viscero-pericardial
+sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are shown in
+position on the body-wall of the pallial chamber of <i>Nautilus</i> in
+figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median (the anus)
+and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice <i>two</i> pairs of
+gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a short
+papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior gill-plume
+(see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in a
+Dibranchiate, we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median
+anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal
+apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side)
+except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts
+and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are
+present on the surface of the pallial chamber, since in the Dibranchiata
+the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each nephridium
+instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of ctenidia (gill-plumes)
+is present instead of the two pairs in <i>Nautilus</i>. The existence
+of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of renal sacs in <i>Nautilus</i>,
+placed one behind the other, is highly remarkable. The interest
+of this arrangement is in relation to the general morphology of the
+Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this repetition of organs in a
+linear series as anything else than an instance of metameric segmentation,
+comparable to the segmentation of the ringed worms and
+Arthropods. The only other example which we have of this metamerism
+in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There we find
+not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some species
+more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal integument,
+which carries eight shells. In <i>Chiton</i> the renal organs are
+not affected by the metamerism as they are in <i>Nautilus</i>. It is impossible
+on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their
+importance demands the significance of these two instances among
+Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be
+wrong to pass them by without insisting upon the great importance
+which the occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric segmentation
+in a group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses,
+and the light which they may be made to throw upon the nature of
+metameric segmentation in general.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:497px" src="images/img687c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;View of the postero-ventral surface of a female Pearly
+Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (<i>c</i>) being completely reflected so as to
+show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber (drawn from nature
+by A.G. Bourne).<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Muscular band passing from
+the mid-foot to the integument.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, The valve on the surface of
+the funnel, partially concealed
+by the inrolled lateral
+margin of the latter.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, The mantle-skirt retroverted.</p>
+
+<p><i>an</i>, The median anus.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i>, Post-anal papilla of unknown
+significance.</p>
+
+<p><i>g.n.</i>, Nidamental gland.</p>
+
+<p><i>r.ov</i>, Aperture of the right oviduct.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><p><i>l.ov</i>, Aperture of the rudimentary
+left oviduct (pyriform sac
+of Owen).</p>
+
+<p><i>neph.a</i>, Aperture of the left anterior
+renal sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>neph.p</i>, Aperture of the left posterior
+renal sac.</p>
+
+<p>viscper, Left aperture of the
+viscero-pericardial sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>olf</i>, The left osphradium placed
+near the base of the anterior
+gill-plume.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The foot and head of <i>Nautilus</i> are in the adult inextricably grown
+together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the
+head which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot
+or front portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying
+tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The
+epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an
+incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and
+rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The
+epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in
+which this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the
+mantle and the foot.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:366px; height:348px" src="images/img688a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;View of the postero-ventral surface
+of a male Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (<i>c</i>)
+being completely reflected so as to show the
+inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the
+four ctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from
+nature by A.G. Bourne). <i>pe</i>, Penis, being the
+enlarged termination of the right spermatic
+duct; <i>l.sp</i>, aperture of the rudimentary left
+spermatic duct (pyriform sac of Owen). Other
+letters as in fig. 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The lobes of the fore-foot of <i>Nautilus</i> and of the other Cephalopoda
+require further description. It has been doubted whether these
+lobes were rightly referred (by T.H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and
+it has been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenadier, H. von
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span>
+Jhering) that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to
+be impossible to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion
+of the foot, when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further,
+when the fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal
+ganglion. The fore-foot of <i>Nautilus</i> completely surrounds the buccal
+cone (fig. 6, e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded
+tentacles similar to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (<i>Actinia</i>).
+A.G. Bourne, of University College, prepared from actual specimens
+the drawings of
+this part in the
+male and female
+<i>Nautilus</i> reproduced
+in fig. 6,
+and restored the
+parts to their
+natural form when
+expanded. The
+drawings show
+very strikingly the
+difference between
+male and female.
+In the females
+(lower figure), we
+observe in the
+centre of the disk
+the buccal cone e
+carrying the beak-like
+pair of jaws
+which project
+from the finely
+papillate buccal
+membrane. Three
+tentaculiferous
+lobes of the fore-foot
+are in immediate
+contact
+with this buccal
+cone; they are the
+right and left (<i>c, c</i>)
+inner lobes, and
+the inferior inner
+lobe (<i>d</i>)&mdash;called
+inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth. This
+inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right
+and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated organ
+on its surface, known as Owen&rsquo;s organ, probably olfactory in
+function (<i>n</i>), marks the separation of the constituent halves
+of this double lobe. Each half carries a group of fourteen
+tentacles. The right and the left inner lobes (<i>c, c</i>) each carry twelve
+tentacles. External to these three lobes the muscular substance of
+the mouth-embracing foot is raised into a wide ring, which becomes
+especially thick and large in the dorsal region where it is notably
+modified in form, offering a concavity into which the coil of the shell
+is received, and furnishing a protective roof to the retracted mass
+of tentacles. This part of the external annular lobe of the fore-foot
+is called the &ldquo;hood&rdquo; (figs. 2, 3, <i>m</i>). The median antero-posterior
+line traversing this hood exactly corresponds to the line of concrescence
+of the two halves of the fore-foot, which primitively grew forward
+one on each side of the head, and finally fused together along this
+line in front of the mouth. The tentacles carried by the great annular
+lobe are nineteen on each side, thirty-eight in all. They are
+called &ldquo;digital,&rdquo; and are somewhat larger than the &ldquo;labial&rdquo;
+tentacles carried on the three inner lobes. The dorsalmost pair of
+tentacles (marked <i>g</i> in fig. 6) are the only ones which actually belong
+to that part of the disk which forms the great dorsal hood m. The
+hood is, in fact, to a large extent formed by the enlarged sheaths of
+these two tentacles. All the tentacles of the circumoral disk are set
+in remarkable tubular sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The
+sheaths of some of those belonging to the external or annular lobe
+are seen in fig. 3, marked n. The sheaths are muscular as well as the
+tentacles, and are simply tubes from the base of which the solid
+tentacle grows. The functional significance of this sheathing arrangement
+is as obscure as its morphological origin. With reference to the
+latter, it appears highly probable that the tubular sheath represents
+the cup of a sucker such as is found on the fore-foot of the Dibranchiata.
+In any case, it seems to the writer impossible to doubt
+that each tentacle, and its sheath on a lobe of the circumoral disk of
+Nautilus, corresponds to a sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate.
+W. Keferstein follows Sir R. Owen in strongly opposing this identification,
+and in regarding such tentacle as the equivalent of a whole
+lobe or arm of a Decapod or Octopod Dibranch. The details of these
+structures, especially in the facts concerning the hectocotylus and
+spadix, afford the most conclusive reasons for dissenting from
+Owen&rsquo;s view. On the ventral side an extensive part of the internal
+surface of the muscular ring is laminated, forming the so-called
+&ldquo;organ of Valenciennes,&rdquo; peculiar to the female and serving for the
+attachment of the spermatophores. We have so far enumerated
+in the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four more remain which
+have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to the suggestion
+that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These remaining tentacles
+are placed one above (before) and one below (behind) each eye, and
+bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. 3 <i>v, v</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:458px; height:699px" src="images/img688b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of <i>Nautilus
+pompilius</i> as seen in the expanded condition, the observer looking
+down on to the buccal cone <i>e</i>; one-third the natural size linear. The
+drawings have been made from actual specimens by A.G. Bourne,
+B. Sc., University College, London.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, The shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, The <i>outer</i> ring-like expansion
+(annular lobe) of the circumoral
+muscular mass of the
+fore-foot, carrying nineteen
+tentacles on each side&mdash;posteriorly
+this is enlarged to
+form the &ldquo;hood&rdquo; (marked
+<i>v</i> in fig. 1 and <i>m</i> in figs. 2
+and 3). giving off the pair
+of tentacles marked <i>g</i> in the
+present figure.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, The right and left inner lobes
+of the fore-foot, each carrying
+twelve tentacles in the
+female, in the male subdivided
+into <i>p</i>, the &ldquo;spadix&rdquo;
+or hectocotylus on the left
+side, and <i>q</i>, the &ldquo;anti-spadix,&rdquo;
+a group of four
+tentacles on the right side&mdash;it
+is thus seen that the subdivided
+right and left inner
+lobes of the male correspond
+to the undivided right and
+left inner lobes of the female.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, The inner inferior lobe of the
+fore-foot, a bilateral structure
+in the female carrying two
+groups, each of fourteen tentacles,
+separated from one another
+by a lamellated organ
+<i>n</i>, supposed to be olfactory in
+function&mdash;in the male the
+inner inferior lobe of the
+fore-foot is very much reduced,
+and has the form of
+a paired group of lamellae
+(<i>d</i> in the upper figure).</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i>, The buccal cone, rising from
+the centre of the three inner
+lobes, and fringing the protruded
+calcareous beaks or
+jaws with a series of minute
+papillae.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, The tentacles of the outer
+circumoral lobe or annular
+lobe of the fore-foot projecting
+from their sheaths.</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, The two most posterior tentacles
+of this series belonging
+to that part of the annular
+lobe which forms the hood
+(<i>m</i> in figs. 2 and 3).</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, Superior ophthalmic tentacle.</p>
+
+<p><i>k</i>, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle.</p>
+
+<p><i>l</i>, Eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, Paired laminated organ on
+each side of the base of the
+inner inferior lobe (<i>d</i>) of the
+female.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Olfactory lamellae upon the
+inner inferior lobe (in the
+female).</p>
+
+<p><i>o</i>, The siphon (mid-foot).</p>
+
+<p><i>p</i>, The spadix (in the male), the
+hectocotylized portion of the
+left inner lobe of the fore-foot
+representing four modified
+tentacles, eight being left
+unmodified.</p>
+
+<p><i>q</i>, The anti-spadix (in the male),
+being four of the twelve
+tentacles of the right inner
+lobe of the fore-foot isolated
+from the remaining eight,
+and representing on the right
+side the differentiated spadix
+of the left side. The four
+tentacles of the anti-spadix
+are set, three on one base
+and one on a separate base.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span></p>
+
+<p>In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differences
+in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see
+upper drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary,
+and carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae
+(<i>d</i>), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left
+inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows
+a larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached
+groups (<i>q</i>) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united
+whilst one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the
+&ldquo;anti-spadix.&rdquo; The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion
+carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it corresponding
+to the anti-spadix. This is the &ldquo;spadix.&rdquo; It carries no
+tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae
+appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right
+internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that
+modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate
+Siphonopods to which the name &ldquo;hectocotylus&rdquo; is applied. The
+spadix is in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the
+male nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata
+is connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus
+the spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible
+to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe that
+the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with the
+female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix. The
+anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also male
+peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not differ
+from that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each side.
+The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male
+nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two
+additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelliform
+structures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Musculature, Fins and, Cartilaginous Skeleton.</i>&mdash;Without entering
+into a detailed account of the musculature of <i>Nautilus</i>, we may point
+out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the mid-foot
+(siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass of
+muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the integument
+on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the free flap of the
+mantle-skirt (fig. 1, <i>l</i>, <i>l</i>, and fig. 3, <i>k</i>). These muscular areae have a
+certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to hold the animal in
+its shell and as the fixed supports for the various movements of the
+tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be identified with
+the ring-like area of adhesion by which the foot-muscle of the limpet
+is attached to the shell of that animal. In the Dibranchs a similar
+origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot and mid-foot from the
+sides of the shell&mdash;modified, as this is, in position and relations&mdash;can
+be traced.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:292px" src="images/img689a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Minute structure of the
+cartilage of <i>Loligo</i> (from Gegenbaur,
+after Furbringer)<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, Simple cells.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Dividing cells.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Canaliculi.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, An empty cartilage capsule with its
+pores.</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i>, Canaliculi in section.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> there are no fin-like expansions of the integument,
+whereas such occur in the
+Decapod Dibranchs along
+the sides of the visceral
+hump (figs. 15, 16). As an
+exception among Octopoda
+lateral fins occur in <i>Pinnoctopus</i>
+(fig. 38, A), and
+in <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i> (fig. 38, D).</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> there is a
+curious plate-like expansion
+of integument in the mid-dorsal
+region just behind
+the hood, lying between
+that structure and the portion
+of mantle-skirt which
+is reflected over the shell.
+This is shown in fig. 2, <i>b</i>.
+If we trace out the margin
+of this plate we find that
+it becomes continuous on
+each side with the sides of
+the funnel. In <i>Sepia</i> and
+other Decapods (not in
+Octopods) a closely similar
+plate exists in an exactly
+corresponding position (see
+<i>b</i> in figs. 10, 26).  In <i>Sepia</i> a
+cartilaginous development
+occurs here immediately below
+the integument forming
+the so-called &ldquo;nuchal plate,&rdquo; drawn in fig. 8, D. The morphological
+significance of this nuchal lamella, as seen both in <i>Nautilus</i>
+and in <i>Sepia</i>, is not obvious. Cartilage having the structure shown
+in fig. 7 occurs in various regions of the body of Cephalopoda. In
+all Glossophorous Mollusca the lingual apparatus is supported by
+internal skeletal pieces, having the character of cartilage; but in
+the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a wider range.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming
+the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into
+the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (<i>a</i>), whilst
+its two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In <i>Sepia</i>,
+and Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as
+shown in fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identified
+in any way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of <i>Nautilus</i>.
+The lower larger portion of this cartilage in <i>Sepia</i> is called the cephalic
+cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it completely
+invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the nerves
+from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage. The
+outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to form
+a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing right
+and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8, C) are the
+&ldquo;pre-orbital cartilages&rdquo;; in front of these, again, there is seen a
+piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base of the
+&ldquo;arms&rdquo; of the fore-foot, and is the &ldquo;basi-brachial&rdquo; cartilage.
+The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the &ldquo;nuchal cartilage&rdquo;
+already mentioned, and in <i>Sepia</i>, a thin plate-like &ldquo;sub-ostracal&rdquo;
+or (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and
+fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no
+nuchal cartilage, but two band-like &ldquo;dorsal cartilages.&rdquo; In Decapods
+there are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the funnel&mdash;&ldquo;siphon-hinge
+cartilages&rdquo;&mdash;into which fleshy knobs of the mantle-skirt
+are loosely fitted. In <i>Sepia</i>, along the whole base-line of each
+lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a &ldquo;basi-pterygial cartilage.&rdquo;
+It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in Dibranch
+Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton than
+is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other
+instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the
+Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage
+forms a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids
+(<i>Mygale</i>, <i>Scorpio</i>) and in <i>Limulus</i> a large internal cartilaginous plate&mdash;the
+ento-sternite&mdash;is developed as a support for a large series of
+muscles.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:427px; height:312px" src="images/img689b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after Keferstein.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Capito-pedal cartilage of
+<i>Nautilus pompilius.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>a</i> points to the ridge which
+supports the pedal portion
+of the nerve-centre.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>B, Lateral view of the same&mdash;the
+large anterior processes
+are sunk in the muscular
+substance of the siphon.</p>
+
+<p>C, Cephalic cartilages of <i>Sepia
+officinalis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>D, Nuchal cartilage of <i>Sepia
+officinalis</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Alimentary Tract.</i>&mdash;The buccal cone of <i>Nautilus</i> is terminated by
+a villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-like
+jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are
+very strong and dense in <i>Nautilus</i>, being calcified. Fossilized beaks
+of Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In
+Dibranchs the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of
+<i>Nautilus</i>. They resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower
+beak being the larger and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak.
+The lingual ribbon and odontophoral apparatus have the structure
+which is typical for Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is represented
+a single row of teeth from the lingual ribbon of <i>Nautilus</i>,
+and in fig. 9, B, C, of other Cephalopoda.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Nautilus</i> a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, <i>cr</i>)
+passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral
+hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard
+of a bird (fig 10, <i>gizz</i>). A nearly straight intestine passes from the
+muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small
+caecum. In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower
+and the muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important
+feature in the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all
+but <i>Nautilus</i> the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very
+capacious&mdash;much larger than the stomach in <i>Loligo vulgaris</i>&mdash;or
+elongated into a spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the
+alimentary tract, as seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which
+it exhibits in the Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of
+<i>Nautilus</i> are compacted into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+membrane, as also is the case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has
+four paired lobes in <i>Nautilus</i>, which open by two bile-ducts into the
+alimentary canal at the commencement of the intestine. The bile-ducts
+unite before entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two
+large lobes of the liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell
+in Decapoda), and the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the
+bile-ducts in Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diverticula,
+which are known as &ldquo;pancreas,&rdquo; though neither physiologically
+nor morphologically is there any ground for considering
+either the so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly
+equivalent to the glands so denominated in the Vertebrata. In
+<i>Nautilus</i> the equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the
+Dibranchs can be traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:407px; height:350px" src="images/img690a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single row of
+lingual teeth of <i>Nautilus pompilius</i> (after Keferstein). B, Two
+rows of lingual teeth of <i>Sepia officinalis</i> (after Troschel). C, Lingual
+teeth of <i>Eledone cirrhosa</i> (after Loven).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:443px; height:347px" src="images/img690b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Diagram representing a vertical approximately median
+antero-posterior section of <i>Nautilus pompilius</i> (from a drawing by
+A.G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut muscular
+surfaces of the foot and buccal mass.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, The shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, The nuchal plate, identical
+with the nuchal cartilage of
+<i>Sepia</i> (see fig. 2, <i>b</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, The integument covering the
+visceral hump.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, The mantle flap or skirt in the
+dorsal region where it rests
+against the coil of the shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i>, The inferior margin of the
+mantle-skirt resting on the
+lip of the shell represented
+by the dotted line.</p>
+
+<p><i>f</i>, The pallial chamber with two
+of the four gills.</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, The vertically cut median portion
+of the mid-foot (siphon).</p>
+
+<p><i>h</i>, The capito-pedal cartilage (see
+fig. 8).</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, The valve of the siphon.</p>
+
+<p><i>l</i>, The siphuncular pedicle (cut
+short).</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, The hood or dorsal enlargement
+of the annular lobe of
+the fore-foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Tentacles of the annular
+lobe.</p>
+
+<p><i>p</i>, Tentacles of inner inferior
+lobe.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>q</i>, Buccal membrane.</p>
+
+<p><i>r</i>, Upper jaw or beak.</p>
+
+<p><i>s</i>, Lower jaw or beak.</p>
+
+<p><i>t</i>, Lingual ribbon.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i>, The viscero-pericardial
+sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>n.c</i>, Nerve-collar.</p>
+
+<p><i>oe</i>, Oesophagus.</p>
+
+<p><i>cr</i>, Crop.</p>
+
+<p><i>gizz</i>, Gizzard.</p>
+
+<p><i>int</i>, Intestine.</p>
+
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p>
+
+<p><i>nept</i>, Aperture of a nephridial
+sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>r.e</i>, Renal glandular masses on
+the walls of the afferent
+branchial veins (see fig.
+11).</p>
+
+<p><i>a.b.v</i>, Afferent branchial vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.b.v</i>, Efferent branchial vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>vt</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Posterior salivary glands are not developed in <i>Nautilus</i>, but on
+each side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding
+to the anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is
+present in <i>Nautilus</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:358px" src="images/img690c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Diagram to show the relations of the four nephridial
+sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large vessels in
+<i>Nautilus</i> (drawn by A.G. Bourne).<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>neph</i>, <i>neph</i>, on the right side
+point to the two nephridia
+of that side (the two of
+the opposite side are not
+lettered)&mdash;each is seen to
+have an independent
+aperture.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i> is the viscero-pericardial sac,
+the dotted line indicating
+its backward extension.</p>
+
+<p><i>visc. per. apert</i>, marks an arrow
+introduced into the right
+aperture of the viscero-pericardial
+sac.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>r.e</i>, <i>r.e</i>, point to the glandular enlarged
+walls of the afferent
+branchial vessels&mdash;two
+small glandular bodies of
+the kind are seen to project
+into each nephridial
+sac, whilst a larger body of
+the same kind depends from
+each of the four branchial
+afferent vessels into the
+viscero-pericardial sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>v.c</i>, Vena-cava.</p>
+
+<p><i>vent</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p>
+
+<p><i>ao</i>, Cephalic aorta (the small
+abdominal aorta not
+drawn).</p>
+
+<p><i>a.b.v</i>, Branchial vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.v.b</i>, Efferent branchial vessel.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Coelom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs.</i>&mdash;<i>Nautilus</i> and
+the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters
+in regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a
+lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with
+the trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the
+original coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan
+pericardium is shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and
+communicates, directly in <i>Nautilus</i>, in the rest through the renal
+sacs, with the exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized pericardial
+cavity is particularly large, and has been recognized as
+distinct from the blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who
+have not considered the pericardial space of other Mollusca to be
+thus isolated. The enlarged pericardium, which may even take the
+form of a pair of sacs, has been variously named, but is best known
+as the viscero-pericardial sac or chamber. In <i>Nautilus</i> this sac
+occupies the whole of the postero-dorsal surface and a part of the
+antero-dorsal (see fig. 10, <i>x</i>), investing the genital and other viscera
+which lie below it, and having the ventricle of the heart suspended
+in it. Certain membranes forming incomplete septa, and a curious
+muscular band&mdash;the pallio-cardiac band&mdash;traverse the sac. The
+four branchial afferent veins, which in traversing the walls of the four
+renal sacs give off, as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs,
+also give off at the same points four much larger glandular masses,
+which hang freely into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, <i>r.e</i>).
+In <i>Nautilus</i> the viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior
+directly by a pair of apertures, one placed close to the right and one
+close to the left posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, <i>visc. per</i>). This direct
+opening of the pericardial sac to the exterior is an exception to what
+occurs in all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial
+sac opens into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal
+organ to the exterior. In <i>Nautilus</i> there is no opening from the
+viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external
+pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a shifting
+of the reno-pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the renal
+sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of such shifting
+are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the ink-bag in
+Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of Mollusca, which
+in some few cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Spondylus</i>) open into the renal organs, whilst
+in other cases they open close by the side of the renal organs on the
+surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac of the Dibranchs
+is very large also, and extends into the dorsal region. It varies in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+shape&mdash;that is to say, in the extensions of its area right and left
+between the various viscera&mdash;in different genera, but in the Decapods
+is largest. In an extension of this chamber is placed the ovary
+of <i>Sepia</i>, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the branchial hearts
+and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable that water is
+drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since sand and other
+foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into the pair of renal
+sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from the external
+orifice (fig. 29, <i>y, y</i>&prime;). There does not seem any room for doubting that
+each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial orifice which we have
+seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in the Lamellibranchia.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:189px" src="images/img691.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Diagram to show the relations of the heart in the
+Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Part of the dorsal vascular
+trunk and transverse trunks
+of a worm.</p>
+
+<p>B, Ventricle and auricles of
+<i>Nautilus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C,  Of a Lamellibranch, of <i>Chiton</i>,
+or of <i>Loligo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>D,  Of <i>Octopus</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>E, Of a Gastropod.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, Auricle.</p>
+
+<p><i>v</i>, Ventricle.</p>
+
+<p><i>ac</i>, Arteria = cephalica = (aorta).</p>
+
+<p><i>ai</i>, Arteria abdominalis. The
+arrows show the direction
+of the blood-current.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of <i>Nautilus</i> do
+not differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the
+heart is a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent
+vessel (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta
+anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram,
+fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to the
+dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple
+flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one
+auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain
+the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda
+(excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart
+is seen in <i>Octopus</i>, and is to some extent approached by <i>Nautilus</i>,
+the median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is
+shown in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented
+by the heart of <i>Nautilus</i> is the possession of four instead of two
+auricles, a feature which is simply related to the metamerism of
+the branchiae. By the left side of the heart of <i>Nautilus</i>, attached
+to it by a membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial
+chamber, is the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be
+the rudimentary left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be
+(E.R. Lankester and A.G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and
+its duct being attached by a membrane to the opposite side of the
+heart.</p>
+
+<p>The cephalic and abdominal aortae of <i>Nautilus</i> appear, after
+running to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal respectively,
+to open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera,
+muscular masses, &amp;c. These spaces are not large, but confined and
+shallow. Capillaries are stated to occur in the integument. In the
+Dibranchs the arterial system is very much more complete; it
+appears in some cases to end in irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other
+cases in true capillaries which lead on into veins. An investigation
+of these capillaries in the light of modern histological knowledge is
+much needed. From the sinuses and capillaries the veins take origin,
+collecting into a large median trunk (the vena cava), which in the
+Dibranchs as well as in <i>Nautilus</i> has a ventral (postero-ventral)
+position, and runs parallel to the long axis of the animal. In <i>Nautilus</i>
+this vena cava gives off at the level of the gills four branchial afferent
+veins (fig. 11, <i>v.c.</i>), which pass into the four gills without dilating.
+In the Dibranchs at a similar position the vena cava gives off a right
+and a left branchial afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall
+of the corresponding renal sac and receiving additional factors,
+dilates at the base of the corresponding branchial plume, forming
+there a pulsating sac&mdash;the branchial heart. Attached to each
+branchial heart is a curious glandular body, which may possibly be
+related to the larger masses (fig. 11, <i>r.e.</i>) which depend into the
+viscero-pericardial cavity from the branchial afferent veins of
+<i>Nautilus</i>. From the dilated branchial heart the branchial afferent
+vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial face of the gill-plume.
+From each gill-plume the blood passes by the branchial efferent
+vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed by the dilatation
+of these vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused
+colouring matter&mdash;the haemocyanin of Fredericque&mdash;which has
+been found also in the blood of <i>Helix</i>, and in that of the Arthropods
+<i>Homarus</i> and <i>Limulus</i>. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the
+deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent.</p>
+
+<p>The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected
+with the branchial advehent vessels in <i>Nautilus</i> and in the other
+Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical
+relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance
+with the metamerism of <i>Nautilus</i> already noticed, there are two
+pairs of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a
+pore to the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a
+non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac; these portions,
+however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other cases,
+but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The glandular
+renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending along that part
+of the sac&rsquo;s wall which immediately invests the great branchial
+afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly from its wall
+a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and anastomose
+with one another, and are clothed by the glandular epithelium of the
+renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac and passed by its
+aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous excretory product
+is very rapidly discharged; in <i>Nautilus</i> a pink-coloured powder
+is found accumulated in the renal sacs, consisting of calcium phosphate.
+The presence of this phosphatic calculus by no means proves
+that such was the sole excretion of the renal glandular tissue. In
+<i>Nautilus</i> a glandular growth like that rising from the wall of the
+branchial vessel into its corresponding renal sac, but larger in size,
+depends from each branchial afferent vessel into the viscero-pericardial
+sac and forms the pericardial gland&mdash;probably identical with
+the &ldquo;appendage&rdquo; of the branchial hearts of Dibranchs.</p>
+
+<p>The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal
+organs of the Dibranchs and those of <i>Nautilus</i>, is the absence of the
+accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just
+mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of
+a pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac
+(<i>y</i>, <i>y&prime;</i> in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also
+more prominent in Dibranchs than in <i>Nautilus</i>, being raised on
+papillae (<i>np</i> in fig. 29; <i>r</i> in fig. 25). In <i>Sepia</i> the two renal sacs give
+off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow and
+forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral
+portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber.
+In <i>Loligo</i> the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still
+more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In <i>Octopus</i> the
+renal sacs are quite separate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gonads and Genital Ducts.</i>&mdash;In <i>Nautilus</i>it has been shown by
+E. Ray Lankester and A.G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both
+sexes are paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and
+forming the &ldquo;pyriform appendage,&rdquo; described by Sir R. Owen as
+adhering by membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart,
+and shown by W. Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the
+exterior. The ovary (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies
+in <i>Nautilus</i>, as in the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from
+the other viscera, near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is
+formed by the coelomic or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is
+originally part of the coelom, and in <i>Sepia</i> and <i>Loligo</i> is, in the adult,
+part of the viscero-pericardial chamber. In <i>Octopus</i> it is this genital
+chamber which communicates by a right and a left canal with the
+renal sac, and is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary
+or testis is itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which
+it only partly fills. In <i>Nautilus</i> the right genital duct, which is
+functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal
+surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary
+or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to represent
+a single median or bilateral organ.</p>
+
+<p>The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and
+the coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the
+gonad, so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the
+coelom by a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium,
+migrate below it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian
+cavity, pushing the epithelium before them. Each ovum is surrounded
+by a follicular epithelium which is nourished by numerous
+blood-vessels, and which penetrates into the surface of the ovum
+in numerous folds. When mature, the ovum is contained in a membrane
+or chorion with a micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the
+follicle into the genital coelom and duct. In its passage to the exterior
+the ovum passes a glandular structure on the wall of the
+genital capsule, which probably secretes the gelatinous substance
+enclosing the eggs. In addition to this internal gland there are
+other accessory glands, which are not related to the genital duct
+or sac but are differentiations of the wall of the pallial cavity, and
+occur on the inner wall of the pallium in <i>Nautilus</i>, on the somatic
+wall in Dibranchiata. In <i>Nautilus</i> they form a continuous mass.
+These produce the external envelopes of the eggs.</p>
+
+<p>In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the
+genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary.
+The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis
+to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermiduct
+is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal
+reservoir known as Needham&rsquo;s sac or the spermatophore sac. The
+function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an
+elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into
+itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part
+is called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span>
+coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the
+connective is extended and evaginated, and the sac containing the
+sperms bursts. In <i>Nautilus</i> the spermatophore when uncoiled is a
+little over 30 mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat
+similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In <i>Nautilus</i> they are
+laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two
+thick shells, the outer of which is partly open.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:179px; height:425px" src="images/img692a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Nervous
+system of <i>Nautilus pompilius</i>
+(from Genebaur,
+after Owen).<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><i>t, t</i>, Ganglion-like enlargements
+on
+nerves passing from
+the pedal ganglion
+to the inner series
+of tentacles.</p>
+
+<p><i>t&prime;</i>, Nerves  to the tentacles
+of the outer
+or annular lobe.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Pedal ganglion-pair</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, Cerebral ganglion-pair.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Pleuro-visceral ganglionic
+band (fused
+pleural and visceral
+ganglion-pairs).</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, Genital ganglion
+placed on the course
+of the large visceral
+nerve, just before
+it gives off its branchial
+and its osphradial
+branches.</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, Nerves from the
+pleural ganglion to
+the mantle-skirt.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;<i>Nautilus</i>, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits
+a great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown
+in fig. 13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little
+differentiated from their commissures and
+connectives&mdash;an archaic condition reminding
+us of <i>Chiton</i>. The special optic outgrowth
+of the cerebral ganglion, the optical
+ganglion (fig. 13, <i>o</i>), is characteristic. The
+cerebral ganglion-pair (<i>a</i>) lying above the
+oesophagus is connected with two suboesophageal
+ganglion-pairs, of band-like
+form. The anterior of these is the pedal
+<i>b, b</i>, and supplies the circumoral lobes and
+tentacles, and the funnel, a fact which
+proves the pedal origin of these organs.
+The hinder band is the visceral and
+pleural pair fused; from its pleural portion
+nerves pass to the mantle, from its
+visceral portion nerves to the branchiae
+and genital ganglion (fig. 13, <i>d</i>), and in
+immediate connexion with the latter is a
+nerve to the osphradium or olfactory
+papilla. A labial commissure arises by a
+double root from the cerebral ganglia and
+gives off a stomatogastric commissure,
+which passes under the pharynx immediately
+behind the radula and bears a buccal
+ganglion on either side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Special Sense-Organs.</i>&mdash;<i>Nautilus</i> possesses
+a pair of osphradial papillae (fig. 4,
+<i>olf</i>) corresponding in position and innervation
+to Spengel&rsquo;s organ placed at the
+base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all
+classes of Mollusca. This organ has not
+been detected in other Cephalopoda.
+<i>Nautilus</i> possesses other olfactory organs
+in the region of the head. Just below the
+eye is a small triangular process (not seen
+in our figures), having the structure of a
+shortened and highly-modified tentacle
+and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is
+followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded
+as an olfactory organ. The large nerve
+which runs to this organ originates from
+the point of juncture of the pedal with
+the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ
+upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe
+of <i>Nautilus</i> is possibly also olfactory in
+function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is
+a pit or open canal supplied by a nerve
+corresponding in origin to the olfactory
+nerve of <i>Nautilus</i> above mentioned. Possibly
+the sense of taste resides in certain
+processes within the mouth of <i>Nautilus</i>
+and other Cephalopoda.</p>
+
+<p>The otocysts of <i>Nautilus</i> were discovered
+by J.D. Macdonald. Each lies at the
+side of the head, ventral to the eye, resting
+on the capito-pedal cartilage, and
+supported by the large auditory nerve
+which apparently arises from the pedal
+ganglion but originates in the cerebral.
+It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and contains
+whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the otoliths
+of other Mollusca.</p>
+
+<p>The eye of <i>Nautilus</i> is among the most interesting structures of
+that remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk
+and general elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that
+of <i>Nautilus</i>. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no
+transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly
+projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in
+diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument,
+whilst in the middle of the drum-membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3, <i>u</i>).
+Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered
+this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by
+him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that
+the hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which
+is accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric
+apparatus in <i>Nautilus</i>, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we
+have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the
+principle of &ldquo;the pin-hole camera.&rdquo; There is no other eye known
+in the whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall
+of the eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked
+retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives
+the fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other
+Cephalopods (<i>e.g.</i> fig. 33, <i>Ri, Re, p</i>), the retina consists of two layers
+of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most interesting
+consideration connected with this eye of <i>Nautilus</i> is found when the
+further facts are noted&mdash;(1) that the elaborate lens-bearing eyes of
+Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development in which they have
+the same structure as the eye of <i>Nautilus</i>&mdash;namely, are open sacs
+(fig. 34); and (2) that amongst other Mollusca examples of cephalic
+eyes can be found which in the adult condition are, like the eye of
+<i>Nautilus</i> and the developing eye of Dibranchs, simple pits of the integument,
+the cells of which are surrounded by pigment and connected
+with the filaments of an optic nerve. Such is the structure
+of the eye of the limpet (<i>Patella</i>), and in such a simple eye we obtain
+the clearest demonstration of the fact that the retina of the Molluscan
+cephalic eye, like that of the Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that
+of the vertebrate myelonic eye, is essentially a modified area of the
+general epiderm, and that the sensitiveness of its cells to the action
+of light and their relation to nerve-filaments is only a specialization
+and intensifying of a property common to the whole epiderm of the
+surface of the body. What, however, strikes us as especially remarkable
+is that the simple form of a pit, which in <i>Patella</i> serves to
+accumulate a secretion which acts as a refractive body, should in
+<i>Nautilus</i> be glorified and raised to the dignity of an efficient optical
+apparatus. In all other Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from
+the follicular or pit-like condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire
+the form of a <i>closed</i> sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then
+filled partially or completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by
+its walls (fig. 14, B). This is the condition attained in most Gastropoda.
+It presents a striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye,
+where, in consequence of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the
+eye does not form a vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:523px; height:281px" src="images/img692b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, <i>Nautilus</i> (and <i>Patella</i>).</p>
+
+<p>B, Gastropod (<i>Limax</i> or <i>Helix</i>).</p>
+
+<p>C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod
+(Oigopsid).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pal</i>, Eyelid (outermost fold).</p>
+
+<p><i>Co</i>, Cornea (second fold).</p>
+
+<p><i>Ir</i>, Iris (third fold).</p>
+
+<p><i>Int</i> 1,2,3,4, Different parts of the
+integument.</p>
+
+<p><i>l</i>, Deep portion of the lens.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Outer portion of the lens</p>
+
+<p><i>Co.ep</i>, Ciliary body.</p>
+
+<p>R, Retina.</p>
+
+<p><i>N.op</i>, Optic nerve.</p>
+
+<p><i>G.op</i>, Optic ganglion.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i>, Inner layer of the retina.</p>
+
+<p><i>N.S.</i>, Nervous stratum of the
+retina. (From Balfour, after
+Grenacher.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">The development of <i>Nautilus</i> is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur
+Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts
+to obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native
+fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in captivity,
+but without success.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phylogeny and Classification.</i>&mdash;As <i>Nautilus</i> is the only living genus
+of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based upon
+the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of shell
+similar in structure to that of <i>Nautilus</i> are known, chiefly from
+Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two
+sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial
+chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse
+cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated
+dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle,
+which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter
+its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial
+chamber is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape,
+with no cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a
+constriction. The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation
+which deeply indents the front wall of the initial chamber, called
+the protoconch, but does not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-Chalmas
+has shown that the cavity of the protoconch is traversed
+by a tubular organ, the &ldquo;prosiphon,&rdquo; which does not communicate
+with the true siphuncle, the place of which it is supposed to take in
+the early life of the animal. It is generally held, as suggested by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span>
+Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial chamber of the Nautiloidea corresponds
+not to the protoconch of the Ammonoids, but to the second
+chamber of the latter, and that there existed in the young Nautiloids
+a true initial chamber, a protoconch which was either uncalcified or
+deciduous. The shell of the living nautilus does not decide this
+question, as its early stages are unknown, and there is a little vacuity
+in the centre of the spirally coiled shell which may have been originally
+occupied by the true protoconch.</p>
+
+<p>The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the
+aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards
+(fig. I); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is
+usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed
+forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united
+to the shell are known as &ldquo;sutures,&rdquo; and these in the Nautiloidea
+are simply curved or slightly lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea
+they are folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections
+of the suture towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those
+in the opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the <i>Nautilus</i>
+pierces the centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually
+central or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that
+case may be external, <i>i.e.</i> ventral, or internal, <i>i.e.</i> dorsal. In Ammonoids
+the siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its
+walls in the living <i>Nautilus</i> are strengthened by the deposit of calcareous
+granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely
+calcified. But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from calcareous
+tubes surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from
+the septa. In the pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged backwards
+at the point where it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming
+a shelly tube somewhat like the neck of a bottle. In many fossil
+forms these septal necks are continued from the septum from which
+they arise to the next, so that the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete
+secondary calcareous tube. In the majority of Nautiloids the septal
+necks are directed backwards, and they are said to be retrosiphonate.
+In the majority of the Ammonoids the septal necks are continued
+forwards from the septa to which they belong, and such forms are
+termed prosiphonate.</p>
+
+<p>The Tetrabranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and
+Mesozoic periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing
+first in the Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the
+Palaeozoic period, and comparatively few surviving into the Secondary.
+On the other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic
+formations, being represented in deposits earlier than the Carboniferous
+only by comparatively simple types, such as <i>Clymenia</i> and
+<i>Goniatites</i>. In the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abundant,
+both in genera and species and in individuals, and with few local exceptions
+none are known to have survived even to the commencement
+of the Tertiary. In the widest sense the genus <i>Nautilus</i> has existed
+since the Ordovician (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not
+properly to be placed in the same genus as the existing form. Even
+with this qualification the genus is very ancient, shells very similar
+to those of the living <i>Nautilus</i> being found in the Upper Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea
+were Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the
+shell was, therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed
+with the Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the
+possession of an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be
+little doubt that they gave rise to the Dibranchiata.</p>
+
+<p>About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only
+a few species of the genus <i>Nautilus</i> survive. Some of the fossil forms
+are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6 in.
+Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described,
+and some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been
+found peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within
+the body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The
+most typical form of these structures has been named <i>aptychus.</i>
+It consists of two bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semicircular
+shape, and attached to one another by their straight inner
+margins, like a pair of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and
+horny, but more often it is thick and calcified, in which case the
+principal layer has a peculiar cellular structure. The surface may
+be smooth or sculptured, and one side is usually marked by concentric
+lines of growth. Another type is similar, except that the
+two halves are united in the middle line; bodies of this character are
+called <i>synaptychus</i>; they occur in the body-chamber of species of
+<i>Scaphites</i>. Another form called <i>anaptychus</i> consists of a thin horny
+undivided plate which is concentrically striated. This is associated
+with species of <i>Ammonites</i> and <i>Goniatites</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these structures.
+According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an operculum
+developed in a part of the body corresponding to the hood
+of <i>Nautilus</i>. E. Ray Lankester suggested that the double plate was
+borne on the surface of the nidamental gland, with the form and
+sculpturing of which in <i>Nautilus</i> it closely agrees. On this view the
+aptychus would occur only in females. The most recent view is that
+these structures could not have been opercula because of their constant
+position inside the body-chamber, and that they were not external
+secretions at all, but a calcified internal cartilage situated at the
+base of the funnel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification of Tetrabranchiata.</i>&mdash;Cephalopoda in which the
+mantle is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell,
+which may or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the
+shell occupied by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles
+around the mouth, which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of
+the funnel not united. Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of
+renal tubes without reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens
+directly to exterior. Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic
+vesicles with apertures, without crystalline lens.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Sub-order</i> 1. <i>Nautiloidea</i>.&mdash;Initial chamber not inflated, with
+dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Orthoceratidae</i>. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a
+simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical
+siphuncle. <i>Orthoceras</i>, Silurian to Trias. <i>Baltoceras</i>, Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2. <i>Actinoceratidae</i>. Shell straight or slightly curved, with
+wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. <i>Actinoceras</i>,
+Silurian to Carboniferous. <i>Discosorus</i>, Silurian. <i>Huronia</i>,
+Silurian. <i>Loxoceras</i>, Silurian to Carboniferous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3. <i>Endoceratidae</i>. Shell straight, with wide margina
+siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another.
+<i>Endoceras</i>, Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4. <i>Gomphoceratidae</i>. Shell globular, straight or arcuate,
+aperture contracted. <i>Gomphoceras</i>, Silurian. <i>Phragmoceras</i>,
+Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5. <i>Ascoceratidae</i>. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit
+truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of
+shell ventrally. <i>Ascoceras</i>, Silurian. <i>Glossoceras</i>, Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6. <i>Poterioceratidae</i>. Shell straight or curved, fusiform,
+aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. <i>Poterioceras</i>,
+Silurian to Carboniferous. <i>Streptoceras</i>, Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7. <i>Cyrtoceratidae</i>. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple,
+siphuncle wide, septa approximated. <i>Cyrtoceras</i>, Devonian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8. <i>Lituitidae</i>. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal
+part uncoiled, aperture contracted. <i>Lituites</i>, Silurian. <i>Ophidioceras</i>,
+Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9. <i>Trochoceratidae</i>. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or
+sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. <i>Trochoceras</i>,
+Devonian. <i>Adelphoceras</i>, Devonian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10. <i>Nautilidae</i>. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide
+and simple, siphuncle central. <i>Nautilus</i>, recent. <i>Trocholites</i>,
+Silurian. <i>Gyroceras</i>, Silurian to Carboniferous. <i>Hercoceras</i>,
+Silurian. <i>Ptenoceras</i>, Devonian. <i>Discites</i>, Carboniferous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11. <i>Bactritidae</i>. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow
+and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating.
+<i>Bactrites</i>, Silurian and Devonian.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Sub-order</i> 2. <i>Ammonitoidea</i>,&mdash;Initial chamber spheroidal;
+siphuncle narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture;
+sutures complex.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tribe</i> 1. <i>Retrosiphonata</i>.&mdash;Siphuncular  necks  projecting  behind
+the septa as in  Nautiloidea. Sutures form  simple undulations.
+Occur exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Goniatitidae</i>. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and
+ventral siphuncle. <i>Goniatites</i>, Devonian and Carboniferous.
+<i>Anarcestes</i>, Devonian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2. <i>Clymeniidae</i>. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures,
+siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. <i>Clymenia</i>, Upper Devonian.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Tribe</i> 2. <i>Prosiphonata.</i>&mdash;Siphuncular necks projecting in front
+of the septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Arcestidae</i>. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth,
+with reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an
+aptychus present. <i>Popanoceras</i>, Permian. <i>Cyclolobus</i>, Permian,
+<i>Arcestes</i>, Trias. <i>Lobites</i>, Trias.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2. <i>Tropitidae</i>. Shells globular, but having radiating and
+tuberculated costae. <i>Thalassoceras</i>, Permian. <i>Tropites</i>, Trias.
+<i>Sibirites</i>, Trias.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3. <i>Ceratitidae</i>. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus, terminal
+chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. <i>Trachyceras</i>,
+Upper Trias. <i>Ceratites</i>, Trias. <i>Dinarites</i>, Trias.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled
+forms, viz. <i>Cochloceras</i>, Trias; also some straight forms, <i>e.g. Rhab-doccras</i>,
+Trias.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 4. <i>Pinacoceratidae</i>. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal
+chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. <i>Pinacoceras</i>,
+Trias.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5. <i>Phylloceratidae</i>. Shell  coiled, the whorls overlapping
+each other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles.
+<i>Phytloceras</i>, Jurassic.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6. <i>Lytoceratidae</i>. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or
+uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles
+and lobes. <i>Lytoceras</i>, Jurassic and Cretaceous. <i>Macroscaphites</i>,
+Cretaceous. <i>Reunites</i>, Cretaceous. <i>Ptychoeeras</i>, Cretaceous.
+<i>Turrilites</i>, Cretaceous. <i>Baculites</i>, Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7. <i>Ammonitidae</i>. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which
+do not embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anaptychus
+present. <i>Ammonites</i>, Jurassic. <i>Arietites</i>, Jurassic.
+<i>Aegoceras</i>, Lias.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8. <i>Harpoceratidae</i>. Shell discord and flattened, with a
+carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+a calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. <i>Harpoceras</i>,
+Jurassic. <i>Oppelia</i>, Jurassic. <i>Lissoceras</i>, Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9. <i>Amaltheidae</i>. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina
+continued anteriorly into a rostrum. <i>Amaltheus</i>, Lias. <i>Cardioceras</i>,
+Jurassic. <i>Schloenbachia</i>, Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10. <i>Stephanoceratidae</i>. Shell not carinated, but with radiating
+costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with
+lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two
+pieces. <i>Stephanoceras, Morphoceras, Pensphinctes, Peltoceras</i>,
+Jurassic. <i>Hoplites</i>, Cretaceous. <i>Acanthoceras</i>, Cretaceous.
+<i>Cosmoceras</i>, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are
+related to this family, viz. <i>Scaphites, Crioceras</i>, Cretaceous.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="center ptb1"><span class="sc">Order 2. Dibranchiata</span> (= Holosiphona, Acetabulifera)</p>
+
+<p><i>Characters</i>.&mdash;Cephalopoda in which the inflected margins of
+the epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon
+(fig. 24, <i>i</i>). The circumoral lobes of the fore-foot carry suckers
+disposed upon them in rows, <i>not</i> tentacles (see figs. 15, 24).
+There is a single pair of typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills
+(hence Dibranchiata), and a single pair of renal organs, opening
+by apertures right and left of the median anus (fig. 25, <i>r</i>) and by
+similar internal pores into the pericardial chamber, which consequently
+does not open directly to the surface as in <i>Nautilus</i>.
+The oviducts are sometimes paired right and left (Octopoda,
+Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed (Myopsida).
+The sperm-duct is always single except, according to
+W. Keferstein, in <i>Eledone moschata.</i></p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:679px" src="images/img694a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;<i>Sepia officinalis</i>, L., about ½ natural size, as seen when
+dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the pouches
+at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life when
+not actually in use. <i>a</i>. Neck; <i>b</i>, lateral fin of the mantle-sac;
+<i>c</i>, the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; <i>d</i>, the two long prehensile
+arms; <i>e</i>, the eyes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the
+mantle (figs 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none,
+and in <i>Spirula</i> (fig. 17, D) and the extinct <i>Belemnitidae</i>, &amp;c.,
+which have a small chambered shell resembling that of <i>Nautilus</i>
+with or without the addition of plate-like and cylindrical accessory
+developments (fig. 17, A, C, fig. 19).</p>
+
+<p>The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a
+refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds,&mdash;the vesicle being
+in the embryo, an open sac like that of <i>Nautilus</i> (fig. 34). Osphradia
+are not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recognized.
+One or two pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are
+present. An ink-sac formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and
+opening near the anus is present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, <i>t</i>),
+and has been detected
+even in the fossil <i>Belemnitidae.</i>
+Branchial
+hearts are developed on
+the two branchial afferent
+blood-vessels (fig.
+28, <i>vc&prime;</i>, <i>vi</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:480px; height:582px" src="images/img694b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Decapodous Cephalopods.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><p>A, <i>Cheiroteuthis Veranyi</i>, d&rsquo;Orb. (from the Mediterranean).</p>
+<p>B, <i>Thysanoteuthis rhombus</i>, Troschel (from Messina).</p>
+<p>C, <i>Loligopsis cyclura</i>, Fér. and d&rsquo;Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:308px" src="images/img694c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Internal Shells of Cephalopoda.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, <i>Conoteutliis dupiniana</i>, d&rsquo;Orb. (from
+the Neocomian of France).</p>
+
+<p>B, Shell <i>Sepia orbigniana</i>. Fér. (Mediterranean).</p>
+
+<p>C, Shell of <i>Spirulirostra Bellardii</i>, d&rsquo;Orb.
+(from the Miocene of Turin). The
+specimen is cut so as to show in
+section the chambered shell and the
+laminated &ldquo;guard&rdquo; deposited upon
+its surface.</p>
+
+<p>D, Shell of <i>Splrula laevis</i>, Gray (New Zealand).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">In the Dibranchiata
+the shell shows various
+stages of degeneration,
+culminating in its complete
+disappearance in
+<i>Octopus</i>. As in other
+Mollusca, there is a tendency
+in Cephalopods for
+the mantle to extend
+over the outside of the
+shell from its edges, and
+when these secondary
+mantle-folds entirely
+cover the shell and meet
+or fuse together the shell
+is surrounded by the
+mantle both externally
+and internally, and is
+said to be internal,
+though it remains always
+a cuticular structure external
+to the epidermis. This procebs is generally accompanied
+by a reduction of the size of the shell in comparison with
+that of the body, so that the relations of the two are gradually
+reversed, the body outgrows its house and instead of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span>
+mantle being enclosed by the shell, the shell  is  enclosed  by
+the mantle.    The earliest stage of this  process   is   shown   in
+the recent <i>Spirula,</i>
+though it is perhaps
+not impossible that in
+some of the later fossil
+Ammonoids the shell
+was becoming more
+and more internal.
+The shell of <i>Spirula</i>
+(fig. 18) is coiled
+somewhat like that of
+<i>Nautilus</i>, but the coils
+are not in contact, the
+direction of the coil is
+endogastric or ventral
+instead of exogastric,
+and the shell is very
+much smaller than the
+body. Like that of
+<i>Nautilus</i> it is divided
+by septa and traversed
+by a siphuncle. The
+relation of the animal
+to the terminal
+chamber is as in <i>Nautilus,</i>
+but the body
+extends   far   beyond
+the aperture, and folds
+of the mantle grow up over the shell
+and cover it everywhere except part
+of the dorsal and ventral surfaces.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:325px; height:405px" src="images/img695a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">After Chun, from Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise an Zoology</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;<i>Spirula.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">A,  Dorsal aspect.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>pa</i>, Mantle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">B,  Ventral aspect.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>po</i>, Posterior fossa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>a</i>,  Arms.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>sh</i>, Shell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>e</i>,  Eyes.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>te</i>, Tentacular arms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>fi</i>, Fins.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>td</i>, Terminal pallial disk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>fu</i>, Funnel.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:186px; height:662px" src="images/img695b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;Digram of shell
+Belemnite (after Phillips).
+<i>r</i>. Horny pen or &ldquo;proostracum&rdquo;:
+A, conical
+cavity or &ldquo;alveolus,&rdquo; in
+which the chambered
+&ldquo;phragmacone&rdquo; (<i>p</i>) is
+contained:  <i>g</i>, &ldquo;guard,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;rostrum.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The next modification in the enclosed
+shell is the addition to it
+of secondary deposits of calcareous
+matter, by the inner surface of the
+shell-sac. Successive layers are deposited
+on the posterior part of the
+original shell, whether coiled or straight,
+and these layers form a conical mass,
+which may attain great thickness. A
+somewhat coiled shell with such a
+deposit is seen in <i>Spirulirostra</i> (fig.
+17, C) of the Miocene. In the next
+stage of modification secondary secretion
+forms a long and broad
+projection of the dorsal lip of
+the aperture; this is well
+developed in the belemnites
+(fig. 19). Thus in these modified
+shells three parts are to
+be distinguished: the original
+septate shell, which has been
+called the phragmacone; the
+posterior conical deposit, called
+the rostrum or guard; and the
+anterior somewhat flat projection,
+called the proostracum.
+In the living Dibranchiata
+other than <i>Spirula</i> the phragmacone
+and rostrum have become
+very rudimentary. The
+shell of <i>Sepia</i> (fig. 20) consists
+almost entirely of the proostracum,
+the little ventral
+hollow posteriorly representing
+the phragmacone, and the posterior
+pointed projection, the
+rostrum. In the <i>Oigopsida</i> the
+shell is represented by a proostracum
+which is no longer calcified by forms a chitinous
+plume or gladuius, and a similar rudiment occurs in <i>Loliginidac</i>
+(fig. 21) and <i>Sepiolidae</i>. Lastly, in the Octopoda the shell is
+represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the
+retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are
+paired in <i>Octopus</i>, unpaired in other cases as in <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which
+the shell is enclosed has led to an erroneous identification
+of this sac with the primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of
+the Molluscan embryo. The first appearance of the shell-sac
+in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36. Its formation
+as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and
+the fact that it appears and disappears without closing in
+<i>Argonauta</i> and <i>Octopus</i>, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:356px; height:519px" src="images/img695c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" style="padding-left: 20%;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;The calcareous internal shell of <i>Sepia officinalis,</i> the so-called
+cuttle-bone, <i>a</i>, Lateral expansion; <i>b</i>, anterior cancellated
+region; <i>c</i>, laminated region, the laminae enclosing air.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of <i>Lohgo</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:576px; height:421px" src="images/img695d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;The Argonaut in life.  (After Lacaze-Duthiers)  <i>Tr</i>. Float:
+<i>Br.a</i>, anterior arms: <i>Br.p</i>, posterior arms: V, the expanded portion of them,
+once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; <i>En</i>, the Funnel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">In <i>Argonauta</i> (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses
+a shell,   in   which   the   body   is   contained;  but  this  is  not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+homologous with the true shell in other cases; it is a structure <i>sui
+generis</i> secreted by the expanded arms of the dorsal pair which
+are closely applied to it on either side (fig. 22).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:216px; height:881px" src="images/img696a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:210px; height:506px" src="images/img696b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;Head and circumoral processes of the fore-foot
+of <i>Onychoteuthis</i> (from Owen).<br /><br /></td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Male of <i>Ocythoe catenulata</i>, Steenstrup
+(<i>Octopus carena</i>, Ver.), showing the hectocotylized
+arm.  (From Gegenbaur.)<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Neck.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, The eight short arms.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, Long prehensile arms, the clavate extremities of
+which are provided with suckers at e, and with a
+double row of hooks beyond at f. The temporary
+conjunction of the arms by means of the suckers
+enables them to act in combination.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>t<span class="sp">1</span>, t<span class="sp">2</span>, t<span class="sp">3</span>, t<span class="sp">4</span></i>, The first, second,
+third and fourth arms or processes of the fore-foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>h</i>, The third arm of the right  side hectocotylized.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i>, The apical sac of the hectocotylized arm.</p>
+
+<p><i>y</i>, The filament which issues from the sac when development is complete.</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, The siphon.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Head, Foot, Mantle and Mantle-cavity.</i>&mdash;If we now compare the
+fore-foot of the Dibranchiata with that of <i>Nautilus</i>, we find in the
+first place a more simple arrangement of its lobes, which are either
+four or five pairs of tapering processes
+(called &ldquo;arms&rdquo;), arranged in a series
+around the buccal cone, and a substitution
+of suckers for tentacles on
+the surface of these lobes (figs. 15
+and 24). The most dorsally placed
+pair of arms, corresponding to the two
+sides of the hood of <i>Nautilus</i>, are in
+reality the most anterior, and are
+termed the first pair. In the Octopoda
+there are four pairs of these arms
+(fig. 38), in the Decapoda five pairs,
+of which the fourth is greatly elongated
+(figs. 15, 16). In <i>Sepia</i>, <i>Sepiola</i>
+and <i>Rossia</i>, each of these long arms is
+withdrawn into a pouch beside the
+head, and is only ejected for the
+purpose of prehension. In <i>Loligo</i> they
+are completely retractile, very slightly
+so in the majority of the Oigopsida, and in <i>Rhynchoteuthis</i> they
+are united to form a beak-like appendage. A gradual reduction
+of the tentacular arms can be seen in the Decapoda, leading
+to their total absence in Octopoda; thus in <i>Leachia</i>, <i>Chaunoteuthis</i>
+and others these arms are reduced to mere stumps. In some
+<i>Cheiroteuthidae</i> and <i>Cranchiidae</i> the ordinary or sessile arms,
+especially the dorsal pairs, are reduced. In the Octopoda they
+are not unfrequently connected by a web, and form an efficient
+swimming-bell, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i> and <i>Amphuretidae</i>. The
+suckers are placed on the adoral surface of the arms, and may be in
+one, two or four rows, and very numerous. In place of suckers in
+some genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Veranya</i>, we find on certain arms or parts of the
+arms horny hooks; in other cases a hook rises from the centre of
+each sucker. The hooks on the long arms of <i>Onychoteuthis</i> are drawn
+in fig. 23. In various species of <i>Cheiroteuthis</i> the suckers on the
+tentacular arms are very feeble, but the bottom of the cup is covered
+by a number of anastomosed epithelial filaments which are used as
+a fishing-net. The fore-foot, with its apparatus of suckers and
+hooks, is in the Dibranchiata essentially a prehensile apparatus,
+though the whole series of arms in the Octopoda serve as swimming
+organs, and in many (<i>e.g.</i> the common octopus or poulp) the sucker-bearing
+surface is used as a crawling organ.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:561px" src="images/img696c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;View of the postero-ventral surface of a male <i>Sepia</i>,
+obtained by cutting longitudinally the firm mantle-skirt and drawing
+the divided halves apart. This figure is strictly comparable with
+fig. 4. (From Gegenbaur.)<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>C</i>, The head.</p>
+
+<p><i>J</i>, The mid-foot or siphon,
+which has been cut open
+so as to display the valve <i>i</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>R</i>, The glandular tissue of the
+left nephridium or renal-sac,
+which has been cut
+open (see fig. 29).</p>
+
+<p><i>P, P</i>, The lateral fins of the
+mantle-skirt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Br</i>, The single pair of branchiae
+(ctenidia).</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>, The anus&mdash;immediately
+below it is the opening of
+the ink-bag.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Cartilaginous socket in the
+siphon to receive <i>c&prime;</i>, the
+cartilaginous knob of the
+mantle-skirt&mdash;the two constituting
+the &ldquo;pallial hinge
+apparatus&rdquo; characteristic
+of Decapoda, not found in
+Octopoda.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>g</i>, The azygos genital papilla
+and aperture.</p>
+
+<p><i>&prime;i</i>, Valve of the siphon (possibly
+the rudimentary hind-foot)</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, Muscular band connected
+with the fore-foot and
+mid-foot (siphon) and
+identical with the muscular
+mass <i>k</i> in fig. 3.</p>
+
+<p><i>r</i>, Renal papillae, carrying the
+apertures of the nephridia.</p>
+
+<p><i>v.br</i>, Branchial efferent blood-vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>v br&prime;</i>, Bulbous enlargements of
+the branchial blood-vessels
+(see figs 28, 29).</p>
+
+<p><i>t</i>,  Ink-bag.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the males of the Dibranchiata one of the arms is more or less
+modified in connexion with the reproductive function, and is called
+the &ldquo;hectocotylized arm.&rdquo; This name is derived from the condition
+assumed by the arm in those cases in which its modification is
+carried out to the greatest extent. These cases are those of the
+Octopods <i>Argonauta argo</i> and <i>Ocythoe catenulata</i> (fig. 24). In the
+males of these the third arm (on the left side in <i>Argonauta</i>, on the
+right side in <i>Ocythoe</i>) is found before the breeding season to be represented
+by a globular sac of integument. This sac bursts, and from
+it issues an arm larger than its neighbours, having a small sac at
+its extremity in <i>Ocythoe</i> (fig. 24. <i>x</i>), from which subsequently a long
+filament issues. Before copulation the male charges this arm with
+the spermatophores or packets of spermatozoa removed from its
+generative orifice beneath the mantle-skirt, and during coitus the
+arm becomes detached and is left adhering to the female by means
+of its suckers. A new arm is formed at the cicatrix before the next
+breeding season. The female, being much larger than the male,
+swims away with the detached arm lodged beneath her mantle-skirt.
+There, in a way which is not understood, the fertilization of the eggs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span>
+is effected. Specimens of the female <i>Ocythoë</i> with the detached arm
+adherent were examined by Cuvier, who mistook the arm for a parasitic
+worm and gave to it the name <i>Hectocotylus</i>. Accordingly, the
+correspondingly modified arms of other Cephalopoda are said to be
+hectocotylized. J.J.S. Steenstrup has determined the hectocotylized
+condition of one or other of the arms in a number of male
+Dibranchs as follows:&mdash;in all, excepting <i>Argonauta</i> and <i>Ocythoe</i>
+and <i>Tremoctopus</i>, the modification of the arm is slight, consisting
+in a small enlargement of part or the whole of the arm, and the
+obliteration of some of its suckers; in <i>Octopus</i> and <i>Eledone</i> the third
+right arm is hectocotylized; in <i>Rossia</i> and <i>Sepiola</i> the fourth left
+arm is hectocotylized along its whole length, and the fourth right
+arm also in the middle only; in <i>Sepia</i> the fourth left arm is modified
+at its base only; in <i>Sepioteuthis</i>, the same at its apex; in <i>Loligo</i>, the
+same also at its apex; in <i>Loliolus</i>, the same along its whole length;
+in <i>Ommatostrephes</i>, <i>Onychoteuthis</i> and <i>Loligopsis</i> no hectocotylized
+arm has hitherto been observed. Thus, speaking generally, it is
+one or both of the fourth pair of short arms which are modified in the
+Decapoda, of the third pair in the Octopoda. In the pallial cavity
+are situated one pair of gills in the Dibranchiata (fig. 25), attached
+dorsally along the whole of their afferent borders. On each side of
+the branchia is a series of lamellae, least in number in the Octopoda.
+Each lamella is transversely folded, and the folds are in turn folded,
+so that the respiratory surface is increased. On the somatic wall
+of the pallial cavity, between and ventral to the gills, are the following
+apertures: the anus and opening of the ink-sac, close together in
+the median line; a pair of apertures of the renal sacs, on either side
+of the median line; external to the renal orifice, on the left side,
+the genital aperture in <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i> and Myopsida. In other
+Octopoda, and in nearly all the Oigopsida among the Decapoda, the
+genital ducts are paired in the female, but only the left is developed
+in the male. The funnel forms a complete tube in the Dibranchiata,
+and in the majority of the Decapoda, as in <i>Nautilus</i>, it is provided
+with an internal valve projecting from its somatic surface, which
+allows water to pass outwards but prevents it passing inwards. The
+mantle performs rhythmical respiratory movements of expansion and
+contraction, the water entering between funnel and mantle and
+passing out through the funnel. In Decapoda the edge of the mantle
+bears internally on each side a cartilaginous projection which fits
+into a corresponding depression on the external surface of the
+funnel; this is called the &ldquo;resisting apparatus,&rdquo; and serves to make
+the union of mantle and funnel firmer during expiration. More
+powerful expiratory movements are used for sudden retrograde
+locomotion through the water.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:438px; height:256px" src="images/img697a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;Diagram representing a vertical approximately median
+antero-posterior section of <i>Sepia officinalis</i> (from a drawing by A.G.
+Bourne). The lettering corresponds with that of fig. 10, with which
+this drawing is intended to be compared.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Shell (here enclosed by a growth of the mantle).</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, The nuchal plate (here a cartilage).</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, (The reference line should be continued through the black area
+  representing the shell to the outline below it), the integument covering
+  the visceral hump.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, The reflected portion of the mantle-skirt forming the sac
+  which encloses the shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i>, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt (mouth of the pallial
+  chamber).</p>
+
+<p><i>f</i>, The pallial chamber.</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, The vertically cut median portion of the siphon.</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, The valve of the siphon.</p>
+
+<p><i>m</i>, The two upper lobes of the fore-foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, The long prehensile arms of the same.</p>
+
+<p><i>o</i>, The fifth or lowermost lobe of the fore-foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>p</i>, The third lobe of the fore-foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>q</i>, The buccal membrane.</p>
+
+<p><i>v</i>, The upper beak or jaw.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>s</i>, The lower beak or jaw.</p>
+
+<p><i>t</i>, The lingual ribbon.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i>, The viscero-pericardial sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>n.c</i>, The nerve-collar.</p>
+
+<p><i>cr</i>, The crop.</p>
+
+<p><i>gizz</i>, The gizzard.</p>
+
+<p><i>an</i>, The anus.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.t</i>, The left ctenidium or gill-plume.</p>
+
+<p><i>vent</i>, Ventricle of the heart.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.b.v</i>, Afferent branchial vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.b.v</i>, Efferent branchial vessel.</p>
+
+<p><i>re</i>, Renal glandular mass.</p>
+
+<p><i>n.n.a</i>, Left nephridial aperture.</p>
+
+<p><i>visc.per.apert</i>, Viscero-pericardial aperture (see fig. 29).</p>
+
+<p><i>br.b</i>, Branchial heart.</p>
+
+<p><i>app</i>, Appendage of the same.</p>
+
+<p><i>i.s</i>, Ink-bag.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Luminous Organs.</i>&mdash;In certain Oigopsida living in deep water,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>Histioteuthis, Calliteuthis, Histiopsis, Pterygioteuthis</i>, the
+surface of the skin bears photogenous organs directed towards the oral
+extremity. Anatomically these consist of a deeper photogenous
+layer and a more superficial refracting layer. In some cases, <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Pterygioteuthis</i>, they occur even within the mantle-cavity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fins.</i>&mdash;In the majority of the Decapoda and in the <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>,
+the mantle is produced into lateral symmetrical expansions which
+have the function of fins. They originate at the aboral extremity
+where they remain in <i>Spirula</i> (fig. 18). In most other Oigopsida they
+are terminal, but more dorsal than ventral, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Loligopsis</i> (fig. 16),
+and there may be two on each side, as in <i>Grimalditeuthis</i>. In other
+cases they extend laterally along a greater length of the body, as in
+<i>Sepia</i> (fig. 15). In <i>Ctenopteryx</i> they have a superficial
+resemblance to the fins of fishes, consisting of a thin membrane supported
+by a series of muscular rods.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:393px" src="images/img697b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;Alimentary canal of <i>Loligo sagittata</i> (from Gegenbaur).
+The buccal mass is omitted.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>oe</i>, Oesophagus.</p>
+<p><i>v</i>, The stomach opened longitudinally.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Probe passed through the pylorus.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Commencement of the caecum.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Its spiral portion.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Ink-bag.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Its opening into the rectum.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Chromatophores.</i>&mdash;These are characteristic of the Dibranchiata,
+apparently absent in <i>Nautilus</i>. They are originally single cells of
+ectodermic origin which sink below the epidermis and become
+connected with radiating muscular fibres. The cells are single but
+multinuclear. Different cells contain pigments of different colours,
+yellow, brown, red or blue. Each cell in life is in constant tremulous
+movement; under the influence of nervous
+excitement the cells are suddenly expanded
+or contracted, producing blushes of colour
+and pallor. By reflex action of which the
+afferent stimulus acts upon the eyes as in
+fishes, the chromatophores assume a
+condition which approximates the colour of
+the animal to that of surrounding objects.
+In the Decapoda there are also reflecting
+elements which produce iridescent hues.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aquiferous Cavities.</i>&mdash;In addition to the
+pockets into which the tentacular arms of
+Decapoda are retracted, there are in several
+Dibranchiata cavities in the integument
+which open to the exterior by special pores
+but have no communication with the vascular
+system or other internal cavities of
+the body. In <i>Ocythoe</i> there are such pores
+on the back of the head and at the base of
+the funnel; buccal pouches on the ventral
+side of the mouth, internal to the arms,
+occur in some genera, one in <i>Loligo</i>, two in
+<i>Sepia</i>. In some species of <i>Sepia</i> there are
+pouches in the mantle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alimentary Tube.</i>&mdash;The principal differences
+from <i>Nautilus</i> are the following:&mdash;the
+mandibles are similar in shape, but are
+chitinous, not calcified. In the radula there
+are three teeth on each side of the median
+tooth in each row, except in <i>Gonatus</i>, in
+which there are only two lateral teeth, and
+the <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>, in which the radula has
+entirely disappeared. In front of the radula
+is the so-called tongue, a fleshy projection
+corresponding to the sub-radular organ of
+other Mollusca.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the Dibranchiata there are two
+pairs of salivary glands. In the Decapoda
+the ducts of the posterior pair unite into a
+median duct which opens on the surface of
+the sub-radular organ. The anterior pair
+is but slightly developed except in the
+Oigopsida. In the Octopoda there are also
+two pairs, but the posterior pair, except
+in <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i> where they are absent,
+are large and displaced backwards, being
+situated near the oesophageal proventriculus. Connected with the
+intestine immediately beyond the pylorus is a thin-walled caecum,
+spherical in <i>Rossia</i> and <i>Leachia</i>, elongated in <i>Loligo</i>,
+but usually coiled into a spiral (fig. 27). The hepatic ducts open into
+the caecum. The liver is developed as a paired gland, more or less
+fused into one in the adult, but the ducts are always paired. The
+ducts are covered by a number of glandular follicles forming what
+is called the pancreas.</p>
+
+<p>The ink-sac, absent in <i>Nautilus</i>, is a rectal caecum developed from
+its dorsal wall. It is present in all Dibranchiata except <i>Octopus arcticus,
+O. piscatorum</i> and <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i>. It consists of a deeper part
+or gland proper and a reservoir. It extends to the posterior extremity
+of the body in <i>Sepia</i>, but in <i>Octopoda</i> is usually embedded
+in the surface of the liver. The pigment of the secretion is melanin,
+and its function is to produce a dense opacity in the water, which
+conceals the animal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vascular System</i> (fig. 28).&mdash;The ventricle lies in the pericardial
+cavity, except in Octopoda where this cavity is much reduced. The
+auricles, one pair, are contractile expansions of the efferent branchial
+vessels. The heart gives off an anterior or cephalic and a posterior
+or abdominal aorta. The vascular system is almost perfect, arteries
+and veins being united by capillaries. The principal vein is a vena
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span>
+cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and
+dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a
+pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial
+vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered
+externally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of
+the &ldquo;kidney&rdquo; (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a
+contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular
+appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which
+are attached to the afferent branchial veins in <i>Nautilus</i>, and
+to the pericardial glands of other Molluscs.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:348px; height:350px" src="images/img698a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;Circulatory and excretory organs of <i>Sepia</i> (from Gegenbaur,
+after John Hunter).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>br</i>,  Branchiae (ctenidia).</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,   Ventricle of the heart.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>,   Anterior artery (aorta).</p>
+<p><i>a</i>&prime;,  Posterior artery.</p>
+<p><i>v</i>,   The right and left auricles (enlargements of the efferent branchial veins).</p>
+<p><i>v</i>&prime;,  Efferent branchial vein on the free face of the gill-plume.</p>
+<p><i>v.c</i>, Vena cava.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>vi, vc</i>&prime;, Afferent branchial vessels (branches of the vena cava, see fig. 29).</p>
+<p><i>vc</i>&Prime;, Abdominal veins.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>, Branchial hearts and appendages.</p>
+<p><i>re, e</i>, Glandular substance of the nephridia developed on the
+  wall of the great veins on their way to the gills. The
+  arrows indicate the direction of the blood-current.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:437px; height:463px" src="images/img698b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins which run
+through them, in <i>Sepia officinalis</i> (after Vigelius). The
+nephridial sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>v.c</i>,     Vena cava.</p>
+<p><i>r.d.v.c</i>, Right descending branch of the same.</p>
+<p><i>r.s.v.c</i>, Left descending branch of the same.</p>
+<p><i>v.b.a</i>,   Vein from the ink-bag.</p>
+<p><i>v.m</i>,     Mesenteric vein.</p>
+<p><i>v.g</i>,     Genital vein.</p>
+<p><i>v.a.d</i>,   Right abdominal vein.</p>
+<p><i>v.a.s</i>,   Left abdominal vein.</p>
+<p><i>v.p.d</i>,   Right pallial vein.</p>
+<p><i>v.p.s</i>,   Left pallial vein.</p>
+<p><i>c.b</i>,     Branchial heart.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>x</i>,       Appendage of the same.</p>
+<p><i>c.v</i>,     Capsule of the branchial heart.</p>
+<p><i>np</i>,      External aperture of the right nephridial sac.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>,       Reno-pericardial orifice placing the left renal sac or
+           nephridium in communication with the viscero-pericardial
+           sac, the course of which below the nephridial sac is
+           indicated by dotted lines.</p>
+<p><i>y</i>&prime;,      The similar orifice of the right side.</p>
+<p><i>a.r</i>,     Glandular renal outgrowths.</p>
+<p><i>w.k</i>,     Viscero-pericardial sac (dotted outline).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:469px; height:260px" src="images/img698c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" style="padding-left: 20%;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>30.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>31.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 30, 31.&mdash;Nerve-centres of <i>Octopus</i>. Figure 30 gives a
+view from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral aspect.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>buc</i>,  The buccal mass.</p>
+<p><i>ped</i>,  Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>opt</i>,  Optic ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>cer</i>,  Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pl</i>,   Pleural ganglion.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>visc</i>, Visceral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>oes</i>,  Oesophagus.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>,    Foramen in the nerve-mass
+      formed by pedal, pleural
+      and visceral ganglion-pairs,
+      traversed by a blood-vessel.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:273px; height:505px" src="images/img698d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;Lateral view of the nervous centres and nerves of the
+right side of <i>Octopus vulgaris</i> (from a drawing by A.G. Bourne).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>bg</i>,     Buccal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>cer</i>,    Cerebral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>ped</i>,    Pedal ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>pl</i>,     Pleural, and visc., visceral region of the pleuro-visceral ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>gang. stell</i>, The right stellate ganglion of the mantle connected by a
+        nerve to the pleural portion.</p>
+<p><i>n.visc</i>, The right visceral nerve.</p>
+<p><i>n.olf</i>,  Its (probably) olfactory branches.</p>
+<p><i>n.br</i>,   Its branchial branches.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Coelom.</i>&mdash;The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction
+between the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or
+genital division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which
+contain the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial
+division is suppressed and the genital division communicates by
+long ducts with sacs containing the appendages of the branchial
+hearts. The renal sacs communicate with the pericardium by pores
+near the external renal apertures; in the Octopoda the
+reno-pericardial openings are in the capsules of the branchial
+hearts. The genital ducts pass from the genital coelom to the
+exterior. They are paired in female Oigopsida and Octopoda
+except <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>, but only the left persists
+in the males of all Dibranchiata, and in the female Myopsida.</p>
+
+<p>In the oviduct is a glandular enlargement, and in addition
+to this the females are provided with the so-called
+nidamental glands which are developed on the somatic wall of
+the pallial cavity, one on each side of the rectum, except in
+certain Oigopsida (<i>Enoploteuthis, Cranchia, Leachia</i>) and in
+the Octopoda, in which these organs are absent. The latter
+fact is related to the habit of the majority of the Octopoda
+of guarding or &ldquo;incubating&rdquo; their eggs, which have little
+protective covering. In the other cases the eggs are surrounded
+by a tough gelatinous elastic material secreted by the
+nidamental glands.</p>
+
+<p>The vas deferens is at first narrow and convoluted, then
+dilates into a vesicula seminalis at the end of which is a
+glandular diverticulum called the prostate. By the vesicula
+and the prostate the spermatophores are formed. These
+have a structure similar to those of <i>Nautilus</i>, and in the
+Octopoda may be as much as 50 mm. in length.  Beyond the
+prostate the duct opens into a
+large terminal reservoir which has been called Needham&rsquo;s sac, and
+in which the spermatophores are stored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System and Sense-Organs.</i>&mdash;The figures (30, 31, 32) representing
+the nerve-centres of <i>Octopus</i> serve to exhibit the disposition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span>
+of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more distinctly
+swollen than in <i>Nautilus</i>. In <i>Octopus</i> an infra-buccal
+ganglion-pair are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair of
+Gastropoda. In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with these
+are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial nerves
+of <i>Nautilus</i>, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right and left)
+a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of the pleuro-visceral
+ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form the stellate
+ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to supply the
+powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate ganglia are
+connected, except in <i>Sepiola</i>, by a transverse supra-oesophageal
+commissure, which represents the pallial cords united by a commissure
+above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves from the
+visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the same course
+as in <i>Nautilus</i>, but no osphradial papilla is present. An enteric
+nervous system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata, connected with the
+somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia, as in the Arthropoda
+through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and anastomozing with deep
+branches of the visceral nerves of the viscero-pleural ganglion-pair.
+It has been especially described by A. Hancock in <i>Ommatostrephes</i>.
+Upon the stomach it forms a single large and readily
+detected gastric ganglion.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:431px; height:465px" src="images/img699a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.&mdash;Horizontal section of the eye of <i>Sepia</i> (Myopsid).
+(From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.)<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>KK</i>, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8).</p>
+<p><i>C</i>,  Cornea (closed).</p>
+<p><i>L</i>,  Lens.</p>
+<p><i>ci</i>, Ciliary body.</p>
+<p><i>Ri</i>, Internal layer of the retina.</p>
+<p><i>Re</i>, External layer of the retina.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>,  Pigment between these.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>o</i>,  Optic nerve.</p>
+<p><i>go</i>, Optic ganglion.</p>
+<p><i>k</i> and <i>k</i>&prime;, Capsular cartilage.</p>
+<p><i>ik</i>, Cartilage of the iris.</p>
+<p><i>w</i>,  White body.</p>
+<p><i>ae</i>, Argentine integument.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:189px" src="images/img699b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.&mdash;Diagrams of sections showing the
+early stage of development of the eye of
+<i>Loligo</i> when it is, like the permanent eye of
+<i>Nautilus</i> and of <i>Patella</i>, an open sac.  (From
+Lankester.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-like
+upgrowth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to
+form a sac, the primitive optic vesicle of
+<i>Loligo</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest
+elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that
+we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development
+of the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the
+lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate&rsquo;s eye is shown in
+section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34 and
+37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate
+closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or
+primitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, <i>poc</i>). The lens forms as a structureless
+growth, secreted by both the internal and external surfaces of
+the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, <i>l</i>). The integument
+around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the surface
+now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the iridian
+folds (<i>if</i> in B, fig. 37; <i>ik</i> in fig. 33; <i>Ir</i> in fig. 14), and then secondly
+an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and completely closes over
+the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive vesicle (fig. 33, C).
+This covering is transparent, and is the cornea. In the oceanic
+Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but leaves a central
+aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are termed
+Oigopsidae by C. d&rsquo;Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed cornea
+are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and
+there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding
+the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over
+the surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an
+adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of
+Vertebrates. <i>Sepia</i> and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower
+eyelid, that is to say, only one-half of the sphincter-like fold of
+integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventrally
+between the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed
+in the cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small
+blind process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of
+the vesicle with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at
+the anterior end of
+the vesicle forming a
+macula acustica, and
+in the cavity is a
+single otolith, partly
+calcareous and partly
+organic except in
+<i>Eledone</i>, in which it
+is entirely organic.
+The nerve arises
+from the cerebral
+ganglion on each
+side and passes
+through the pedal
+ganglion.</p>
+
+<p>There is no branchial
+osphradium
+in the Dibranchiata
+corresponding to
+that of <i>Nautilus</i>, but
+the olfactory organ
+or rhinophore near
+the eye is present.
+In <i>Sepia</i> and the
+majority of the Dibranchiata it is a simple pit, in some of the
+Oigopsida it is a projection which may be stalked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproduction and Development.</i>&mdash;The modification of one or a
+pair of the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already
+been described.  In many genera the sexes differ from one another
+in other characters also.  As a rule the males are more slender or
+smaller than the females.  The maximum degree of sexual dimorphism
+occurs in <i>Argonauta</i> among the Octopods; in this genus
+the female may be fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar
+modification of the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs
+in the female only, no shell being formed in the male.  In most
+cases the females are much more numerous than the males, but the
+opposite relation appears to exist in those Octopoda in which the
+hectocotylus is autotomous, for as many as four hectocotyli have been
+found in the pallial cavity of a single female.  When the hectocotylus
+is not detached it is usually inserted into the pallial cavity
+of the female so as to deposit the spermatophores in or near the
+aperture of the oviduct, but in <i>Sepia</i> and <i>Loligo</i> they are merely
+deposited on the ventral lobes of the buccal membrane.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and
+in <i>Sepia</i>, <i>Sepiola</i> and <i>Rossia</i>, each egg has a separate envelope continued
+into a long stalk by which it is attached with several others
+in a cluster. In <i>Argonauta</i> the eggs are carried by the female in the
+cavity of the shell. In <i>Loligo</i> the eggs are very numerous, and are
+enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united at one
+end into a cluster.</p>
+
+<p>The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which
+the egg is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This
+is the result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the
+latter assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca
+the segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal.
+In the egg of <i>Loligo</i>, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the
+protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation
+is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From
+one part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes
+place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole
+surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side
+of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline
+membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the
+first stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast
+cells or their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm
+forms another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a
+continuous sheet below the ectoderm.</p>
+
+<p>The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and
+extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm.
+After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon
+and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle
+ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and
+the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomodaeal
+invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short proctodaeal
+invagination.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:460px; height:899px" src="images/img700a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.&mdash;Development of <i>Loligo</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. View of the cleavage of the egg during the first formation
+of embryonic cells.</p>
+
+<p>2. Lateral view of the egg at a little later stage. <i>a</i>, Limit
+to which the layer of cleavage-cells has spread over the egg;
+<i>b</i>, portion of the egg (shaded) as yet uncovered by cleavage-cells;
+<i>ap</i>, the auto-plasts; <i>kp</i>, cleavage-pole where first cells were formed.</p>
+
+<p>3. Later stage, the limit (<i>a</i>) now extended so as to leave but
+little of the egg-surface (<i>b</i>) unenclosed. The eyes (<i>d</i>),
+mouth (<i>e</i>) and mantle-sac (<i>u</i>) have appeared.</p>
+
+<p>4. Later stage, anterior surface, the embryo is becoming
+nipped off from the yolk-sac (<i>g</i>).</p>
+
+<p>5. View of an embryo similar to (3) from the cleavage-pole
+or centro-dorsal area.</p>
+
+<p>6. Later stage, posterior surface.</p>
+
+<p>7. Section in a median dorso-ventral and antero-posterior
+plane of an embryo of the same age as (4).</p>
+
+<p>8. View of the anterior face of an older embryo.</p>
+
+<p>9. View of the posterior face of an embryo of the same age as (8).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>Letters in (3) to (9):&mdash;<i>a</i>, lateral fins of the mantle;
+<i>b</i>, mantle-skirt;
+<i>c</i>, supra-ocular invagination to form the &ldquo;white body&rdquo;;
+<i>d</i>, the eye; <i>e</i>, the mouth; <i>f</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">3</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">4</span>, <i>f</i><span class="sp">5</span>, the
+five paired processes of the fore-foot; g, rhythmically
+contractile area of the yolk-sac, which is itself a hernia-like
+protrusion of the median portion of the fore-foot;
+<i>h</i>, dotted line showing internal area occupied by yolk
+(food-material of the egg); <i>k</i>, first rudiment of the epipodia
+(paired ridges which unite to form the siphon or funnel); <i>l</i>, sac
+of the radula or lingual ribbon; <i>m</i>, stomach; <i>n</i>, rudiments of the
+gills (paired ctenidia); <i>o</i>, the otocysts&mdash;a pair of invaginations
+of the surface of the epipodia; <i>p</i>, the optic ganglion;
+<i>q</i>, the distal portion of the ridges which form the siphon,
+<i>k</i> being the basal portion of the same structure; <i>r</i>, the vesicle-like
+rudiment of the intestine
+formed independently of the
+parts connected with the
+mouth, <i>s</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>m</i>, and without
+invagination; <i>s</i>, rudiment
+of the salivary glands; <i>t</i> in
+(7), the shell-sac at an earlier
+stage open (see fig. 36), now
+closed up; <i>u</i>, the open shell-sac
+formed by an uprising
+ring-like growth of the centro-dorsal
+area; <i>w</i> in (5), the
+mantle-skirt commencing to
+be raised up around the area
+of the shell-sac. In (7) <i>mes</i>
+points to the middle cell-layer
+of the embryo, <i>ep</i> to
+the outer layer, and <i>h</i> to the
+deep layer of fusiform cells
+which separates everywhere
+the embryo from the yolk or
+food-material lying within it.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The external changes of form are as follows:&mdash;The mantle is the
+middle of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland,
+which, however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other
+Molluscs. Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form
+the shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in <i>Argonauta</i> and other
+Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other
+forms except <i>Spirula</i> it closes completely and the shell develops
+within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the
+foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become
+the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely posterior
+to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms
+gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+Between the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the
+funnel, and their position shows them to be the epipodia. The
+otocysts and eyes are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the
+former behind the eyes, at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-centres,
+cerebral, visceral, pedal and optic, are formed as proliferations
+of the ectoderm. At the sides of the optic ganglia a pair of
+ectodermic invaginations are formed, which in the adult become the
+white bodies of the eyes, surrounding the optic ganglion. These are
+vestiges of lateral cerebral lobes which degenerate in the course of
+development.</p>
+
+<p>The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in
+the mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out
+the genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from
+the wall of the coelom.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:185px" src="images/img700b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.&mdash;Section through aboral end of
+embryo of <i>Loligo</i> showing shell-sac still open.
+<i>ep</i>, ectoderm; <i>m</i>, mesoderm; <i>m&prime;</i>, endoderm;
+<i>shs</i>, shell-sac; <i>y</i>, yolk.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Phylogeny and Classification.</i>&mdash;The order is divided into two sub-orders,
+Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the
+tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming
+than the Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In
+the former also there is generally an internal shell of considerable
+size, often calcined, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges
+of a shell remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were
+derived from the Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal
+structures fossil remains
+of Octopods
+are almost entirely
+unknown. <i>Palaeoctopus</i>,
+however,
+occurs in the Cretaceous,
+while shells
+of <i>Argonauta</i> do not
+appear before the
+Pliocene. The Decapoda
+are abundantly
+represented in
+the Secondary formations
+by the
+<i>Belemnitidae</i>, whose
+shell (fig. 19) consists
+of a straight
+conical phragmacone
+covered posteriorly by a very thick rostrum, and produced
+anteriorly into a thin long proöstracum which is only occasionally
+preserved. In certain cases remains of the arms provided with
+hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been recognized. The <i>Belemnitidae</i>
+appear first in the Upper Trias, attain their maximum development
+in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued into the Tertiary period,
+though represented in the Eocene by a few allied forms.</p>
+
+<p>There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda
+from <i>Belemnitidae</i>, and many of the extinct forms may have been
+directly ancestral. Chitinous &ldquo;pens&rdquo; like that of <i>Loligo</i>, however,
+begin to appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this
+case as in many others the parent form and the modified form
+existed contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived.
+The oldest shells of the <i>Sepia</i> type are from the Eocene, and it is
+perhaps possible that the <i>Sepiidae</i> arose separately from the Belemnites.</p>
+
+<p>It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus <i>Spirula</i>
+have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only
+in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of
+<i>Spirula</i> has lost a rostrum and a proöstracum; its characters must
+be regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the
+protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of
+<i>Spirula</i> agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position
+is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric
+the ventral side is the convex or external, while in <i>Spirula</i> the shell
+is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell
+is not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is
+difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as well
+as a pair of genital ducts in <i>Nautilus</i> with the view that the original
+Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of coelomoducts.
+Considering the great specialization, however, and high degree of
+organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the earliest
+Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long
+evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may
+have been developed in the course of its own history. In the other
+direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with
+only two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Suborder 1. Decapoda</span>.&mdash;Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile
+arms which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular
+arms, situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each
+side and retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated
+and provided with horny rings, on the tentacular arms confined
+usually to the distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal
+shell, and lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic
+cavity; nidamentary glands usually present.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:441px; height:488px" src="images/img701a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.&mdash;Right and left sections through embryos of <i>Loligo</i>.
+(After Lankester.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Same stage as fig. 35 (4).</p>
+
+<p>B, Same stage as fig. 35 (8);
+only the left side of the
+sections is drawn, and the
+food-material which occupies
+the space internal to
+the membrane <i>ym</i> is
+omitted.</p>
+
+<p><i>al</i>, Rectum.</p>
+
+<p><i>is</i>, Ink-sac.</p>
+
+<p><i>ep</i>, Outer cell-layer.</p>
+
+<p><i>mes</i>, Middle cell-layer.</p>
+
+<p><i>ym</i>, Deep cell-layer of fusiform
+cells (yolk-membrane).</p>
+
+<p><i>ng</i>, Optic nerve-ganglion.</p>
+
+<p><i>ot</i>, Otocyst.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>wb</i>, The &ldquo;white body&rdquo; of the
+adult ocular capsule forming
+as an invagination of
+the outer cell-layer.</p>
+
+<p><i>mtf</i>, Mantle-skirt.</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, Gill.</p>
+
+<p><i>ps</i>, Pen-sac or shell-sac, now
+closed.</p>
+
+<p><i>dg</i>, Dorsal groove.</p>
+
+<p><i>poc</i>. Primitive optic vesicle, now
+closed (see fig. 34).</p>
+
+<p><i>l</i>, Lens.</p>
+
+<p><i>r</i>, Retina.</p>
+
+<p><i>soc</i>, Second or anterior optic
+chamber still open.</p>
+
+<p><i>if</i>, Iridean folds.</p>
+
+<p>C, The primitive invagination
+to form one of the otocysts,
+as seen in fig. 35 (5) and
+(6).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">Tribe 1. <i>Oigopsida</i>.&mdash;A wide aperture in the cornea. Two oviducts
+in the female. In fossil genera and <i>Spirula</i>, shell has a multilocular
+phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular
+and larger than the second chamber. The most ancient forms characterized
+by the small size of the rostrum and proöstracum, and large
+size of the phragmacone. In the living genera, except <i>Spirula</i>, the
+shell is a chitinous gladius.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Belemnoteuthidae</i>. Extinct; shell with well-developed
+phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope;
+siphuncular necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten
+equal arms provided with hooks. <i>Phragmoteuthis</i>, Trias. <i>Belemnoteuthis</i>,
+Jurassic and Cretaceous. <i>Acanthoteuthis</i>, Jurassic.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2. <i>Aulacoceratidae</i>. Extinct; phragmacone with widely
+separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform.
+<i>Aulacoceras</i>, Trias. <i>Atractites</i>, Trias and Jurassic. <i>Xiphoteuthis</i>,
+Lias.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3. <i>Belemnitidae</i>. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral
+siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proöstracum; rostrum
+large and cylindrical. <i>Belemnites</i>, 350 species from Jurassic and
+Cretaceous. <i>Diploconus</i>, Upper Jurassic.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4. <i>Belopteridae</i>. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone
+well developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber
+small. <i>Beloptera</i>, Eocene. <i>Bayanoteuthis</i>, Eocene. <i>Spirulirostra</i>,
+Miocene.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5. <i>Spirulidae</i>. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior extremity
+of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or proöstracum;
+shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and sipnunculated;
+fins posterior. <i>Spirula</i>, three living species known,
+abyssal.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 6. <i>Ommatostrephidae</i>. Shell internal and chitinous, ending
+aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short and
+thick; suckers with denticulate rings. <i>Ommatostrephes</i>, fins
+aboral, simple and rhomboidal, British. <i>Ctenopteryx</i>, fins
+pectinate, as long as the body; <i>Bathyteuthis</i>, fins terminal,
+rudimentary; tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. <i>Rhynchoteuthis</i>,
+tentacular arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage.
+<i>Symplectoteuthis. Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis</i>; this
+is the largest of Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including
+arms.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 7. <i>Thysanoteuthidae</i>. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows
+of suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole
+length of body. <i>Thysanoteuthis</i>, Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 8. <i>Onychoteuthidae</i>. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long;
+suckers with hooks. <i>Onychoteuthis</i>, hook-bearing suckers on
+tentacular arms only. <i>Enoploteuthis</i>, hook-bearing suckers
+on all the arms. <i>Veranya</i>, body very short, tentacular arms
+atrophied in the adult, Mediterranean. <i>Chaunoteuthis</i>, body
+elongated, tentacular arms atrophied. <i>Pterygioteuthis. Ancistroteuthis.
+Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidoteuthis.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 9. <i>Gonatidae</i>. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula
+with only two lateral teeth. <i>Gonatus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 10. <i>Cheiroteuthidae</i>. Tentacular arms long, not retractile;
+resisting apparatus well developed. <i>Cheiroteuthis</i>, suckers
+along the whole length of the tentacular arms. <i>Doratopsis</i>,
+body very long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very
+short. <i>Histioteuthis</i>, six dorsal arms united by membrane,
+photogenous organs present. <i>Histiopsis</i>, membrane of dorsal
+arms only half-way up the arms, photogenous organs present.
+<i>Calliteuthis</i>, no brachial membrane, photogenous organs present.
+<i>Grimalditeuthis</i>, two fins on each bide, no tentacular arms.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 11. <i>Cranchiidae</i>. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes
+prominent; fins small and terminal. <i>Cranchia</i>, body short,
+purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. <i>Loligopsis</i>,
+body elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. <i>Leachia</i>,
+tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. <i>Taonius</i>, body
+elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:573px" src="images/img701b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.&mdash;Octopodous Cephalopods.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>A, <i>Pinnoctopus cordiformis</i>, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand).</p>
+
+<p>B, <i>Tremoctopus violaceus</i>, Ver. (from the Mediterranean).</p>
+
+<p>C, <i>Cranchia scabra</i>, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean; one of the
+Decapoda).</p>
+
+<p>D, <i>Cirrhoteuthis Mulleri</i>, Esch. (from the Greenland coast).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">Tribe 2. <i>Myopsida</i>.&mdash;No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct
+only developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phragmacone,
+calcified or simply chitinous.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Sepiidae</i>. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending
+the whole length of the body; shell calcareous and laminated.
+<i>Belosepia</i>, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in
+shell, Eocene. <i>Sepia</i>, shell with a rostrum, British. <i>Sepiella</i>,
+shell without a rostrum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2. <i>Sepiolidae</i>. Body short, rounded at the aboral end; fins
+rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous,
+small or absent. <i>Sepiola</i>, head united to mantle dorsally,
+British. <i>Rossia</i>, head not united to mantle, British. <i>Stoloteuthis</i>
+and <i>Inioteuthis</i>, without shell. <i>Heteroteuthis. Euprymna.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3. <i>Idiosepiidae</i>. Body elongated, with rudimentary terminal
+fins; internal shell almost lost. <i>Idiosepius</i>, 1.5 cm. long,
+Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4. <i>Sepiadariidae</i>. Body short; mantle united to head
+dorsally; no shell. <i>Sepiadarium</i>, Pacific Ocean. <i>Sepioloidea</i>,
+Australian.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5. <i>Loliginidae</i>. Body elongated and conical; fins extending
+forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous,
+well developed. <i>Loligo</i>, fins triangular, aboral, British. <i>Sepioteuthis</i>,
+fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length.
+<i>Loliolus. Loliguncula.</i> The following fossil genera, known only
+by their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near <i>Loligo</i>:&mdash;<i>Teuthopsis,
+Beloteuthis</i> and <i>Geoteuthis</i>, Lias; <i>Phylloteuthis</i>,
+Cretaceous; <i>Plesioteuthis</i>, Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Suborder 2. Octopoda</span>.&mdash;Only four pairs of arms, all similar
+and longer than the body. Body short and rounded aborally.
+Suckers sessile. Heart not contained in coelom. No nidamentary
+glands.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:458px; height:840px" src="images/img702.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.&mdash;<i>Palaeoctopus Newboldi</i>, the oldest Octopod known. From
+the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tribe I. <i>Leioglossa</i>.&mdash;No radula. Arms united by a complete
+membrane. Fins on sides of body.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. <i>Cirrhoteuthidae</i>. Tentacular filaments on either side of
+the suckers. <i>Cirrhoteuthis</i>, pallial sac prominent, fins large,
+pelagic. <i>Opisthoteuthis</i>, body flattened, with small fins, deep-sea.
+<i>Vampyroteuthis</i>, four fins. <i>Palaeoctopus</i>, fossil, Cretaceous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tribe 2. <i>Trachyglossa.</i>&mdash;Radula present. No fins.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Fam. 1. <i>Amphitretidae</i>. Arms united by membrane; funnel
+attached to mantle,  dividing the pallial aperture into two.
+<i>Amphitretus</i>, pelagic.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 2. <i>Alloposidae</i>. All arms united by membrane; mantle
+joined to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures.
+<i>Alloposus</i>, pelagic.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 3. <i>Octopodidae</i>. Arms long and equal, without membrane;
+hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores.
+<i>Octopus</i>, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. <i>Eledone</i>,
+single row of suckers on each arm. <i>Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus.
+Cistopus. Japetella.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fam. 4. <i>Philonexidae</i>. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal
+in size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. <i>Tremoctopus</i>,
+two dorsal pairs of arms united by membrane. <i>Ocythoë</i>, without
+interbrachial membrane.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. 5. <i>Argonautidae</i>. Hectocotylus autotomous; no interbrachial
+membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female
+expanded and secreting a shell; males very small, without
+shell. <i>Argonauta</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Use has been freely made above of the article by
+E. Ray Lankester, on <i>Mollusca</i>, in the 9th edition of this Encyclopedia.
+For the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, &ldquo;Notes
+on Living Nautilus,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Nat.</i> xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey,
+&ldquo;Contribution to the Natural History of the Pearly Nautilus,&rdquo;
+A. Willey&rsquo;s <i>Zoological Results</i>, pt. vi. (1902); Foord, <i>Cat. Fossil
+Cephalopoda in British Museum</i>; Alpheus Hyatt, &ldquo;Fossil Cephalopods
+of the Museum of Comp. Zoology,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.</i>
+(Cambridge, U.S., 1868); Jalta, &ldquo;I Cefalopodi viventi nel golfo di
+Napoli,&rdquo; <i>Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel</i>, xxiii. (1896);
+Joubin, &ldquo;Céphalopodes de l&rsquo;atlantique nord,&rdquo; &ldquo;Céph. de la Princesse
+Alice,&rdquo; <i>Camp. sci. Albert I<span class="sp">er</span> de Monaco</i>, ix. (1895), xxii. (1900);
+Paul Pelseneer, &ldquo;Mollusca,&rdquo; in the <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>, edited by
+E. Ray Lankester.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEPHEUS,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda
+(<i>q.v.</i>); in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,
+mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and Aratus (3rd
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in this constellation,
+Tycho n, and Hevelius 51. The most interesting star in it is
+&delta; <i>Cephei</i>, a remarkable double star, the brighter component of
+which is a short period variable (5.37 days), with a range in
+magnitude of 3.7 to 4.9; it is also a spectroscopic binary.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CEPHISODOTUS,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name of the father and of the son of
+Praxiteles, both sculptors like himself. The former must have
+flourished about 400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> A noted work of his was Peace bearing
+the infant Wealth, of which a copy exists at Munich. Peace is a
+Madonna-like figure of a somewhat conservative type; the child
+Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus also made, like his son,
+a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus, unless indeed
+ancient critics have made two works of one. He made certain
+statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Of the
+work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no
+remains; he was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the
+orator Lycurgus, and others (see J. Overbeck, <i>Antike Schriftquellen</i>,
+p. 255).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERAM<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (<i>Sirang</i>), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the
+Molucca group, lying about 3° S., and between 127° 45&prime; and 131°
+E. Its length is a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about
+50 m., and its area, including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m.
+It consists of two parts, Great Ceram and Little Ceram or
+Huvamohel, united by the isthmus of Taruno; and, for administrative
+purposes, is assigned to the residency of Amboyna,
+being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai and Amahai,
+the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and Waru
+or Eastern Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches
+west and east through the island, but near the north coast hills,
+rising 2300 to 2600 ft., slope steeply to the shore. Near the south
+coast, west of the Bay of Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains
+forms a colossal pyramid, with peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft.
+The isthmus connecting the two parts of the island is very
+narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490 ft. The chief rivers
+flow north and south into bays, but are navigable only for a few
+miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very heavy,
+amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the
+north coast the bays of Savai and Waru are accessible for small
+vessels. The geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive
+rocks and crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern
+Amboyna. In the eastern section the prevailing rock is crystalline
+chalk, similar to that of Buru. Several hot springs occur,
+and earthquakes are not infrequent. About 4000 persons
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span>
+perished in the earthquake of 1899. A large part of the interior is
+covered with dense forests, and except along the coast the population
+is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is without much
+interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of specimens.
+The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer;
+there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are
+mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the
+swallows that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are
+to be found in the various rivers; and as early as 1860 no fewer
+than 213 species were described. The most valuable timber tree
+is the iron-wood. Rice, maize, cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a
+variety of fruits are grown; and some tobacco is exported to
+Europe; but by far the most important production is the sago
+palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts, especially
+of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not only
+to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch
+have established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points.
+The coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay population,
+Buginese, Macassars, Balinese and other races of the
+archipelago. The interior is occupied by the aborigines, a people
+of Papuan stock. They are savages and head-hunters. The
+introduction of Christianity was hampered by the baneful
+influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which
+pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached
+themselves; and it has several times cost the Dutch authorities
+considerable efforts to frustrate their machinations (see
+<i>Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind.</i>, fifth year). The total population is
+estimated at 100,000, including 12,000 Christians and 16,000
+Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at the north
+and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno.
+There was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little
+Ceram, as early as 1646.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CERAMICS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Keramics</span> (<span class="grk" title="keramos">&#954;&#7952;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, earthenware), a general
+term for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this
+purpose both in French (<i>céramique</i>) and in German (<i>Keramik</i>), and
+thus has its convenience in English as representing an international
+form of description for a study which owes much to the
+art experts of all nations, though &ldquo;ceramic&rdquo; and &ldquo;ceramics&rdquo;
+do not appear in English as technical terms till the middle of the
+19th century.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;pottery&rdquo; (Fr. <i>poterie</i>) in its widest sense includes
+all objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though
+there is a growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner
+articles of this great class and to apply the word &ldquo;porcelain&rdquo; to
+all the finer varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is
+founded on a misconception; the word &ldquo;porcelain&rdquo; should only
+be applied to certain well-marked varieties of pottery. The very
+existence of pottery is dependent on two important natural
+properties of that great and widespread group of rocky or earthy
+substances known as clays, viz. the property of plasticity (the
+power of being readily kneaded or moulded while moist), and
+the property of being converted when fired into one of the most
+indestructible of ordinary things.</p>
+
+<p>The clays form such an important group of mineral substances
+that the reader must refer to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clay</a></span> for an account of
+their occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we
+shall only deal with the various clays as they have affected the
+problems of the potter throughout the ages. The clays found on
+or close to the earth&rsquo;s surface are so varied in composition and
+properties that we may see in them one of the vital factors that
+has determined the nature of the pottery of different countries
+and different peoples. They vary in plasticity, and in the hardness,
+colour and texture of the fired product, through an astonishingly
+wide range. To-day the fine, plastic, white-burning clays of
+the south of England are carried all over Europe and America
+for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of affairs
+which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to
+the 18th century, the potters of every country could only use on
+an extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and
+the influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone
+centuries has never yet received the attention it deserves.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>General Evolution of Pottery.</i>&mdash;The primitive races of mankind,
+whether of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as
+they found on the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and
+with the rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone
+slab if necessary and picking out any rocky fragments of appreciable
+size, then beating it with the hands, with stones or boards, or
+treading it with the feet to render it fairly uniform in consistency,
+proceeded to fashion it into such shapes as need or fancy dictated.
+Fired in an open fire, or in the most rudimentary form of potter&rsquo;s
+kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab, brown or red&mdash;and these
+from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or black. How many
+generations of men, of any race, handed on their painfully
+acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was passed,
+we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances
+were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can
+trace in the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually
+advancing skill based on increased technical knowledge. For
+ages tools and methods remained of the simplest&mdash;the fingers
+for shaping or building up vessels, a piece of mat or basket-work
+for giving initial support to a more ambitious vase,&mdash;until
+some original genius of the tribe finds that by starting to build up
+his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he can turn his support
+so as to bring every part in succession under his hand, and lo!
+the potter&rsquo;s wheel is invented&mdash;not brought down from heaven by
+one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the older
+civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian,
+and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of
+man struggling to fulfil his allotted task.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to
+imagine that the very rudest pottery must have been the invention
+of Egyptian, Chinese or some other distinct race from which
+the knowledge radiated to all the other races of the prehistoric
+world. No conception could be more erroneous. Since the
+middle of the 19th century research has established beyond doubt
+that wherever clay was found men became potters of a sort, just
+as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &amp;c., by sheer force of
+need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded view
+that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that
+the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from
+such a parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable
+evidence that pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of
+what we now call Greece, Italy, Spain and other countries, long
+before they were aware that any other peoples lived on the earth
+than themselves.</p>
+
+<p>For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by
+drying in the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried
+grain, &amp;c., but the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the
+amazing fact that a baked clay vessel became as hard as stone.
+Then, too, came the knowledge that even in one district all the
+clays did not fire to the same colour, and colour decoration arose,
+in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay or earth (a ruddle or
+bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright red or buff colour
+on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay&mdash;most precious of all
+were little deposits of white clay which kept their purity unsullied
+through the fire,&mdash;and by these primitive means the races of the
+dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery
+of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all
+Egyptian, Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive
+foundations.</p>
+
+<p>We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the
+great nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each
+develop the potter&rsquo;s art in an individual way. The Egyptians
+evolve schemes of glowing colour&mdash;brilliant glazes fired on
+objects, shaped in sand held together with a little clay, or actually
+carved from rocks or stones; the Greeks produce their marvels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+of plastic form, and then, excited by their growing skill in metal
+work, turn the plastic clay into imitations of metal forms. These
+nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some knowledge&mdash;only
+a tincture, it must be confessed&mdash;over all the lands they
+hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt
+to the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters&rsquo; fires that have
+never since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and
+over Europe its pottery is forgotten along with its greater
+achievements; yet still pottery-making goes on in a very simple
+way, to be slowly revived and modified once more by the communities
+of monks, who, in later centuries, replace the Roman
+legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe. Meantime
+Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the
+splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery
+was still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine
+civilization and the Persians played during this obscure time, we
+are only just beginning to realize; but we now know that many
+interesting kinds of decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at
+Alexandria, at Damascus, in Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on
+which the later Moslem potters founded their glorious works),
+at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple red or drab clay,
+covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were the sole
+evidence of the potter&rsquo;s skill. What the Arab conquests destroyed,
+and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess;
+but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan conquests
+there came a time when the potter&rsquo;s art of the Occident
+reached its highest expression, and when methods and knowledge
+hitherto confined to Egypt, Syria and Persia were spread from
+Spain and the south of France to India&mdash;even, it may be, into
+China.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese&mdash;the greatest race
+of potters the world has ever seen&mdash;were quietly gathering
+strength, until from their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged
+the marvellous, white translucent porcelain, one of the wonders
+of the medieval world.</p>
+
+<p>With the dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of
+affairs was practically this:&mdash;In European countries proper we
+find rudely fashioned and decorated wares in which we can trace
+the slow development of a native craft from the superposition
+of Roman methods on the primitive work of the peoples. The
+vessels were mostly intended for use and not for show; were
+clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at all then only
+with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no case
+above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or tile-maker.
+The finest expression of this native style is to be found
+in the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England,
+where all the colours are due to the clays and there is no approach
+to painting. In the Moslem countries&mdash;including the greater
+part of Spain and Sicily, Egypt and the nearer East, probably
+even to the very centre of Asia&mdash;pottery was being made either
+of whitish clay and sand, or of a light reddish clay coated with a
+white facing of fine clay or of tin-enamel, on which splendid
+decorative patterns in vivid pigments or brilliant iridescent
+lustres were painted.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic
+pottery of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of
+Europeans as an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may
+well believe the traditional accounts that Saracen potters were
+brought into Italy, France and Burgundy to introduce the
+practice of their art, while Italian potters certainly penetrated
+into the workshops of eastern Spain and elsewhere, and gathered
+new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the south of France
+probably, efforts were continuously in progress to improve the
+native wares by coating the vessels with a white &ldquo;slip&rdquo; and
+drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and
+purplish black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war
+and peace, also introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion
+of the famous Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the
+14th century a knowledge of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy
+and paved the way to the glorious painted majolica of the 15th
+and 16th centuries. From Italy and Spain, France and Holland,
+Germany, and finally, though much later, England learnt this art,
+and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern Europe, so
+largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the direct
+offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also
+began to find its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its
+substance and its marvellous translucence excited the attention
+of the Italian majolists and alchemists. The first European
+imitation of this famous oriental porcelain of which we have
+indubitable record was made at Florence (1575-1585) by alchemists
+or potters working under the patronage, and, it is said, with
+the active collaboration of Francesco de&rsquo; Medici. This Florentine
+porcelain was the first of those distinctively European wares,
+made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connecting
+link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered
+either as pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered
+opaque by shaping and firing a mixture containing a large
+percentage of glass with a very little clay. After the cessation of
+the Florentine experiments we know of no European porcelain
+for nearly a century, though the importation of Chinese porcelain
+had largely increased owing to the activity of the various &ldquo;India&rdquo;
+companies. The next European porcelain, made like the
+Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St
+Cloud (1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy
+porcelain was made in France and England largely, and in other
+countries experimentally. German experimenters worked in
+another direction, and the first porcelain made in Europe from
+materials similar to the Chinese was produced at Meissen by
+Böttger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not only was
+there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese
+porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain
+manufacture in Europe; and in every country factories were
+established, generally under royal or princely patronage, for the
+manufacture of artificial porcelain like the French, or genuine
+porcelain like the German. The English made a departure in
+the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either, through
+adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this
+English bone-porcelain&mdash;a well-marked species&mdash;is now largely
+made in America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant
+on the manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its
+abandonment, and a porcelain made from natural materials like
+the Chinese has since been generally made on the continent of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The older tin-enamelled wares&mdash;derived from the Hispano-Moresque
+and the Italian majolica&mdash;so largely made in France,
+Holland, Germany and elsewhere during the 17th and 18th
+centuries, met with a fate analogous to that of the French
+porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a brittle
+substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the
+middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a
+serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior
+durability and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience
+gradually disappeared between the upper millstone of European
+porcelain and the nether millstone of English earthenware.</p>
+
+<p>The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the
+output of porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the
+United States. Mechanical methods were largely called in to
+supplement or replace what had hitherto remained almost pure
+handicraft. The English methods of preparing and mixing the
+materials of the body and glaze, and the English device of replacing
+painted decoration by machine printing, to a large extent
+carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical aspects of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its artistic
+spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely
+affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the
+painting, gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the
+first half of the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and
+hackneyed. During the latter half of the 19th century another
+influence was fortunately at work. Side by side with the increasing
+mechanical perfection of the great bulk of modern pottery
+there grew up a school of innovators and experimentalists, who
+revived many of the older decorative methods that had fallen
+into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in certain
+directions even beyond, the achievements of the past. The 20th
+century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe
+and America. In every country men were striving once again to
+bring back to their world-old craft something of artistic taste
+and skill.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:211px" src="images/img705a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:211px; height:233px" src="images/img705b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Potter moulding
+a vessel on the wheel
+(from a painting in a tomb
+at Thebes about 1800 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>).
+Compare the wheel on the
+left in fig. 5.</td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Potter&rsquo;s wheel of
+the time of the Ptolemies,
+moved by the foot (from a
+wall-relief at Philae). Compare
+fig. 5, the wheel on the
+right.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt1"><i>Technical Methods.</i>&mdash;All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or
+of modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay,
+dug from the earth&rsquo;s surface, was or is prepared by beating and
+kneading with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood;
+stones and hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well
+tempered with water, was used without any addition. From this
+clay, vessels were shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump
+or ball, by building up piece by piece and smoothing down one layer
+upon another or by squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object
+or prepared mould or form. The potter&rsquo;s wheel, though very
+ancient, was a comparatively late invention, arrived at independently
+by many races of men. In its simplest form it was a heavy
+disk pivoted on a central point to be set going by the hand, as the
+workman squatted on the ground; and it may be seen to-day in
+India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive simplicity (see
+fig. 1). This form of potter&rsquo;s wheel was the only one known until
+about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently, the improvement
+was introduced of lengthening the spindle which carries the
+throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much larger disk
+which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have both hands
+free for the manipulation of the clay (fig. 2). No further advance
+seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the wheel
+was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a
+steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century,
+this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery.</p>
+
+<p>A prevalent misconception with regard to the potter&rsquo;s wheel
+needs correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is
+impossible to carry the work to completion on the wheel at one
+operation as is generally imagined. All that the potter can do while
+the clay is soft enough to &ldquo;throw&rdquo; on the wheel is to get a rough
+shape of even thickness. This operation completed, the piece is
+removed from the wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about
+leather-hard, it may be re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old
+practice), or placed in a horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and
+turned down to the exact shape and polished to an even, smooth
+surface. The Greek vase-makers were already adepts in what is
+often reckoned a modern, detestable practice. Many Greek vases
+have obviously been &ldquo;thrown&rdquo; in separate sections, and when these
+had contracted and hardened sufficiently they were luted together
+with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed and turned down
+on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of mechanical
+finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the Chinese;
+many of their forms have been made in two or three portions, subsequently
+joined together and finished on the outside as one piece.
+Indeed it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered
+for themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held
+up to opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age.
+Always it should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by
+&ldquo;pressing&rdquo; cakes of clay into moulds is much older than the potter&rsquo;s
+wheel, and has always been the method of making shapes other than
+those in the round. The modern method of &ldquo;casting&rdquo; pottery by
+pouring slip, a fluid mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds
+seems to have originated in England about the middle of the 18th
+century; and this too is a genuine potter&rsquo;s method which does not
+merit the disapproval with which it has been generally regarded
+by writers on the potter&rsquo;s art.</p>
+
+<p>In all ages the work of the &ldquo;thrower&rdquo; or &ldquo;presser&rdquo; has been
+largely supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape, and
+applies to it handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:455px" src="images/img705c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Early Greek pottery-kiln,
+about 700-600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (from a painted
+votive tablet found at Corinth, now in
+the Louvre). The section shows the
+probable construction of the kiln.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Firing.</i>&mdash;The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a
+specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be
+referred here to the technological works mentioned in the bibliography
+at the end of this
+article. It is, however,
+necessary that we should
+briefly describe the earlier
+forms of potters&rsquo; kilns
+used by the nations whose
+pottery counts among the
+treasures of the collector
+and the antiquary. Here
+again we now know that
+the primitive types of kiln
+used by the potters of
+ancient Egypt or Greece
+have not vanished from
+the earth; it is only in
+the civilized countries of
+the modern world that
+they have been replaced
+by improved and perfected
+devices. The potters of
+the North-West Provinces
+of India use to-day a kiln
+practically identical with
+that depicted in severest
+silhouette on the rock-tombs
+of Thebes; and the
+skilful Japanese remain
+content with a kiln very
+similar to the one shown
+in fig. 3. This Greek type
+of kiln was improved and
+enlarged by the Romans,
+and its use seems to have
+been introduced wherever
+pottery was made under
+their sway, for remains of
+Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4). With the
+end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their technical
+methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter of the
+period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his methods
+afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of
+medieval potter&rsquo;s kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an
+Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria
+and Albert Museum<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal
+reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-fired pottery of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span>
+Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &amp;c.), as well as for Chinese porcelain
+and the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery
+as a factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were introduced,
+and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries
+is practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section,
+from 10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore,
+of containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would
+have formed the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every
+device that can be thought of for the better utilization of heat and
+its even distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experimented
+with; and, though the results have been most successful
+from the point of view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired
+ovens remain very wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of
+available heat being relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-fired
+kilns and ovens are now being used or experimented with in
+every country, and their perfection, which cannot be far distant,
+will improve the most vital of the potter&rsquo;s processes both in certainty
+and economy.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:324px" src="images/img705d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is for the
+insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated floor, made
+of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing,&mdash;it was probably a
+dome.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:228px" src="images/img706.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span>  5.&mdash;Two forms of Italian potter&rsquo;s wheels, about 1540.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Glazes.</i>&mdash;We are never likely to known when glaze (<i>i.e.</i> a coating of
+fired glass) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of
+knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed
+objects we possess are those of ancient Egypt,<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> but the practice
+may have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of
+the elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes
+were of the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass
+before they can be applied to pottery.</p>
+
+<p>Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after
+it was fired, in order to get a glossy surface; and in other cases the
+surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with
+waxy or resinous substances which were often coloured. It is
+possible that the black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such
+a method, and though that point is not settled, we have many types
+of primitive pottery, both modern and ancient, which are coated in
+this way. Such a coating is only a substitute for glaze in the work of
+peoples who do not know or have not mastered the technical secrets
+of true glazes. We can only consider as glazes those definite superficial
+layers of molten material which have been fired on the clay
+substance. Glazes are as varied as the various kinds of pottery,
+and it must never be forgotten that each kind of pottery is at its
+best with its appropriate glaze. The earliest known glazes (Egyptian
+and Assyrian) were silicates of soda and lime containing very little
+alumina and no lead. Such glazes are very uncertain in use, and
+can only be applied to pottery unusually rich in silica (<i>i.e.</i> deficient
+in clay). Consequently these alkaline glazes cannot be used on
+ordinary clay wares, and when they have been used successfully, the
+clay has always been coated with a surface layer of highly siliceous
+substance (<i>e.g.</i> the so-called Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian
+pottery of the early middle ages). The fact that glazes containing
+lead-oxide would adhere to ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes
+would not was discovered at a very early period; for lead glazes
+were extensively used in Egypt and the nearer East in Ptolemaic
+times, and it is significant that, though the Romans made singularly
+little use of glazes of any kind, the pottery that succeeded theirs,
+either in western Europe or in the Byzantine empire, was generally
+covered with glazes rich in lead. Throughout Europe, and over the
+greater part of the world, leaded glazes have been continuously used
+and improved for all ordinary pottery, and it is only with certain
+special hard-fired types of ware that they have yet been successfully
+replaced. Chinese porcelain and all the European porcelains made
+by analogous methods are fired at so high a temperature that a glaze
+by felspar softened by lime and silica is found most suitable for them,
+and the hard-fired stonewares, rich in silica, are often glazed with a
+salt glaze, or a melted earth rich in oxide of iron.</p>
+
+<p>Every kind of potter&rsquo;s clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &amp;c.,
+from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze,
+and from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could
+produce in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him
+by the clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay
+which cannot be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have
+always proved the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large
+quantities of sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of
+common salt; and mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European
+porcelain, can be glazed by melting felspathic materials upon them.
+Naturally those species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the
+most durable&mdash;the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable
+than lead glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes.</p>
+
+<p>The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (<i>e.g.</i>
+Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &amp;c.), the oldest and most uncertain;
+(2) lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all
+ordinary purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired
+porcelains, generally unsuited to any other material; (4) salt glaze,
+produced by vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares.
+Many intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs,
+but these remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this
+important subject must be sought in the technical works.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colours.</i>&mdash;The primitive potters of ancient and modern times
+have all striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest,
+and therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in
+natural earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition
+that they fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream,
+buff, red, brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One
+clay daubed or painted upon another formed the primitive palette
+of the potter, especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze
+was used these natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths,
+other than clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were
+gradually discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some
+of the very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or
+iron (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians
+and Assyrians). Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials,
+but the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian,
+Syrian and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time
+the art of glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been
+thoroughly learnt. Vases, tiles, &amp;c., shaped in good plastic clay,
+were covered with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive
+glazes of this type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted
+colours then known. With this rudimentary technique the potters
+of the countries south and east of the Mediterranean produced,
+between the 9th and 16th centuries of our era, a type of pottery
+that remains ideal from the point of view of colour: for, with nothing
+more than the greens given by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise
+of pure copper, the deep yet vivid blue of cobalt, the beautiful uncertain
+purple of manganese, and in certain districts the rich red of
+Armenian bole, they achieved colour schemes that have never been
+surpassed in their brilliant yet harmonious richness.</p>
+
+<p>When the coating of white siliceous clay was replaced by an
+opaque tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &amp;c., a
+necessary change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the
+copper-greens and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground;
+the fine manganese purple turned to brown or black and the rich
+iron-reds to filthy shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the
+Spanish-Arab potters paid more attention to their lustre decoration,
+for that was the natural thing to do. How strong and fine a palette
+could be evolved for use on a tin-enamel ground was shown by the
+Italian majolists of the 15th and 16th centuries; and when the
+later developments of tin-enamelled pottery took place in France,
+Holland, Germany, &amp;c., their colour schemes are only echoes of
+Italian majolica crossed with Chinese porcelain. Delft, Nevers,
+Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with its individuality;
+Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us that they
+too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always go
+back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian and
+Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them.</p>
+
+<p>The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are
+known as &ldquo;under glaze&rdquo; colours, because they were painted on the
+pottery before the glaze was fired.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been
+white, but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of
+coloured glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along
+with the painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and
+Persian potters. Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the
+only artistic productions of the medieval European potters&rsquo; kilns,
+and their use everywhere preceded the introduction of painted
+pottery. The most extensive application of coloured glazes was,
+however, that made by the Chinese, who developed this type of
+colour decoration before they used painted patterns in underglaze
+colour. The earliest Chinese porcelains, and the hard-fired stonewares
+out of which their porcelain arose, were decorated in this way,
+and the beauty of many of the early Sung coloured glazes has never
+been surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese
+porcelain very few underglaze colours could be used; and the
+prevalence of blue and white among the early specimens of Chinese
+porcelains is due to the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance
+known to the potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the
+high temperature needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the
+Chinese were driven to invent the method of painting in coloured
+fusible glasses on the already fired glaze. They adopted for this
+purpose the coloured enamels used on metal; hence the common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span>
+term &ldquo;enamel decoration,&rdquo; which is so generally applied to painting
+in those colours which are attached to the already fired glaze by
+refiring at a lower temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured
+Chinese porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly
+followed by our European potters, and a new palette of colours and
+fresh styles of decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-glaze
+colours, being executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass
+painting, and it generally offers a striking contrast both in technique
+and colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the
+glaze. In the former the work can be highly finished and the most
+mechanical execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich
+nor so brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same
+softness as is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour
+when the glaze is melted over it.</p>
+
+<p>It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method
+of pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at
+which the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally
+more limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in
+their turn than the on-glaze colours.</p>
+
+<p>When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery
+took on its modern form, of earthenware made after the English
+fashion, and porcelain like the French and German, the lead or
+felspathic glazes used brought about another revolution in the
+potter&rsquo;s palette. The growing ideal of mechanical perfection discounted
+the freedom of the earlier brushwork, and printed patterns,
+or painting that might almost have been printed, removed the mind
+still farther from the richness of painted faience or majolica. It is
+useless to look for the glorious colour of Persian faience, Italian
+majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in modern wares produced by manufacturing
+processes where mechanical perfection is demanded to a
+degree undreamt of before the 19th century. The finest modern
+pottery colour is only to be sought in the work of those enthusiasts
+and experimenters who are striving to produce work as rich and free
+as the best of past times.</p>
+
+<p><i>Metals</i>.&mdash;The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver,
+have, since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as
+adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white earthen-wares
+and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the gold was
+applied with a kind of japanner&rsquo;s size and was not fired to the glaze,
+but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally been
+fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing the
+metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass. There
+can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia, Syria and
+Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their decorative
+effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been. The
+early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to
+have been &ldquo;sized&rdquo; or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable
+that the use of &ldquo;fired&rdquo; gold was taught to the Oriental by the
+European in the 18th century. To-day &ldquo;liquid&rdquo; gold is exported
+to China and Japan from Europe for the use of the potter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Primitive Pottery</p>
+
+<p>We can group together that great and widely-spread class of
+vessels made by the primitive races of mankind, whether before
+the dawn of civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting
+to note that many modern races still make pottery by the same
+rude method as the Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with
+striking similarity of result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods
+and practices of the primitive potters of our own time furnishes
+the best possible guide to the methods of fabrication and ornamentation
+of the ancient specimens that are dug up from barrows,
+grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only natural that the materials
+and methods of such pottery are always of the simplest. The clay
+is used with very little preparation, and it is no unusual thing to
+find bits of stone, gravel, &amp;c., embedded in the paste of such
+wares, though at a later stage of development they would have
+been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of
+potters practised the art for long without discovering that their
+vessels were not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in
+firing, if fine sand or pounded &ldquo;potsherds&rdquo; were mixed with the
+clay; and when we are dealing with the work of races that have
+passed beyond the Stone Age and have learned the use of metals
+we find this custom universal.</p>
+
+<p>There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common
+to almost every primitive race:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p>1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay.</p>
+
+<p>2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or
+matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and
+smoothing down successive layers of clay.</p>
+
+<p>3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and
+these are coiled round and round upon each other and
+smoothed down with the hands and with simple tools of bone,
+wood or metal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use of the potter&rsquo;s wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable
+how beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery
+is. The primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders
+Petrie in Egypt, and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric
+date from Spain, are remarkable instances of this. Some primitive
+races leave their pottery without decoration, especially
+when they have a fine red-burning clay to work in, but, generally
+speaking, primitive pottery of every race and time is elaborately
+decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such decorations
+consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions arranged
+in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. All
+this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it
+is fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so
+obviously been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the
+neck or bowl of a vase; though the thong may have been used in
+the first instance merely to serve as a support while the vessel was
+dried. At a later stage the ornament is generally obtained by
+scratching with a tool, by pressing the end of a hollow stick into
+the clay to form rows of circles, by using a stick cut at the end
+into the shape of a half-moon, or other equally simple decorative
+device. In certain tropical countries this rudimentary pottery
+becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when merely
+dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries
+it must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an
+open fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into
+the ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imperfect
+the firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke.
+In those countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired
+the pieces naturally become buff, drab, brown or red.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-mounds
+of England and the northern countries generally have
+received a number of fanciful names for which there is very little
+warrant except in the case of the cinerary urns. These are
+generally the largest vessels of this class, and as they were used
+to contain burnt bones there seems sufficient warrant for the supposition
+that they were made for this and for no other purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved
+during recent years by the labours of a number of American
+students connected with the United States Geological Survey,
+who have carefully recorded the present-day practices of those
+native tribes who make and use pottery in various parts of North
+America and Mexico; while, in the same way, Peruvian, Brazilian
+and other South American pottery has been as closely
+investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no
+primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze,
+though much of it has been highly polished after firing, and in
+some cases a varnish has been applied which may perhaps be
+regarded as the earliest kind of &ldquo;glazing&rdquo; ever applied to pottery
+vessels.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;On primitive pottery the following works may be
+specially mentioned. W. Greenwell, <i>British Barrows</i> (1877); Boyd-Dawkins,
+<i>Early Man in Britain</i> (1880); Mortimer, <i>Forty Years&rsquo;
+Researches in British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire</i>
+(1905); Abercromby, &ldquo;The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in
+Britain,&rdquo; <i>J. Anth. Inst.</i> vol. xxxii. (1902), 373; <i>Guide to Antiquities
+of the Bronze Age</i> (British Museum, 1904); Koenen, <i>Gefässkunde
+der vorrömischen, römischen und fränkischen Zeit in den Rheinländern</i>
+(1895); Wosinsky, <i>Der inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-zeit</i>
+(1904); Walters, <i>History of Ancient Pottery</i> (Greek and Roman)
+(1905); Holmes, <i>Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States</i>
+(Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1899); also Holmes and Cushing
+in <i>Report</i> of Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; Wiener, <i>Pérou et
+Bolivie</i> (1880); Von der Steinen, <i>Natur-Völkerei Central Brasiliens</i>
+(1894); Hartman, <i>Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica</i> (1905);
+Strebel, on &ldquo;Mexican Pottery&rdquo; in <i>Publications</i> of Museum für
+Völkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6, 1899); Werner, <i>British Central Africa</i>
+(1907); Füllborn, <i>Deutsche Ost-Afrika</i>, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer,
+&ldquo;Kabyle Pottery,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> vol. xxxii. p. 245, and &ldquo;Upper
+Egypt,&rdquo; <i>ibid</i>. xxxv. p. 20; Myres, &ldquo;Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia
+Minor,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, <i>Notes
+analytiques sur les collections ethnographiques du Congo</i>, tome ii. (1907);
+Cupart, <i>Debuts de l&rsquo;art de l&rsquo;ancienne Égypte</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Egypt and Western Asia</p>
+
+<p><i>Egyptian Pottery</i>.&mdash;Egypt affords us the most striking instance
+of the development of the potter&rsquo;s art. As in other countries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+pottery was made even in Neolithic times, for the Nile mud forms
+a fine plastic clay and sand is of course abundant. With these
+materials various kinds of pottery, often extremely well made
+and of good form, have been continuously produced for common
+domestic requirements, but such pottery was never glazed.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a
+special preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all,
+it contained so little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty
+the Egyptians had learnt to shape little objects in this tender
+material and cover them with their wonderful turquoise glazes.
+We have therefore to study the development of two independent
+things: (1) the ordinary pottery of common clay left without
+glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be special
+to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the
+technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the
+nearer East.</p>
+
+<p>We probably do not possess any specimens of the most
+primitive Neolithic pottery; the oldest type known to us, the
+black and red ware of Ballas and Nagada (<b>1</b>), dates from the later
+Neolithic age, when copper was just beginning to be used. This
+ware is very hard and compact and the face is highly burnished.
+The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red clay; the
+black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of air
+in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie
+suggests, by placing the pot&rsquo;s mouth down in the kiln, and
+leaving the ashes over the part which was to be burnt black.
+Both red and black colour go right through in every case. All-red
+and all-black vases are occasionally found, the red with geometrical
+decorations in white colour, and the black with incised
+decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at the same
+time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it
+is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the
+wheel. Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete
+in 1905 during the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hierapetra.
+The general appearance of the Cretan pottery is much
+the same as that of the Egyptian, and the duller red and black
+decoration (which here has a spotted or mottled appearance) was
+probably obtained in the same way, the black spots being due to
+the action of separate fragments of the baking material. This
+discovery is important in view of the probable early connexion
+of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres.</p>
+
+<p>A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and
+harder make, and often with a brighter surface, was introduced
+into Egypt at a later date (XIIth Dynasty), probably by Nubian
+tribes who were descended from relatives of the Neolithic
+Egyptians. From their characteristic graves these people are
+called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known by the
+same name.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares,
+but by no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of
+primeval Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface
+decorations in red. These decorations are varied in character,
+including ships, birds and human figures; wavy lines and
+geometrical designs commonly occur. The whole <i>facies</i> of this
+ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been compared with
+the decorated &ldquo;Kabyle pottery&rdquo; of modern times. To call the
+people who made this ware &ldquo;Libyans&rdquo; on the strength of this
+resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six
+thousand years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric
+Egyptians were not Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the
+peculiar decoration of their pottery, which seems so strangely
+barbaric, is in reality merely the most ancient handiwork of the
+Egyptian painter, and marks the first stage in the development
+of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (<b>2</b>). Other types of
+pottery (<b>3</b>), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also in use at
+this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase with
+a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed
+out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This
+cylindrical type outlived the red and black and the red and buff
+decorated styles (which are purely Neolithic and predynastic)
+and continued in use in the early dynastic period, well into
+the Copper age. The other unglazed pottery of the first three
+dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty of form or colour,
+and is indeed of the roughest description (<b>4</b>), but under the
+IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and
+vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (<b>4</b>). This fine ware continued
+in use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though
+the forms of course differed from age to age. Under the XIIth
+Dynasty, and during the Middle Kingdom generally, either this
+or a coarser unpolished red ware was in use. The forms of this
+period are very characteristic (<b>5</b>); the vases are usually footless,
+and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape&mdash;some small
+ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign &ldquo;Pan-Grave&rdquo;
+black and red pottery was also in use (see above).</p>
+
+<p>The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy
+body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been
+known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period
+immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). Under
+the XIIth Dynasty pottery made of this characteristic Egyptian
+faience seems to have come into general use, and it continued
+in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor of the
+glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (<b>6</b>).
+The oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape
+of beads, plaques, &amp;c.&mdash;rarely in the form of pottery vessels.
+The colour is usually a light blue, which may turn either white
+or green; but beads of the grey-black manganese colour are
+found, and on the light blue vases of King Aha (who is probably
+one of the historical originals of the legendary &ldquo;Mena&rdquo; or
+Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have the king&rsquo;s
+name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the blue-white
+glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid. This
+style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue
+continued till the end of the &ldquo;New Empire&rdquo; shortly before the
+XXVIth (Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the
+decoration before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light
+blue glaze was used well into the time of the XIIth Dynasty
+(British Museum, No. 36,346), but was then displaced by a new
+tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on which the black decoration
+shows up in sharper contrast than before. This blue, and a
+somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the time
+for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of
+scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite
+&mdash;not faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of
+glazed stone begins about this period, and not only steatite or
+schist was employed (on account of its softness), but a remarkably
+brilliant effect was obtained by glazing hard shining white
+quartzite with the wonderfully delicate XIIth Dynasty blue.
+A fragment of a statuette plinth of this beautiful material was
+obtained during the excavation of the XIth Dynasty temple at
+Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948). Vessels of
+diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the blue
+glaze. A good specimen of the finest XIIth Dynasty blue-glazed
+faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)
+in the Cairo Museum (No. 3666) (<b>6</b>). The blue-glazed hippopotami
+of this period, with the reeds and water-plants in purplish
+black upon their bodies to indicate their habitat, are well known.
+Fine specimens of these are in the collection of the Rev. Wm.
+MacGregor at Tamworth (<b>8</b>).</p>
+
+<p>The blue glaze of the XIIth Dynasty deepened in colour under
+the XIIIth, to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the
+manganese black) of fish and lotus plants belong (<b>8</b>) (British
+Museum, Nos. 4790, &amp;c.). The finest specimens of XVIIIth
+Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir el-Bahri, in the
+neighbourhood of which place there may have been a factory
+for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &amp;c., of this
+fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor
+(good collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this
+dynasty polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and
+dark blue, violet, purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other
+tints were used, not only for smaller objects of faience, such as
+rings, scarabs, kohl-pots, &amp;c., but also for vases, <i>e.g.</i> No. 3965 of
+the Cairo Museum (Amenophis III. wine-bottle), the ground colour
+of which is white with a decoration of flower wreaths in blue,
+yellow and red, with an inscription in delicate blue (<b>6</b>). This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span>
+polychrome faience was also now used for the <i>ushabti</i> figures
+which were placed in the tombs; hitherto they had been made
+exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery;
+henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the
+polychrome glazes (<i>e.g.</i> British Museum, Nos.  34,180, 34,185)
+were soon abandoned, and the plain blue and black of the
+ordinary vases was adopted.  The <i>ushabtis</i> of King Seti I.
+(British Museum, No.  22,818, &amp;c.) (<b>9</b>) are fine specimens of this
+type.  Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and became
+weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used
+for their <i>ushabtis</i> a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary
+colour which at once distinguishes the faience of this period
+from that of all others (<b>9</b>).  The same brilliant glaze was used
+for vases of various kinds as well.  The polychrome ware had
+developed into a style of inlaying with glazed faience, which we
+see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty (1400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)
+(<b>10</b>), and at Tel el-Yah&#363;d&#299;ya under the XXth (1200 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>),
+used for wall decoration.  After this time polychrome ceramic
+decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained
+in Asia (see below).</p>
+
+<p>The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by
+such a remarkable object as the gigantic <i>Uas</i>-sceptre of blue
+glazed faience, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (<b>12, 8</b>).
+This is the largest known piece of Egyptian glazed faience;
+really large vases of faience are not found.  Faience vases were
+very commonly built up or carved out of a ball of the dried
+material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous substance
+&mdash;it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have been
+fashioned on the wheel.  Sometimes even small vases were made
+of separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (<b>6</b>).
+Under the XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of
+deities or animals in relief became common; these were made in
+moulds (<b>6</b>).  In the matter of form the faience pottery of the
+New Empire follows the lead of the new earthenware types.
+Forms had altered considerably from those of the XIIth Dynasty.
+In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we now find
+egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without
+handles, great <i>amphorae</i> with almost pointed bases, sometimes
+with the handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-tipped,
+squat jugs; little handleless vases somewhat resembling
+the modern <i>kulla</i>, &ldquo;<i>mit mehrfach eingezogenem Bauch</i>&rdquo; (V.B.),
+and the common flat flask-like type known as the &ldquo;pilgrim
+bottle&rdquo; (<b>6, 13, 14, 15</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:118px" src="images/img709a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Egyptian pottery made of fine blue paste.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time,
+imported vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean
+<i>Bugelkannen</i> and Cypriote black &ldquo;base ring&rdquo; jugs, have been
+found in the tombs and deposits of this age (<b>14</b>).  Imitations of
+foreign forms, especially the <i>Bugelkannen</i>, are found<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> chiefly in
+faience (British Museum, 22,731, is an imitation of a Minoan jug
+from Crete).  The faience forms of
+the XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties
+include also the <i>kulla</i> shape, the
+pilgrim bottle, miniature <i>amphorae</i>,
+ &amp;c.  (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous
+forms not found in common pottery,
+imitating metal and stone vases, <i>e.g.</i>
+the blue-green ribbed pots of the
+XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze
+originals, and the <i>alabastron</i> of the XVIIIth; these last go
+back to the XIIth Dynasty.  Very pretty cups in the shape of
+lotus flowers (see fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are
+of the XIXth Dynasty, and mostly came from Tuna (<b>6, 8</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 358px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:308px; height:135px" src="images/img709b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth
+Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth
+Dynasty has already been mentioned.  Characteristic of the latter
+period of this ware are long jugs with attenuated body and single
+handle, which, because they have been found with Mycenaean
+objects in Cyprus, have
+been considered to be
+of foreign, probably of
+Syrian origin.  They
+may, however, be Egyptian.
+Vases of the same
+ware in the shape of men
+and animals are not uncommon (<b>17</b>).
+Another
+ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face, sometimes
+becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in
+this ware the pilgrim bottles are common.  An unpolished,
+brittle, and thin yellow ware was also used largely for wine-vases.
+The rougher, commoner red and brown ware at this
+period became decorated with designs, chiefly of lily wreaths,
+&amp;c., in paint of various colours (<b>13</b>).  This new development hid
+the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply
+obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of
+the period (see fig. 8).  This painted pottery continued in use
+until about the time of the XXIInd Dynasty.  From this time
+onwards, till the Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a
+red ware, usually covered with a white slip.  Under the XXVIth
+Dynasty a finer homogeneous white ware occurs, usually for
+vases with a rude representation of the face of the god Bes on their
+bodies.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:229px; height:184px" src="images/img709c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Egyptian pottery with painted ornament and sham marbling.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The XXVIth Dynasty marks a new period of development in
+the history of Egyptian faience.  The old deep blue colour had
+gradually deteriorated into an ugly green (British Museum,
+No. 8962), which was replaced by the Saite potters with a new
+light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in accordance with the
+archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light blue of the earliest
+Dynasties.  The glaze itself is very thin and &ldquo;sugary&rdquo; in
+texture.  The old decoration of the blue with designs and inscriptions
+in manganese-black is abandoned; on the <i>ushabtis</i> the
+inscriptions are now incised.  Side
+by side with this light blue glaze
+was used an unglazed faience, a
+sort of composition paste with the
+colour going right through.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a>  It
+has more variety of colour than
+the glazed faience, light green and
+a dark indigo blue being found as
+well as the Saite light blue. Sometimes
+it is of a very soft, almost
+chalky consistency.  It was used
+for vases, but more generally for
+small figures and scarabs (<b>6</b>).  The
+commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim bottle, now
+made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with inscriptions
+on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the
+possessor.  These flasks appear to have been common New
+Year&rsquo;s gifts.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further
+new development of glaze began, of a more radical character than
+ever before. The colour deepened, and the glaze itself became
+much more glassy, and was thickly laid on.  The new glaze was
+partly translucent, and differed very greatly from the old opaque
+glaze. It first appeared on <i>ushabtis</i> at the end of the Saite period.
+A curious effect was obtained by glazing the head-dress, the
+inscription &amp;c., of the <i>ushabtis</i> in dark blue, and then covering
+the whole with translucent light blue glaze.  This method was
+regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman
+periods, when the new style of glaze came into general use. A
+yellowish green effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body
+of the vases in yellow and covering this with the translucent blue
+glaze.  This method was used to touch up the salient portions of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+the designs in relief, imitated from foreign originals, a style
+which now became usual on vases.  The usual decoration is
+mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally predominating.
+A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue, blue-green,
+grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found.  The glaze
+is very thickly laid on, and is often &ldquo;crazed&rdquo; (<b>6, 8</b>).  A remarkable
+instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the
+god Bes in the British Museum (No. 35,028).  A hard, light blue,
+opaque glaze like that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally,
+but rarely, met with in the case of vases (British Museum,
+Nos. 37,407, 37,408).</p>
+
+<p>We know something of the common wares in use during this
+period from the study of the <i>ostraka</i>, fragments of pottery on
+which dated tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written.
+From the <i>ostraka</i> we see that during the Ptolemaic period the
+commonest pottery was made of red ware covered with white
+slip, which has already been mentioned.  At the beginning of the
+Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar light pink ware
+with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark brown
+ware. About the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> horizontally ribbed or fluted
+pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use.
+These were often large-sized <i>amphorae</i>, with very attenuated
+necks and long handles (see fig. 9).  During the Byzantine
+(Coptic) period most of the pottery in use was ribbed, and usually
+pitched inside to hold water, as
+the ware was loose in texture and
+porous.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:227px; height:277px" src="images/img710a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Egyptian pottery under the Ptolemies, showing
+Greek influence in the shapes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>During the Coptic period, a
+lighter ware was also in use, decorated
+with designs of various kinds
+in white, brown or red paint on
+the dull red or buff body.  In
+Nubia a peculiar development of
+this ware is characteristic of the
+later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712).</p>
+
+<p>A polished red ware of Roman
+origin (imitation Arretine or
+&ldquo;Samian&rdquo;) was commonly used as
+well.</p>
+
+<p>The heavily glazed blue faience
+continued in use until replaced in
+the early Arab period by the well-known
+yellow and brown lead-glazed
+pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds
+of Fostat (Old Cairo).</p>
+
+<p><i>Western Asia.&mdash;Palestine</i>.  The most ancient Palestinian
+pottery is the rough &ldquo;Amorite&rdquo; ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi)
+which sometimes has wavy handles like the prehistoric Egyptian
+(<b>18</b>). Later we find actual Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (<b>19</b>),
+an interesting testimony to the truth of the legend which brings
+the Philistines from Crete; the fourth and fifth cities of Lachish
+(1200-1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) show us the first ordinary Phoenician or Israelite
+pottery&mdash;buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter with the handles
+sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong Egyptian
+influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found
+as in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery
+is the Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite
+period, of which the characteristics are well known. Some of
+this may actually have been made in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The course of the potter&rsquo;s art in Mesopotamia and Persia
+appears to have run on lines of development parallel with the
+art in Egypt, for the country between the Tigris and the
+Euphrates is rich in good clays, and, wherever the invention of
+glass arose, its application to pottery decoration was certainly
+developed at an early period in Egypt and in Mesopotamia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed
+out, though they have nothing to do with vase-making.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets,
+cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the
+literature of the time.  The cylinders and prisms were thrown on
+the potter&rsquo;s wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form
+was then sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform
+inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried
+and fired.</p>
+
+<p>2.  The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs.  While the
+Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application
+of their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished
+objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture
+decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork.  The bricks were of
+very open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects
+were obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which
+formed a kind of <i>cloison</i> or boundary, the shallow cells between being
+filled in with coloured clays&mdash;yellow, red or white&mdash;or with coloured
+glazes of turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown.  These
+glazes are obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely
+prepared and are always full of bubbles and consequently more or
+less opaque.  Yet the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid
+colour effect, strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to
+a very high rank among all the world&rsquo;s work in clay and glaze.
+The &ldquo;Frieze of the Archers&rdquo; now in the Louvre may be mentioned
+as one of the finest productions of its kind, and the Louvre and
+British Museum possess the finest collections of this early architectural
+use of glazed and coloured clay. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mural Decoration</a></span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:217px" src="images/img710b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Assyrian biscuit pottery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-formed
+vases made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were
+made.  Small figures of deities made of the same clay are often
+found.  It is practically the same terra-cotta as that of the
+inscribed tablets.  None of the forms are particularly distinctive
+(see fig. 10).  The excavations of the French in Persia have
+brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely interesting
+painted ware, which belongs to a very early period.  The decoration
+is usually geometrical.  The technique seems to be analogous
+to the Mycenaean-Greek (<i>Firnismalerei</i>), and the whole effect
+is very like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon
+pottery.  The ware is buff in colour and fine in texture, with a
+polished surface.  The decoration is sometimes in polychrome,
+but usually in the grey-brown iron-glaze (?) alone.  This pottery
+degenerates later and finally disappears (<b>20</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:177px" src="images/img710c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) we
+find a polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown)
+obviously of Egyptian origin.  It was used, not for vases, but
+architectonically for friezes, ornamental bosses, &amp;c.  Its origin
+may be found in Egypt under the XVIIIth Dynasty, when
+Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and Babylonia had
+regular diplomatic relations with Egypt In Asia this polychrome
+decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had ceased
+to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick
+decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay
+decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik.
+In the Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see fig. 11)
+which are probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imitations
+of Egyptian faience.</p>
+
+<p>Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed
+pottery of which the slipper-shaped coffins, of the time were made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+(British Museum, Nos.  1645-1647) (<b>21</b>).  This glaze possibly contains
+a small amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the
+contemporary translucent blue glaze of Egypt.  The Egyptian
+glaze certainly spread into western Asia, and we find the last
+specimens of it in the tiles from the destroyed city of Rhagae
+in Persia, which may be as late as the 13th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>  The
+lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman period, may
+be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no means
+clear.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References</span>.&mdash;(1) Petrie-Quibell, <i>Ballas and Nagada</i> (date
+erroneous); (2) Jacques de Morgan, <i>L&rsquo; Âge de la pierre et des métaux</i>;
+(3) Petrie, <i>Diospolis Parva</i>, frontispiece (also for &ldquo;sequence-dates&rdquo;
+of pottery); (4) Garstang, <i>Mahâsna and Bêt Khallâf</i>, pls.  xxix.&mdash;xxxii.;
+(5) Petrie, <i>Illahûn</i>, pl.  xii.  (corr.  by V.  Bissing in (14));
+(6) V.  Bissing, <i>Catalogue générale du musée de Caire,</i> &ldquo;Die Fayencegefässe&rdquo;;
+(7) Petrie, <i>Abydos</i>, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry Wallis,
+<i>Egyptian Ceramic Art</i> (Macgregor Collection); (9) <i>Guide to Third
+and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum</i>, p.  252 ff.; (10)
+Petrie, <i>Tel-el-Amarna</i>; (11) <i>Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian
+Rooms</i>, p.  261; (12) Petrie, <i>Nagâda</i>, pl.  xxviii.; (13) Petrie, <i>Illahûn</i>,
+pls.  xx., xxi.; (14) V.  Bissing, <i>Strena Helbigiana</i>, p.  20 ff.; (15)
+Garstang, <i>El Arábah</i>, pls.  xviii.-xxi., xxviii., xxix.; (16) Hall,
+<i>Oldest Civilization of Greece</i>, p. 143 ff.  ibid.  figs.  29, 30, 69; (17)
+<i>Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms</i>, pl.  viii.; (18) Petrie,
+<i>Tell-el-Hesy</i>, pl.  v.; (19) Welch, <i>Ann.  Brit.  Sch.  Ath</i>. vi.; (20) de
+Morgan, <i>Délégation en Perse</i>, viii.  (1905); (21) <i>Brit.  Mus.: Guide
+to Babylonian and Assyrian Room</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. R. H.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Greek, Etruscan and Roman</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Greek</span>. <i>Study of Greek Vases</i>.&mdash;It is not so many years since
+an account of Greek pottery would naturally have followed
+chronologically the history of Egyptian pottery with little overlapping;
+but recent discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and,
+while up to the end of the 19th century the earliest remains to be
+traced on Greek soil could be assigned at the furthest to the
+period 2500-2000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, it is now possible not only to show that at
+that period technical processes were highly developed, but even
+to trace a continuous development of Greek pottery from the
+Neolithic age.  This result has been mainly brought about by
+Dr Arthur Evans&rsquo;s researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of
+similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece.
+Whether the race which produced this pottery can strictly be
+called Greek may be open to question, but at all events the ware
+is the independent product of a people inhabiting in prehistoric
+times the region afterwards known as Greece; its connexion with
+the pottery of the historic period can now be clearly traced, and
+in its advanced technical character and the genuinely artistic
+appearance of its decoration even this early ware proclaims
+itself as inspired by a similar genius.</p>
+
+<p>The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional
+impetus from the light that it throws on the early civilization of
+the country, and its value for the student of ethnology.  But it
+has always appealed strongly to the archaeologist and in some
+degree also to the artist or connoisseur, to the former from its
+importance as a contribution to the history of Greek art, mythology
+and antiquities, to the latter from its beauty of form
+and decoration.  Attention was first redirected to the painted
+vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time they
+served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur
+or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the
+18th century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of
+more than merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted
+to the elucidation of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive
+at a chronological classification.  Two facts must, however,
+be borne in mind: firstly, that down to the middle of the 19th
+century the great majority of painted vases had been found only
+in Italy; secondly, that these vases were mostly of the later and
+more florid styles, which, if artistically advanced, are now known
+to represent a decadent phase of Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were
+the product not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the
+term &ldquo;Etruscan vase&rdquo; arose and passed into the languages of
+Europe, surviving even at this day in popular speech in spite of
+a century of refutation.  Meanwhile, the study of the subjects
+depicted on the vases passed through the successive stages of
+allegorical, historical and mystical interpretation, until a century
+and more of painstaking study led to the more rational principles
+of modern archaeologists.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:340px" src="images/img711a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;Jug from Cyprus of Oriental style, 10 in. high</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:276px" src="images/img711b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Pottery from Cyprus with geometrical ornament.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Sites and Discoveries</i>.&mdash;The sites on which Greek vases have been
+found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from
+the Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt.  By far the great
+majority, at all events of the finer specimens, have been extracted
+from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the
+later period or decadence have been found in large numbers on
+various sites in southern Italy, such as Capua, Curnae and Nola in
+Campania, Anzi in Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia.  In the western
+Mediterranean, Sicily has also been a fruitful field for this pottery,
+early varieties being found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti
+and elsewhere.  Painted vases have also come to light in Sardinia
+and in North Africa, especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds
+mostly belong to the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>  In Greece proper the most
+prolific site has been Athens, where the finds extend from the
+Dipylon vases of the 8th century
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>  down to the decadent
+productions of the 4th century;
+one group, that of the white
+funeral <i>lekythoi</i>, is almost
+peculiar to Athens.  Next to
+this city, Corinth has been
+most productive, especially in
+pottery of the archaic period
+and of local manufacture.
+Large quantities of pottery of
+all periods have been yielded
+by Thebes, Tanagra and other
+sites in Boeotia, and remains
+of the &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; period at
+Mycenae, Argos and elsewhere.
+But on the whole painted pottery
+is rare in other parts of
+the mainland.  Among the
+western islands of the archipelago,
+Aegina and Euboea
+have proved fruitful in vases
+of all periods; Thera, Melos
+and others of the Cyclades are
+remarkable for pottery of the
+prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all
+Crete is now famous for the wondrous series of painted and ornamented
+pottery of pre-Mycenacan date, which can be traced back
+even to the Neolithic period, and the discovery of which has entirely
+revolutionized the preconceived theories on the appearance of
+painted pottery in
+Greece.  This has been
+found in the recent excavations
+at Cnossus,
+Palaeokastro and elsewhere.
+In Asia Minor
+there have been some
+important finds on the
+mainland, but only
+along the coast; some
+of the islands, more
+especially Samos and
+Rhodes, have been more
+fruitful in this respect.
+At Kertch and elsewhere
+in the Crimea,
+large numbers of fine
+but somewhat florid
+vases of the 5th and
+4th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>  have
+come to light.  Cyprus
+has long been known as
+a rich field for pottery of all periods, from the Mycenaean onwards,
+the later varieties being marked by strong local quasi-oriental
+characteristics, with little development from the more primitive
+types (figs. 12 and 13).  The principal sites are Salamis, Amathus,
+Marion (Poli) and Curium.  Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two
+sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have yielded results of considerable
+importance for the history of early Greek vase-painting.</p>
+
+<p>The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs;
+but some important discoveries have been made on the sites of
+temples and sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Naucratis.
+In such cases the vases are seldom complete, having been
+broken up and cast away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments
+have remained undisturbed.  The tombs vary greatly in form, those
+of Greece being usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy
+often fine and elaborate chambers with architectural details, and
+the manner in which the vases are found in these tombs varies
+greatly.  Plain unornamented pottery is almost universal, and may
+be considered to have formed the &ldquo;tomb-furniture&rdquo; proper&mdash;the
+painted vases being as in daily life merely ornamental adjuncts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Shapes and Uses of Greek Vases</i>.&mdash;The enormous number of
+painted vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence
+of the important part they must have played in the daily life, of the
+Greeks, and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows
+the high estimation in which they were held.  It is, however, remarkable
+that, with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its
+use in daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical literature
+which throw light on the purposes for which these vases were
+used.  Where any are described at full length there is always evidence
+that metal vases are intended.  Athenaeus and the lexicographers
+have indeed put on record a long list of names of shapes, but
+it is only in a few cases that we can be certain what forms they
+describe, or whether any of the typical forms of existing vases can be
+identified with the literary descriptions.</p>
+
+<p>We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly,
+the uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly,
+the classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery
+which have come down to us.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been discovered
+in tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were
+made principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had
+their uses in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware
+cannot be doubted.  They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the
+commoner wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us,
+being largely ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on
+special occasions for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at
+banquets or in religious ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled
+cup in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (<i>Cythera</i>) and
+inscribed with the word <span class="grk" title="hêmikotylion">&#7969;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#964;&#973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span> or &ldquo;half-kotyle,&rdquo; equivalent
+to about one-fourth of a pint.  Another vase found at Athens is
+supposed to represent the official <span class="grk" title="choinix">&#967;&#959;&#8150;&#957;&#953;&#958;</span> or quart, having a capacity
+of 0.96 litre; it is inscribed <span class="grk" title="dêmosion">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#972;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span> or &ldquo;official measure,&rdquo; and bears
+the official stamp of the state.  Conversely many names of vases,
+such as the <i>amphora</i> or the <i>kotyle</i>, were adopted to indicate measures
+of capacity for liquid or dry commodities.  Earthenware vessels were
+used for storing both liquids and food, for the preparation of foods
+and liquids, and for the various uses of the table and the toilet.
+That the painted ware was used at banquets or on great occasions
+we learn from scenes depicted on the vases themselves, in which
+vases painted with subjects appear in use.  In connexion with
+athletics, they were given as prizes, as in the case of the Panathenaic
+<i>amphorae</i>, a class of vases given for victories in the games held at
+Athens at the Panathenaic festivals, where, however, they do not
+represent prizes so much as marks of honour corresponding to modern
+racing cups.  Vases were also used as toys for children, as is proved
+by the discovery of many diminutive specimens, chiefly jugs, in the
+tombs of children at Athens, on which are depicted children playing
+at various games.  They also served a purely decorative use as
+domestic ornaments, being placed on columns or shelves; or, in the
+case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the wall.  Many of the
+later Greek and Italian painted vases are very carelessly decorated
+on the one side, which was obviously not intended to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory,
+sacrificial or funerary.  Of all these uses, especially the last, there
+is ample evidence.  That vases were often placed in temples or shrines
+as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature of
+the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that
+painted pottery served the same purpose for those who could only
+afford the humbler material.  Of late years much light has been
+thrown upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis
+of Athens, at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta,
+where numerous fragments have been found bearing inscriptions
+which attest their use for such purposes.  It was a well-known
+Greek custom to clear out the temples from time to time and form
+rubbish-heaps (<i>favissae</i>) of the disused vases and statuettes, which
+were broken in pieces as useless, but it is to this very fact that we
+owe their preservation.  At Naucratis many of the fragments bear
+incised inscriptions, such as <span class="grk" title="Apollônos eimi">&#902;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#969;&#957;&#972;&#962; &#949;&#7984;&#956;&#953;</span>, &ldquo;I am Apollo&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+(possibly a memorandum of the priest&rsquo;s, to mark consecrated
+property), or <span class="grk" title="ho deina anethêke tê Aphroditê">&#8001; &#948;&#949;&#8150;&#957;&#940; &#956;&#949; &#7936;&#957;&#941;&#952;&#951;&#954;&#949; &#964;&#8135; &#902;&#966;&#961;&#959;&#948;&#943;&#964;&#8131;</span>, &ldquo;So-and-so dedicated
+me to Aphrodite.&rdquo; Fig. 14 gives another example with a dedication
+to Apollo.  At Penteskouphia, near Corinth, a large series of painted
+tablets (<span class="grk" title="pinakes">&#960;&#943;&#957;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>), dating from 600 to 550 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, with representations of
+Poseidon and dedicatory inscriptions to that deity, were found in
+1879.  Votive offerings in this latter form were common at all
+periods, and tablets painted with figures and hung on trees or walls
+are often depicted on the vases, usually in connexion with scenes
+representing sacrifices or offerings.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones)
+must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of
+the Greeks.  We read of them in connexion with the Athenian
+festival of the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis.
+They were also used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured
+cup in the British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to
+Dionysus.  In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (<i>phiale</i>)
+is invariable.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:310px" src="images/img712.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication to Apollo.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>But their most important use, and that to which their preservation
+is mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies.  They were
+not only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the
+tombs to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the ashes
+of the dead or as &ldquo;tomb-furniture,&rdquo; in accordance with Greek
+religious beliefs in regard to the future life.  Several classes of vases
+are marked out by their subjects as exclusively devoted to this
+purpose, such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at
+Athens, which were placed outside the tombs, the white Athenian
+<i>lekythoi</i> of the 5th and 4th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and the large <i>krateres</i> and
+other vases of the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>  found in the tombs of Apulia
+and other parts of southern Italy.  Their use as cinerary urns was
+perhaps more restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases,
+though the custom is well known and is referred to in literature
+from Homer downwards.  In &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; times coffers (<span class="grk" title="larnakes">&#955;&#940;&#961;&#957;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>)
+of clay were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine
+painted examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the
+best periods there are but isolated instances.</p>
+
+<p>The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of
+Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of form
+was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest nomenclature;
+each form has its conventional name appended.  These
+shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in
+which food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids
+were mixed or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids
+were poured out or food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other
+vases for the use of the table or toilet.  Thus we have the <i>pithos</i>
+and <i>amphora</i> for storing wine, the <i>krater</i> for mixing it, the <i>psykter</i>
+for cooling it, the <i>kyathos</i> for ladling it out, and the <i>oinochoe</i> or
+<i>prochoos</i> for pouring it out; the <i>hydria</i> was used for fetching water
+from the well.  The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumerable,
+the principal being the <i>kylix</i>, <i>kotyle</i>, <i>kantharos</i>, <i>rhyton</i> (drinking-horn)
+and <i>phiale</i> (libation bowl).  The <i>pyxis</i> was used by women
+at their toilet, and the <i>lekythos</i>, <i>alabastron</i> and <i>askos</i> for oil and
+unguents.</p>
+
+<p><i>Technical Processes</i>.&mdash;Though the Greeks succeeded in making
+pottery of a very high order from the point of view of form and
+decoration, the technical processes remained throughout of the most
+elementary&mdash;for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the
+simplest, and the temperature at which the ware was fired was not
+high enough to introduce any serious difficulties.  As we should
+expect, it is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical
+processes in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no
+vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative
+triumphs on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as
+those that satisfied his predecessors.  As in every other case technical
+and artistic refinement went hand in hand.  In the earliest times the
+clay was used with very little preparation; at all events before the
+introduction of the potter&rsquo;s wheel the finish is not to be compared
+with that of the early races in Egypt.  As the practice developed
+no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain districts, and
+these became centres of manufacture or the clays were carried to
+other established centres.  The primitive wares usually exhibit the
+natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other elementary
+pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no gloss.
+Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it becomes
+finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the glowing orange,
+inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>  In
+the vases of the later Italian centres the colour again reverts to a
+paler hue.</p>
+
+<p>The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of
+sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles.  It was mixed
+with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately
+fine clay of two or three grades was obtained.  Both red and whitish
+clays were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that
+mixtures of different clays gave the best results.  The clay for the
+Athenian vases was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica; and as it
+did not burn to a very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (<i>rubrica</i>) was
+added to it to produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes
+the best vases.  Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were
+also famous for their clays, and at the first named tablets have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span>
+been found bearing representations of the digging of clay for
+pottery.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:795px; height:543px" src="images/img713a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Shapes of Greek Vases.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The improved manipulation of the clays, and the increasing
+knowledge that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture
+of other substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way
+for what is known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This
+delicate gloss, so thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called
+glaze, but it cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of
+finely-ground glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability,
+as the Greek potter used finer and finer clays and so was enabled
+to perfect his shapes, he found that after a vase had been &ldquo;thrown&rdquo;
+he could get a closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer
+clay material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the
+wheel when sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for
+such a purpose&mdash;of very siliceous clay and ochre&mdash;would, when
+they were burnt in the Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright
+colour, but also to a glossy surface, especially where the flames had
+freely played about them; and it is more in accordance with our
+knowledge to believe that the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest
+Greek red vases was produced in this way, for it seems impossible
+that it can have been a coating of any special glaze.</p>
+
+<p>In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is
+always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic
+sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of
+about 900° C., which a modern potter would consider very low.
+When broken the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and
+is often yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The
+material is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it
+(another proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the
+material of Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing
+of the secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of
+these analyses may be summed up as follows: silica, 52-60 parts;
+alumina, 13-19 parts; lime, 5-10 parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts;
+oxide of iron, 12-19 parts. Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple
+red burning clays would give a similar result. It is to the glory of
+the Greek potter that with such ordinary materials, by the exercise
+of selection, patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results
+we see. He did as much as can be done with natural clay materials,
+but the glory of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or
+Chinese, was not for him.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufacture of Vases</i>.&mdash;The earliest Greek pottery is, like all
+primitive pottery, hand-made. The introduction of the potter&rsquo;s
+wheel into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but
+we now know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive
+pottery of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, for instance, the
+Bronze age tombs of 2500-1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> contain only hand-made pottery,
+but in the next period (1500-1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) we find hand-made and coarse
+vases side by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery&mdash;the
+&ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo;&mdash;obviously made on the wheel. It seems probable,
+therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about
+1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion
+shows (<i>Il.</i> xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with
+the hand, not the foot; representations of its use are seen on several
+vases of the archaic period (fig. 16), and they further prove that the
+vase was replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of
+painting, polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as
+for the original shaping or &ldquo;throwing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:365px; height:262px" src="images/img713b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Votive tablet from Corinth; a
+potter applying painted bands while the vessel
+revolves on the wheel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same
+as that still in use, need not be described in detail; the feet, necks,
+mouths and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds,
+and attached while
+the clay was moist,
+as is also indicated
+on a vase. Large
+and coarse vases,
+such as wine casks
+(<span class="grk" title="pithoi">&#960;&#943;&#952;&#959;&#953;</span>), were always
+modelled by hand
+on a kind of hooped
+mould (<span class="grk" title="kannabos">&#954;&#940;&#957;&#957;&#945;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>Parts of vases
+were modelled by
+hand at all periods
+by way of decoration.
+Even in the
+geometrical period
+we find horses
+modelled in the
+round on the
+covers of vases and
+later on handles
+enriched with moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such
+embellishments are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations
+of metal forms, but the plastic principle is one which obtained in
+Greek pottery from the very first, as for instance in the primitive
+pottery of Troy, in which the vases are often modelled in human or
+animal forms; and the same principle is involved in the common
+practice of speaking of the &ldquo;neck,&rdquo; &ldquo;shoulder&rdquo; or &ldquo;foot&rdquo; of a
+vessel. In the best period the practice of adding moulded ornaments
+or of modelling vases in natural forms took a subsidiary place, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span>
+examples occur from time to time, as in the beautiful <i>rhyta</i> or
+drinking-horns of the red-figure period (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller
+details such as are seen in handles enriched with heads in relief, a
+favourite practice of the potter Nicosthenes.  In the 4th-century
+vases of southern Italy the handles are often much ornamented in
+this fashion, as in the large <i>krateres</i>, where they are adorned with
+masks in relief.</p>
+
+<p>The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with
+designs in relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence
+of the art, when imitations of metal were superseding the painted
+pottery.  Even then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a
+mould, except in the case of those in the form of human figures or
+animals (Plate II., figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the
+heading of terra-cotta figures, except for the fact that they are
+usually painted in the manner of the vases.  But in southern Italy
+the tendency to imitate metal led to the popularity of ornaments
+made separately from moulds and attached or let in to vases otherwise
+plain.  Vases of this period, with reeded bodies, must also have
+been made from moulds, as were a series of <i>phialae</i> or libation-bowls
+associated with Cales in Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are
+known to be direct imitations of metal.</p>
+
+<p>All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black
+glaze or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of
+those moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia
+with opaque colouring laid on the varnish.  Some of these plain black
+vases of the 4th century are ornamented with <i>stamped</i> patterns made
+with a metal punch impressed in the moist clay.  This decoration is
+confined to simple patterns.</p>
+
+<p>After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried
+in the sun and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnishing
+and painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought
+out by a process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed
+with a piece of wood or hard leather.  On a vase in Berlin a boy is
+seen applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably
+for this purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has
+evidently not been varnished.  Many vases are varnished black all
+over the exterior (whether decorated with designs or not) with the
+exception of the foot and lip.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:210px" src="images/img714a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Model of Kiln found in Essex.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in
+the potter&rsquo;s art.  It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-dried
+vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have
+come down to us have been baked.  The amount of heat required
+was regulated by the character of the ware, but was not very high.
+Many examples exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected
+to too much or too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish
+or reddish hue.  Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an
+ashen-grey colour, the black
+remaining unimpaired.
+Other accidents were liable
+to occur in the baking, such
+as cracking under too great
+heat, or the damaging of the
+shape by vases knocking
+against one another and so
+being dented in or crushed.
+The form of the oven was
+of the simplest (fig. 17).  No
+furnaces have been found in
+Greece, and only one or two
+in Italy, but we have a
+variety of evidence from
+vase-paintings.  They were
+fed by fires from beneath,
+and the vases were inserted with a long shovel.  They were
+heated with charcoal or wood fuel, and there are representations
+of men poking or raking the fires with long-handled implements.
+One vase-painting gives a bird&rsquo;s-eye view, in horizontal section, of
+the interior of an oven full of jugs of various forms.  Others have
+more complete presentations of potteries, with men engaged in the
+different processes of vase manufacture, modelling, painting or
+supplying the kilns with newly-made wares.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Painting of Vases</i>.&mdash;We may distinguish three principal
+classes of painted pottery, of Which two admit of subdivision.</p>
+
+<p>1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly
+   linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush.
+   The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing
+   into black.  The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse.</p>
+
+<p>2. Greek vases painted with figures.  These may be subdivided as
+   follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground.</p>
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of
+      shining black.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Vases with polychrome decoration.</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in
+      various colours on white ground (these range from the
+      6th to the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid
+      over a ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive
+      period to the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of these the second group is by far the largest and most important,
+including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek
+vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the
+technical processes by which the most successful results were obtained.
+In both the classes (<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>) the colouring is almost
+confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black.</p>
+
+<p>This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies
+under different circumstances according to differences of locality,
+of manufacture or accidents of production.  It is seen in its greatest
+perfection in the &ldquo;Nolan&rdquo; <i>amphorae</i> of the earlier red-figure period,
+at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Greek vases.
+The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat,
+<i>i.e.</i> stoving at a higher or lower temperature.  It also varies in
+thickness.  At present no certainty has been attained as to its
+composition&mdash;Brongniart&rsquo;s oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted
+&mdash;nor has any acid been found to have an effect upon it, though the
+chemical action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the
+black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the former
+which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole vase
+being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red to
+receive the figures.  It is obvious that the transition to merely
+leaving the figures red is but a slight one.  But in all black-figured
+vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black
+silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly indicated
+by a pointed instrument making a faint line.  The surface within
+these outlines being filled in with black, details of anatomy, dress,
+&amp;c., were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed tool.
+After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the
+designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple
+and white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in
+their respective use.  After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix
+these colours the vase was complete.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:192px; height:264px" src="images/img714b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">(From a photo supplied by the Director of the Sèvres Museum)</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span>  18.&mdash;Fragment of unfinished red-figured vase.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background.
+But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not
+by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their
+contours.  Recent researches have attempted to show that the
+instrument with which this was achieved may have been a feather
+brush or pen, by which the lines were drawn separately, not concurrently.
+The other tools used for painting would be an ordinary
+metal or reed pen and a camel&rsquo;s-hair brush, or at any rate something
+analogous.  Thus the outlines of the figures were clearly marked,
+and the process is one of drawing rather than painting, but it was
+in draughtsmanship that the best vase-painters excelled.  The next
+stage was to mark the inner details by very fine black lines or by
+masses of black for surfaces such as the
+hair; white and purple were also employed,
+but more sparingly than on the
+earlier vases.  The main processes always
+remain the same down to the termination
+of vase-painting, though the tendency to
+polychromy, which came in about the end
+of the 5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, effected some
+modifications.  The blacking of the whole
+exterior surface&mdash;a purely mechanical
+process&mdash;took place after the figures
+had been completed and protected from
+accidents by the thick black border of
+which we have spoken.</p>
+
+<p>A fragment of an unfinished vase preserved
+in the Sèvres Museum gives a very
+clear idea of the process just described,
+the figures being completed, but the back
+ground not yet applied (fig. 18).  There is
+also another vase in existence which gives
+the interior of a vase-painter&rsquo;s studio, in
+which three artists are at work with their
+brushes, their paint-pots by their side.</p>
+
+<p>In the class of vases (3 (<i>a</i>)), with polychrome figures on a white
+ground, the essential feature is the white slip or <i>engobe</i> with which
+the naturally pale clay is covered.  In the archaic vases of the 7th
+and 6th centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, especially in the Ionian centres, as at Rhodes,
+Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but with this,
+difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary black-figure
+method, the only additional colour being purple laid on the black.
+We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or outline,
+in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>,
+which technically are of a very advanced character.  The colours
+used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow,
+crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were
+not fired.</p>
+
+<p>In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in
+the class of <i>lekythoi</i> or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral
+uses.  Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with
+handles, &amp;c., were covered with a coating of white clay.  A second
+coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration,
+and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and
+finally fired at a low temperature.  The decoration was achieved as
+follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines,
+ignoring draperies, &amp;c., and not always followed when the colours
+were laid on.  This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+being applied with a fine brush in monochrome&mdash;black, yellow or
+red&mdash;following the lines of the sketch.  For the drapery and other
+details polychrome washes were employed, laid on with a large brush.
+All varieties of red from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow,
+blue, black and green.  Hair is treated either in outline or by means
+of washes.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (<i>b</i>)) in which
+opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with
+which the whole vase is coated.  This method is met with at three
+distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long
+distances of time.</p>
+
+<p>We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where
+it seems to have been introduced not long after the close of the
+Neolithic period, about 2500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and where it holds its own for about
+a thousand years against the contrasted method of &ldquo;dark on light&rdquo;
+painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of
+&ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; civilization in Crete.  The colouring is very varied,
+orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed.</p>
+
+<p>The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a
+small class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of
+transition between the black-figured and red-figured.  White and
+orange-red are here employed, sometimes with accessory details in
+purple and black and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually
+black-figured, though the appearance of the vases is often red-figured.
+Lastly, it appears in southern Italy as a final effort of
+vase-painting to flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd
+century.  Some of these vases were made in Campania, where the
+method resembles that of the Attic class just described, others in
+Apulia, probably at Gnathia.  The latter have feeble conventional
+decoration in purple and white with details in yellow, confined to one
+side of the vases, and are also distinguished by the use of ornaments
+in relief.  They were also occasionally made in Greece proper.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters,
+especially in the best periods.  The deep purple used for accessory
+details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on
+the white <i>lekythoi</i> is an ochre (<span class="grk" title="miltos">&#956;&#943;&#955;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, <i>rubrica</i>). The white also used
+for accessories is an earth or clay; in the slip coating of the white
+ground vases it assumes the consistency of pipe-clay.  Yellow,
+where used for details on the later vases, is an ochre, and blue and
+green are produced from artificial compounds containing copper.
+A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and green, used by the
+polychrome painters, are obviously artificial pigments which have
+not been fired.  When gilding was employed it was laid on over a
+raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool or brush,
+and was attached by varnish, not by fire.</p>
+
+<p><i>Potters and Inscriptions</i>.&mdash;The potters who made these vases were
+mostly&mdash;at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, <span class="sc">b.c.</span>&mdash;<span class="grk" title="metoikoi">&#956;&#7952;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span>,
+or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply.  We have an
+Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and a
+Scythes.  The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases
+seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities
+may be merely due to the use of a vernacular.  They formed a gild
+or fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less
+division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of slaves.
+This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing the
+interior of potteries.  Others again &ldquo;specialized&rdquo; in different shapes,
+and were known as <span class="grk" title="chutroplathoi">&#967;&#965;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#955;&#940;&#952;&#959;&#953;</span>, <span class="grk" title="lêkuthopoioi">&#955;&#951;&#954;&#965;&#952;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#943;</span>, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five
+hundred vases.  They go back to about 700 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the earliest names
+being found on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority
+of the signatures are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares.
+Some, such as Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are
+combined.  The best known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs
+eighty times.  The ordinary forms of signature are four&mdash;(1) <span class="grk" title="ho deina
+epoiêsen">&#8001; &#948;&#949;&#8150;&#957;&#945; &#7952;&#960;&#959;&#943;&#951;&#963;&#949;&#957;</span> ;
+(2) <span class="grk" title="ho deina hegrapsen ">&#8001; &#948;&#949;&#8150;&#957;&#945; &#7956;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#949;&#957;</span>;
+(3) <span class="grk" title="ho deina hegrapse kahi epoiêsen">&#8001; &#948;&#949;&#8150;&#957;&#945; &#7956;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#949; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7952;&#960;&#959;&#943;&#951;&#963;&#949;&#957;</span>; (4)
+A <span class="grk" title="hegrapse">&#7956;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#968;&#949;</span>.  B <span class="grk" title="epoiêsen">&#7952;&#960;&#959;&#943;&#951;&#963;&#949;&#957;</span>. Where <span class="grk" title="epoiêse">&#7952;&#960;&#959;&#943;&#951;&#963;&#949;</span> alone occurs (as in a signature
+of Euxitheus), it probably refers to the master of the pottery
+who designed the vase and superintended its production; in other
+cases the share of the actual artist is clearly indicated.  Some
+artists, such as Duris and Makron, sign <span class="grk" title="hegrapse">&#7956;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#968;&#949;</span> alone; in all cases,
+the form of signature affords us a useful guide to their style.</p>
+
+<p>Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases,
+which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations
+uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the <span class="grk" title="kalos">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span> names
+discussed below; all these are painted on the designs themselves.
+There is also another class of <i>graffiti</i> inscriptions, which includes those
+incised by the owners with their names and memoranda scratched
+under the foot, probably made by the potter or his workmen relating
+to the number of vases in a batch or &ldquo;set&rdquo; and their price.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares</i>.&mdash;In Greek tombs a class of
+pottery is often found which approximates, more in appearance to
+porcelain, but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porcelain
+at all, but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which
+it is in point of fact an imitation.  It is distinguished by the white
+gritty material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and
+forming what is sometimes known as &ldquo;frit&rdquo; from its semi-vitreous
+consistency.  The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale
+blue or cream colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple
+or brown are sometimes found.  Some of the earliest examples of
+this ware have been found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus,
+in the form of vases moulded in the shape of human or animal heads.
+These exhibit a remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more
+like Greek work of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Apart from the technique
+they have nothing in common with the Egyptian importations so
+often found in Mycenaean tombs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:141px; height:180px" src="images/img715.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;Enamelled
+pottery from tombs in
+Rhodes, made under
+Egyptian influence.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In a subsequent period (8th-7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) Egyptian objects
+in faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those
+of Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy,
+through the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of
+faience occur in the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and
+similar vases with a pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs
+of the same date. In Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found ornamented
+with friezes of men and animals in relief, or imitating in
+colour and design the glass vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems
+probable that the Greeks of Rhodes and
+other centres attempted the imitation of
+this ware (see fig. 19), for we find faience
+<i>aryballi</i> or globular oil-flasks modelled in
+the form of helmeted heads or animals,
+which are purely Greek in style.</p>
+
+<p>In the Hellenistic period the fashion was
+revived at Alexandria, and under the
+Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled
+faience with figures in relief and bearing
+the names of reigning sovereigns were
+made and exported to the Cyrenaica and
+to southern Italy. Two of these are in the
+British Museum (Egyptian department).
+The same collection includes a very beautiful
+glazed vase in the form of Eros riding
+on a duck, found in a tomb at Tanagra,
+but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a head of a Ptolemaic
+queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently in the 1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, this so-called porcelain ware
+was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly
+coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often indicated.
+This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus in Asia
+Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was
+probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not
+confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures;
+the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal
+(Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green
+to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different
+tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with
+figures or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of
+these glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and
+oxide of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the
+green and yellow glazes of medieval Europe.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Historical Account of Greek Vase-painting</span>.&mdash;It has been
+indicated in the section dealing with technical processes that
+Greek vases may be classified under four headings according to
+the character of the decoration, and this classification may with a
+slight modification be adopted as a chronological one, the history
+of the art falling under four main heads, under which it will be
+convenient to describe its development from the earliest specimens
+of painted pottery down to the period when it was finally
+replaced by other methods of decoration.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>These four classes and their main characteristics may be summarized
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Vases of the Primitive Period</i> from about 2500 or 2000 to 600
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages
+of historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated
+in polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining
+black on a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown
+or black (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying
+from white to pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked
+by its naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the
+latter the ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals;
+human figures and mythological scenes being very rare.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Black-figured Vases</i> from about 600-500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; figures painted
+in shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to
+bright orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for
+details; subjects mainly from mythology and legend.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:268px; height:378px" src="images/img716a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80"><i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;Minoan or &ldquo;Kamares&rdquo; ware, from Crete.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:215px; height:221px" src="images/img716b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;Primitive black pottery from the Troad.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>III. <i>Red-figured Vases</i>, from 520 to 400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; figures drawn in
+outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining
+black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple
+and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are
+included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In
+these, which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of
+vase-painting is reached between 480 and 450 <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Vases of the Decadence</i>, from 400 to 200 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; mostly from
+southern Italy, technique as in Class III., but the drawing is free
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal,
+theatrical and fanciful.  At the end of this period vases are largely
+replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms,
+or with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal
+vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation
+of the Hellenistic world.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I.  <i>Vases of the Primitive Period</i>.&mdash;It has been noted in the
+introductory section that it is possible to trace the development
+of pottery in Greece as far
+back as the Neolithic period,
+owing chiefly to the light
+recently thrown on the subject
+by the excavations in
+Crete.  These have yielded
+large quantities of painted
+pottery of high technical
+merit, usually with decoration
+in polychrome or white on a
+dark ground, in what is known
+as the Kamares ware, covering
+the period 2500-1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+(fig. 20).  This was gradually
+superseded by painting in dark
+shining pigments on a light
+glossy ground during the later
+Minoan period (1500-1000
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>), forming what is known
+as the &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; style.
+The subjects, though chiefly
+confined to floral ornaments or
+aquatic plants and creatures,
+are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their treatment,
+often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East.
+In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread
+all over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found
+in Greece, especially at Mycenae, in
+Rhodes and other Greek islands, and
+in Cyprus, where a series of vases
+with animals, monsters, and even
+human figures shows what is probably
+the latest development of the
+pure Minoan or Mycenaean style.</p>
+
+<p>Outside Crete the earliest Greek
+pottery has been found in Cyprus
+and at Troy, with simple incised or
+painted patterns on a black polished
+ground, the vases being all hand-made,
+and often treated in a plastic
+fashion with rude modelling of
+human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22); these cover the period
+2500-2000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>  Early painted pottery, parallel with the
+Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important
+cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos.  But until the general spread
+of Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second
+millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and
+successful development can be studied.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:394px; height:208px" src="images/img716c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Primitive red pottery from the Troad.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:331px" src="images/img716d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;Vase with bands
+of animals, Oriental in style,
+(British Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by
+the Dorian invasion (1100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) the then decadent Mycenaean
+civilization was replaced by a new one much more backward in
+development, making pottery of a far simpler and more conventional
+type, the decoration being largely confined to geometrical
+patterns to the exclusion of motives derived from plant
+forms. This is usually known as the geometrical style, and the
+pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> It is
+found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits
+a certain development towards a more advanced stage. The
+patterns include the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander,
+and the circle, in various combinations, painted in dull black on
+a brown ground. In most places the art advanced no further,
+but in Boeotia, and still more at Athens, we can trace the gradual
+growth of decorative skill, first in
+the introduction of animals, and
+then in the appearance of the
+human figure. In the Athenian
+cemetery outside the Dipylon gate
+a series of colossal vases has come
+to light, on which are painted such
+subjects as sea-fights and funeral
+processions. The human figures
+are exceedingly rude and conventional,
+painted almost entirely in
+silhouette, but there is a distinct
+striving after artistic effect in the
+composition and arrangement. In
+Boeotia the vases do not advance
+beyond the animal stage, and
+many exhibit a tendency to decadence
+in their carelessness, as
+contrasted with the painstaking
+helplessness of the Athenian
+artists.</p>
+
+<p>In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the
+art of vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean
+tradition, and was distinguished by its naturalism and originality,
+and by the bold and diverse effects produced by variety of colour
+or novelty of subject. The ornamentation is at first elementary,
+consisting of friezes of animals, especially lions, deer and goats
+(figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand out sharply in black
+against the creamy buff ground which is characteristic of nearly
+all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out by means of engraved
+lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by drawing
+parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the clay
+ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments
+such as rosettes and crosses in great variety of form to cover
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+the background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek
+artist abhorred.  The system of decoration has been thought to
+owe much to Assyrian textile fabrics.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:372px; height:491px" src="images/img716e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles and Hera,
+and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic
+pottery is a <i>pinax</i> or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum,
+on which is represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over
+the body of Euphorbus (fig. 25); their names are inscribed
+over the figures, and this is almost the earliest known instance
+of a mythological subject, the date of the painting being not later
+than 600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> To a slightly later date belongs another remarkable
+group of cups with figures on a white ground, probably
+made at Cyrene in North Africa.  Of these the most famous has
+a painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Cyrene from
+580 to 550 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, weighing goods for export in a ship.  Others have
+mythological subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus,
+Cadmus and Pelops.</p>
+
+<p>But these vases, though still retaining the older technique,
+really belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases,
+and they belong to a time when in all Ionian centres this method
+was being superseded by the new technique which Corinth had
+introduced and Athens perfected, to the consideration of which
+we must return.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:460px; height:471px" src="images/img717a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest of
+Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For some 150 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry
+of pottery on the west of the Aegean.  Large numbers of examples
+have been found in or near the city itself, many bearing inscriptions
+in the peculiar local alphabet.  They show a continuous
+progress from the simplest ornamentation to fully-developed
+black-figured wares.  In the earliest (Plate I.  fig. 52) oriental
+influence is very marked, the surface being so covered with the
+figures and patterns that the background disappears and the
+designs are at times almost unintelligible.  The general effect is
+thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely
+chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian
+art, such as the sphinx and gryphon.  The vases are mostly
+small, the ground varies from cream to yellow, and the figures
+are painted in black and purple.</p>
+
+<p>Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th
+century the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a
+unification of styles under the growing influence of Athens.
+In Ionia (see above) figure subjects become more common, and
+the technique approaches gradually nearer to the black-figure
+method.  Similarly at Corinth the ground ornaments diminish
+and disappear, the friezes of animals are restricted to the borders
+of the designs, and human figures are introduced, first singly,
+then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged in some definite
+action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last stages
+Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new development,
+traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of
+Athens, was the distinguishing of female figures by the use of
+white for flesh tints. A somewhat similar development was in
+progress at Athens, though represented by comparatively few
+vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian and Ionian technical
+improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th century the
+fully developed black-figure style which by degrees supplanted
+or assimilated all other schools.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Black-figured Vases</i>.&mdash;At the head of this new development
+stands the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi
+in 1844 (Plate I. fig. 53). Its shape is that of a <i>krater</i> or mixing-bowl,
+and it bears the signatures of its maker and decorator in
+the form &ldquo;Ergotimos made me, Klitias painted me.&rdquo; It might
+be described as a Greek mythology in miniature, with its
+numerous subjects and groups of figures all from legendary
+sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager, or
+the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their
+names inscribed.</p>
+
+<p>The general technique of the black-figured vases has already
+been described. It may be noted as a chronological guide that
+the use of purple for details is much commoner in the earlier
+vases, white in the later, but towards the end of the century
+when the new fashion of red figures was gaining ground, both
+colours were almost entirely dropped. The drawing of the
+figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and conventional,
+though it advanced considerably in freedom before the style
+went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully and
+delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and
+affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias
+(Plate I. fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication
+of date, ranging from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing
+lines of angular falling folds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:249px; height:368px" src="images/img717b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.&mdash;Panathenaic amphora.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters
+of this period are the <i>amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe</i> and <i>lekythos,</i>
+the first-named being the most popular. A special class of
+<i>amphorae</i> is formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given
+as prizes in the Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure
+of the patron goddess Athena on one side and a representation
+of the contest in which they were
+won on the other (fig. 26). They
+usually bear the inscription <span class="grk" title="tôn
+Athênêthen athlôn eimiruv">&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#902;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#8134;&#952;&#949;&#957; &#7940;&#952;&#955;&#969;&#957; &#949;&#7984;&#956;&#943;</span> &ldquo;I am
+(a prize) from the games at
+Athens.&rdquo; Some of these can be
+dated by the names of Athenian
+archons which they bear, as late
+as the 4th century, the old
+method of painting in black
+figures with a stiff conventional
+pose for the goddess being retained
+for religious reasons.</p>
+
+<p>The chief interest of the black-figured
+vases is really derived
+from their subjects, which range
+over every conceivable field, the
+proportion of myth and legend
+to scenes from daily life being
+much greater than in the succeeding
+period. They include
+groups of Olympian and other deities, and the various scenes
+in which they take part, such as the battle of the gods and giants,
+or the birth of Athena (treated in a very conventional manner,
+as on a fine <i>amphora</i> in the British Museum); Dionysus and his
+attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits of
+Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy
+and other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life,
+battle scenes, athletics, the chase and so on. The same classification
+of course holds good for the later periods of vase-painting,
+with some exceptions. The proportion of genre-scenes subsequently
+becomes greater, and some myths disappear, others rise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span>
+into prominence, new deities such as Eros (Love), and Nik&#275;
+(Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally speaking, the
+later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or tendency
+to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional stereotyped
+compositions of the 6th century artist.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is
+that a stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted
+at least for the principal figures, but minor variations are generally
+to be found, as, for instance, in the number of bystanders;
+and it is almost an impossibility to find any two vase-paintings
+which are exact duplicates.  The form of the composition, was
+partly determined by the field available for the design; when
+this took the form of a long frieze the space was filled up with a
+series of spectators or the repetition of typical groups, but when
+the design is on a framed panel or confined by ornamental borders
+the method of treatment is adapted from that of a sculptured
+metope, and the figures limited to two or three.  In many cases
+it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether or
+no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological
+types are over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary
+life, even to the divine attributes or poses of certain figures.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:848px; height:274px" src="images/img718.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Vase by Andocides.  Black figures on obverse.</td>
+<td class="caption">Vase by Andocides.  Red figures on reverse.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the artists of the period who have left their names on
+the vases, besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous
+is Nicosthenes, a potter of some originality, from whose hand
+we have over seventy examples, a few being in the red-figure
+method.  He is supposed to have introduced at Athens a revival
+of the Ionic fashion of painting on a cream-coloured ground
+instead of on red, of which some very effective examples have
+been preserved.  He was always a potter rather than a painter,
+and most of his vases are remarkable for their forms&mdash;introducing
+plastic imitations of metal vases&mdash;rather than for their
+painted decoration.  Most of the artists of this period, as in the
+succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (<i>kylikes</i>), but
+this form did not receive so much attention from the painter
+as at a later period, and many of these examples bear only
+inscriptions and no painted decoration.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Red-figured Vases.</i>&mdash;The sudden reversal of technical
+method involved in the change from black figures on a red ground
+to red figures on black is not at first sight easy of explanation.
+Some artists, like Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods,
+sometimes on the same vase, and there is no doubt that the two
+went on for some years concurrently.  As, however, no intermediate
+stage is possible, there is no question of development or
+transition.  The new style was in fact a bold and ingenious
+innovation.  It may possibly have been suggested by a small
+class of vases in which the figures are painted in the black-figure
+<i>method</i>, but have the converse appearance, that is to say they are
+painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black.
+It may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could
+obtain the same effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted
+on the red clay and surrounding them with the black.  The
+change, must, however, be closely associated with the career of
+the artist Andocides, who not only produced vases in each
+method, but also several in which the two are combined (fig. 27).
+In two or three cases the subject is actually the same on each
+side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the colouring
+is reversed.</p>
+
+<p>The date at which the change took place was formerly placed
+well on in the 5th century, on account of the great advance in
+drawing which most of the red-figured vases show, as compared
+with the black.  They were thus regarded as contemporary
+with the painter Polygnotus, if not with Pheidias.  But the
+excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many fragments
+in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier
+than 480 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, that it has become necessary to find an earlier
+date for its appearance.  This is now usually placed at about
+520 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, overlapping with the preceding period.</p>
+
+<p>The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking
+the chief stages of development, and known respectively as the
+&ldquo;severe,&rdquo; &ldquo;strong,&rdquo; &ldquo;fine,&rdquo; and &ldquo;late fine&rdquo; periods.  Their
+principal characteristics and representative painters may be
+briefly enumerated.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>severe</i> period there is no marked advance on the black-figured
+vases as regards style.  The figures are still more or less
+stiff and conventional, and some vases even show signs of an
+analogous decadence.  The real development is partly technical,
+partly in the introduction of new subjects.  Although the change
+of style probably had its actual origin in the <i>amphora</i>, as treated
+by Andocides, the new developments are best seen in the <i>kylix</i>,
+a form of vase which now sprang into popularity and called
+forth the chief efforts of the principal artists.  Its curved surface
+gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and decorative
+arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their attention
+to perfecting it as a work of decorative art.  For other shapes,
+such as the <i>hydria</i>, and <i>lekythos</i>, the old method was for a time
+preferred.</p>
+
+<p>The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other
+famous cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias.
+The earliest cups are decorated in a quite simple fashion like
+those of the black-figure period, often with a single figure each
+side between two large &ldquo;symbolical&rdquo; eyes, and a single figure
+in a circle in the interior.  To the latter the artist at first devoted
+his chief efforts, though even here his scope was at first limited.
+But although he had not yet attained to skill in composition,
+he did discover that the circular space was well adapted for
+exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a draughtsman and
+for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived attitudes.  In all
+cases the object was to fill the space as far as possible, a characteristic
+of all the best Greek art.  By degrees more attention
+was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single figures
+were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form
+of friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the
+end of this period.  Epictetus was throughout his career a
+thoroughly &ldquo;archaic&rdquo; artist, but a considerable advance was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+made by Cachrylion, who stands on the verge of the succeeding
+stage.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:720px; height:572px" src="images/img719a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;Cup by Euphronius.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>strong</i> period centres round the name of Euphronius, the
+author of a really great artistic movement.  His capacity for
+inventing new subjects or new
+poses&mdash;or otherwise overcoming
+technical and artistic difficulties&mdash;marks
+a great advance on all
+previous achievements, and he
+seems to represent the stage of
+development traditionally associated
+with the painter Cimon of
+Cleonae, the inventor
+of foreshortening
+and other
+novelties.  Thus
+figures were no
+longer represented
+exclusively in profile,
+as in the black-figured
+vases which
+had made no advance
+beyond the
+conventions of
+Egyptian art.  Ten vases signed
+by him are in existence (though
+it is not certain that all were
+actually painted by him), most
+of them having mythological subjects
+(fig. 28).</p>
+
+<p>Of his contemporaries, Duris,
+Hieron and Brygus take foremost
+rank, all three being, like Euphronius,
+essentially cup-painters,
+though they use other forms at
+times.  For decorative effect and beauty of composition their
+vases have never been surpassed.  As an example we may quote
+a <i>kotyle</i> or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with
+a group of Eleusinian deities.
+The larger vases of this period
+are more rarely signed, but many
+of them rival the cups in execution,
+though the subjects are
+characterized by greater simplicity
+and largeness of style.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>the fine</i> style (460-440 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)
+breadth of effect and dignity are
+aimed at, and although cup-painting
+had passed its zenith,
+and signed specimens become
+rarer, yet, considering the red-figured
+vases as a whole, this
+period exhibits the perfection
+of technique and drawing.  In
+many of the larger vases the
+scenes are of a pictorial character,
+landscape being introduced,
+with figures ranged at
+different levels, and herein we
+may see a reflection of the style
+of the painter Polygnotus.  One
+of the finest cups in this style is
+in the Berlin Museum, it is signed
+by the artists Erginus and Aristophanes,
+and the subject is the
+battle of the gods and giants.
+To the end of the period belongs
+a beautiful <i>hydria</i> in the British
+Museum by the painter Meidias
+with subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29).
+Generally speaking, there is a reaction in favour of mythological
+subjects.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:569px" src="images/img719b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the <i>late fine</i> style, which begins about 440 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the pictorial
+effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the compositions
+deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once over-refined
+and careless.  The figures are crowded together without
+meaning or interest.  The fashion
+also arose of enhancing the designs
+by means of accessory
+colours&mdash;almost unknown in the
+previous stages&mdash;such as white
+laid on in masses, blue and green,
+and even with gilding.  Athletic
+and mythological subjects yield
+place to scenes from
+the life of women
+and children or
+meaningless groups
+of figures (fig. 30).</p>
+
+<p>A good example
+of this style is
+an <i>amphora</i> from
+Rhodes with the
+subject of Peleus
+wooing Thetis, in
+which polychrome
+colouring and gilding are introduced.
+There are also many
+imposing and elaborate specimens
+found (and perhaps made)
+in the colonies of the Crimea and
+the Cyrenaica; in particular one
+signed by Xenophantus with the
+Persian king hunting, and another
+representing the contest of
+Athena and Poseidon for the soil
+of Attica, both from the Crimea.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the
+figures are painted on a white slip or <i>engobe</i> resembling pipe-clay,
+with which the whole surface was covered; the figures are
+drawn in outline in red or black,
+and partly filled in with washes
+of colour, chiefly red, purplish
+red, or brown, but sometimes
+also with blue or green.  This
+style seems to have been popular
+about the middle of the 5th
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> and was employed
+for the funeral <i>lekythoi</i> which
+came into fashion at Athens
+about that time.  These vases,
+which form a class by themselves,
+were made specially for
+funeral ceremonies and were
+painted with subjects relating to
+the tomb, such as the laying-out
+of the corpse on the bier, the
+ferrying of the dead over the
+Styx by Charon, or (most frequently)
+mourners bringing offerings
+to the tomb (fig. 31).  They
+continued to be made well on
+into the 4th century, but the
+later examples are very degenerate
+and careless.</p>
+
+<p>Of other forms, especially the
+<i>kylix</i> and the <i>pyxis</i> (toilet-box),
+some exceedingly beautiful specimens
+have come down to us,
+which show a delicacy of drawing
+and firmness of touch never
+surpassed, although the lines were probably only drawn with a
+brush.  The technique of these vases may reflect the methods of
+the painter Polygnotus and his contemporaries, who used a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span>
+limited number of colours on a white ground. Among them no
+finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum with
+Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown
+outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and
+refinement.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:330px" src="images/img720a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.&mdash;Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis, showing
+painted vases used to decorate a lady&rsquo;s room. On the left is a gilt
+pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right
+two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated
+with painted figures, and contain flowers.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:161px; height:528px" src="images/img720b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.&mdash;Funeral
+lekythos showing
+vases placed inside
+tomb.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same
+variety of choice as on the black-figured, but on the other
+hand there is infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The
+stereotyped form of composition is almost entirely discarded,
+and each painter forms his own conception of his subject. The
+class of slim <i>amphorae</i>, known as &ldquo;Nolan&rdquo;
+from the place where they were mostly
+found, are distinguished by having the
+design limited to one or at most two
+figures on each side, often on a large
+scale; these vases are also famous for
+the marvellous brilliance of their shining
+black (fig. 32).</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the 5th century
+the patriotism of the Athenian artist finds
+expression in the growing importance
+which he attaches to local legends, especially
+those of Theseus, the typical Attic
+hero. He seems to have been regarded
+as the typical Athenian athlete or
+<i>ephebus</i>, and his contests as analogous to
+episodes of the gymnasium. Hence the
+grouping on some vases of scenes from
+his labours are like so many groups of
+athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general
+tendency of the red-figured vases, especially
+the cups, to become a sort of
+glorification of the Attic <i>ephebus</i>, the
+representations of whom in all sorts of
+occupations are out of all proportion to
+other subjects.</p>
+
+<p>We find evidence of this, too, in another
+form. Many vases, especially the cups of
+the &ldquo;severe&rdquo; and &ldquo;strong&rdquo; periods, bear
+names of persons inscribed on the designs
+with the word <span class="grk" title="kalos">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;fair&rdquo; or &ldquo;noble,&rdquo;
+attached; sometimes merely, &ldquo;the boy is fair.&rdquo; The exact
+meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evidence
+seems to show that the persons celebrated must have
+been quite young at the time, and were probably youths famous
+for their beauty or athletic prowess. Some of the names are
+those of historical characters, such as Hipparchus, Miltiades
+or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be identified
+with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been
+obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases,
+Further, the practice of the vase-painter of adopting his own
+particular favourite name or set of names has enabled us to
+increase our knowledge of the characteristics of individual
+artists by identifying unsigned vases with the work of particular
+schools.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:355px; height:498px" src="images/img720c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;&ldquo;Nolan&rdquo; amphora by Euxitheus
+(c. 450 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), figure of Briseis; the other side
+has Achilles.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Vases of the Decadence</i>.&mdash;For all practical purposes the
+red-figure style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the
+city in 404 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Painted vases did not then altogether cease to
+be made, as the Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral <i>lekythoi</i>
+testify, but at the same time a rapid decadence set in. The
+whole tendency of the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> in Greece was one of
+decentralization, and the art of vase-painting was no exception,
+for we find that there must have been a general migration of
+craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and to North
+Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief
+centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and
+flourishing Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Tarentum,
+Paestum and Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an
+addition to their many luxuries. In the character of the vases
+of this period we
+see their tendencies
+reflected,
+especially in their
+splendid or showy
+aspect; the only
+aim being size and
+gaudy colouring.</p>
+
+<p>The general
+method of painting
+remains that
+of the Athenian
+red-figure vases,
+but with entire
+loss of simplicity
+or refinement,
+either in the ornamentation,
+the
+choice of colours,
+or the drawing of
+the figures. Large
+masses of white
+are invariably employed,
+especially
+for the flesh of
+women or of Eros,
+the universally
+present god of
+Love, and for
+architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair
+or features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-purple
+uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have
+subjects, are devoid of all accessory colouring, and the figures
+are drawn with the greatest carelessness, as if not intended to be
+seen. There is throughout a lavish use of ornamental patterns
+such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves, or ornaments strewn over
+the field (a reversion to an old practice).</p>
+
+<p>The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the
+opposite extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often
+effeminate. The fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of
+the figures and the frequent architectural settings seem to
+indicate that theatrical representations exercised much influence
+on the vase-painters. The great painters of the 4th century may
+also have contributed their share of inspiration, but rather
+perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to style; though
+the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly pictorial,
+they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic
+themes.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as
+comedy plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others
+indirectly, from the plays of Euripides, such as the <i>Medea</i>,
+<i>Hecuba</i> (Plate II. fig. 60), or <i>Hercules Furens</i>, and the arrangement
+of the scenes is essentially theatrical. The influence of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+comedy is seen in subjects derived from the <i>phlyakes</i>, a kind of
+farce or burlesque popular in southern Italy, and here again
+the setting is adapted from the stage, some vases having parodies
+of myths, others comic scenes of daily life.</p>
+
+<p>Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were
+expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear
+representations of the underworld, with groups of figures undergoing
+punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted&mdash;sometimes
+containing effigies of the deceased, at which the
+relatives make offerings&mdash;as on the Athenian <i>lekythoi</i>. But by
+far the greater portion of the subjects are taken from daily life,
+many of these being of a purely fanciful and meaningless character
+like the designs on Sèvres or Meissen china; the commonest
+type is that of a young man and a woman exchanging presents,
+the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes of courtship.</p>
+
+<p>The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four
+different types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania,
+Campania and Apulia, each
+with its special features of
+technique, drawing and subjects.
+In Lucanian vases the
+drawing is bold and restrained,
+more akin to that of the Attic
+vases; in Campania a fondness
+for polychromy is combined
+with careless execution.
+In Apulia
+a tendency to magnificence
+exemplified
+in the great
+funeral and theatrical
+vases is followed
+by a period
+of decadence characterized
+by small
+vases of fantastic
+form with purely
+decorative subjects.
+Besides these we have
+the school of Paestum, represented
+by two artists who
+have left their names on their
+vases, Assteas and Python.
+A well-known example of the
+work of the former is a <i>krater</i> in
+Madrid with Heracles destroying
+his children, a theatrical
+and quasi-grotesque composition,
+and there is a fine example of Python&rsquo;s work in a <i>krater</i>
+in the British Museum, with Alkmena, the mother of Heracles,
+placed on the funeral pyre by her husband Amphitryon, and
+rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig. 55).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:716px; height:570px" src="images/img721.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.&mdash;Cup with exploits of Theseus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>About the end of the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> the manufacture of
+painted vases would seem to have been rapidly dying out in
+Italy, as had long been the case elsewhere, and their place is
+taken by unpainted vases modelled in the form of animals and
+human figures, or ornamented with stamped and moulded reliefs.
+These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and so-called
+&ldquo;Samian&rdquo; red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we
+see a tendency to the imitation of metal vases, which, with the
+growth of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced
+painted pottery both for use and ornament; the pottery of the
+period is reduced to a subordinate and utilitarian position, merely
+supplying the demands of those in the humbler spheres of life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt1"><i>Collections</i>.&mdash;The majority of the painted vases now in existence
+are to be found in the various public museums and collections of
+Europe, of which the largest and most important are the British
+Museum, the Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come
+the collections at Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and
+St Petersburg; isolated specimens of importance are to be found
+in other museums, as at Florence, Madrid or the Bibliothèque
+Nationale at Paris. Most of the great private collections of the two
+preceding centuries have now been dispersed. In recent years the
+Boston Museum has raised America to a level with Europe in this
+respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New York contains a
+vast collection of Cypriote pottery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Important original articles are to be found in
+various archaeological journals such as <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>
+(1885, &amp;c); <i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i> (1894, &amp;c.);
+<i>Athenische Mitteilungen</i> (1876, &amp;c.); <i>Bulletin de correspondance
+hellénique</i> (1877, &amp;c.); <i>Comptes rendus de la commission impériale
+archéologique</i> (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); <i>Gazette archéologique</i>
+(Paris, 1875-1889); <i>Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen archäologischen
+Instituts, Berlin</i> (1886, &amp;c.); <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>
+(1880, &amp;c.); <i>Monumenti antichi</i> (Milan, 1890, &amp;c.); <i>Monuments
+grecs</i> (Paris, 1872-1898); <i>Monuments Piot</i> (Paris, 1894, &amp;c.);
+<i>Revue archéologique</i> (Paris, 1844, &amp;c.).  The older works have been
+recently superseded by important publications embodying the latest
+views such as Hartwig, <i>Die griechischen Meisterschalen des strengen
+rotfigurigen Stils</i> (1893); Louvre, <i>Catalogue des vases antiques de
+terre cuite</i>, by E. Pottier (1896, &amp;c.); S. Reinach, <i>Répertoire des vases
+peints</i> (Paris, 1899-1900); H. B. Walters, <i>History of Ancient Pottery</i>
+(Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with an excellent bibliographical
+list; also art. &ldquo;Hischylos&rdquo; in <i>J.H.S.</i> xxix. (1909) p. 103.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Etruscan Pottery</span>.&mdash;Parallel
+with the development of
+the art of pottery in Greece runs
+the course of the art in Etruria,
+though with far inferior results;
+in its later stages it is actually
+no more than a feeble imitation
+of the Greek. The period of
+time which we must
+consider extends
+from the Bronze
+age (1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> or
+earlier) down to
+the 3rd century
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when Etruscan
+civilization
+was merged into
+Roman.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest civilization
+traced in
+Italy is not, strictly
+speaking, Etruscan, but may
+perhaps be more accurately
+styled &ldquo;Umbrian.&rdquo; It is
+usually referred to as the
+&ldquo;Terramare&rdquo; period from the
+remains discovered in that district
+in the basin of the
+Po. These people were lake-dwellers,
+barely removed from
+the Neolithic stage of culture,
+and their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and
+roughly baked. Cups and pots have been found sometimes
+with simple decoration in the form of knobs or bosses, and
+many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a support for
+the thumb.</p>
+
+<p>The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as
+&ldquo;Etruscan,&rdquo; is known as the &ldquo;Villanova&rdquo; period, from a site
+of that name near Bologna, or as the period of pit-tombs (<i>a
+pozzo</i>), from the form of the graves in which the pottery has been
+found (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villanova</a></span>). It begins with the 9th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs usually
+contain large cinerary urns or <i>ossuaria</i> (containing the ashes of
+the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic
+clay known as <i>impasto Italico</i>. These vessels were irregularly
+baked in an open fire, and the colour of the surface varies from
+red-brown to greyish black. They appear to have been covered
+with a polished slip, intended to give the vases a metallic appearance.
+The shape of the urns is peculiar, but uniform; they have
+a small handle at the widest part and a cover in the form of an
+inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig. 63). Their ornamentation
+consists of incised or stamped geometrical ornaments formed
+in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body; more
+rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery
+is also found showing little advance on that of the Terramare
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span>
+period except in variety of decoration. The technique and
+ornament are the same as in the case of the urns. They correspond
+in development, though not in date, to the early pottery
+of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive pottery of other
+races, but one marked difference is the general fondness of the
+Italian potter for vases with handles.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (<i>tuguria</i>),
+though these are more often found in the neighbourhood of
+Rome. One of the best examples is in the British Museum; it
+still contains ashes which were inserted through a little door
+secured by a cord passing through rings. The ornamentation
+suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the cover or roof
+being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams. The
+surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted
+with patterns in white.</p>
+
+<p>In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs,
+the pit being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known
+as the &ldquo;trench-tomb&rdquo; or <i>a fossa</i> period, and extends from the
+8th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of
+Greek pottery now first make their appearance. The character
+of the local pottery actually remains for some time the same as
+that of the preceding period, but it improves in technique. By
+degrees an improvement in the forms is also noted, and new
+varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is, however,
+no evidence that the wheel was used.</p>
+
+<p>Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri
+(Caere) belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars
+(<span class="grk" title="pithoi">&#960;&#943;&#952;&#959;&#953;</span>) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while
+the upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or
+friezes. These designs were either produced from single stamps
+or rolled out from cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The
+subjects are usually quasi-oriental in character, and it is not
+certain that this ware was made in Etruria, especially as similar
+vases have been found in Rhodes and Sicily; either it was
+imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek models.</p>
+
+<p>The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature
+of the clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in
+white outlines on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of
+<i>impasto Italico</i>, was first hardened by baking, and then a mixture
+of wax, resin and iron oxide was applied and polished; on this
+the pigments, a mixture of chalk and earth, were laid. The
+subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least Greek in
+character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the drawing
+is crude and un-Greek in the extreme.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third;
+but the difference is defined firstly by the appearance of a new
+type of tomb in the form of a chamber (<i>a camera</i>), secondly, by
+the all-pervading influence of oriental art, and to a less extent
+of that of the Greeks. The period extends from about 650 to
+550 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and is further marked by the general introduction of
+the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance of inscriptions in
+an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the earlier tombs
+the typical local pottery is of hand-made <i>impasto Italico</i> resembling
+that of the previous periods; in the later we find what is
+known as <i>bucchero</i> ware&mdash;the national pottery of Etruria&mdash;which
+is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked
+tendency to imitate metal.</p>
+
+<p>To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or
+Grotto d&rsquo;lside at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the
+British Museum and include some remarkable specimens of
+pottery. It dates from about 620-610 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The most remarkable
+of the vases is a <i>hydria</i>, of reddish-brown clay covered with a
+lustrous black slip on which have been painted designs in red,
+blue and a yellowish white. The colours have unfortunately now
+almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had been fired. The
+principal subject is from the story of Theseus and Ariadne. This
+tomb also contained a large wheel-made <i>pithos</i> of red <i>impasto</i>
+ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the Regulini-Galassi
+tomb at Cervetri (about 650 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) large cauldrons of red
+glossy ware were found, with gryphons&rsquo; heads projecting all
+round, to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from
+Falerii on a high open-work stand is now in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:249px; height:459px" src="images/img722.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.&mdash;Etruscan oinochoe, of
+black bucchero ware, with figures
+in relief.  (British Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We now come to the <i>bucchero</i> ware, which is characteristic of
+the later portion of this period, though the earliest examples go
+back to the end of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black
+paste of which it is composed, covered with a more or less shining
+black slip. Modern experiments seem to indicate that the clay
+was smoked or fumigated in a closed chamber after baking,
+becoming thereby blackened throughout, and the surface was then
+polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware have proved
+that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired. The
+oldest <i>bucchero</i> vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with
+incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like
+metal-work. Oriental influence then appears in a series of
+chalice-shaped cups found at Cervetri with friezes of animals.
+From about 560 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> onwards the vases are all wheel-made, with
+ornaments in relief either stamped from a cylinder or composed of
+separate medallions attached to the vase. The subjects range
+from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants making
+offerings (fig. 34); in other cases we find meaningless groups of
+figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern
+Etruria, but at Chiusi (<i>Clusium</i>)
+a more elaborate variety found
+favour from about 500 to 300
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span> The shapes are very varied
+and the ornament covers the
+vase from top to bottom, the
+covers of the vases being also
+frequently modelled in various
+forms. The figures are stamped
+from moulds, incised designs
+being added to fill up the spaces.
+The range of subjects is much
+widened, including scenes from
+Greek mythology and oriental
+types combining Egyptian and
+Assyrian motives, which must
+have been introduced by the
+Phoenicians.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the technique of the
+<i>bucchero</i> wares is purely native,
+but the decoration is entirely
+dependent on foreign types
+whether Greek or oriental, and
+throughout the whole series the
+tendency to imitate metal-work
+is to be observed in every detail,
+both in the forms and in the
+methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing
+work in bronze.</p>
+
+<p>The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for
+notice is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the
+<span class="grk" title="kanôpoi">&#954;&#940;&#957;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#953;</span> in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their
+mummies. They are rude representations of the human figure,
+the head forming the cover, and in the tombs were placed on
+round chairs of wood, bronze or terra-cotta. An example of such
+a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be seen in the Etruscan Room
+of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65). Their origin has been
+traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest Etruscan tombs.
+From these a gradual transition may be observed from the mask
+(1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head
+modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at
+last the complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are
+found in the &ldquo;pit-tombs&rdquo; of the 8th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and the latest
+and most developed types belong to the 5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p>
+
+<p>The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-engraving
+never extended to their pottery, which is always purely
+imitative, especially when they attempted painted vases after
+the Greek fashion. The kinds already described are all more or
+less plastic in character and imitative of metal, except in the case
+of the Cervetri and Polledrara finds, which have little in common
+with anything Greek, and exhibit a quite undeveloped art. But
+towards the end of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when Greek vases were
+coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were made to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span>
+imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular class of
+Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most
+museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from
+peculiarities of style, drawing and subject, as well as their
+inferior technique (fig. 35).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:238px" src="images/img723.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.&mdash;Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting scene
+of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>At a later date (4th-3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) they began to copy red-figured
+vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the
+exception of a small class of a somewhat ambitious character
+made at Falerii (Civita Castellana), of which there is a good
+example in the British Museum with the subject of the infant
+Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all marked by their
+inferior material and finish and their bizarre decoration. The
+style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as ineffective,
+and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are generally
+introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in the
+Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate
+into barbarism.</p>
+
+<p>Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the
+extreme south of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous
+races of the Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is
+partly geometrical, partly in conventional plant forms, and is
+the result of natural development rather than of imitation of
+Greek types. Some of the shapes are characteristic, especially
+a large four-handled <i>krater</i>. They cover the period 600-450
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, after which they were ousted by the Graeco-Italian productions
+we have already described.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Roman Pottery</span>.&mdash;Roman vases are far inferior to Greek;
+the shapes are less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes
+not without merits of its own, owes most of its success to the
+imitation or adaptation of motives learnt from earlier Grecian,
+Egyptian or Syrian potters. They required only the skill of
+the potter for their completion, and, being made by processes
+largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower scale of artistic
+production.</p>
+
+<p>It has been noted that during a certain period&mdash;namely, the
+3rd and 2nd centuries <span class="sc">b.c.</span>&mdash;ceramic art had reached the same
+stage of evolution all round the Mediterranean, painted pottery
+had been ousted by metal-work, and such vases as continued to
+be made were practically imitations of metal both in Greece and
+Italy. These latter we must regard as representing ordinary
+household pottery, or as supplying to those who could not afford
+to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in metal,
+a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta
+bowl of the 2nd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> in the British Museum which is
+an exact replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same
+collection, and may serve as an illustration of this condition of
+things (Plate II. fig. 56).</p>
+
+<p>These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy,
+a district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria,
+and we have already seen that the same principle had long been
+in vogue among the Etruscans. Hence it is not surprising that
+an important centre of pottery manufacture should have sprung
+up in Etruria, in the and century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, which for many years set
+the fashion to the whole Roman world. But before discussing
+such products it may be as well to say something on the technical
+character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Technical Processes</i>.&mdash;Roman pottery regarded in its purely technical
+aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek,
+chiefly owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters&rsquo; apparatus
+in western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which
+only the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far
+the greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull
+earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red
+shining wares, usually known to archaeologists as <i>terra sigillata</i>,
+clay suited to receive stamps (<i>sigilla</i>) or impressions.</p>
+
+<p>For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in
+different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to grey,
+drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in quality;
+most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from the
+ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at St-Remy-en-Rollat
+and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In Italy we find
+a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being devoted to its
+preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration and style
+there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the Italian
+and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is often
+very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured where
+they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of
+manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have
+been common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain
+and Germany, and perhaps even to Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has
+been a much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the
+excavator of the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming
+that it was a natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing
+of the surface, by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now
+generally agreed that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman
+lamps and many of the commoner wares have a gloss produced by
+polishing only, varying in colour and brightness with the proportion
+of iron oxide in the clay and the degree of heat at which the pieces
+were fired. But the surface finish of the finer or <i>terra sigillata</i> wares
+is something quite distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully
+uniform perfection.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman
+world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it
+does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant
+glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to leave
+no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated attempts
+have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but
+chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that
+it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body
+than glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface
+polish or than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have
+to wait for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at
+once a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. Whatever
+its nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze
+itself was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour
+of the clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the
+quality of red coral.</p>
+
+<p>In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes
+as the Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of
+abnormal size, such as the large casks (<i>dolia</i>), which were built up
+on a frame. Specimens of potters&rsquo; wheels have been found at
+Arezzo and Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for
+the pivot, and bearing small cylinders of lead round the circumference
+to give a purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum
+of the wheel. For the ornamental vases with reliefs an additional
+process was necessary, and the decoration was in nearly all cases
+produced from moulds. The process in this case was a threefold
+one: first the stamps had to be made bearing the designs; these
+were then pressed upon the inside of a clay mould which had been
+previously made on the wheel to the size and shape required;
+finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the vase was thus
+produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare occurrence in
+Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete, requiring
+only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in various
+materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64). The
+moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired
+when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in
+clay. Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III.
+fig. 61), and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo.
+Those discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable
+evidence as to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their
+presence obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of
+this evidence is increased when they bear potters&rsquo; names.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> are very numerous
+in western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are
+at Lezoux near Clermont, at Châtelet in Haute-Marne, and near
+Agen in Lot-el-Gäronne. In Germany good remains have come
+to light at Heiligenberg in Baden, al Heddernheim near Frankfort,
+Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In
+England the best kilns are those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at
+Castor in Northamptonshire (see fig. 4).</p>
+
+<p><i>Shapes</i>.&mdash;As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span>
+shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same difficulties
+as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They may,
+however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing
+liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on.
+In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of
+archaic and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in
+sacrifices.</p>
+
+<p>The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were:&mdash;The
+<i>dolium</i>, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the <i>amphora</i>, a jar
+holding about six gallons; and the <i>cadus</i>, a jar about half as large
+as the <i>amphora</i>. The <i>dolium</i> had no foot, and was usually buried
+in the earth; it was also used for purposes of burial. The <i>amphora</i>
+corresponds to the Greek wine-jar of that name, and had, like its
+prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii
+stamped with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. <i>Od.</i> in. 21. I), or with
+painted inscriptions relating to their contents. The <i>cadus</i> is mentioned
+by Horace and Martial.</p>
+
+<p>Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and
+flasks, the principal were the <i>urceus</i>, answering to the Greek <span class="grk" title="oinochoê">&#959;&#7984;&#957;&#959;&#967;&#972;&#951;</span>,
+the <i>ampulla</i>, a kind of flask with globular body, and the <i>lagena</i>, a
+narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups the Romans had
+almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great majority of the
+ornamented vases preserved to the present day were devoted to this
+purpose. The generic name for a cup was <i>poculum</i>, but the Romans
+borrowed many of the Greek names, such as <i>cantharus</i> and <i>scyphus</i>.
+The <i>calix</i> appears to have answered in popularity, though not in
+form, to the Greek <i>kylix</i>, and is probably the name by which the
+ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are
+<i>lanx</i>, <i>patina</i> and <i>catinum</i>. Another common form is the <i>olla</i> (Greek
+<span class="grk" title="chutra">&#967;&#973;&#964;&#961;&#945;</span>), which served many purposes, being used for a cooking-pot,
+for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn. The
+form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or elliptical
+body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases the
+principal was the <i>patera</i> or libation-bowl, corresponding to the
+Greek <span class="grk" title="phialê">&#966;&#953;&#940;&#955;&#951;</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Arretine Ware</i>.&mdash;The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny,
+mention numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere,
+which were famous for the production of pottery in Roman times.
+Pliny mentions with special commendation the &ldquo;Samian Ware,&rdquo;
+the reputation of which, he says, was maintained by Arretium
+(Arezzo). Samian pottery is also alluded to by other writers,
+and hence the term was adopted in modern times as descriptive
+of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs, whether found in
+Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only accepted
+with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840
+discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases
+found there as a local product, now known as &ldquo;Arretine&rdquo; ware.
+The name &ldquo;Samian&rdquo; has, however, adhered to the provincial
+wares and at the present day is often used even by archaeologists.
+But recent researches have shown that nearly all the provincial
+wares can be traced to Gaulish or German potteries, and, since
+it is implied by Pliny that &ldquo;Samian&rdquo; pottery is older than
+&ldquo;Arretine,&rdquo; the name may now be fairly rejected altogether,
+as we have rejected the name &ldquo;Etruscan&rdquo; for Greek pottery.
+The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak
+of &ldquo;china,&rdquo; and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later
+Greek pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p>
+
+<p>There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery
+centres in Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere,
+as well as at Saguntum in Spain, but all were surpassed in
+excellence by Arretium. In more modern times its pottery came
+under notice even in the middle ages, and discoveries were made
+in the time of Leo X (about 1500) and again in the 18th century.
+The Arretine ware may be regarded as <i>the</i> Roman pottery <i>par
+excellence</i>, and its popularity extended from about 150 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> down
+to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height
+in the 1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, after which it rapidly degenerated, and
+its place was taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general
+characteristics may be summed up as follows:&mdash;(1) The fine local
+red clay, carefully levigated and baked very hard to a rich coral
+red or a colour like sealing-wax; (2) the fine red glaze, which
+has already been discussed; (3) the great variety of forms
+employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work; (4)
+the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters&rsquo; names.
+The majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself,
+but there was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing
+pottery almost equal in merit, and it was also exported to central
+and eastern Europe and Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red
+appears to have been introduced by 100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, when the first
+potters&rsquo; stamps appear. These are usually quadrangular in
+form, though other shapes are found, and are impressed in the
+midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or on plain wares
+on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters&rsquo; names
+is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific
+than others, and to have employed a large number of slaves,
+whose names appear with their masters&rsquo; on the stamps. The
+best known is Marcus Perennius, whose wares take highest rank
+for their artistic merit, the designs being copied from good Greek
+models. He employed seventeen slaves, of whom the best known
+is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing as M·PEREN and
+TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his finest
+vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of
+Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures
+were designed by the masters, but that the vases were actually
+moulded by the slaves. Other important artists are Calidius
+Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P. Cornelius, who had no less
+than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself A·TITI·FIGVL·ARRET;
+the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus,
+a degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish
+wares.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed
+from metal shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37,
+Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11). They are mostly of small size and devoid of
+handles, but a notable exception is a bell-shaped <i>krater</i> or mixing-bowl,
+of which there is a very fine example in the British Museum,
+found at Capua and decorated with the four seasons (Plate
+III. fig. 62). For the decoration and subjects the potters
+undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the &ldquo;new-Attic&rdquo; reliefs
+of the Hellenistic period, of which the <i>krater</i> just cited is
+an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing maenads
+or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes
+which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others
+again are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament,
+figures when they occur being merely decorative. There is
+throughout a remarkable variety both in the ornamentation
+and in the methods of composition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Provincial Wares</i>.&mdash;The Arretine ware, as has been noted,
+steadily degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and
+the manufacture of ornamental pottery appears to have entirely
+died out in Italy by the time of Trajan. Its place was taken by
+the pottery of the provinces, especially by that of Gaul, where the
+transference of artistic traditions led to the rise of new industrial
+centres in the country bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is,
+of the ornamented wares or <i>terra sigillata</i>, the clay is fine and
+close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows
+a light red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a
+brighter yet darker red colour (<i>i.e.</i> less like coral) than that of
+Arretine ware, but the tone varies with the degree of heat used.
+The most important feature is the fine glaze with which it is
+coated, similar in composition to that of the Arretine; it is
+exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid equally over the
+whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of the clay.
+The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware, by
+which, however, it is indirectly inspired.</p>
+
+<p>The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various
+types of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are
+preferred almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently
+bear the stamp of the potter impressed on the inside or outside.
+Although this ware is found all over the Roman world, by far
+the greater portion comes from Gaul, Germany or Britain, and
+evidence points to two&mdash;and only two&mdash;districts as the principal
+centres of manufacture: the valleys of the Loire and the Rhine
+and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>
+Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and isolated
+finds of it occur in Spain and other parts.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:332px; height:191px" src="images/img725a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.&mdash;Bowl of Gaulish ware, with
+moulded patterns in slight relief.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. Déchelette
+have shown that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be
+clearly traced, both in the shapes employed and in the method of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span>
+decoration; and, further, that it is possible&mdash;at least as regards
+Gaul&mdash;to associate certain potters&rsquo; names and certain types of
+figures, though found in many places, with two centres in particular,
+Graufesenque near Rodez (department of Aveyron) in
+the district occupied by the Ruteni, and Lezoux near Clermont
+(department of Puy-de-Dôme) in the country of the Arverni.
+The periods during
+which these potteries
+flourished are consecutive,
+or rather
+overlapping, but not
+contemporaneous,
+the former being
+practically coincident
+with the 1st
+century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, the
+latter with the 2nd
+and 3rd down to
+about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 260, when
+the manufacture of <i>terra sigillata</i> practically came to an end in
+Gaul.</p>
+
+<p>There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a
+transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north
+of Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, <i>e.g.</i> St Remy-en-Rollat,
+and others of later date, as at Banassac and Montans in
+the latter district, but none of these produced pottery of special
+merit or importance. The early Rhenish wares are, strictly
+speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic character, while the later
+German <i>terra sigillata</i>, for which the principal centres were
+Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in Bavaria, are of
+similar character but inferior to the 2nd-century pottery of
+Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV.
+fig. 66.</p>
+
+<p>The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we
+have said, almost confined to two or three varieties, which
+follow one another chronologically. A shape favoured at first is
+the <i>krater</i>, which has been mentioned as one of the characteristic
+Arretine forms; but this enjoyed but a short term of popularity.
+Early in the 1st century we find a typical form of bowl in use,
+which, following the numeration of Dr Dragendorff&rsquo;s treatise,
+is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is characterized by its
+moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings, and by the
+division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes for
+the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative,
+consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds
+are introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular
+panels or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a
+second variety of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was introduced;
+this is cylindrical in form, and, being found both at
+Graufesenque and Lezoux, may be regarded as transitional in
+character. In the latter half of this century a new form arises
+(No. 37; fig. 37), a more or less hemispherical bowl which holds
+the field exclusively on all sites down to the termination of the
+potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new system of decoration
+is introduced, the upper edge being left quite plain. The panels
+and medallions at first prevail, but are then succeeded by arcading
+or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and finally after the
+end of the 1st century (and on form 37 only) we find the whole
+surface covered with a single composition of figures unconfined by
+borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze; this is
+known as the &ldquo;free&rdquo; style (Plate IV. fig. 69).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:831px; height:466px" src="images/img725b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.&mdash;Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine; 18-65, Gaulish and German.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down
+that the conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are
+obvious imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the
+absence of Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include representations
+of gods and heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters
+and animals, the two latter classes being pre-eminently
+popular.</p>
+
+<p>The potters&rsquo; names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common
+Roman type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux
+are Gaulish in form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, Illixo or Laxtrucisa.
+This seems to imply that Roman influence was still strong
+in the earlier centre which drew its inspiration more directly from
+Arretium. But even the purely Roman names are sometimes
+converted into Gaulish forms, as <i>Masclus</i> for Masculus, or
+<i>Tornos</i> for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form,
+depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief;
+on the plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but
+on the ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the
+figures. The usual formula is OF (for <i>officina</i>) or M (for <i>manu</i>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+with the name in the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for <i>fecit</i> with the
+nominative.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the ordinary <i>terra sigillata</i> with figures produced in
+moulds we find other methods of decoration employed. In the
+south of France, about Arles and Orange, vases were made with
+medallions separately moulded and attached round the body;
+these have a great variety of subjects, both mythological and
+gladiatorial or theatrical, or even portraits of emperors. There
+is a remarkable specimen in the British Museum with a scene
+from the tragedy of the <i>Cycnus</i>, on which Heracles and Ares are
+represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate IV.
+fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux.
+Here each figure is attached separately to the vase, and the
+background is filled in with foliage produced by the method
+known as <i>en barbotine</i> (slip-painting), of which we shall speak
+presently. The effect of these vases, which are mostly large jars
+or <i>ollae</i> (Plate IV. fig. 70), is often very decorative, and there is
+a fine specimen in the British Museum from Felixstowe, on which
+the modelling is really admirable. Other good examples have
+been found in various parts of Britain.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:208px; height:214px" src="images/img726.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.&mdash;Jar of Castor
+ware, with reliefs of a stag
+pursued by a hound, executed
+in semi-fluid slip.
+6 in. high.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;slip-decoration&rdquo; process is practically unknown in Italy,
+but it is found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany,
+and appears to have originated in the Rhine district. It is not
+confined to the red ware, but in the early German examples is
+applied on a dull grey or black background.
+On the continent its use is
+almost limited to simple decorative
+patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in
+Britain it was largely adopted, as in
+the well-known Castor ware made
+on the site of that name (<i>Durobrivae</i>)
+in Northamptonshire. Many of the
+vases found or made here have
+gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes,
+or chariots executed by this method
+(fig. 38). The decoration was applied
+in the form of a thick viscous slip,
+usually of the same colour as the
+clay, but reduced to this consistency
+with water, and was laid on by
+means of a narrow tube or run from the edge of a spatula. The
+Castor ware appears to date from the 3rd and 4th centuries <span class="sc">a.d.</span></p>
+
+<p>Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally
+produced in Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such
+ware seems to have been produced in the Rhine district, represented
+by small jars covered with a glossy black coating, on
+which are painted in thick white slip inscriptions of a convivial
+character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or VIVAS
+(Plate IV. fig. 68). A very effective ware, obviously imitating cut
+glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux
+in both the red and black varieties.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Dragendorff in <i>Bonner Jahrbücher</i>, xcvi. 37 ff.;
+Déchelette, <i>Vases céramiques de la Gaule romaine</i> (1904); Walters,
+<i>Ancient Pottery</i>, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii.; <i>British Museum Catalogue
+of Roman Pottery</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. B. Wa.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Persian, Syrian, Egyptian and Turkish Pottery<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter&rsquo;s art, it was
+the custom to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman
+empire and the appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian
+pottery of the early middle ages, as if the intervening centuries
+had produced nothing worthy of note. Even yet the successive
+steps by which this beautiful art arose are largely matters of
+inference and deduction, but it must be borne in mind that while
+the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of glaze and
+painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and
+Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction.
+In discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already
+pointed out at what a very early period they had developed the
+production of rich and beautiful coloured glazes&mdash;the Egyptians
+as a jewel-like decoration of small pieces made in a very sandy
+paste, or actually carved from stone, and the Assyrians, on a
+bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured brickwork. Though
+the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the peoples
+of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried
+on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There
+is abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of
+Roman times and later with rich turquoise blue and yellow
+glazes, though the potters had learned to produce this glaze on
+a material containing more clay and less sand than that used in
+earlier days. We know also that they had learned that the
+addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to be applied
+on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to be
+shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt,
+but appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia
+Minor; and throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of
+pottery were made which were clearly the starting-points of
+much of the fine pottery produced in Europe in later times.
+We find, for instance, side by side, a manufacture of bowls,
+dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of two distinct
+materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise blue,
+green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda
+and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple
+painted patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2)
+similar vessels made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and
+porous, coated with a white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin)
+covered with a yellowish lead glaze. These vessels were
+decorated in a variety of ways: (1) <i>Graffiati</i>; patterns cut or
+scratched through the coating of white slip while it was still soft,
+down to the red ground, so that when the vessel was glazed it
+displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2) Yellow
+and red ochre and copper scales were rudely &ldquo;dabbed&rdquo; over
+the white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it
+presented a marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red,
+yellow, brown or green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the
+section on <i>Egyptian pottery</i> above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron
+were added to the lead glaze, and the resulting green or yellow
+glazes were applied to plain vases or to vessels decorated with
+moulded reliefs. In all these methods we see the continuation
+of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall also see that these,
+in their turn, became the starting-point of much of the medieval
+pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other southern
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian
+times seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters
+of Assyria, just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian
+device of raising strong brown outlines round a design to control
+the flow of coloured glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze
+of Archers in the Louvre, was carried on by them, for it appears
+unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque of Mahommed I. built at
+Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse between the Persian
+and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to a general
+diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of
+the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean,
+though our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient
+data for any definite placing of the progress made. Our information
+is mainly derived from the examination of the rubbish
+mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and
+by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat was built in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 640
+by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century; partially rebuilt,
+it was given over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke sultan, and
+all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the site
+being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same
+way Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the
+site of which lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about
+1220 by Jenghiz Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but
+was destroyed again in the following century, so that its existence
+practically ceased in the 14th century. Rhagae was once an
+important centre of the ceramic industry, but this was transferred
+to the neighbouring town of Veramin, in the 13th century.
+Excavations have also been made on the site of Rakka, near
+Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few others of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on
+the development of the potter&rsquo;s art in these countries during the
+period between the 4th and 12th centuries. Yet, until systematic
+excavations have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the
+Delta, on the same scale as those which have proved so valuable
+in Greece, Crete, Cyprus and the valley of the Nile, we cannot
+hope to possess sound chronological data of the developments
+of the arts in these countries. Meantime the exact share which
+should be allotted to each district for its discoveries will remain
+ground of contention for scholars of conflicting schools, though
+there can be little doubt that Egypt and the southern part of
+Syria played a more important part than has generally been
+supposed in the development of the potter&rsquo;s art at this period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Persian Pottery</i>.&mdash;The most important pottery of the nearer
+East, whether considered on its own merits or from the influence
+it has exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly
+valued by collectors under the distinctive name of Persian;
+though much that passes under that name may not have been
+made in Persia. From the 10th to the 16th centuries the craftsmen
+of Persia were perfect masters of decorative design and
+colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of the forms
+proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity ever
+exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly
+of metal than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling
+for the material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are
+not only true clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to
+exhibit the qualities of the glaze and colour with which they
+were to be decorated. Certainly from the 12th to the 16th
+centuries the pottery of the Persians must rank among the
+greatest achievements of the potter&rsquo;s art. The ware was shaped
+from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of&mdash;but
+whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large proportion
+of sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish
+or red tint, and was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous
+slip, or with a mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin,
+which made it whiter still&mdash;the one aim was to produce a white
+pottery. On this white ground&mdash;with a coarsish absorbent
+surface&mdash;beautiful patterns, in conventional floral or animal
+forms, were deftly painted in cobalt-blues, manganese-purples,
+copper-greens and turquoise, with mixtures for intermediate
+tints; while a strong brownish-black outline colour was compounded
+by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be turned
+into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and
+later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour,
+often used in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze,
+generally of considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused;
+and the resultant effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour
+relieved on a ground of slightly toned white. Judging from
+fragments which have been found at Rai, and which can scarcely
+therefore be later than the 13th century, we find the characteristic
+Persian style of ornament already developed; dumpy little
+figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between cypress
+trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with conventional
+borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known
+type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral ornament
+which often runs to a beautiful tracery of &ldquo;arabesque&rdquo;
+lines. The drawing is generally finely outlined with brown
+or black (a survival of the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the
+earliest pieces the flat washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-blue,
+turquoise or green from copper, and shades of purple and
+brown from manganese. From the 16th century onwards
+Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the designs and in the
+colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted with patterns
+in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the imitation of
+Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks. Finally,
+Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number
+of Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan,
+and we find that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-tê-Chên,
+with blue decorations in the Persian taste, so that we
+cannot be surprised at the growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style
+of decoration. From this period, however, Persian pottery
+deteriorated both in its technical and artistic aspects. Crudely
+moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with an opaque
+yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and turquoise,
+began to make their appearance, especially on the famous
+Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black
+outlines of the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource)
+vanish, and we get brighter and more glittering, yet poorer
+colours, including a rose-red enamel fired over the glaze, evidently
+imitated from the Chinese <i>famille-rose</i> porcelains of the 18th
+century.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:457px" src="images/img727.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.&mdash;Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria and
+Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The finest work appears to have been produced from the
+11th to the 14th centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge
+of what is truly Persian, Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced
+to accept many conventional names that have perhaps little but
+custom to recommend them. There is, for instance, an important
+class of pottery known, until recently, only from a few remarkably
+handsome vases, and once called &ldquo;Siculo-Arab&rdquo; because
+these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware
+is characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished ornament&mdash;leaf-shaped
+panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns;
+striped and dotted bands; friezes of animals or birds amidst
+flowers and foliage, inscriptions, &amp;c.; all strongly and firmly
+drawn in black or brown outlines and washed in with a very pure
+cobalt-blue or with turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of
+these pieces to the oldest Persian wares, we know that bowls,
+dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of the same kind have been dug up
+on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar ware has been found
+at Fostat, together with evidences of local manufacture, and
+occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so that
+probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria
+between the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards
+made by Syrian potters both in Persia and Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Persian Wares</i>.&mdash;We have already spoken of the prevalent
+use of coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer
+East&mdash;from Egypt to Persia&mdash;from remote times, either as the
+sole colour decoration or in conjunction with modelled or painted
+ornament. The fragments from Rai and Fostat include rich
+turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient Egyptian), deep and
+light-green glazes containing lead and copper, imitations of
+ancient Chinese céladon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a coffee-brown
+glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze.<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a> All these may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span>
+found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled ornament;
+or covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted
+in white slip or incised in the paste. Sometimes, even at this
+early period, there are traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but
+not fired, to the glaze.</p>
+
+<p>At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls,
+dishes and vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque
+patterns in a singularly still underglaze black, and covered with
+the blue turquoise or green copper glazes. This characteristic
+and beautiful ware is common to Persia, Syria and Egypt in
+Saracen times, and it was soon prized in Europe, as is shown by
+the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury Fortnum built
+into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was apparently
+placed in the 12th century.<a name="fa11b" id="fa11b" href="#ft11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a></p>
+
+<p>At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance,
+and in the 13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there
+is a comparatively modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces
+bearing patterns modelled in low relief.</p>
+
+<p><i>Persian Porcelain</i>.&mdash;This beautiful and somewhat mysterious
+ware&mdash;often called &ldquo;Gombroon&rdquo; ware&mdash;apparently made its
+appearance in the 13th century, though the bulk of the known
+examples are not earlier than the 17th or 18th century. The
+ware is quite translucent and is of soft and delicate texture.
+Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture of pipe-clay
+and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a
+fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary
+porcelain oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes,
+bowls (often mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are
+generally very thin and are either perfectly plain or bear flutings
+or simple wavy patterns incised in the paste. Most characteristic
+and beautiful is the decoration by means of delicate perforations
+either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the finest pieces the
+perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form a decoration
+analogous to the well-known &ldquo;rice-grain&rdquo; decoration of the
+Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour,
+either a delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright
+céladon, or the well-known Persian blue ground; and this is
+sometimes decorated with lustre patterns. Nowhere can this
+rare and delicately beautiful ware be so well studied as in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lustred Ware</i>.&mdash;The decoration of pottery with iridescent
+metallic films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inventions
+ever made by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only
+coloured clays, coloured glazes, or colours fired under the glaze,
+but we are now brought face to face with a colour effect produced
+by refiring the finished glazed pieces, at a lower temperature,
+with pigments painted upon the glaze (fig. 40; see also Plate V.
+13th-century Persian lustre). How such a practice originated
+is probably an idle speculation, but it may have come through
+repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold was
+painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably
+vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver,
+applied over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make
+it adhere, may have given the first films of iridescent colour.
+We know certainly that before the 13th century the elements of
+the process had been mastered, and that the potters of the nearer
+East had learnt that by mixing some compound of silver (doubtless
+the sulphide) with clay, and painting the mixture on the
+finished vase, which was refired in such a way that the pieces
+were only raised to a dull red heat and were then exposed to the
+vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were left
+on the ware that looked like metal&mdash;but metal shot over with
+all the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green.
+Numerous fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred
+from the site at Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the
+beautiful process was of Persian origin, particularly as most of
+the examples then known bore designs of distinctly Persian style.
+We are now inclined to think that the process really arose in
+Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward to Persia, just as it
+was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In support of this
+view there is the written record of the Persian traveller Nasiri
+Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the 11th century (1035-1042).
+He was apparently familiar with the pottery of his own country,
+and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of
+Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the
+traffic of East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He
+mentions, specially, certain translucent bowls of earthenware
+decorated with colours resembling a stuff called &ldquo;bougalemoun,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;the tints changing according to the position which one gives
+to the vase.&rdquo; Such a description could only apply to &ldquo;lustred&rdquo;
+pottery, and it would seem as if this process must have been
+known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia (see
+Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret
+was soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it
+was practised at Rhagae in the next century.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:416px" src="images/img728.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.&mdash;Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in brown
+copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting
+is gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-shaped
+tile of the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1217 (<span class="sc">a.h.</span> 614), decorated with
+spotted hares, heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre
+relieved by dots and curls, and surrounded by an inscribed
+border. A vase in the Godman collection bears the date <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1231
+(<span class="sc">a.h.</span> 629), and some of the well-known &ldquo;star and cross&rdquo; tiles
+from Veramin belong to the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1262. The early Persian
+lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles with which the
+walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the more
+ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller
+numbers and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives
+of decoration were animals and birds (sometimes showing
+Chinese influence), the hare and the deer being favourites;
+roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and women, mounted
+or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend), conventional
+foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in a
+lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots
+etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered
+all over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out
+of this when it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white
+tin-enamel with which the early wares are generally coated.
+The lustre itself when viewed directly may look like some golden
+or deep chocolate-brown colour, but as the piece is turned to
+catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to bear a thin iridescent
+film, which glows with golden, green, purple or ruby-red metallic
+<i>reflets</i>. On the earliest examples the decoration is often entirely
+in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a pattern
+painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the
+glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear
+14th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decoration,
+more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised
+in low relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class,
+belonging to the 14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+with designs in low relief, picked out with scrolls and arabesques
+in white enamel or bold floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is
+frequently found applied to the rich cobalt-blue ground, and
+there are still existing a few magnificent vases which show the
+artistic possibilities of this scheme of decoration. It should be
+noted that when the pieces are in the round, the pattern is
+usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre ground as
+on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was
+replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration continued
+in use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I.
+(1587-1629). To the last period belong many charming bowls,
+narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown lustre, with ruby <i>reflets</i>,
+on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware is pure white in substance
+and generally translucent, and the pieces are occasionally
+signed (see <i>Persian porcelain</i> above).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:448px" src="images/img729a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 41.&mdash;Lamp from the Mosque of
+Omar.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Damascus Ware</i>.&mdash;This time-honoured name (for &ldquo;Damas
+Ware&rdquo; was often mentioned in medieval inventories, and
+appears to have included many varieties of oriental pottery
+which were highly prized in Italy, France and England in the
+middle ages)<a name="fa12b" id="fa12b" href="#ft12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> forms rather a puzzle nowadays for the archaeologist,
+for many diverse wares have been included under this
+title, some of which were
+not made at Damascus.
+Yet Damascus is one of
+the oldest cities in the
+world, and has seen
+unnumbered dynasties
+come and go around its
+desert-fringed oasis. An
+important centre of caravan
+traffic, a nexus of
+palpitating life from east
+and west, north and
+south, we cannot wonder
+if it developed a special
+pottery of its own, tinged
+with something of a cosmopolitan
+spirit. Formerly
+the Damascus
+wares were treated as a
+variety of the Persian
+pottery we have just described,
+but the best examples
+of the class now
+known under this name
+exhibit a mingling of
+various influences such as
+we might expect, and have well-marked affinities both with the
+Persian wares and those brilliant productions now commonly
+recognized as Syrian and Turkish, while even far-off echoes of
+Chinese decorative mannerisms are not wanting. The characteristic
+Damascus ware of the collector is marked by its quality; the
+ground is of very clear white, the colours are pure and brilliant,
+and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made. The
+decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more
+formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish
+pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay
+pigment of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably
+occur in the design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple
+made from manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in
+quality. Fine examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the
+British Museum and in the Louvre; its characteristic style of
+pattern is well shown in the 16th-century Damascus piece
+reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid example is the lamp
+from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the British
+Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the
+Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong
+rather to Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears
+a dated inscription, &ldquo;In the year 956 in the month <i>Jemazi-l-oola</i>.
+The painter is the poor and humble Mustafa.&rdquo; This is reckoned
+as June <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1549. It may be remarked that our difficulties of
+identification are increased by the fact that, under Arab rule,
+Syrian and Persian potters were at work in Damascus, in Old
+Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments classified
+by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian workmen.
+In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese
+blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the
+nearer East, and quantities of fragments have been found at
+Fostat, Ephesus and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:456px" src="images/img729b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.&mdash;Rhodian Jug.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Turkish Pottery</i>.&mdash;This beautiful and striking ware, formerly
+called Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a
+known centre of manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in
+all the countries overrun by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th
+century, so that the name &ldquo;Turkish,&rdquo; in spite of some opposition,
+is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42; and the 16th-century
+Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine white body
+of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash of
+pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly
+blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped
+up in palpable relief&mdash;the whole of the ornament being outlined
+with black or dark green.
+The ware was glazed
+with an alkaline glaze of
+great depth, so that the
+colours soften and sometimes
+run, producing one
+of the most brilliant and
+attractive of all the
+oriental wares. In certain
+districts the white
+ground was not used,
+but over it a slip of the
+red colour (Armenian
+bole), varying in strength
+from bright red to pale
+salmon, was laid over
+the piece, reserving the
+pattern only in the white
+slip, which consequently
+lies lower than the red
+ground. Other examples
+are known where the
+ground has been covered
+with lavender, blue,
+sage, apple and turquoise
+greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect
+of the whole was often increased by the application of gold-leaf
+over the fired glaze. The decorative motives are distinguished
+from those of the Persian wares by a breadth and
+boldness which are in keeping with the brilliant, and not
+always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is true, the
+Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the thistle-bloom
+and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment
+which permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish
+flowers such as the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, cornflower
+and lily (some of which were imported into Europe by
+the Turks), is as original and distinctive as the arrangement of
+the different elements of the design is artistic and charming.
+Other styles of design include formal patterns and diapers, rarely
+human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial devices
+and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining
+the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile
+hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic
+articles, dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers,
+sprinklers, jugs, tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls
+and mosque lamps are also plentiful. The tiles are found in all
+parts of the Turkish empire, though they were probably made at
+certain centres, such as Nicaea (which gave its name to the ware
+in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many of the mosques
+in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other
+centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span>
+distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and
+Kutaia. A small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian
+inscription stating that it was made by &ldquo;Abraham of Kutaia&rdquo;
+in the 16th century. A few fine bowls and vases, painted in
+a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and rosette scrolls,
+recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but of very
+characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place; and
+later, in the 18th and up to the end of the 19th century, an
+inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware
+usually takes the form of small objects&mdash;plates, cups, jugs,
+egg-shaped ornaments, &amp;c.&mdash;with a thin, well-potted, white
+body and slight patterns of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &amp;c.,
+in blue, black and yellow. Turkish pottery was at its best in
+the 16th and the early part of the 17th century, and though good
+tile work of later date exists, the general pottery deteriorated
+before the 18th century. An inferior ware of poor colour is
+still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some attempt
+has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration,
+but the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old
+times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Collections</i>.&mdash;The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest
+collection of the medieval pottery of the nearer East&mdash;the British
+Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent
+examples. The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten
+collection of Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The
+museums of the Louvre and of Sèvres have also many beautiful
+examples. Berlin, Frankfort and other German towns have collections,
+but much smaller in extent. Private collectors in England and
+France own many fine specimens, and mention may be made particularly
+of those owned by Mr Ducane Godman and Mr George
+Salting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Fortnum, <i>Majolica</i> (1896) (also in South Kensington
+Museum Handbook); Falke, <i>Majolica</i> (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet,
+<i>Contributions a l&rsquo;étude de la céramique orientale</i> (Cairo, 1900); Karabacek,
+&ldquo;Zur muslimischen Keramik,&rdquo; in <i>Monatsschrift fur den Orient</i>
+(1884); Lane-Poole, <i>Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i> (1886); Migeon,
+<i>Manuel de l&rsquo;art musulman</i>, vol. ii. (1907); Sarre, <i>Persische Keramik</i>;
+and <i>Jahrbuch der koniglichen preussichen Kunstsammlung</i> (1905),
+part ii.; H. Wallis, <i>The Godman Collection</i> (1) <i>Lustred Vases</i> (London,
+1891); (2) <i>The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles</i> (1894); <i>Notes on
+some Early Persian Lustre Vases</i> (1885); <i>Egyptian Ceramic Art</i>
+(1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L. H.; W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Hispano-Moresque  Pottery</p>
+
+<p>With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round
+the eastern Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting
+to follow the westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see
+how in their wake there also sprung up in Spain a ware of high
+distinction and beauty. The Iberian peninsula had been the
+scene of pottery-making from prehistoric times&mdash;a red unglazed
+ware was made before the dawn of civilization as finely finished
+as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>:
+<i>Art and Archaeology</i>), and the Romans had one of their great
+provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when
+a great part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and
+distinctive pottery was produced. What is by no means clear
+is how it came to pass that when the traditional methods, learnt
+by the Arabs in Egypt and Syria, were carried westward they
+should have undergone such a radical change. Oxide of tin,
+the opacifying and whitening material in glazes <i>par excellence</i>,
+was certainly known and used in the East from at least the 6th
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of
+white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and
+it was similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and
+not general in those countries, where we find instead a consistent
+development of the pottery made with a white slip-coating and
+a clear alkaline glaze. Perhaps it was that at this period tin
+was almost as costly as gold, and it was only when potters with
+an oriental training brought their skill to Spain, where tin
+abounded, that the relative cheapness of the material led them
+to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There is a wide
+distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced wares,
+glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental
+type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is
+finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or
+no lead: in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for
+the addition of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense
+coating of white enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color
+of the clay beneath.) Such colours as were used for painted
+patterns were painted over this enamel coating before it was fired,
+so that they became perfectly incorporated with it, and then this
+ground furnished a splendid medium for the development of
+those thin iridescent metallic films that we call &ldquo;lustres.&rdquo; The
+knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from the East
+also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing
+use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver&mdash;until
+the red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter
+silver lustres&mdash;we get the simple technique of one of the most
+distinctive kinds of pottery known.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:469px" src="images/img730.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43.&mdash;Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and copper lustre.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Briefly, the wares were &ldquo;thrown&rdquo; upon the wheel or
+&ldquo;pressed&rdquo; on modelled forms&mdash;handles, ribs and dots of clay,
+or strongly incised patterns were often added by hand&mdash;and they
+were then fired a first time. A coating of the tin-enamel (rich
+in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this coating designs
+were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these colours
+were only used as masses to break up the background. Then
+the second firing took place and the piece came from the firing
+all shining and white, except where the blue or brownish purple
+had been painted (see fig. 43). The lustre pigments, a mixture of
+sulphide of copper or sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre
+or other earth, was then painted over the glazed surface with
+vinegar as a medium. The repainted piece was fired a third time
+to a dull red heat, and smoked with the smoke from the wood
+used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent ochre and
+metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent films in
+all their beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the composition
+of the lustre pigments are given in Cocks&rsquo;s account of
+the processes followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises
+receipt of 1785 gives:&mdash;copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver
+1 peseta piece, sulphur 3 oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped
+off the pots after lustring 36 oz.<a name="fa13b" id="fa13b" href="#ft13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Interesting documents have
+recently been published concerning the works executed by the
+&ldquo;Saracen,&rdquo; John of Valencia, at Poitiers in 1384, and it is certain,
+from the list of materials supplied to him, that he made there
+tiles that were enamelled and lustred.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer
+Edrisi&rsquo;s mention of the manufacture of &ldquo;golden ware&rdquo; then
+carried on at Calatayud in Aragon in 1154. Ibn Sa&lsquo;id (1214-1286)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+speaks of the glass and the golden pottery made at Murcia (city),
+Almeria and Malaga. From the 4th century the notices which have come
+down to us divide themselves into two main groups relating to the
+industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at various localities, but especially
+Manises in Valencia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malaga</i>&mdash;Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom of Granada,
+which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century, the last remnant of
+Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under the art-loving Nasride dynasty,
+Mussulman arts and learning flourished to an unprecedented degree. In
+1337 Ahmed ben-Yahya al-Omarí enumerates, among the craft productions of
+Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not to be
+met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta mentions (1350)
+the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada,
+in his description of Malaga. The principal monument of the period is
+the royal palace of Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th
+century, from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases
+were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the &ldquo;Alhambra
+vase,&rdquo; is admittedly the most imposing product of Hispano-Moresque
+ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped body (4 ft. 5 in. high) is
+encircled by a band of Arabic inscription, above which are depicted
+gazelles reserved in cream and golden lustre upon a blue field; the rest
+of the body and the prominent handles are covered with compartments of
+arabesques and inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck,
+divided by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques. Vases
+similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic characters and
+arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in the museums at St
+Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to the exact date of these,
+experts are not agreed. Though presenting all the characteristics of the
+14th-century Hispano-Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were
+produced at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in
+the Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which is
+by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1409-1418), not to Yusuf
+I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a dish (Sarre collection,
+Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon its back, in Arabic, the word
+Malaga; it is ornamented with eight segmental compartments filled
+alternately with strap-work designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was
+reconquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its
+industry probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in
+1539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Valencia.</i>&mdash;The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by Aragon in 1238.
+The history of its lustred ware is known from 1383, when Eximenes (whose
+evidence has been erroneously held to date from 1499) mentions the
+golden ware (<i>Obra dorada</i>) of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind
+was an offshoot of the Malagan industry, as in documents lately
+published (ranging from 1405 to 1517) it is repeatedly designated Malaga
+ware (<i>Obra de Malaga</i>). Its decorative qualities became famous
+throughout the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly
+manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl or Boil
+family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output of the kilns,
+and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is distinguished as regards
+its ornamentation from the pottery of Malaga by the adoption of a more
+natural rendering of plant form motives and by the use of armory. The
+ware consists of drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates,
+aquamaniles, vases, &amp;c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed
+during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic
+inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the vine,
+bryony, &amp;c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently bear the
+arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of Manises, or other
+Valencian or Italian families for whom they were made. Great dexterity
+is shown in the execution of minute and complicated schemes of ornament
+and in the richness of the colour schemes; golden lustre of various
+hues, with blue and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the
+ruby, violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours a
+wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and manganese was
+gradually discontinued and the ornament quickly became nondescript, but
+the brilliancy of the lustre pigment nevertheless obtained a wide
+popularity for the ware, as is attested by Marineo (1539), Viciana
+(1564) and Escolano (1610). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609)
+the industry was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by
+Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their productions
+can be summed up in the word &ldquo;decadence.&rdquo; In the course of the 15th
+century the manufacture of lustred pottery was carried on at various
+other small towns near Valencia; in 1484 it was produced at Mislata,
+Paterna and Gesarte. It is known to have flourished at Calatayud in
+1507, and at Muel, also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district
+much pottery for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also
+produced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Majorca.</i>&mdash;Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was
+imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these
+imitations &ldquo;majolica,&rdquo; changing the letter in the name of the islands
+(then called Majorica) where they originated. The truth would appear to
+be that Valencian wares, being exported in Balearic vessels that called
+at Majorca on the voyage to Italy, acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin.
+There is extant a potter&rsquo;s petition praying for permission to establish
+himself in Majorca (1560), in which he states that &ldquo;Manises ware,&rdquo; &amp;c.,
+had to be imported, as it was not made there.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British
+Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny Museum
+collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains many fine
+typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the archaeological
+museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg museums, the Metropolitan
+Art Museum at New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain
+good specimens. The private collections of England, France and Italy
+are rich in these wares, among the finest being those of Mr F.D.
+Godman (Horsham), and of Don G.J. de Osma (Madrid).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;A. Van de Put, <i>Hispano-Moresque Ware of the 15th
+Century</i> (1904); F. Sarre, &ldquo;Die spanisch-maurischen Lusterfayencen des
+Mittelalters,&rdquo; &amp;c. (in <i>Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen</i>,
+xxiv. (1903); G.J. de Osma, &ldquo;Apuntes sobre cerámica morisca: textos y
+documentos valencianos,&rdquo; No. 1, 1906, and &ldquo;Los Letreros ornamentales
+en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv.&rdquo; (in the review <i>Cultura
+Española</i>, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Gumá, <i>Rajolas valencianas y
+catalanas</i> (1905); J. Tramoyeres Blasco, &ldquo;Cerámica valenciana del
+siglo xvii.&rdquo; (in the <i>Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico Las
+Provincias de Valencia</i>; J. Gestoso y Pérez, Historia de los barros
+vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J.C. Davillier, <i>Histoire des
+faiences hispano-moresques à reflets metalliques</i> (1861).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. v. de P.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Medieval And Later Italian Pottery<a name="fa14b" id="fa14b" href="#ft14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the potter&rsquo;s art in Italy after the fall of the Roman
+empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the Roman potters appear
+to have been gradually lost, leaving behind only sufficient skill to
+make rude crocks for domestic use and to coat them, if required, with a
+crude yellowish lead glaze sometimes stained to a vivid green with
+copper oxide. Applied ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched
+designs were the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the
+same class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of
+Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with Asia
+Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had been highly
+developed in fresh directions, as we have seen, introduced into Italy as
+well as the rest of Europe those superior wares characterized by a white
+surface decorated with bright colours under a brilliant transparent
+glaze, and glorified by metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not
+long remain unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian
+and Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the households
+of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque wares from
+which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for a new ware of their
+own. The technique of a siliceous slip-coating with colour painted on
+that and covered with a transparent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly
+used, and then not very successfully; it is only the introduction of the
+tin-enamel that was turned to fruitful account and led to the production
+of the magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+In the same way the practice of lustre decoration might have been
+learnt from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares (16th
+century) and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain, rather
+than to the earlier lustres of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are further
+evidence that though oriental decorative motives gave the Italians
+certain early types of design, it is the Hispano-Moresque potters from
+whom the Italians learnt the art they were afterwards to develop so
+splendidly in a new direction.<a name="fa15b" id="fa15b" href="#ft15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p>
+
+<p>All the Italian pottery above the level
+of common crocks may be conveniently grouped into four classes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:411px" src="images/img732.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.&mdash;Italian
+Graffiato Plate, 16th century. (South Kensington Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>1. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay, coated with
+a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered with a crude lead
+glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of rendering this ware
+ornamental, and fitting it for more than vulgar use, led to a great
+development of the <i>graffiato</i> process; where, while the vessel, with
+its white clay coating was firm yet soft enough, patterns were scratched
+or engraved through the white slip to the red body beneath. This
+decorative method has been already mentioned several times, for it was
+practised during the early middle ages in all the countries from India
+to Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor has its
+practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times when painted
+majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier and humbler pottery
+was used by those who could not afford the former; and the
+gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a fine decorative quality
+of their own. From the depth beneath the present soil at which fragments
+of this ware have been disinterred, it is obvious that the method was
+widely practised in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known
+except those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early
+examples have been found all over northern Italy&mdash;in Faenza, Florence,
+Pisa, &amp;c., and particularly in Padua, where it seems to have been
+extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its manufacture, even to
+the end of the 17th century, and Citta di Castello must have been noted
+for it in the 16th century, for Piccolpasso describes this ware as &ldquo;alla
+Castellana&rdquo; (see fig. 44). Apparently in the latter half of the 15th
+century a sudden advance takes place in the colouring of this
+<i>graffiato</i> ware. Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of
+the earlier productions, underglaze colours&mdash;green, purple, blue and a
+brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black where
+it is thick&mdash;were applied in bold splashes under the straw-coloured
+glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very simple means. As
+fine examples of this kind we may mention the dish with the mandoline
+players, and one with cupids disporting themselves in a tree, in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum; the tazza, supported by three modelled
+lions, in the Louvre; and the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two
+saints, in the museum at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite
+erroneously, <i>mezza-majolica</i>. It had nothing to do with majolica, being
+the natural development of a much older process; and its manufacture was
+carried on all through the period of majolica manufacture and has never
+ceased.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Mezza-Majolica</i>&mdash;This name is accurately applied to certain Italian
+wares that made their appearance in the 12th century or even earlier,
+when rude patterns&mdash;a clumsy star, a rude crossing of strokes or some
+equally elementary work&mdash;are found painted on a thin white ground
+covering a drab body. The pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms,
+are uncouth in the extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and
+then thinly coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first
+to have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were added
+to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the rude painting
+were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese, and the final glaze, which
+is generally thin and often imperfectly fused, seems to have been based
+on the alkaline glazes of the nearer East. The specimens so assiduously
+recovered by Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are to
+be found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert museums,
+are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller knowledge of
+Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Majolica</i>&mdash;For the last three centuries the word majolica has been
+used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but comparatively soft buff
+body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel of varying degrees of whiteness
+and purity, on which a painted decoration was laid and fired. In the
+later pictorial wares, a fine coating of transparent alkaline glaze was
+fired over the painting to soften the colours&mdash;really to varnish them.
+The word itself appears to have been derived from the name of the island
+Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the lustred wares
+of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably arriving in
+ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do not believe that
+the ware was actually made in that island. That the secret of the
+tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian majolica, was known
+in Italy in the 13th century is practically proved; and there is both
+literary and archaeological proof of its use there in the 14th. Mention
+of it is made in the <i>Margarita Preciosa</i> published at Pola by Pierre Le
+Bon in 1336, and the well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I.,
+discovered under the Manfredi palace at Faenza, must have been made
+shortly after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of
+the mezza-majolica, until it practically superseded the latter for
+painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples have little
+more than an archaeological interest, and it was only after the last
+decade of the <i>quattrocento</i> or the first of the <i>cinquecento</i> that it
+blossomed into an artistic creation. In its prime the production of
+majolica was confined to a very small part of Italy. Bologna on the
+north, Perugia to the south, Siena on the west, and the Adriatic to the
+east, roughly enclose the district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini,
+Pesaro, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena.
+Towards the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and in
+the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurian factories at Genoa, Albissola
+and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent styles, while, at the
+end of the 17th and in the early part of the 18th centuries, the
+southern town of Castelli, near Naples, produced a ware which closes the
+period of artistic majolica.</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate I</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:422px" src="images/img732a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:423px" src="images/img732b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;CORINTHIAN JAR.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.&mdash;FRANÇOIS VASE.<br />
+<span class="f80">(From Furtwängler and Reichhold, <i>Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, by permission of F. Bruckmann.)</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:576px" src="images/img732c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:547px" src="images/img732d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54.&mdash;BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA BY EXEKIAS.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.&mdash;VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY.<br />
+<span class="f80">Signed by Python.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate II</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:467px; height:467px" src="images/img732e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" rowspan="5"><img style="width:374px; height:956px" src="images/img732i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 56.&mdash;BOWL MADE AT CALES IN IMITATION OF METAL. (2ND CENT. <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:155px; height:274px" src="images/img732f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:127px; height:158px" src="images/img732g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57.&mdash;VASE OF <span class="sc">5th</span> CENT. B.C., MODELLED IN FORM OF HEAD.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58.&mdash;VASE OF <span class="sc">6th</span> CENT. B.C., IN FORM OF HELMETED HEAD.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:461px; height:294px" src="images/img732h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59.&mdash;FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE. (ROMAN PERIOD.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 60.&mdash;AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH SCENE FROM EURIPIDES&rsquo; &ldquo;HECUBA.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate III</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:368px" src="images/img732j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:403px" src="images/img732k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 61.&mdash;MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 62.&mdash;JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:340px; height:533px" src="images/img732l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:210px; height:567px" src="images/img732m.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:256px; height:530px" src="images/img732n.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 63.&mdash;EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR. (VILLANOVA PERIOD.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 64.&mdash;STAMP FOR ORNAMENTING ARRETINE VASE.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65.&mdash;ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC" JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc f90">Plate IV</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:536px; height:460px" src="images/img732o.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:227px; height:283px" src="images/img732p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 67.&mdash;MEDALLION FROM VASE MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE FROM TRAGEDY. (<span class="sc">3rd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:275px; height:282px" src="images/img732q.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 66.&mdash;MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE. (<span class="sc">2nd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 68.&mdash;JAR OF RHENISH WARE WITH INSCRIPTION. (<span class="sc">3rd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:385px" src="images/img732r.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:386px" src="images/img732s.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 69.&mdash;BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES IN &ldquo;FREE&rdquo; STYLE. (<span class="sc">2nd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70.&mdash;JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE. (<span class="sc">3rd</span> CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>4. <i>Lustred Majolica</i>&mdash;This brilliant species of Italian pottery (to
+which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to have been
+mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though experiments were made at
+Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza and Siena. Considering how much the
+Italian majolist owed to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable
+that this beautiful method of decoration should have made so tardy an
+appearance, for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span>
+the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently
+abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of
+Deruta, probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-marked
+affinities with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier
+examples are hardly to be distinguished from Spanish wares,
+and to the last the ware remained technically like the earlier
+ware, though with perfectly Italian decorative treatment. Yet
+the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have a quality of tone
+that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a wash of
+very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the
+most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us
+through the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre
+is a magnificent ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability
+the lustre process was so quickly abandoned on the fine painted
+majolica, because the increasing efforts to make a &ldquo;picture&rdquo;
+were discounted by so uncertain a process. When one of the
+later majolica painters had spent weeks on the decoration of
+some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of carefully
+drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose it
+to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process
+were inordinately great&mdash;Piccolpasso says, &ldquo;Frequently only
+six pieces were good out of a hundred&rdquo;&mdash;so that its use was relegated
+only to inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished
+and forgotten until its rediscovery in the second half of the
+19th century.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:304px; height:303px" src="images/img733a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.&mdash;Early Faenza plate, with
+peacock-feather design, in blues, yellow
+and orange-red. (Victoria and Albert
+Museum.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:339px; height:81px" src="images/img733b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Early Faenza<br />Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td>
+<td class="caption">Late Faenza<br />Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The history of the development of these noble wares is by
+no means clear, nor is it always certain what part was played
+by each town in the successive inventions of technical methods,
+decoration and colouring, so that it is better, in such a general
+sketch as this, to treat the subject in its broadest features only.
+In the earlier painted wares the only colours used were
+manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green as on the
+mezza-majolica, but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was
+added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate
+of lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were
+largely influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria,
+Egypt and Spain, specimens of which were so prized as to be
+used for the decoration of church fronts and the façades of public
+buildings. The lustre of the Saracenic wares was not yet understood,
+but its place was taken first by manganese and afterwards
+by yellow. The designs were chiefly conventional flower-patterns
+in the Persian or Moorish style, arabesques, and floral scrolls,
+the ground being filled at times with those tiny spirals, scrolls
+and dots to which the Eastern potters were so partial. Figures,
+human and animal, were introduced either among the formal
+ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the
+outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see
+the early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures
+were, in fact, drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and
+not the vessel made to display the figure-subject as in the majolica
+of the succeeding century. The earliest dated example of this
+period is the pavement laid down in the Caracciolo chapel in the
+church of San Giovanni a Carbonara, in Naples, about 1440.
+Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the British Museum,
+and from their style it has been suggested that they were made
+by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen
+Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period
+also have been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain
+drugs or confections, and decorated with bold scrolls of formal
+oak leaves enclosing spirited figures of men or animals, or heraldic
+devices. These are characterized by a rich blue colour generally
+piled up in palpable relief and sometimes verging on black; the
+outlines are usually in manganese, and transparent green is used
+for details and occasionally even as a ground colour. This ware
+has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem very
+inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as
+Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert
+itself, and it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that
+he soon freed himself from repeating the styles of the wares from
+which he obtained his methods, and produced a distinctive type
+of ornament of his own. He revelled in patterns with bold floral
+scrolls, or those based on peacocks&rsquo; feathers (see fig. 45), and
+then he advanced to concentric bands of painted ornament,
+borrowed from classic art yet breathing the true spirit of the
+Renaissance; while cable
+borders, chequer and
+scale patterns, bands of
+stiff radiating leaves,
+festoons of fruit and
+flowers, zigzags and
+pyramidal scrolls occupied
+nearly the whole
+surface or framed an
+armorial or emblematic
+central subject. Figure-subjects
+occur with increasing
+frequency as
+the century advanced;
+Madonnas and other
+sacred subjects, portraits,
+and, occasionally, groups
+of figures after the early
+Italian masters, or scenes
+borrowed from the first
+illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the
+conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface
+of the piece. The provenance of these 15th-century pieces still
+remains uncertain&mdash;Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other
+places offering rival claims,&mdash;but there is no doubt that from
+the earliest times
+Faenza was the
+most fertile centre
+of their manufacture,
+and almost all
+the motives of the
+<i>quattrocento</i> wares
+are found on fragments discovered there or on examples that
+can be traced to Faventine factories.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca
+della Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1399-1482), and his
+followers, Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members
+of the family, as belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than
+of pottery, and this is right, for there is nothing certainly known
+of the work of this great sculptor which connects it with painted
+majolica. The old theory that Luca invented the tin-glaze is
+long since exploded; what he did was to use coloured glazes
+made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly modelled terra-cottas&mdash;a
+very different thing,&mdash;and it is by no means certain
+that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert
+Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every
+kind; and one may see there these beautifully modelled figures
+in high relief covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a background
+of slatey blue or rich manganese purple and framed in
+wreaths of flowers and fruit which are coloured with blue, green,
+purple and sometimes yellow. There are altar vases too, of
+classic shape with low relief ornament, covered with the same
+peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with modelled
+fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of roundels
+painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months;
+but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method
+is not that of painted majolica.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable development took place at the beginning of
+the 16th century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest
+perfection of manipulative skill, both in potting and painting,
+was attained. Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed
+methods of painting then adopted are too much allied to fresco-painting
+to be considered as fit treatment for enamelled clay;
+but this view was certainly not accepted at the time, nor is it
+subscribed to by many modern collectors; yet, regarded as
+decorated pottery, the 15th-century majolica, simpler and more
+conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable.
+The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry
+under their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite
+view and spared no expense to provide subjects for their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span>
+pot-painters. During the first two decades the influence of Faenza
+was paramount, and though the encroachments of purely pictorial
+motives are clearly indicated on the wares, room was still found
+for ornamental patterns. The broad rims of the dishes were
+covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently including
+grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza
+Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.). Sometimes reserved in the
+white on a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and
+yellow, sometimes traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze
+(called <i>berettino</i>) or painted in darker tints on a ground of orange
+or full yellow, the Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous
+feature of the early wares of this century. Honeysuckle patterns
+and interlaced lines drawn in pure white on a toned tin-enamel
+(white on white or <i>sopra-bianco</i> decoration) commonly appear
+on the sides of the deep wells of the dishes, while in the centre
+is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a small figure-subject. A
+similar treatment, without the <i>sopra-bianco</i>, was accorded to the
+fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &amp;c., with moulded
+gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to
+Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also
+noted for delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a
+rich brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too,
+the &ldquo;grotesque&rdquo; decoration was practised with marked success.
+Other developments of this style are the &ldquo;<i>a candelieri</i>&rdquo; designs,
+in which grotesques were symmetrically arranged round some
+central subject, such as a candelabrum or vase, and &ldquo;<i>a trofei</i>&rdquo;
+in which trophies of arms, musical instruments, and other objects
+were symmetrically disposed, or arranged in studied disarray
+throughout the design; these patterns are generally associated
+with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers&rsquo; gifts,
+dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust
+of a girl or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective
+inscribed on a ribbon in the background, were common to
+Faenza, Castel Durante and many other factories. Elaborate
+figure-subjects also were attempted early in the century at
+Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a dish in
+the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of
+the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schöngauer,
+delicately painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500.</p>
+
+<p>In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are
+almost always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the
+grey-blue <i>berettino</i> ground, and blue was the prevailing colour
+of the shading and details. In the third decade of the century
+the style affected at Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The
+majolica painter&rsquo;s palette was now complete; in addition to the
+primitive blue, manganese-purple, transparent green and yellow,
+we find black, white, orange, greens of varying shades, brown,
+and a great number of intermediate tints obtained by mixing
+the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the best
+periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing,
+and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a
+thing as painting in enamels on the finished ware and refiring
+them at a lower heat was unknown before the end of the 17th
+or beginning of the 18th century. A true red colour seems to
+have been beyond the power of most of the Italian majolists,
+and was only attained at Faenza, and with less complete success
+at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery behaves
+very indifferently on tin-enamel.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:182px; height:160px" src="images/img734a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Urbino Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Urbino style, which now became
+general, the ware was given over
+entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes
+from history or romance, scriptural and
+mythological, copied from the compositions
+of the Italian painters and
+usually set in a background of Italian
+landscape. Guidobaldo II., duke of
+Urbino, spared no pains to develop this
+phase of the art; the cartoons of
+Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others, were placed
+at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the paintings of
+Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi,
+Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together
+with engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico
+and others, were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the
+majolica. Some of the painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli,
+were eclectic in their tastes and made up their subjects by taking
+a figure here or there from various pictures. Thus of three
+figures on a plate in the British Museum, painted with the Dream
+of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and another from
+Mantegna. These &ldquo;<i>istoriati</i>&rdquo; wares reached their zenith at
+Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops
+of the Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity
+was very general, and skilful painters at many other towns
+produced specimens that it is hard to distinguish from those of
+Urbino. Baldasara Manara was a prolific painter in this style
+at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel Durante were little behind Urbino
+in the skill of their artists, the Lanfranchi family in the former
+town having a well-deserved reputation, while the founders of
+the Fontana factories learnt their art in the latter; and a few
+pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini as their
+place of origin.</p>
+
+<p>There will always remain a large number of specimens of
+majolica which cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular
+factory, partly because the same style of painting was in
+vogue at many places at the same time, and partly because of
+the itinerant propensities of many of the painters, whose signed
+works prove that they moved from place to place to practise
+their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists whose
+touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear
+their signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion
+of the finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the
+founder of the Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante
+to Urbino in 1519, and worked at the latter place in the factory
+of his son, Guido Fontana. There is little doubt that he was
+the painter of the famous service in the Correr Museum at Venice,
+which marks the transition from the style of Faenza to that of
+Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces with strongly
+marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the careful
+landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily recognized
+in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the
+Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.). His pupil, who frequently signed
+his name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost
+Urbino painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring
+and fine figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish
+flesh tints. But Niccola&rsquo;s grandson, Orazio Fontana (see
+example, Plate VI.), was perhaps the most celebrated exponent
+of the pure Urbino style, and his free drawing and soft harmonious
+colouring, in which a brilliant blue is usually conspicuous,
+are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the period.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:197px; height:247px" src="images/img734b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Venetian Majolica<br />
+Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:85px; height:120px" src="images/img735a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Later Cafaggiolo<br />
+Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been
+noted. Those with the grey-blue (<i>berettino</i>) glaze were principally
+made at the factory called Casa Pirota,
+though inferior imitations were also
+produced at Padua, and a blue glaze
+of paler tint was largely used at
+Venice. Dolphins are a frequent
+motive in the arabesque ornaments
+of the same Faventine workshop, and
+many of the wares are marked with a
+circle divided by a cross and containing
+a dot in one of the quarters. A
+capital P crossed with a line or paraph
+is another Faventine mark, and a
+somewhat similar monogram, with an
+S added to the upper part, is found
+in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has
+already been stated that a red colour is peculiar to Faenza
+and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo; it was
+used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto
+in the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici
+family, many fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faventine
+style; a deep blue, heavily applied and showing the
+marks of the brush, was freely used in backgrounds, and
+delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and reminiscent of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see example,
+Plate VI). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the
+reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and
+Siena are richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric
+bands; those of Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or
+have one or two rings of yellow. A few pre-eminently
+beautiful dishes, with central figure subjects
+of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes
+with poplar trees in a peculiar mannered style,
+are probably the work of M. Benedetto of Siena.
+Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange
+ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps
+decorated by the same hand. The dishes covered,
+except for a few small medallions, with interlaced
+oak branches (&ldquo;<i>a cerquate</i>&rdquo; decoration), are no
+doubt the productions of Castel Durante; and a
+certain class of large dishes with figure subjects in blue on a
+toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal ornaments in relief,
+are of undisputed Venetian origin.</p>
+
+<p>Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle
+of the 16th century and synchronized with the decline of the
+pictorial style. The figure subjects were relegated to central
+panels or entirely replaced by small medallions, and the rest
+of the surface covered with fantastic figures among floral scrolls,
+inspired by Raphael&rsquo;s grotesques painted on the walls of the
+Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this ornament
+was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is always
+more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed
+over with a pure milk-white, known as <i>bianco di Ferrara</i> or
+<i>bianco allatato</i>, said to have been invented by Alphonso I., duke
+of Ferrara, who took an active interest in his private factory
+founded at Ferrara, and managed by potters from Faenza and
+Urbino.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:265px; height:105px" src="images/img735b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Turin<br />Potter&rsquo;s<br />mark.</td>
+<td class="caption">Savona Potter&rsquo;s marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara;
+at the first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi
+family, and lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica
+was now in full decline, partly through the falling off of princely
+patronage, and partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour
+of Chinese porcelain, which was becoming more plentiful and
+better known in Europe. The manufacture, however, never
+entirely ceased, and revivals of the old style were attempted at
+the end of the 17th century by Ferdinando Maria Campori of
+Siena, who copied Raphael&rsquo;s and Michelangelo&rsquo;s compositions,
+and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli.
+The majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the
+ware, good technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak
+colouring; it continued into the 18th century. A coarse and
+inferior ware was made at Padua and Monte Lupo; and the
+factories of Faenza were still active, producing, among other
+kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops and gadroons.
+The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the north.
+Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the
+17th century, and at Savona
+and Genoa blue painted ware
+in imitation of Chinese blue
+and white porcelain made
+its appearance. In the 18th
+century a new departure was
+made in the introduction of
+enamel painting over the
+glaze, a method borrowed
+from porcelain; but this process was common to all the faience
+factories of Europe at the time, and though it was widely
+practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any
+particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th
+century wares continue to be made in the factories of Ginori,
+Cantigalli and others, not excepting the lustred majolica of
+Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared with the old pieces, the
+modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in drawing, suspiciously
+wanting in the quality of the colours and the purity of the final
+glaze which distinguish the work of the best period.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:461px; height:463px" src="images/img735c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46&mdash;Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre only,
+made at Pesaro or Deruta, <i>c.</i> 1500. The motto on the scroll may be
+Englished as follows: &ldquo;He who steers well his ship will enter the
+harbour.&rdquo; (Louvre.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Lustred Wares.</i>&mdash;The lustred wares of Deruta have marked
+characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from
+the Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour
+of such a derivation. The most characteristic examples are
+large dishes and plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel
+on the upper face only, the back having a lead glaze. They are
+often decorated (see fig. 46) with a single figure or bust in the
+centre (with or without an inscribed ribbon), which is usually
+set against a dark blue background which covers only half the
+field, while in the other half is a formal flower, and in the borders
+are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with scale pattern,
+or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic, the
+designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a
+greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent <i>reflets</i> recalling
+mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this <i>madreperla</i> tint to
+a brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes
+modelled in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the
+Deruta lustred wares are scarcely older than the 16th century,
+and the style was continued as late as the second half of that
+century. Deruta pottery was not always lustred, and some of
+the pieces signed by the painter El Frate, who flourished between
+1541 and 1554, are without the lustre pigment, though showing
+the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares. The lustred
+majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the work
+of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from
+Pavia, with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained
+citizenship in 1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction
+of sculpture, and some of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia
+are still in existence; indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred
+majolica attributed to him is a plaque of 1501, with the figure
+of St Sebastian in relief, in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+It is not known whence he learnt the secret of the beautiful
+transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or rosy
+lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares,
+and no doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter
+and developed by Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden,
+yellow, brown and opalescent lustres were also freely used at
+Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly applied. Finished
+painted pieces were sent from other factories to receive the
+addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be
+distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre
+is an integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred
+enrichment, the majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities,
+for its styles were various and almost all borrowed (see fig 47).
+The archaic taste of Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+Faenza and Castel Durante, and in a lesser degree the &ldquo;<i>istoriato</i>&rdquo;
+style of Urbino, reigned in turn. Perhaps the most characteristic
+paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the central medallions of cups
+and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of a child or a cupid in
+<i>grisaille</i>. Giorgio&rsquo;s larger figure compositions, if indeed his
+signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted the
+designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising
+to a very high standard&mdash;as the dish with &ldquo;the Three Graces&rdquo;
+in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the &ldquo;Bath of Nymphs&rdquo;
+in the Wallace collection&mdash;while in others the figure drawing is
+quite inferior. The arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio
+wares are usually of great merit. There are a few known pieces
+of unlustred Gubbio wares with figure subjects, painted chiefly
+in blue and in the style of the early Faventine artists. After
+1517, when we may assume that the lustre process was thoroughly
+mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed with the initials
+or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly executed
+scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of the
+plates and dishes. The master&rsquo;s latest signed work is dated 1541,
+and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene
+assisted him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor
+of the lustre secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who
+signed his wares with the initial N, but this conjecture rests
+solely on the ingenious, but unsupported notion that N is a
+monogram of the first three letters of the name Vincentio.
+Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio plates, and the
+latest dated example of the ware is signed by one &ldquo;Mastro
+Prestino&rdquo; in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that it
+is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely
+disappear.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:404px" src="images/img736a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.&mdash;Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and blue outline.
+(Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:120px; height:113px" src="images/img736b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:338px; height:98px" src="images/img736c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Gubbio Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows:&mdash;among the earliest
+are small bowls (<i>scodette</i>), often with flattened sides; jugs (<i>boccali</i>)
+with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil form; large
+dishes with gradually shelving sides (<i>bacili</i>), or with flat broad rims
+and deep centres; akin to these are the plateaux with a raised flat
+disk in the centre; small dishes with broad flat rims and deep
+though narrow central walls (<i>tondini</i>), suitable for handing a wine-glass
+or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (<i>piatti</i> or <i>taglieri</i>);
+saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with moulded sides
+(<i>tazze</i> or <i>fruttieri</i>) suitable for holding fruit. Among the vase forms
+ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat handles are common
+in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars for confectionery,
+drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form with graceful concave
+sides known as the &ldquo;<i>albarello</i>,&rdquo; in shape of Eastern origin, and in
+name perhaps derived from the Persian <i>el barani</i> (a vase for drugs,
+&amp;c.); other vase forms with spouts and handles were used for the
+same purpose; ornamental vases after classical designs (<i>vasi a
+bronzi antichi</i>); and in the best Urbino period a great variety of
+fanciful forms&mdash;ewers, vases, cisterns, shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots,
+&amp;c., with applied masks and serpentine handles, were made in the
+exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece of furniture for the
+bedside of ladies in childbirth (<i>vaso puerperale</i>) consisted of a bowl
+with a foot surmounted by a flat trencher on which fitted an inverted
+drinking-bowl (<i>ongaresca</i>); and above this again a salt-cellar with
+cover. Many of these shapes were suited to daily use, but the richly
+decorated majolica was designed to adorn the walls, the <i>credenze</i>,
+table-centres and cabinets of the rich. This alone could have been
+the destination of the large dishes (<i>piatti di pompa</i>) with rim pieces
+for suspension, and the smaller dishes (<i>coppe amatorii</i>) with portraits
+of young men and girls and lovers&rsquo; symbols; and it is inconceivable
+that the costly lustred wares of Gubbio or the fine <i>madreperla</i> dishes
+of Deruta were designed for anything but decorative use. The ware
+was in fact an article produced for the wealthy in the century of
+Italy&rsquo;s glory, and under no other conditions could such magnificent
+and expensive pieces have been made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Technical Methods.</i>&mdash;This is a convenient place to give an account
+of the methods used by the early medieval potters&mdash;(1) because they
+represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th century,
+and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because,
+besides all that a potter could derive from an examination of the
+wares, we have ample written accounts of the methods and processes
+followed by the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published
+an epitome of the account given in Biringuccio&rsquo;s <i>La Pyrotechnica</i>
+(Venice, 1540), and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a
+potter of Castel Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and
+Albert Museum, which, besides giving an account of the processes,
+contains illustrations of kilns, mills, decorative motives, &amp;c.<a name="fa16b" id="fa16b" href="#ft16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p>1. The potter&rsquo;s clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds
+prepared by (a) beating and picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing
+with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic
+clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the
+potter&rsquo;s clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish,
+Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known geologically
+as &ldquo;marls,&rdquo; which contain a large percentage of carbonate
+of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and
+give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other
+kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see
+Deck&rsquo;s <i>La Faience</i>). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares
+are useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery
+bodies for such purposes.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Delia<br />Robbia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Majolica.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Delft.<br />Faience.</td> <td class="tccm allb">French</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silica</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alumina</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.59</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lime</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.01</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesia</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.82</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxide of iron</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.82</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Carbonic Acid, water, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.58</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.46</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.09</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.27</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>2. <i>Shaping.</i>&mdash;The vessels were either &ldquo;thrown&rdquo; on the potter&rsquo;s
+wheel  (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian
+times), or they were formed by &ldquo;pressing&rdquo; thin cakes of clay into
+moulds, made of a composition of plaster (<i>gesso</i>), bone-ash and
+marble dust. In the latter way all shapes that were not circular
+were made, as well as those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated
+from embossed metal forms. It is interesting, though not surprising,
+to note that for the fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when
+sufficiently dry, were recentred on the wheel or were placed in a
+joiner&rsquo;s lathe and smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The
+Greek potters did the same, and this practice must always be followed
+where fine painting or gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the
+later florid vases of the Urbino style the piece was built up of
+thrown parts and moulded parts (handles, masks, spouts, &amp;c.),
+luted together with slip when they were dry enough to be safely
+handled, and then retouched by the modeller or vase-maker, a
+method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of pottery or
+porcelain.</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 f90 sc">Plate V</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:170px; height:369px" src="images/img736d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:358px" src="images/img736e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Rhodian or Turkish:
+16th century.</td>
+<td class="caption">Syro-Persian:
+13th century.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:361px" src="images/img736f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:366px" src="images/img736g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"> Rhodian or Turkish:
+16th century.</td>
+<td class="caption"> Rhodian or Turkish:
+16th century.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:382px; height:370px" src="images/img736h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:371px; height:362px" src="images/img736i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Damascus: 16th century.</td>
+<td class="caption">Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Glaze.</i>&mdash;The white enamel which formed at first both the
+glaze and the ground for painting upon&mdash;<i>bianco</i>, as it was called&mdash;was
+prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (<i>marzacotto</i>)
+was made by melting together clean siliceous sand (<i>rena</i>) and the
+potash salt left as the lees of wine (<i>feccia</i>). This corresponds to
+the alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash
+for soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian
+potter, and accordingly the <i>bianco</i> was made by melting together
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+thirty parts of <i>marzacotto</i> and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes. The
+white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and
+potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin.</p>
+
+<p>4. Pigments (<i>colori</i>) were compounded from metallic oxides or
+earths; the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed
+with oxide of iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper
+(the turquoise tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide
+of copper is impossible with a glaze of lead and tin); and the greens
+were made by mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or
+oxide of iron; blue, from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue
+glass (<i>smalto</i>, or <i>zaffara</i>); brownish-purple, from manganese; black,
+from mixtures of the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish
+brown, of Faenza and Cafaggiolo was probably the same Armenian
+bole that was used so magnificently by the makers of the Turkish
+pottery, but on the white enamel ground this colour was most
+treacherous and uncertain. It must be remembered that many of
+these colours owe their tint to the lead used in their composition, or
+to the grounds containing oxides of lead and tin on which they were
+painted. Piccolpasso describes the preparation and composition of
+the various colours used in his day.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Coperta</i>, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin
+coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to give
+a smooth bright surface. This <i>coperta</i> was a soft lead glass consisting
+of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts; potash, 12 parts;
+and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then finely ground
+in water.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Methods of Glazing and Decorating.</i>&mdash;In the mezza-majolica and
+the early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in
+the white bath to give it an envelope (<i>invetriatura</i>) before it was fired
+at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much
+better to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and
+brittle as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel,
+by dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This
+was the practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel,
+the thickness of glove leather, having been obtained, the piece was
+carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the
+absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes,
+&amp;c., in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other
+colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second
+time to a heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted
+on the vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the
+same operation. This method of painting on the unbaked enamel
+demanded a bold direct treatment&mdash;for alteration or retouching
+was impossible&mdash;and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due
+to this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was
+felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface, and
+so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of <i>coperta</i> and
+fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother and
+more glossy.   Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs of
+pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The
+white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy
+surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could
+execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film
+of <i>coperta</i> was then washed over the painting, and the piece was
+fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances
+it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method
+has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally
+we should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been
+painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely
+certain when delicate white patterns have been &ldquo;picked out&rdquo; in
+a coloured ground.</p>
+
+<p>Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica
+it indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final
+firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those
+used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an
+otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were
+placed in a special kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just
+visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was
+allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films
+(silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze.<a name="fa17b" id="fa17b" href="#ft17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the
+most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at
+the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan
+collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection
+is valuable, being rich in &ldquo;signed&rdquo; pieces of the first quality. The
+Wallace collection and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum
+collection, &amp;c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable
+examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at
+Sèvres have fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be
+found in the Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum
+at Brunswick contains one of the largest collections known, but many
+inferior and doubtful examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St
+Petersburg have noteworthy collections. In Italy, the Bargello at
+Florence and the museums of Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, Pesaro,
+Urbino, Rome and Naples all have collections, whilst interesting
+examples of local manufactures are to be found in many of the
+smaller Italian towns. The American museums, especially those in
+New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine examples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;F. Argnani, <i>La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine</i>
+(Faenza, 1889 and 1903); D. Bonghi, <i>Intorno alle Majoliche di
+Castelli</i> (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, &ldquo;Siena,&rdquo; in the <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>, September 1900; Hensel, <i>Essai sur la majolique</i>
+(Paris, 1836); G.I. Montanari, <i>Majoliche dipinte nella collezione del
+N.S.C. Domenico Mazza</i> (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, <i>Di un insigna
+raccolta di majoliche</i> (Bologna, 1844); also <i>Di un pavimento in
+majolica</i> (Bologna, 1853); J.C. Robinson, <i>Italian Sculpture of the
+Middle Ages</i> (London, 1862); E. Darcel, <i>Musée du Louvre: Notice
+des faïences peintes</i>; Drury E. Fortnum, <i>Contribution to the History
+of Pottery</i> (London, 1868); Delange, <i>Recueil de faïences italiennes
+du XV^e au XVII^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, <i>Italienische
+Maiolika Fliesen</i> (Berlin); E. Molinier, <i>Les Majoliques italiennes en
+Italie</i> (Paris, 1883), also <i>La Céramique italienne au XV^e siècle</i> (Paris,
+1888); C. Piccolpasso, <i>I tre libri dell&rsquo; arte del Vasajo</i>, Castel Durante
+1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris, 1841 and
+1860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari, <i>Notizia
+della raccolta Correr</i> (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, <i>A Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum</i>
+(London, 1873); Beckwith, <i>Majolica and Faience</i> (New York, 1877);
+G. Corona, <i>La Ceramica</i> (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, <i>Istoria delle
+fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi</i> (Pesaro, 1879); A. Genolini,
+<i>Majoliche italiane</i> (Milan, 1881); Mely, <i>La Céramique italienne</i> (Paris,
+1884); J.E. Jacobsthal, <i>Süd-italienische Fliesen</i> (Berlin, 1886);
+Bertolotti, <i>Figulini, fonditori, e scultori</i> (Milan, 1890); H. Wallis,
+<i>Italian Ceramic Art</i> (1897), <i>The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic
+Art of the Italian Renaissance</i> (1900), <i>The Art of the Precursors</i> (1901),
+<i>The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century</i> (1902), <i>Oak-leaf
+Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware</i> (1903), <i>The Albarello</i> (1904),
+also <i>Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana</i> (1905), and <i>Italian Ceramic
+Art: Figure Designs</i> (1905); Tesorone, <i>L&rsquo;Antico Pavimento delle
+Logge di Raffaello in Vaticano</i> (Naples, 1891); Columba, <i>Il &ldquo;Quos
+Ego&rdquo; di Raffaello</i> (Palermo, 1895); Drury E. Fortnum, <i>Majolica</i>
+(London, 1896); also <i>Fortnum Collection in the Oxford Museum</i>
+(London, 1896); O. von Falke, <i>Majolika</i> (Berlin, 1896); also
+<i>Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italienischen Majoliken</i> (Leipzig,
+1899); Antaldi Santinelli, <i>Museo di Pesaro</i> (Pesaro, 1897); De
+Mauri, <i>L&rsquo;Amatore di Majolica</i> (Milan, 1898); E. Hannover, <i>De
+Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence</i> (Copenhagen,
+1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L. H.; W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">French Pottery from the 15th to the 19th Century</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here,
+for it was, in the main, similar to that which was made generally
+in Europe&mdash;rudely shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated
+with modelled ornament and glazed with yellow or brown lead
+glaze, or, if coated with white slip, decorated with bright green
+glazes, and towards the end of the 15th century with greyish
+blue. The later specimens of this simple ware&mdash;pronouncedly
+Gothic in feeling&mdash;were often extremely decorative. Avignon,
+Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly
+national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work,
+the reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumulates
+that from time to time the princes and great nobles imported
+Spanish or Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decoration
+of their palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought
+Jehan de Moustiers and Jehan-le-Voleur, &ldquo;<i>ouvriers en quarrieaux
+peints et jolis</i>,&rdquo; in 1391, to paint tiles for his palaces at
+Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we have already referred to
+the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at Poitiers by John of
+Valencia, the &ldquo;Saracen,&rdquo; in 1384 for Duke Jean de Berry.<a name="fa18b" id="fa18b" href="#ft18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
+Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign work
+left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at
+a later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia
+from Italy to decorate his &ldquo;Petit Château de Madrid&rdquo; in 1529,
+or when Masseot Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at
+Rouen the painted tile pavements for the château of Ecouen, the
+cathedral of Langres, and other places, nothing came of the
+imported methods; the works were executed and left no traces
+on the general pottery of the country. During the 16th century,
+however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France
+of distinctive quality, and both eminently French&mdash;the Henri-Deux
+ware and the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:326px; height:419px" src="images/img738a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48.&mdash;Tazza of Oiron pottery.
+(Louvre.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:212px; height:90px" src="images/img738b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Oiron Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Henri-Deux</i>, <i>Oiron</i> or <i>St Porchaire</i> ware, for all these names
+have in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery,
+specimens of which are now valued at more than their weight in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span>
+gold, was once believed to have been made by the librarian
+Bernard, and his assistant Charpentier, for their patroness
+Helène de Hangest about 1529 at her château at Oiron, near
+Thouars.<a name="fa19b" id="fa19b" href="#ft19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a> A few years ago this theory was discarded in favour
+of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of St
+Porchaire in the same region;<a name="fa20b" id="fa20b" href="#ft20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> but even of this theory there
+is insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the
+maker and the place of origin. All we know is that the ware
+dates from the reign of Henry II., and that it was probably made
+somewhere near Oiron,
+as most of the specimens
+have been found
+in that district. The
+work is <i>sui generis</i>,
+for it had no direct
+ancestry, neither did
+it leave any mark on
+contemporary French
+pottery. Sixty-five
+pieces of the ware (see
+fig. 48) are known to
+be in museums and
+private collections;
+the Louvre and the
+Victoria and Albert
+Museum have the best
+collections of their
+kinds, but the Rothschilds
+still hold the
+greater number of examples.
+The ware is
+fashioned in a simple
+whitish pipeclay, and
+ornamented with interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of
+the period, inlaid in yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The
+forms are generally graceful, but some examples are over-elaborate
+and overloaded with modelled ornament. The pieces
+were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas, ewers,
+holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been
+&ldquo;thrown&rdquo; and &ldquo;turned&rdquo; to a perfect shape, metal tools, such
+as were used by the bookbinders and casemakers of that day,
+were pressed into the clay, so as to form sunk cells of ornamental
+tooling. These cells were carefully filled with finely-prepared
+slips of other clays, that would burn yellow, buff or dark-brown;
+and when the whole was dry the piece was carefully smoothed
+again, and moulded reliefs were
+attached, or touches of colour were
+applied. After being fired the ware
+was glazed, apparently with the
+ordinary lead glaze of the time carefully
+prepared and fired again. At
+a later period the ornament was
+not inlaid in this elaborate manner, but was simply painted,
+as indeed it might all have been so far as decorative effect is
+concerned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palissy Ware.</i>&mdash;Bernard Palissy was a genius of original
+talent, but, at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained
+a legendary rank as one of the great potters of the world which
+his pottery does not warrant. He is supposed to have spent
+sixteen years in the search for the white enamel which was being
+used all the time in Italy and Spain&mdash;probably he was searching
+for the mystery of Chinese porcelain&mdash;and when he settled down
+to make the &ldquo;Palissy ware,&rdquo; he did nothing more than carry to
+perfection the methods of the village pot-makers of his own
+district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed groups of moulded
+plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with crude green,
+brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a well-prepared
+lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators,
+like A. Cléricy and B. de Blémont, who executed works quite as
+good as those of their master; but their works also vanished and
+left no permanent impression on the general trend of French
+pottery.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed
+over the French border and attempted to introduce the manufacture
+of their tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works
+of Gambin and Tardessir of Faenza, established at Lyons about
+1556; of Sigalon at Nîmes in 1548; of Jehan Ferro at Nantes
+about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed impetus
+came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague,
+became duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists,
+working under princely patronage, planting their decadent art
+in the centre of France. The first efforts met with little success
+until, with the appearance of the Conrades from Savona, who
+were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get the genuine ware of
+Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of the Conrades
+or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased
+majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder,
+the colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited.
+The first departure from Italian traditions is seen in the ware
+of the so-called &ldquo;Persian style&rdquo; of Nevers&mdash;probably adopted
+from contemporary work in Limoges enamels on metal&mdash;where
+conventional and fanciful designs of flowers and foliage, birds,
+animals or figures were thickly raised in white enamel on a
+ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the middle
+of the 17th century the Italian style of design appears to have
+been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in
+blue or in polychrome, but really imitated from the &ldquo;Delft&rdquo;
+copies of Chinese and Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and
+Moustiers became famous for their distinctive wares Nevers
+copied their designs also, and on a gradually descending scale
+the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th century, when
+France was flooded with the rude <i>Faiences patriotiques</i> from
+this centre.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:473px" src="images/img738c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.&mdash;Dish of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in blues and
+deep red.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:104px" src="images/img739.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Nevers Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces
+of Italian influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the
+famous Poterats in the later part of the 17th century. A new
+scheme of ornamentation was gradually evolved in the daintily-designed
+scalloped and radiating patterns adapted from oriental
+fabrics, lace and needlework, and from the ornamental devices
+of contemporary printers. These designs, having been skilfully
+drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue, strong yellow,
+light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief, applied as
+flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and sparkling
+ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian
+majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that
+rival factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span>
+Quimper, Lille, and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and
+Lille made fine pottery of this class at the end of the 17th and
+in the early 18th century. It was imitated at Nevers, the
+potters&rsquo; marks shown being those of J. Bourdu and H. Borne.
+In the south of France, Pierre Clérissy established the industry
+at Moustiers in 1686, and, though the early Moustiers ware bears a
+strong resemblance to the debased Italian majolica of the time,
+the Moustiers painters soon left that
+behind, and on a glaze of inimitable whiteness and softness they
+deftly pencilled blue patterns based on the engravings of designs
+after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a later date Olerys, who had
+been to Alcora to introduce the French faience into Spain,
+returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale polychrome style
+very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are covered with
+patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale green
+and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the
+grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of
+Callot. Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as
+those at Apt, Ardus and Montauban, and even at Narbonne,
+Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just as the northern factories
+had sprung from Rouen.</p>
+
+<p>We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns
+in the Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly
+followed at all the French factories during the 18th century.
+At Strassburg a fresh impetus was given in this direction when,
+about 1721, Charles Hannong introduced the practice of painting
+his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze colours used by
+the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French potter
+to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and
+moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the
+coveted porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe.
+This new departure marks the end of the best period of French
+faience, but so successfully did it meet the demands of the time
+that it gradually displaced the old method of decoration where
+the colours were painted on the raw glaze and fired along with
+it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new ware
+in the first half of the 18th century at Niederviller, Lunéville and
+Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at
+Rouen, Sinceny, Marseilles, &amp;c. With its general adoption the
+old French faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed,
+to make way for a tin-enamelled imitation of <i>famille-rose</i>
+porcelain. But this last style was not of long life. The wealthy
+classes were no longer patrons of pottery but of porcelain, and
+when, after 1786, the newly perfected English earthenware was
+thrown upon the French market, the French faience-makers had
+to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of this neater
+and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery.
+This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary
+times, brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we
+shall treat of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a
+subsequent section.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British
+Museum contain typical examples; but not such collections as are
+to be seen in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sèvres,
+or the French provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles,
+Lille, St Omer, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Deck, <i>La Faience</i> (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and
+Garnier, <i>French Pottery</i> (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks,
+1884); Le Breton, <i>Le Musée céramique de Rouen</i> (Rouen, 1883);
+Milet, (?) <i>Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen</i> (Rouen,
+1898); Pottier, <i>Histoire de la faience de Rouen</i> (Amiens, 1870);
+L&rsquo;Abbé H. Requin, <i>Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers</i>,
+tome I^er (Paris, 1903); M.L. Solon, <i>The Old French Faience</i>
+(London, 1903)&mdash;the best survey of the whole subject, with a very
+full bibliography. The various volumes of the <i>Gazette des beaux-arts</i>
+contain many valuable original articles.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">German, Dutch and Scandinavian Pottery</p>
+
+<p>In northern Europe until the time of the Renaissance the
+making of tiles is the only branch of the potter&rsquo;s craft of artistic
+rank. The pavement tiles of Germany of the Gothic period,
+examples of which have been found in the valley of the Rhine
+from Constance to Cologne, often bear designs of foliage or
+grotesque animals full of character and spirit. Their decoration
+is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood or clay, or
+by &ldquo;pressing&rdquo; the tile in a mould to produce a design in relief.
+The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze&mdash;green,
+brown or yellow&mdash;but is generally left unglazed.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as
+the 14th century for the construction of stoves, such as have
+continued in use in Germany to the present day. About 1500 a
+development took place in the combination of glazes of different
+colours on a single tile. In the middle of the 16th century
+Renaissance ornament appears in place of Gothic canopies and
+tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used in combination
+with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the
+costume of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches
+are a favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares
+of similar technique known as <i>Hafnergefässe</i>, which have been
+wrongly attributed to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were
+made not only in that city but also in Silesia and at Salzburg,
+Steyr, and elsewhere in Upper Austria; their manufacture
+continued into the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on
+a white enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany
+about 1525, and it is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel
+should really be associated. The same style survived for more
+than a century and a half in the stoves and pottery made by the
+Pfau family at Winterthur in Switzerland, from the end of the
+16th century onwards. An interesting development is exhibited
+by certain rare productions, of Silesian origin, dating from about
+1550, with decorations in coloured enamels which are prevented
+from flowing together by a strong outline incised in the clay.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stoneware</i>.&mdash;The most important feature of the history of
+German pottery is the development of stoneware along the
+valley of the Rhine. This ware is of a highly refractory white
+or grey body of intense hardness, glazed by the introduction of
+salt into the kiln when the highest temperature was reached. It
+was exported in large quantities through the markets of Cologne
+and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England, France and other parts
+of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in its decoration
+of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the German
+potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at
+Siegburg near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to
+the neighbourhood, made from local clay, must have been made
+and exported in considerable quantities at least as early as the
+15th century; plain beer-jugs of that date with cylindrical neck
+and slightly swelling body have been unearthed in London and
+the eastern counties of England. In the 16th century an artistic
+development took place, and the potters were formed into an
+exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture
+lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent
+attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a
+creamy white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely
+coloured by staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression
+with small stamps or by the application of reliefs pressed from
+separate moulds. The motives include sacred and classical
+figure subjects, portraits of contemporary sovereigns, and
+armorial bearings, with accessory foliage in which a survival
+of Gothic feeling is often perceptible. Characteristic forms are
+the high tankard (<i>Schnelle</i>) and the ewer with long spout (<i>Schnabelkrug</i>),
+but the fancy of the potter also found expression in
+various quaint or extravagant forms.</p>
+
+<p>At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained
+importance about 1550, and was continued for over seventy
+years; 1539 is the earliest date known to occur on this ware.
+The pieces were of two kinds, brown-glazed and grey; the latter
+usually decorated with blue. The favourite form is a baluster-shaped
+jug with heraldic designs or a frieze of figures round the
+middle. The subjects are from Scripture history or contemporary
+peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham and the
+German and French &ldquo;Little Masters.&rdquo; Examples are known
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span>
+bearing dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among
+them Ian Emens and Baldem Mennicken; but it must not
+always be inferred that a piece is as old as the date introduced
+in its decoration, for the same set of moulds might be used for
+many years.</p>
+
+<p>Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen
+near Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as <i>Bartmänner</i>, from
+the bearded mask applied in front of the neck, covered with
+a brown glaze, which in later examples is often coagulated
+into thick spots, were first made here towards the end of the
+15th century, and continued to be the staple product well into
+the 17th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards or
+Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England,
+Scandinavia and the Low Countries, were mostly made here.
+At Cologne itself there were also factories, probably before
+the 16th century, the later productions of which resemble
+those of Frechen.</p>
+
+<p>During the 17th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware
+centre was the district surrounding Höhr-Grenzhausen in Nassau
+known as the Kannebäckerländchen, where artistic ware was
+being made before 1600. Soon after that date manganese
+purple was first used in the decoration in addition to cobalt
+blue, and henceforward colour in combination with impressed
+and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede
+decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes,
+foliage on wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels
+of large size and fantastic shape appear beside the standard
+forms of the earlier factories. In the 18th century the forms
+of beer-vessels became stereotyped in the globular jug with
+cylindrical neck and the cylindrical tankard, while tea and
+coffee pots, inkstands and other vessels, hitherto unknown,
+began to be made. A stoneware manufacture dating back
+to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria. The
+productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries
+consist of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red
+body, covered with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently
+painted after the first firing in brilliant enamel colours with
+figures of the Apostles, the electors of the Empire, or other
+oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the wares of Raeren and
+Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi; other
+minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near
+Cologne and Bunzlau in Silesia.</p>
+
+<p>As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain
+Delft potters) and in Germany, attempts were made with
+some success, early in the 18th century, to imitate the Chinese
+red stoneware, known as <i>boccaros</i>. The early efforts of Böttger,
+the discoverer of the secret of true porcelain, at Meissen, belong
+to this category. His red ware is of such hardness that it was
+cut and polished on the lapidary&rsquo;s wheel. For some time after
+the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed
+brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration
+was made at Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories
+of this class cannot now be identified.</p>
+
+<p>Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery,
+such as the bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical
+devices modelled in relief and applied. Slip-covered wares
+with <i>graffiato</i> decoration, apparently of indigenous growth
+and not inspired by foreign examples, were made well on into
+the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in Germany, at
+Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in Pennsylvania.
+In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made
+in the 18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling
+the Dutch carved woodwork of the period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delft.</i>&mdash;One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history
+of pottery is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed
+state, of the manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at
+Delft. It was introduced in that town by Herman Pietersz
+of Haarlem, but whence he learned his art is unknown. The
+faience-makers (<i>plateelbackers</i>) were one of the eight crafts of
+Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 1611. About
+1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years
+of the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more
+serviceable wares of the English potteries, Delft remained
+the most important centre of ceramic industry in northern
+Europe. The ware is of fine buff-coloured clay, dipped after
+the first firing in a white tin-enamel, which formed the ground
+for painted decoration; after painting, this was covered with
+a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that in its
+technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian
+majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly
+ranked among the greatest achievements of the potter&rsquo;s art.</p>
+
+<p>Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in
+blue monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular
+life in the style of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of
+the oriental porcelain imported by the Dutch East India Company
+were introduced about 1650 by Aelbregt de Keizer and continued
+for some time among the finest productions. At the
+same time the earlier tradition was developed in the finely
+painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and
+Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were
+Lambartus van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the
+large reeded vases with Chinese floral designs in polychrome,
+Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale;
+to the last are attributed the pieces with yellow decoration on
+an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples with polychrome
+decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese
+lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker. With the 18th
+century came a largely increased demand and a consequent
+deterioration in artistic quality. The rise of the German porcelain
+factories had its effect in the introduction of overglaze
+painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified by the work of the Dextras,
+father and son. This innovation, by which the Delft potters
+attempted to compete with European porcelain, contributed
+to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch required
+for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but
+not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory
+(the rose, the peacock, the three bells, &amp;c.), or the name or initials
+of its proprietor.</p>
+
+<p>A small faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff
+about 1755 at Arnhem; its productions were of good quality,
+chiefly in the rococo style, marked with a cock.</p>
+
+<p>The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned
+the rise of numerous factories in that country for making
+faience in imitation of the Dutch. Among these may be named
+Hanau (founded about 1670), Frankfort and Cassel. Others,
+such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their inspiration from the
+productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (<i>q.v.</i>). At Nuremberg
+a factory was founded in 1712, which was but little affected
+by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions
+are dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs
+with long necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted.
+Similar wares were made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French
+styles were carried by German potters into Scandinavia; factories
+were established at Copenhagen in 1722, at Rörstrand
+and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1728 and 1758, and at Herrebĝe
+in Norway about 1759.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported
+English earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops
+were established for painting the English cream-coloured ware
+with subjects suited to the Dutch taste; and in Germany
+cream-coloured wares and <i>steingut</i> in imitation of Wedgwood&rsquo;s
+productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau and elsewhere.
+The &ldquo;Delft&rdquo; ware of Holland during the 17th century
+was a beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters
+caught successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value,
+of Chinese blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over
+the whole of Europe, and its styles were readily imitated by
+the potters of all other countries who made a similar ware.
+Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so beautiful as
+the &ldquo;blue and white,&rdquo; is strongly decorative, and one sees in the
+polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more
+than a trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted
+by English earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that
+was technically superior displacing a more artistic product.</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 f90 sc">Plate VI.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:362px" src="images/img740a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:362px" src="images/img740b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Calaggiolo: 16th century.</td>
+<td class="caption">Faenza. Casa Pirota, 1525.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:253px; height:476px" src="images/img740c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Urbino. Decorated by Orario Fontana.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:362px; height:363px" src="images/img740d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:361px; height:361px" src="images/img740e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Urbino. 1525 (?). A plate of the famous Gonzaga Este service.</td>
+<td class="caption">Faenza: early 15th century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;For German wares the German museums are naturally
+best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid
+collections of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany.
+Cologne has a wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and
+Berlin and Hamburg have good general collections. Copenhagen
+and Stockholm are especially good for Scandinavian wares, and
+Zürich for Swiss. There are also good collections of German stoneware
+in the Victoria and Albert and the British museums, and in the
+Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum at Sèvres; but there
+are no notable collections of the German tin-enamelled wares out
+of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best studied in the
+museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an interesting
+collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchère in Delft. The
+principal museums in England, France and Germany all have fair
+to good collections of this renowned ware.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, <i>Geschichte
+der europäischen Fliesen-Keramik</i> (Strassburg, 1900; chapters
+on the Netherlands and Germany); Walcher von Molthein, <i>Bunte
+Hafnerkeramik der Renaissance in Österreich ob der Enns und Salzburg</i>
+(Vienna, 1906); Hafner, <i>Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Öfen
+in Winterthur</i> (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, <i>Tulip-ware of the
+Pennsylvania German Potters</i> (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware,
+see Solon, <i>The Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Germany</i>
+(London, 1892); Van Bastelaer, <i>Les Grès wallons</i> (Mons,
+1885). For Böttger&rsquo;s red ware, see Berling, <i>Das Meissner Porzellan</i>
+(Leipzig, 1900), chap. iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, <i>Histoire
+de la faïence de Delft</i> (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on
+&ldquo;La Faïence d&rsquo;Arnhem&rdquo; in <i>Gazette des beaux-arts</i>, 2nd series,
+vol. xx. (1879). For German faience, see von Falke, <i>Majolika</i>
+(Berlin, 1896), and articles by Stieda, &ldquo;Deutsche Fayencefabriken
+des 18. Jahrhunderts,&rdquo; in <i>Keramische Monatshefte</i>, vols. ii. and iii.
+For Scandinavian pottery, see Nyrop, <i>Danske Fajence og Porcellainsmaerker</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1881); Strċle, <i>Rörstrand et Marieberg</i> (Stockholm,
+1872); Grosch, <i>Herrebĝe-Fayencer</i> (Christiania, 1901). Excellent
+accounts of most branches of the subjects are given by
+Brinckmann, <i>Das hamburgische Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe</i>
+(Hamburg, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(B. Ra.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Later Wares of Spain and Portugal</p>
+
+<p>We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds
+of pottery that have exerted real influence on the historical
+development of the art. Offshoots from the main stem that have
+developed little or no individuality can only be briefly mentioned.
+When the characteristic Spanish-Moorish lustre wares ceased
+to be desired by the wealthy they rapidly sank into insignificance,
+though as a decorative peasant pottery their manufacture never
+really ceased and has been revived again in our day. The course
+of pottery importation was changed and the now fashionable
+Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and
+17th centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the
+opposite course two centuries earlier. Besides the influence
+which these imported wares had on the Spanish potters, a number
+of wandering Italian majolists found their way into Spain, so
+that we find the use of painted colour, particularly blue, yellow,
+orange, green and purple, making its appearance at various
+centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville, &amp;c., but the
+most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of
+the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian
+majolica of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain designs,
+probably filtered through to the Spanish potters by the
+then popular enamelled Delft wares, is very apparent. The
+potteries of Talavera are mentioned as early as 1560, and they
+continued at work, with varying fortunes, down to the end of
+the 18th century. Many and varied wares were produced, including
+tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery
+pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, <i>tinajas</i>, holy-water vessels, drug-pots,
+and hanging flower vases, together with moulded and painted
+snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind
+of fruit. Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of
+ornament also rendered the ware much inferior to that of Italy
+or of France. The popular Talavera wares were imitated elsewhere
+in Spain, and a number of factories existed at Toledo in
+the 17th century, but their wares are very inferior. In the 18th
+century, besides debased imitations of this ware, some coarse
+but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo near
+Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be
+found in the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from
+the early 17th century. It is said that Spanish potters were
+settled at this place by the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the
+making of a debased form of Spanish majolica continued there
+for nearly two centuries. See Barber&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tin-Enamelled Pottery,&rdquo;
+<i>Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum</i>, 1907. During the 18th
+century determined efforts were made by King Charles III. and
+by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery
+wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain.
+The efforts of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain
+works at Buen Retiro near Madrid, which will be mentioned later,
+and considerable success also attended the revival of strong
+copper lustre, like that of the late Hispano-Moresque wares;
+but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those made at Alcora
+in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726,
+which continued in operation down to the French wars. For
+his purposes the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the
+famous French pottery centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a
+well-known pot-painter. He went to Alcora as chief draughtsman
+and designer, having charge of a number of Spanish potters
+and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of decoration,
+and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best period
+recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to add
+that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow
+and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to
+France in 1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he
+introduced this new style of delicate polychrome decoration at
+Moustiers. The mixture of motives and ideas that animated the
+duke and his potters may be seen by the following list of wares
+produced about 1750. Vases of different shapes; small teapots;
+teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and covers, Dutch
+fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entrée dishes; salt-cellars, Chinese
+style; <i>escudillas</i> (bowls) of Constantinople; <i>barquillos</i> (sauce-bowls),
+Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of different
+kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work,
+and finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and
+refrigerators. Later in the century the manufacture of
+porcelain was introduced here, as well as white earthenware
+made in imitation of the productions of Wedgwood, and the
+tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also practised
+in Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times;
+but the ware never attained to any distinction and is little known
+outside that country. The best-known specimens were made at
+Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory was founded in 1767 under
+the patronage of the court.</p>
+
+<p>Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain
+and Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots,
+and other domestic utensils are still made in these countries for
+ordinary domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of
+the most primitive kind. Many of these vessels, especially the
+<i>tinajas</i> (wine-jars) and water-coolers, are based on ancient,
+classical or Arab forms, and in every country market-place it is
+still common to see groups of vessels, in unglazed pottery of fine
+shape and finish, exposed for sale&mdash;a very different state of
+things from what obtains in France, Germany, and particularly
+in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are being
+imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to
+the 18th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known
+as <i>buccaros</i> was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal.
+The body of the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, according
+to the special kind of clay. The curious point about this
+ware is that, if we may believe contemporary documents, the
+vessels were delicately scented, like a ware imported from Mexico;
+and the soft vessels are said to have been eaten&mdash;a custom
+common enough in certain parts of Central and Southern America.
+(See M.L. Solon, <i>The Noble Buccaros</i>, 1896.)</p>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">English Pottery from the 16th to the 18th Century<a name="fa21b" id="fa21b" href="#ft21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:303px" src="images/img742a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50.&mdash;Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are shown.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:213px" src="images/img742b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.&mdash;Common forms of medieval
+pottery; the upper part of the slender
+jug is covered with a green vitreous lead
+glaze; the other is unglazed with stripes
+of red ochre.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The course of pottery manufacture in England followed,
+generally rather in the rear, that of France, Germany and other
+northern countries. Before the coming of the Romans much
+pottery of the late Stone age and the Bronze age was made in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span>
+Britain. The Romans introduced their more advanced technique,
+and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery, they founded
+numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch,
+Castor, Uriconium, &amp;c. With the departure of the Roman
+legions their simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery
+vanished, and Saxon and early Norman times have left us little
+but wares resembling those of the Germanic and Frankish productions
+(fig. 50). The early middle ages passed without much
+improvement, and, though rare specimens&mdash;like the ewer in
+the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum&mdash;proved
+that glazed wares were made in this country, the general run
+of our medieval pottery vessels never soared above the skill of
+the travelling brick or tile maker.<a name="fa22b" id="fa22b" href="#ft22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> The monastic tile-makers,
+with their strong, Gothic tile pavements, produced artistic
+work of a very high order; but the patrons of the common
+potter remained content with his rudely made and simply
+glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even
+in the 16th century the excellence of English pewter probably
+acted as a barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it
+was only the importation of foreign wares&mdash;Italian, German,
+Dutch and French&mdash;that stirred up our native clay-workers
+to the possibilities of their art. In early Tudor times there
+was some importation of Italian majolica as well as of the
+Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the
+constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to
+the eastern counties not
+only the stonewares of
+the Rhineland and the
+&ldquo;Delft&rdquo; wares of Holland,
+but also emigrant
+potters from those
+countries who tried to
+practise their native
+crafts amongst us. The
+Civil War appears to
+have been unable to
+check this new spirit, for
+we have the evidence of
+dated examples to show
+that various immigrants
+went on quietly practising
+their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the outskirts
+of London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent
+as well. It seems probable that the earliest influence was an
+Italian one, but before this was firmly domiciled it was supplanted
+by that of the Dutch and Germans. The first wares of
+an improved kind that were made in England are so closely related
+to the German stonewares and the &ldquo;Delft&rdquo; wares that it
+is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of
+English or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the
+greatest, of English potters was John Dwight, an educated man,
+who had held the office of secretary to three successive bishops
+of Chester, and who obtained a patent in 1671 for the manufacture
+of certain improved kinds of pottery. We have no
+knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the potter&rsquo;s art,
+for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan
+(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign
+potters had settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory
+at Fulham, where he resided till his death in 1703. He was
+always an eager experimenter, and from his diaries it seems
+certain that he was searching after the, then, mysterious Chinese
+porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he ever attained
+success in this search, for his known productions may
+be grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stoneware&mdash;mostly
+small vessels, teapots, mugs, &amp;c., in imitation of
+the Chinese buccaros.<a name="fa23b" id="fa23b" href="#ft23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a> (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed
+stoneware made in imitation of, and often not to be distinguished
+from, the wares of the Rhineland. But Dwight produced a
+considerable number of modelled portrait-busts, statuettes,
+&amp;c., all in stoneware of various tints, which entitle him to a
+place in the very first rank of potters. The portrait-bust of
+Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of Meleager
+(British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &amp;c., are worthy of a
+sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy
+of Lydia Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the
+most beautiful works ever executed by an English potter.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style
+of &ldquo;Delft,&rdquo; was prosecuted with increasing industry in London
+on the south side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth.
+By the end of the 17th century the same imitation &ldquo;Delft&rdquo;
+wares were made at Bristol and Liverpool, continuing until, in
+the closing years of the 18th century, tin-enamelled earthenware
+was abandoned in favour of the perfected English cream-colour.
+There is a strong family likeness in all this English &ldquo;Delft,&rdquo;
+whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body of
+the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares
+of the continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose,
+as it is generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually
+painted in cobalt blue of good tone, though inferior in softness
+and richness of tint to that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome
+painting was not so common, and it differs from that of the
+Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a pale yellow colour and
+the general absence of any good red like that found on the polychrome
+wares of Delft, Rouen, Sic.</p>
+
+<p>German stoneware also received a well-merited share of attention
+long before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible
+to distinguish the grey and brown ale-jugs, greybeards, &amp;c.,
+presumably of English manufacture in the 17th and early 18th
+centuries, from their German prototypes. Fulham remained an
+important centre of this manufacture, and a fine brown stoneware
+was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700; in each
+case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to
+this day.</p>
+
+<p>The development of a native English pottery took place in
+North Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters,
+who manufactured some strongly decorative English wares
+by very simple means, was established here from the middle of
+the 17th century. Rudely fashioned dishes, jugs, bottles, &amp;c.,
+were shaped in the local red-burning brick clays, and, while the
+pieces were still soft, simple but effective decorative patterns
+were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip), trailed on
+through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient
+and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic
+Egyptian, the Roman and the Byzantine potters) has furnished
+the peasant potters of every European country with characteristic
+wares, but nowhere was it used with greater skill than in
+England. The English slip-decorated wares are often spoken
+of as &ldquo;Toft ware,&rdquo; because Thomas Toft, living in what is now
+Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his
+pieces (1670, &amp;c.); but similar wares were made at Wrotham
+in Kent, in Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span>
+the Staffordshire district must have spread by the time of
+the Revolution, for soon after 1690 John Philip Elers, a
+Dutchman of good family, settled there and began to make a
+superior pottery to any previously made in the district. Elers
+is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds
+of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known
+to have made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite
+recently, records of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers
+and some other Staffordshire potters with suborning his workmen
+and infringing his patents have been brought to light. It
+is certain that, from the time of Elers, the Staffordshire potters
+made great advances in the fabrication of their wares, and during
+the 18th century they evolved two distinctively English kinds of
+pottery, (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English earthenware.</p>
+
+<p><i>Staffordshire Salt-glaze.</i>&mdash;It is uncertain when and how the
+Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could
+be glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height
+of the firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland
+more than a century before. Many writers have maintained
+that the practice was introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain.
+Early in the 18th century a fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware
+was made in Staffordshire, in many quaint and fanciful forms
+largely influenced by Chinese porcelain&mdash;still an object of wonder
+and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies, plates, dishes,
+bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great variety,
+and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a
+brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time,
+a distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent
+and to the American colonies.</p>
+
+<p><i>English Earthenware.</i>&mdash;The manufacture of tin-enamelled
+pottery scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the
+invention of the white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one
+of the greatest revolutions in the potter&rsquo;s art that the world
+has ever seen. This was nothing less than the abandonment of
+the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of white slip or of
+tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white throughout its
+substance, prepared by mixing selected white-burning clays
+and finely-ground flint (silica).<a name="fa24b" id="fa24b" href="#ft24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The change has generally been
+associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters,
+but he really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the
+Warburtons, Turners and others, the work of half a century&rsquo;s
+experiment and discovery. The ware compared most favourably,
+from the point of view of serviceableness, neatness and
+mechanical finish, with all that had gone before it, and as the tin-enamelled
+wares had almost everywhere in Europe sunk to the
+position of domestic crockery&mdash;for the Chinese, German, French
+and English porcelains had displaced it with the wealthy&mdash;this
+better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its final
+death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be
+met with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from
+Cadiz to Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the
+continental nations soon began a similar manufacture for themselves.
+Everywhere this great change was encouraged by the
+growing fondness for mechanical perfection, and it is not without
+a sigh that a lover of pottery can witness the gradual disappearance
+of the painted tin-enamelled wares&mdash;degenerate
+survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French faience
+and Dutch &ldquo;Delft&rdquo;&mdash;before the unconquerable advance of
+another form of pottery which in its inception was based on
+technical rather than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a
+century passed before the new material was turned to artistic
+account.</p>
+
+<p>By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been
+pre-eminently associated with this great change, and with good
+reason, for though he had many contemporaries who equalled
+or even excelled him in certain kinds of pottery, no other potter
+ever approached him in the range of his products and the varied
+applications to which he turned the exercise of his remarkable
+talents.<a name="fa25b" id="fa25b" href="#ft25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a> True, he soon abandoned the simple Staffordshire
+wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to which the
+names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the
+varied productions of his factory united the best work of a
+district fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial
+to Wedgwood himself. Thus he adopted and improved the
+green and yellow glazes which had come down from medieval
+times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate X.), and gave a
+new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert services,
+candlesticks, &amp;c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-fired
+red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &amp;c.,
+introduced by Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he
+invented drab, grey, brown and other colours in similarly hard-fired
+unglazed bodies. He neither invented nor alone perfected
+the Staffordshire cream-coloured earthenware, but he made it
+so well that his &ldquo;Queen&rsquo;s ware&rdquo; was the best of its class. He
+undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on grounds of
+unglazed blue, green, black, &amp;c., white figures and ornamental
+motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and
+other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to reproduce
+the painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours
+painted over a hard black body.</p>
+
+<p>Wedgwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Jasper ware,&rdquo; his most original production
+(see Plate X.), differed both in nature and composition from all
+the species of pottery that had preceded it. In an attempt to
+obtain the qualities of the finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood
+discovered, after years of experiment, that by mixing together
+a plastic white clay and &ldquo;cawk&rdquo; or barytes he could obtain a
+&ldquo;body&rdquo; which might be &ldquo;thrown&rdquo; on the wheel or &ldquo;pressed&rdquo;
+in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and sub-translucent
+pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual metallic
+oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and black.
+The ware resembled &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; porcelain in that it needed no
+glaze to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the
+culmination of those &ldquo;dry&rdquo; or unglazed wares that had been so
+largely made in China, Japan and Europe, where the quality
+resides in the fired clay material without any adventitious aid
+from a glaze. The general practice was to make the body of
+the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this with
+applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in &ldquo;white&rdquo; of the same
+kind, &ldquo;pressed&rdquo; from intaglio moulds and then applied by wetting
+the surface and squeezing&mdash;leaving the fire to unite the
+vessel and its applied ornament into one piece. Sometimes the
+ornament was in a coloured clay applied on a white body, and
+we get in the same way black on red, buff on red or black, and
+red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety of bodies
+produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is exceedingly
+great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of
+their application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases,
+plates, dishes, jardinières, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers,
+inkstands, scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every
+kind of thing that could be made in clay. Many of the applied
+designs, whether of figures or ornament, were very beautiful in
+a way, being copied or adapted from Greek and Roman gems,
+vases, &amp;c. At their best they are marvellous for the precision and
+delicacy of their execution, and it is impossible to imagine that
+anything better could have been done in this style. So perfectly
+did they represent the taste of their period that attempts
+were made at Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce
+something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can
+be compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great contemporary
+Turner (see Plate X.), in beauty of colour or perfection
+of workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired
+by mistaken motives; that it was founded on an imperfect
+view of ancient art; and that it was marred by its mechanical
+ideals; but it must be remembered that it was in perfect harmony
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span>
+with the spirit of the times, and that while it emphasizes for us
+the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th century, it marks an
+advance in the technical skill of the potter, which is simply
+astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone
+further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally
+supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances
+were introduced for the performance of many portions of the
+potter&rsquo;s work that had hitherto been indifferently performed
+by rude and exhausting manual toil; and while the application
+of mechanism was pushed too far&mdash;so that in the first half of the
+19th century we find the most inartistic pottery the world has
+ever seen&mdash;we must regard this even more as a cyclic movement
+of human feeling than as the work of any individual, or group
+of men. The late 18th century marks the period when pottery
+was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux
+ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen,
+Moustiers, Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the
+wealthy, but when it was largely in demand by the poorer classes,
+anxious in their turn to have a useful ware which should imitate
+the more costly porcelain used by the great. France, Germany,
+Sweden, Russia, and later the United States, all followed in the
+wake of the English potters, and the printing-press was applied
+in all countries to produce elaborate engraved patterns in blue,
+brown, green, &amp;c., in order to get an effective-looking ware in
+harmony with the spirit of the times, and at the same time
+cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the
+vanquished tin-enamel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums
+naturally contain the most representative collections of English
+pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and
+Nottingham, also have good collections, while Birmingham, Manchester
+and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall
+Museum, London, is rich in early wares found or made in London
+and its vicinity. Continental collections of English pottery are
+meagre in the extreme and badly described, even in the ceramic
+museums at Sèvres and Limoges. The collection at Dresden is
+interesting, as it was purchased from the collection made by Enoch
+Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In America, the Boston Museum
+of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of New York, and the Pennsylvania
+Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia, contain interesting
+examples of wares exported to America in the late 18th and early
+19th centuries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt&rsquo;s <i>Ceramic
+Art in Great Britain</i> (1878), and <i>Life of Josiah Wedgwood</i> (1865);
+Chaffers, <i>Marks and Monograms</i> (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900);
+Meteyard&rsquo;s <i>Life of Wedgwood</i> (1865-1866), and Shaw&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Staffordshire Potteries</i> (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always
+be of interest as original sources of information; but the later works,
+such as Church, <i>English Earthenware</i> (1884; new edition, 1906);
+<i>Josiah Wedgwood</i> (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907); Solon, <i>Art of the Old
+English Potter</i> (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, <i>Catalogue of English
+Pottery in the British Museum</i> (1903); Burton, <i>English Earthenware
+and Stoneware</i> (1904), are the best authorities.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Chinese Pottery and Porcelain<a name="fa26b" id="fa26b" href="#ft26b"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In China, as in every other country where pottery-making
+has been practised for centuries, we find a natural progression
+from primitive pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture
+to the pottery of other primitive races the world over.
+We find too the early use of bricks, tiles, &amp;c., as in Egypt and
+Assyria; and then the usual succession of domestic utensils,
+funeral vases, and vessels for religious ceremonials. There is
+nothing to show that the potter&rsquo;s wheel made its appearance in
+China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese potters have used
+the simple methods of carving and &ldquo;pressing&rdquo; from moulds
+which preceded the use of the potter&rsquo;s wheel, even more than
+other nations. In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)
+the difference between the processes of &ldquo;throwing&rdquo; and of
+&ldquo;pressing&rdquo; from moulds is clearly described,<a name="fa27b" id="fa27b" href="#ft27b"><span class="sp">27</span></a> and it is instructive
+to note that many early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery
+are remarkably like their works in bronze. In the same way
+there is no definite date to which we can refer the introduction
+of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of glazed ware known
+are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han dynasty
+(206 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>-<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 220), a date much later than that of the earliest
+glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the intercourse
+between China and the West, at times historically remote,
+it is not impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with
+a glaze was carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any
+case the Chinese developed the potter&rsquo;s art on their own lines,
+for we have ample evidence that from very early times they
+fired their pottery to a much higher temperature than was
+common in the west of Asia, and so discovered types of glaze
+and of pottery that remained for centuries a mystery elsewhere.
+The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned are
+quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria,
+Egypt or Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can
+scarcely be scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze
+has become iridescent by age as though it contained oxide of
+lead. The easily-fired friable wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece
+seem to have had no attraction for the Chinese, and the glazes
+on their hard-fired wares were naturally different from those
+already described. The Chinese appear to have been the first
+potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high temperature
+pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed
+with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary
+refractory clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this
+technique lay the germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced
+form of pottery the world has yet seen. It is necessary to consider
+the pottery that preceded porcelain, for not only was it
+the matrix out of which porcelain grew, but in certain districts
+of China, where the necessary materials for porcelain are not
+found, similar wares have been manufactured without intermission
+to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the
+technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by
+developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the
+shaping and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured
+enamels or glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great
+authority on the Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on
+two outstanding types of Chinese pottery other than porcelain
+which have exercised considerable influence on the doings of
+European potters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1: <i>Yi-Hsing-Yao</i>.<a name="fa28b" id="fa28b" href="#ft28b"><span class="sp">28</span></a>&mdash;This is the pottery,  generally of unglazed
+fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the province
+of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these fine-coloured
+clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished
+pieces, such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-bottles
+and wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under
+the Ming dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1368-1643) and later.<a name="fa29b" id="fa29b" href="#ft29b"><span class="sp">29</span></a> It was imported
+into Europe by the Portuguese, who applied to it the name <i>boccaro</i>,
+formerly given only to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico
+and Peru.<a name="fa30b" id="fa30b" href="#ft30b"><span class="sp">30</span></a> This pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder
+as the poles in nature as well as origin, but the potters of northern
+Europe regarded every kind of pottery coming from the Far East
+as a species of porcelain, and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs,
+bowls, cups, &amp;c., in imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread
+during the late 17th and early 18th centuries under the name of red
+porcelain. Dwight, Elers and Böttger are notable names in this
+connexion.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Kuang-Yao</i>.&mdash;The name given by the Chinese to the pottery
+made in the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of
+manufacture in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this
+article it is sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are
+dense, hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured
+grey, red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with
+thick, variegated or opalescent glazes, grey, blue, green, yellow or
+red, but flecked, veined and streaked with other tints. The wares
+are so like the productions of the Sung dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 960-1279)
+that modern pieces are often confounded with the more precious
+productions of that epoch. One of the first lessons to be learnt by
+the student of Chinese pottery is that, with great reverence for their
+own antiquities, the Chinese of every period have endeavoured to
+reproduce the famous wares of their ancestors, and often with such
+skill as to deceive the most expert. Even when the manufacture
+of porcelain was at its highest in King-tê-chên, the potters in other
+parts of China carried on the production of glazed or unglazed
+pottery in coloured clays, and, further, the directors of the imperial
+factory from time to time strove to reproduce the most archaic wares
+that could be found in the Empire.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate VII</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:475px" src="images/img744a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:317px; height:474px" src="images/img744c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:481px" src="images/img744b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chinese. Sang de B&oelig;uf.</td>
+<td class="caption">Chinese. Turquoise glaze &ldquo;crackled.&rdquo;</td>
+<td class="caption">Chinese. Flambé.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="5"><img style="width:720px; height:262px" src="images/img744d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Purple Soufflé.</td>
+<td class="caption">Coral red.</td>
+<td class="caption">Peach blow.<br />Pigeon&rsquo;s blood.</td>
+<td class="caption">Lemon yellow.</td>
+<td class="caption">Apple green.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Porcelain.</i>&mdash;By this word we distinguish broadly all those
+pieces of pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and
+translucent, and also, broadly speaking, in which the material
+is white throughout, unless minute quantities of metallic oxides
+have been definitely added to colour it. It is impossible to
+draw any hard and fast line between porcelain and stoneware,
+for both may be thoroughly vitrified and translucent in thin
+pieces&mdash;but generally the stonewares are drab, red or brown in
+the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the precious
+quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is not
+even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or earthenware.
+The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to
+fire their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified
+stonewares before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed
+these stonewares with fusible mineral substances, and from that
+stage the natural refinements of methods must necessarily have
+produced porcelain. In regions where beds of primary clay
+were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter than
+elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic
+rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance
+and one that was more readily fusible and Would spread better
+over the whole piece. How many centuries were needed before
+a ware white enough and translucent enough to be now classed
+as porcelain was produced we cannot know; but the process
+was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some Chinese writers
+in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote periods
+the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens
+are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution,
+and literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle
+such a difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present
+time is that something worthy of the name of porcelain was
+made during the Tang dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 618-907), but we have no
+pieces earlier than the Sung dynasty (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 960-1259), and the
+majority of these are perhaps more fitly described as stoneware
+than as porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity,
+and all the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery
+of distinguished merit was made in many districts, and much
+of it has been classified as porcelain because the body is whitish
+and vitrified, though it is much inferior in finish and in translucence
+to the perfect white porcelain of later times. It is
+necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any pottery
+with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th
+century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs
+incised or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration
+is to be found in the varied coloured glazes with which the wares,
+whether stoneware or porcelain, were covered. The glaze is
+never clear and white as at later times; it is generally uneven,
+imperfectly fused and presents all the marks of an imperfect
+technique. The nearest approach to white is found in an opalescent
+grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The
+glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the <i>céladons</i>,
+a family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth
+and softness. Besides the <i>céladons</i> which are the most uniform
+in tints of the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender,
+brownish yellow and brownish black, but these are all subtly or
+boldly mottled, splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones
+of red, blue, purple, opalescent grey and black. The most famous
+of these now very rare Sung wares were the stonewares of Chunchow,
+remarkable for their rich and varied glazes, the black
+variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province, &ldquo;hare&rsquo;s fur
+cups&rdquo; and &ldquo;partridge cups&rdquo; of collectors, and the four principal
+wares that may be called porcelain, viz.&mdash;the <i>Ju-Yao</i>, made at
+Ju-chow in Honan; the <i>Kuan-Yao</i> (Kuan = &ldquo;official&rdquo; or &ldquo;imperial&rdquo;),
+made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow;
+the <i>Ko-Yao</i>, made at Liu-t&rsquo;ien; and the <i>Ting-Yao</i>, made at
+Tung-chow in Chih-li.</p>
+
+<p>This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known
+beyond its native country, for the first mention of porcelain
+outside China appears in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller,
+Sulaiman, who visited China in the 9th century and wrote:
+&ldquo;They have in China a very fine clay with which they make
+vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen through
+them&rdquo;;<a name="fa31b" id="fa31b" href="#ft31b"><span class="sp">31</span></a> and its first appearance in the west is always given
+as <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty
+pieces to the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an
+export trade was developed, particularly in the <i>céladon</i> wares of
+Lung-chüan, a city in the south-west of the province of Chehkiang.
+This famous ware, the &ldquo;green porcelain&rdquo; of the Chinese,
+probably made as an imitation of jade, exists mostly in the form
+of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing incised or fluted
+patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green glaze of
+indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is
+white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the
+glaze have a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste,
+and when the ware was reproduced in later times this reddish-brown
+tint had to be imitated artificially. The ware was highly
+prized both in China and Japan, in the islands of the East Indies,
+and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia it was largely
+used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the last
+century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco.
+&ldquo;Archbishop Warham&rsquo;s cup&rdquo; at New College, Oxford, which
+is the first specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that
+we can now produce, is a <i>céladon</i> bowl with a silver-gilt mount
+of the time of Henry VIII.<a name="fa32b" id="fa32b" href="#ft32b"><span class="sp">32</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai
+Khan (grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in
+Tatar hands until 1368, when the great native dynasty of the
+Mings was established. During this period (Yuan dynasty),
+roughly a century, one can say little of ceramic progress, for the
+wares of the period are singularly like those of Sung times. But
+two important changes took place which had a marked influence
+on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain&mdash;(1) the
+concentration of the industry at King-tê-chên, which was consummated
+in the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the
+introduction of painted decoration under a white transparent
+glaze, the idea of which (and perhaps the necessary cobalt
+mineral) was brought from Persia.</p>
+
+<p>King-tê-chên was already a pottery centre when its factories
+were rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming
+dynasty, who made it the imperial factory, so that the best
+porcelain workers were attracted thither, and in the other old
+centres the industry was abandoned or some earlier manufacture
+was continued, as in the southern province of Kiang-su. In the
+province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain manufacture has
+also continued. We have already mentioned the black glazed
+cups, &ldquo;hare&rsquo;s fur,&rdquo; &amp;c., made in this province in Sung times,
+and, while King-tê-chên was to be the scene of the developments
+of the coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien
+perfected the manufacture of the famous and beautiful white
+porcelain in bowls, dishes, cups and statuettes, best known
+under its French title of <i>blanc de Chine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to
+the beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be
+older, speak strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia.
+The pieces are massive both in form and substance, and the ornament,
+consisting of figures mounted or on foot, animals, bands
+of diaper or foliage, or pendant necklaces, is strongly silhouetted
+by a raised outline recalling the decorative methods of the
+Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also recall the
+methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was
+glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes,
+similar in nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and
+quite unlike the Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined
+spaces and melted at a lower temperature. The Grandidier
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+collection in the Louvre, the Franks collection at the British
+Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, as well as all the
+great private collections of Chinese porcelain, contain samples
+of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.</p>
+
+<p>The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to
+take an entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with
+its brilliant painted decorations in blue, green and purple on
+a pure white ground, exercised its natural fascination over men
+as keen in colour-sense as the Chinese potters. With the concentration
+of the industry at King-tê-chên, and the rapid improvement
+in technical skill and knowledge that followed, the
+production of a fine porcelain with a transparent white glaze
+was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian pot-painter
+the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the Chinese
+porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and
+with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from
+copper, the foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid.
+It would be idle to try and fix any specific date for this important
+development, which took more than a generation to perfect,
+but it is reasonably accurate to say that the blue and white
+painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th century and were
+fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century. Chinese
+collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of
+Suen-tê (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1426-1435), of Chêng-hwa (1465-1487), and next
+of Yung-lo (1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour
+used during these reigns is spoken of as &ldquo;Mahommedan&rdquo; blue,
+so that it was evidently brought from some country to the west.
+This 15th-century blue and white porcelain is admittedly the
+finest of its class, and though the Chinese never abandon an old
+method and have continued to make blue and white porcelain,
+often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may be,
+rarely equal these.</p>
+
+<p>The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already
+been mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours
+was largely used during the same period. At first it appears as
+a general ground colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then
+vessels were made in special forms (persimmon fruit, &amp;c.) to
+display its qualities, finally it was used either alone or in conjunction
+with blue in painted designs under a white glaze of
+exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the 15th century
+describes one of his pieces as being decorated with &ldquo;three red
+fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly
+outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as
+to dazzle the eye.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in
+Ming times are the marvellous &ldquo;eggshell&rdquo; porcelains, called
+by the Chinese &ldquo;bodyless&rdquo; from their extreme thinness. As
+early as the reign of Yung-lo (1403-1424) these delicate wares
+were in high repute, and their manufacture has been continued
+ever since with varying skill and success. In spite of their
+extreme thinness the specimens have designs of dragons in the
+midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &amp;c., engraved in the
+paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is
+so delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with
+liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured
+glaze which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized
+of these are the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi
+(1488-1505) and Chêng-tê (1506-1521).</p>
+
+<p>Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made
+its appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware,
+commonly spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as
+&ldquo;grain of rice&rdquo; porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited
+consummate skill in the manufacture of perforated pieces of all
+kinds. Sometimes the perforations are left clear, but in the
+rice-grain pattern the incisions are generally filled up with the
+melted glaze so that they become like so many windows in the
+walls of the piece. We have already seen that the Persian
+potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century,
+but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated
+in China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional
+proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.</p>
+
+<p>It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find
+the first examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired
+over the glaze. It seems probable that the practice grew out of
+the use of enamels on metal, which had spread from Byzantium
+to China, and which the Chinese developed with remarkable
+skill. It is important to remember that the very nature of the
+glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high temperature
+to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to cobalt-blue
+and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the
+rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some
+other means must be found, and so the device was adopted of
+taking a finished piece of blue and white and decorating it
+further by very fusible colours painted over the fired glaze and
+then attached to it by refiring at a lower temperature equal
+only to that used by the enameller on metals. At first the
+on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in the
+Ming (<i>San ts&rsquo; ai</i>) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and
+yellow. Then we get the Ming (<i>Wan-li Wu ts&rsquo; ai</i>) five-colour
+scheme, in which the same three colours are combined with an
+over-glaze red and all are painted over a skeleton pattern in
+under-glaze blue. This development, as its name implies, only
+took place in the reign of Wan-li (1573-1620).</p>
+
+<p>At this time King-tê-chên must have produced a very large
+quantity of porcelain. The requirements of the court were
+enormous, for in 1583 one of the supervising censors, remonstrating
+with the emperor, declared that one year&rsquo;s demands
+comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell writes: &ldquo;The
+colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the abundance
+of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present
+day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection
+of bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may
+be seen with sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter,
+or ladling syrup out of large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher&rsquo;s
+shop without a cracked Wan-li jar standing on the counter to
+hold scraps of meat.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the
+wares of this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship
+to the wares of the preceding and also of later periods, but the
+influence of the growing export trade doubtless told in the same
+direction. For several centuries the native Chinese porcelain
+had been exported to all the neighbouring countries, and through
+Persia and Cairo to the West. No long time elapsed before
+the Chinese adopted forms, colours and decorations for these
+export wares, not in accordance with Chinese usage, but presumably
+more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence the
+Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the
+15th and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries.
+Now, for the first time, there came a direct European demand,
+and cargoes of ware were brought to Europe by the Portuguese
+and afterwards by the Dutch, which were increasingly decorated
+in fashions foreign to Chinese taste. The production of these
+export wares slowly modified the taste of the Chinese themselves
+and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th and early
+18th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming
+dynasty definitely separated the first great period of Chinese
+porcelain from its second and culminating period. The works
+at King-tê-chên were destroyed more than once in the 17th
+century, but in spite of these difficulties the potters must have
+remained, for the reigns of K&rsquo;ang-hi (1662-1722), Yung-chêng
+(1722-1735), and K&rsquo;ien-lung (1736-1795) covered a century
+and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic production
+was reached and passed. It is only possible here to
+sketch in broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which
+has formed the subject of many learned works.</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period,
+when a spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions
+of their ancient kilns should receive no less attention than the
+new methods of decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the
+same time many of the discoveries of the later Ming days were
+carried on to perfection. The first remarkable productions of
+the reign of K&rsquo;ang-hi, the famous green and blood-red <i>Lang-yao</i>
+glazes, were made in the attempt to produce glazes like those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+of old times. With the more carefully prepared body and glaze
+the results are strikingly different and, as we think, superior,
+for it is difficult to believe that any example of the &ldquo;sacrificial&rdquo;
+red of the reign of Suen-tê can have been as glorious as the red
+<i>Lang-Yao</i>, the crown of all that group of glazes known from
+their general colour as <i>sang de boeuf</i> (see example, Plate VII.).
+In the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming
+period was continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue
+pigment be not so pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative
+effect of the blue and white of the reign of K&rsquo;ang-hi (see example,
+Plate VIII.) has never been equalled in Europe. The subjects of
+the blue and white pieces of this period are very varied, including
+religious, ceremonial, battle and hunting subjects, homely
+scenes such as ladies and children amusing themselves in gardens,
+or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous monsters disporting
+themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called &ldquo;hawthorn
+ginger jars&rdquo; form a class by themselves in the opinion of modern
+collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen
+being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility
+of the painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and
+white of this reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the
+harmonious relation between the tones of the white and the blue,
+especially when it is seen <i>en masse</i>, as in the famous Dresden
+collection.<a name="fa33b" id="fa33b" href="#ft33b"><span class="sp">33</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that
+the pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened
+by the use of slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of
+powder-blue appear to have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment
+was not applied by a brush, but was blown on through
+a tube, one end of which was covered with fine muslin, in a rain
+of minute drops. This ground was either carried over the whole
+piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating blue glaze&mdash;in which
+case it was generally covered with conventional designs pencilled
+in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze&mdash;or panels were reserved
+in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in
+on-glaze colours.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived
+or re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as
+of so many others in our great European collections, date only
+from the beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and
+pierced or reticulated pieces were made to great perfection, and
+the coloured glazes in light green, turquoise, purple and black
+(see Plate VII.) reached their height. The early glazes of this
+type appeared in Sung times (see above), but on the finely prepared
+K&rsquo;ang-hi wares much more striking and brilliant colour effects
+were obtained. As in old times, for the production of some of
+these glazes a departure was made from the general Chinese
+methods. The vessels were first fired to the &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; state,
+and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese
+were fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give
+the &ldquo;peacock-blue,&rdquo; &ldquo;kingfisher-green&rdquo; and &ldquo;aubergine-purple&rdquo;
+glazes. Many varieties of single-coloured glazes were
+made by covering a white glazed piece with on-glaze colour, and
+in this way new shades of coloured glaze, such as the coral-reds
+(Plate VII.), were obtained. The various brown or bronze-coloured
+grounds, so well known in the so-called &ldquo;Batavian&rdquo; porcelain,
+were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of some ochreous
+clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do not
+exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for they
+carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze
+colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance
+of a vivid green enamel (<i>famille verte</i>; see Plate VIII.), and finally,
+in the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and
+purple colours predominate (<i>famille rose</i>; see Plate VIII.). It
+is probable that these latter colours, which owe their tint to gold,
+were introduced into China from Europe, but the Chinese employed
+them whole-heartedly, until in fact they largely ousted
+all the earlier types of colour decoration.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Yung-Chêng (1723-1735) the diverse
+styles seem to have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng
+was an ardent collector of ancient Chinese porcelains,
+and he sent to King-tê-chên specimens of the most ancient
+wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to be reproduced, while
+at the same time he and his court patronized the wares in foreign
+styles and colours (Japanese and European.)</p>
+
+<p>The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th
+century, but in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the
+&ldquo;iron-rust&rdquo; and &ldquo;tea-dust&rdquo; glazes of the reign of K&rsquo;ien-lung
+in harmony with old Chinese effects, what we must regard as
+the inferior decorative style triumphed, and we see the gradual
+disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of (1) wares of
+a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze colours,
+principally those of the <i>famille rose</i>, and (2) a very large production
+of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated
+with on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste
+of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>This &ldquo;armorial&rdquo; china, so much of which was once foolishly
+ascribed to Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material
+is seldom of the best quality, and the Chinese rendering of
+European arms and crests, or stiff copies of European engravings
+surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of diaper, &amp;c., does nothing
+to recommend it. A great deal of this ware, though manufactured
+at King-tê-chên, was decorated at Canton, and the
+school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this
+export trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure
+Chinese taste, especially some of the ruby-backed plates and
+dishes and the small cups and saucers decorated with deftly-painted
+designs of cocks, peonies, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the
+replacement of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by
+those painted in colours over the glaze profoundly influenced
+the style of painting. In the earlier wares the treatment is
+bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery colour, and the
+softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the artistic
+charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting
+on glass&mdash;fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or
+cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are
+impossible or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering
+takes the place of conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate
+minuteness of finish supplants the broad freedom of direct
+brushwork. During the 18th century the same leaven was at
+work on the porcelains of China and of Europe, the East influenced
+the West, and the West in its turn bore down the East.
+If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European counterfeits,
+it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter
+and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.</p>
+
+<p>There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th
+century. The European demand was practically killed by the
+growth of porcelain works at home, and the imperial patronage,
+so great a factor in the production of artistic wares, was fitful
+and uncertain. Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) gave some attention
+to porcelain, and the pieces made for him and marked &ldquo;<i>Shen-te-t&rsquo;ang</i>&rdquo;
+are valued by collectors. The so-called Peking bowls
+of his reign (made of course at King-tê-chên) are also of repute.
+But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for the
+cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and
+England served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past
+(see the Musée Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign
+of the next emperor Hien-fêng (1851-1861) the T&rsquo;aipings overran
+the province of Kiang-si and destroyed King-tê-chên and
+its factories. Since then the town has been rebuilt and is once
+again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless by the
+high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the
+Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the
+single-coloured, <i>sang de boeuf</i>, <i>flambé</i> and other glazes are being
+made, while the highly prized &ldquo;hawthorn&rdquo; jars and black-ground
+vases are receiving the same undesirable attention.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt1"><i>Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain.</i>&mdash;For many
+centuries after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from
+every other known species of pottery both in its material and its
+manufacture. While the pottery of all other countries was generally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+made of coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken &ldquo;shards&rdquo;
+and fired at a comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain
+was compounded from the purest white clays, sand and fusible
+rock; it was glazed with fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that
+the entire mass became vitrified and translucent. The germ of the
+manufacture lay in the discovery of large masses of primary clay
+(kaolin) mixed with finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of
+which were carefully washed, levigated and purified. The body of
+Chinese porcelain varied from time to time within wide limits, but,
+broadly speaking, it always consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and
+quartz (sand), mixed in various proportions, sometimes with additional
+ingredients, according to the quality of ware desired. For the
+glaze the purest and cleanest portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse)
+were selected and mixed with lime&mdash;all being ground to fine powder.
+The lime causes the glaze to melt at a lower temperature than would
+be necessary for petuntse alone. The lime also gives the Chinese
+glazes their luscious softness of aspect and the faint greenish or
+bluish tone, while it enabled them to receive the later decorations in
+piled-up enamels, impossible on the harder European porcelain
+glazes of the 18th century. The finely-prepared glaze was applied
+to the clay vessels, before they had been fired, either by dipping,
+by painting, or by insufflation; and then glaze and body were
+fired together at a very high temperature. For certain glazes&mdash;turquoise,
+purple, &amp;c.&mdash;which were not of the felspathic type, the
+vessels were first fired to the &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; state, and the glazes were
+then applied and fired at a much lower temperature&mdash;the usual
+practice of the potters of other countries. When painted wares in
+blue and red were first introduced, the necessary pigments were
+painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze was applied over them,
+and then all was finished at one and the same firing. With the later
+enamel colours the piece was first fired as above described, and the
+fusible colours were then painted on the glaze, which was of course
+like glass. A second firing at a lower temperature fused these on-glaze
+colours to the ware. For information on Chinese materials
+and methods the reader is referred to the letters of Père d&rsquo;Entrecolles
+in the collection of Jesuit letters known as  <i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</i>.
+The English reader will find reliable translations of the essential parts
+in Bushell&rsquo;s <i>Oriental Ceramic Art</i>, Dillon&rsquo;s <i>Porcelain</i>, and Burton&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Porcelain</i>. Later information will be found in Brongniart&rsquo;s
+<i>Traité des arts céramiques</i>, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and
+in an article by G. Vogt, <i>Bulletin de la Société d&rsquo;encouragement pour
+l&rsquo;industrie nationale</i>, April 1900, pp. 530-612.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;The Franks collection in the British Museum; the
+Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr
+George Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections
+belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at
+the Louvre; the collection at the Musée Guimet; the Sèvres
+Museum. Fontainebleau, the Musée Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain
+Collection&mdash;the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of
+Fine Arts. New York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the
+Garland and other collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection;
+as well as magnificent private collections, at the head of which
+is that of the late W.T. Walters of Baltimore.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;The older European works on Chinese porcelain
+have been superseded by the later books. The following list contains
+the best recent books:&mdash;S.W. Bushell, <i>Oriental Ceramic Art</i> (New
+York, 1897; text separately 1899); <i>Chinese Porcelain before the
+present Dynasty</i> (Pekin, 1886); <i>Chinese Art</i>, vol. ii., Victoria and
+Albert Museum Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, <i>Traité des arts
+céramiques</i> (3rd edition, with valuable supplements by Salvétat,
+1877); Dillon, <i>Porcelain</i> (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, <i>Catalogue of
+Oriental Pottery and Porcelain</i> (1878); Grandidier, <i>La Céramique
+chinoise</i> (1894); Griggs, <i>Examples of Armorial China</i> (1887);
+Hippisley, <i>Ceramic Arts in China</i> (Smithsonian Institute, Washington,
+1890); Hirth, <i>Ancient Chinese Porcelain</i> (Leipzig, 1888);
+Julien, <i>Histoire et fabrication de la porcelaine chinoise</i> (Paris, 1856);
+Meyer, <i>Lung-chuan Yao, oder alter Seladon Porzellan</i> (Berlin, 1889);
+Monkhouse, <i>History of Chinese Porcelain</i> (1901); O. du Sartel, <i>La
+Porcelaine de Chine</i> (Paris, 1881); Burton, <i>Porcelain</i> (1906); Bushell
+and Laffan, <i>The Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of
+New York</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">European Porcelain to the end of the 18th Century</p>
+
+<p>Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the
+white and translucent pottery <i>par excellence</i>, for when the first
+specimens of Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps
+as early as the 11th or 12th century, they excited the greatest
+wonder and admiration. Cairo was at this time the great mart
+for the exchange of the products of East and West, and from this
+centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i Khosrau,
+the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1035-1042,
+was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also
+speaks of a translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which
+may well have been the progenitor of the glassy porcelains of
+Persia, as well as of those made in Italy during the 15th and 16th
+centuries. In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1171 the famous Saladin sent from Cairo a
+present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain to the sultan of
+Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent records
+of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the treasuries
+of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the
+potter&rsquo;s art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural
+that efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious
+and beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods
+was <i>nil</i>, and for a further two centuries all that Europe manufactured
+in the shape of translucent pottery was the artificial
+porcelain made with glass, which can only be looked upon as a
+substitute for true porcelain. In Italy during the 16th century,
+and in France during the century from 1670 to 1770 roughly,
+this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At Meissen in
+Saxony the famous Böttger made a true porcelain from materials
+analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture
+was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe
+(even in France, the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after
+1770), so that by the end of the 18th century, when Chinese
+porcelain had reached and passed its zenith, the manufacture of a
+similar material was well established in Europe, and the glassy
+porcelains had been generally abandoned. The only country
+which offered any departure from this general rule was England.
+The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French,
+and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts
+were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758-1781) to introduce
+the manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German
+counterparts, but these failed and the English potters finally
+invented a third kind of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones
+were added to the clay and ground rock to give a white translucent
+porcelain capable of receiving any form of decoration.
+This distinctively English porcelain, perfected about 1800, is not
+only the principal kind made in England in our own times, but
+its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France,
+Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European
+potters without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the
+18th century all the three kinds of European porcelain were
+struggling for supremacy. It is advisable, therefore, to keep
+clearly in mind which kind of porcelain is in question, for many
+problems of manufacture and decoration are absolutely determined
+by the nature of the materials.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 155px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:104px; height:168px" src="images/img748.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Florentine Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest
+European porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again
+in 1519; while we also read of its manufacture at Ferrara in
+1561.<a name="fa34b" id="fa34b" href="#ft34b"><span class="sp">34</span></a> Unfortunately, documentary evidence alone is not
+conclusive, and the first European porcelain, known from actual
+specimens as well as by documentary evidence, was that made
+at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de&rsquo; Medici, between
+1575 and 1585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to be found
+only in great museums and private collections, where they rank
+among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the
+Florentine potters never fully mastered their difficult material,
+for the ware is always imperfect and compares indifferently in
+whiteness and translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze
+is neither smoothly melted nor free from defects. Obviously
+the effect of Chinese blue and white porcelain was aimed at, the
+decorations, reminiscent of the style of the Persian
+pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone.
+These rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive
+marks; for at their period the use of painters&rsquo;
+marks or monograms had become fairly general
+on artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best
+known marks is the &ldquo;palle&rdquo; or balls of the
+arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters
+&ldquo;F M M E D II.&rdquo; for &ldquo;Franciscus Medici Magnus
+Etruriae Dux II.&rdquo;; while other pieces have a
+rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence
+and the letter &ldquo;F.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate VIII.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:175px; height:490px" src="images/img748a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:173px; height:490px" src="images/img748b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:156px; height:485px" src="images/img748c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chinese. K&rsquo;ang-hsi period.</td>
+<td class="caption">Chinese. Black ground. K&rsquo;ang-hsi period.</td>
+<td class="caption">Chinese (<i>Famille Verte</i>).
+K&rsquo;ang-hsi period.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:325px; height:529px" src="images/img748d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:341px; height:510px" src="images/img748e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chinese (<i>Famille Rose</i>). Ch&rsquo;ien-lung period.</td>
+<td class="caption">Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K&rsquo;ang-hsi period.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine
+porcelain that have survived to our day a manuscript has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
+found in the Magliabechian Library at Florence which states
+that the paste was composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass
+(powdered rock crystal 10 and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth
+of Faenza. To 12 parts of this mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic
+clay of Vicenza were to be added, and the pieces glazed with
+a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of the Italian
+faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a material
+unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine porcelain
+being the first of a long line of European porcelains the
+artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large
+quantity of glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they
+may almost be regarded as a species of glazed and painted glass.
+The technical methods used in their manufacture and decoration,
+however, were those of the potter and not of the glass maker.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:205px; height:88px" src="images/img749a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Paris Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>With the death of Francesco de&rsquo; Medici in 1587 it seems probable
+that this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end,
+and we hear no more of porcelain in Italy for more than a century.
+During this century (1587-1687) there can be no doubt that
+efforts were made all over Europe to discover the secret of
+porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable date we can point
+to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of Rouen,
+obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture
+of porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased
+with the death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are
+extant in the shape of salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few
+vases, the latter of considerable size. The pieces are usually
+decorated in blue with patterns in the Rouen style and were
+evidently painted by an expert faience painter. In composition,
+the porcelain of Rouen, like that of Florence, was of the
+artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a similar ware
+made its appearance at the faience
+works of St Cloud near Paris, and at
+various works in the city of Paris.
+Well-known pieces, bearing the marks
+here shown, formerly supposed to be
+the earliest specimens of French
+porcelain and the work of Poterat at
+Rouen, are probably experimental pieces made in Paris after
+the date of Poterat&rsquo;s discovery, as they differ in important
+particulars from his ware.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:95px; height:101px" src="images/img749b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">St Cloud<br />Potters&rsquo;<br />marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under
+the patronage of the French court or of some great French
+noble, rapidly assumed a position of importance. The works
+at St Cloud received letters-patent from Louis XIV. in 1696,
+and the manufacture was continued there down to 1773. The
+appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic, for
+though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine
+quality with a clear and brilliant glaze. The first
+efforts appear to have consisted in frank imitations
+of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces
+decorated only with branches of flowering plum
+in relief, or pieces modelled with imbricated or
+scale pattern or with delicate flutings, were made.
+The earliest colour decoration was naturally in
+under-glaze blue, and while quasi-oriental designs
+were largely used, the commonest feature is the prevalence
+of painted borders like those used on the faience of Rouen
+and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze colours
+and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never
+reached to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory
+at Sèvres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most
+distinctive French porcelains of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>German Porcelains.</i>&mdash;While the glassy porcelains of France
+were being developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent
+order was reached in Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector
+of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed an extensive collection of
+Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be seen in the Dresden
+Museum, and he had established experimental pottery works,
+bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief
+investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Böttger,
+both alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first
+European to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the
+nature of its materials, and in the appearance of its paste and
+glaze. It may be surmised that Böttger was guided toward
+this momentous discovery by information brought from China,
+though such an idea is always stoutly denied by German
+authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that Böttger at
+the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European
+experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the
+problems offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production
+was an extremely hard redstone-ware&mdash;often erroneously
+called &ldquo;Böttger&rsquo;s red porcelain&rdquo;&mdash;resembling the Chinese
+&ldquo;boccaros&rdquo; or red teapots of the Yi-hsing potteries. He had
+been anticipated in this direction by Dwight of Fulham, but
+the red pottery of Böttger was so intensely fired that it became
+dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were
+a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the
+Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity,
+as well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At
+the same time (1710) Böttger exhibited a few crude specimens
+of greyish-white porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in
+1713, and by 1716 its manufacture was definitely established,
+though the pieces were still far from perfect. Böttger died in
+1719, having had the rare fortune, in his short and eventful life,
+to establish in Europe the manufacture of true porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>The life of Böttger reads like a page of romance, and the
+story of the subsequent development of porcelain manufacture
+throughout the German empire is hardly less romantic. When
+the importance of Böttger&rsquo;s discovery was recognized, he and
+his workmen were removed from Dresden to the Albrechtsburg,
+a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so that the
+manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All
+concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme
+rigour doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped
+from time to time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a
+knowledge of the manufacture, found patrons among the German
+princes all eager to gain reputation as experimenters in the new
+art of porcelain. Some of these wandering &ldquo;Arcanists,&rdquo; like
+Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt from them, travelled
+all over the empire, and the following list of dates will show
+how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent factory at
+Meissen:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Meissen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1710</td> <td class="tcl">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcc">1744</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Vienna</td> <td class="tcc rb">1718</td> <td class="tcl">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc">1750</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ansbach</td> <td class="tcc rb">1718</td> <td class="tcl">Nymphenburg</td> <td class="tcc">1758</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bayreuth</td> <td class="tcc rb">1720</td> <td class="tcl">Ludwigsburg</td> <td class="tcc">1758</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Meissen.</i>&mdash;Although the factory which was founded at Meissen
+as a result of Böttger&rsquo;s discovery remained on its old site until
+1863, the porcelain made there has been commonly known as
+Dresden porcelain; probably because Dresden was the seat of
+the Saxon court, and the enterprise was conducted at the expense
+of the electors of Saxony. So jealously were the secrets
+of this factory guarded that when Napoleon, the master of
+Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use at
+Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer,
+the director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain
+the processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best
+example by which we may follow the changes of fashion and
+taste that governed the styles of porcelain decoration in Europe
+during the 18th century. The early Meissen porcelain was made
+from the kaolin found at Aue, near Schneeberg, and while there
+is no mention of any other material, we may be sure that clay
+and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese <i>kaolin</i> and <i>petuntse</i>,
+were obtained from the same quarries, and were used
+together. Until after the death of Böttger in 1719 it cannot
+be said that the venture was more than a <i>succès d&rsquo;estime</i>. The
+specimens preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the
+pieces were generally thick in substance and clumsy in shape,
+being often made from the moulds that had been designed for
+Böttger&rsquo;s red-stoneware. Naturally enough these early examples
+were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and decoration.
+As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were
+common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains,
+the decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+blue colour being much run and blistered; and when attempts
+were made at decoration in enamel colours (<i>i.e.</i> colours fired on
+the finished glaze) the result was unsatisfactory, as, owing to
+the refractory nature of the hard felspathic material, these colours
+frequently scaled off. The later success of the Meissen factory
+must be attributed to Herold or Höroldt (who joined the staff
+in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to Kandler, a sculptor,
+who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of these two men
+the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese and
+Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while
+the composition of the body and the glaze, and the application
+of colours and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was
+appointed director of the works a few years after 1720, and
+retained that post until 1765, while Kandler was chief modeller
+from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730 (when the work definitely
+emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775 (when
+Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen
+porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen
+porcelain of this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples
+of <i>Alt-Meissen</i> command high prices in the sale rooms,
+especially in Germany. This appreciation was quite as apparent
+in the 18th century, for by 1740 Meissen porcelain had won the
+greatest renown in Europe, and was actually exported by way
+of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries of the Nearer
+East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers as
+being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was
+its vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen&mdash;a
+large number for those days&mdash;were employed, and the industry
+brought large profits as well as great reputation to the Saxon
+court. Each year saw some fresh departure from the original
+inspiration of the work, some fresh innovation of European
+style in design. After 1730 the rude reproductions of Chinese
+forms and decorations in white or blue and white were replaced
+by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially those decorated
+in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a race
+with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations
+in red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain
+factories of Europe. Gradually European <i>motifs</i> became predominant.
+The simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively
+European shapes with architectural mouldings,
+handles and feet. Instead of the dainty Japanese patterns,
+we perceive the gradual introduction of &ldquo;Rococo&rdquo; scroll-work
+(as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or border
+for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins, figure-subjects,
+hunting scenes, &amp;c., executed in the limited palette of on-glaze
+colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from
+oriental influence is to be found in the numerous &ldquo;armorial&rdquo;
+services produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same
+period we find the first appearance of a style of decoration that
+has persisted to our own times, as a means of passing off pieces
+with small flaws in body or glaze, by hiding them among sprays
+of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly or some other
+winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the surface
+of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used
+at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general,
+and a device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture
+was elevated into a distinct style of decoration by later European
+factories (<i>e.g.</i> Strassburg, Niederviller, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory
+attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve
+apostles, an equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic
+proportions, and many models of animals intended for the
+decoration of the Japanese palace at Dresden. Many of these
+latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and create an
+unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame
+of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the
+little statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed
+in a steady stream from his facile hand; for though these figures
+have prettiness rather than grace, and <i>flair</i> rather than style,
+they are instinct with the spirit of the middle 18th century, and
+were eagerly imitated or boldly copied at every factory in Europe.
+Only in the <i>biscuit</i> porcelain figures of Sèvres, and in some few
+of the portrait figures of Derby, do we find anything artistically
+superior. These Meissen statuettes look their best when they
+are simply in white; many are grotesque and ugly, and the colour
+decorations are usually in very poor taste, the harsh, shining
+colours contrasting unpleasantly with the pronounced white of
+the porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at
+Meissen. Originating in the simple application of modelled
+branches of prunus, &amp;c. in imitation of the white porcelains of
+Fu-kien, the method developed until we get not only the
+characteristic &ldquo;May-flower&rdquo; decoration (see example, Plate IX.),
+but also independent sprays and bouquets modelled in porcelain
+and coloured with the utmost mechanical precision. It is not
+quite clear whether this production of porcelain flowers was
+first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,<a name="fa35b" id="fa35b" href="#ft35b"><span class="sp">35</span></a> but it was largely
+practised at both places.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames
+and clock cases were modelled in the most <i>outré</i> rococo forms
+with applied scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their
+modelled details picked out in gold and colours, while the success
+of the French styles of decoration is still further shown by the
+copies of Watteau figures and groups on the more important
+vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the Great made sad havoc
+with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven Years&rsquo; War.
+He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on the
+latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models,
+working moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks
+the end of the most distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this
+time Sèvres became the most important porcelain factory in
+Europe, and the later productions of Meissen were, for the most
+part, German versions of the styles initiated at the French royal
+factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was at the head
+of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler.
+They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like
+a blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under
+the directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen,
+fallen from its high estate, was content to follow the lead of
+Sèvres.</p>
+
+<p>After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of
+Meissen. The old productions of the factory had become valuable,
+and the custom of reproducing them, marks included, was adopted.
+Such a practice was not likely to lead to further progress, and,
+though the factory was removed from its old site in the
+Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to have added anything
+to the progress of European porcelain during
+the 19th century.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:147px; height:91px" src="images/img750.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">&ldquo;Dresden&rdquo; Potter&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>During the initiatory period the &ldquo;Dresden&rdquo;
+pieces bore the monogram &ldquo;A.R.&rdquo; interlaced
+(Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716
+pieces intended for sale and not for the use
+of the court were marked with the sign of
+Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff).
+From about 1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze,
+with or without accompanying stars, crosses, &amp;c., formed the general
+mark, but the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that,
+in itself, it is of slight value as a means of identification.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Vienna.</i>&mdash;The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in
+Vienna occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier,
+was granted a patent. He had secured two runaways from
+Meissen, Stölzel and Hunger, yet little progress was made until
+after 1744, when the factory was bought by the empress Maria
+Theresa. At first the traditional styles of Meissen were continued,
+but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was produced after
+1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours and
+elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner.
+Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period,
+succeeded in producing a more extensive and brilliant palette
+of colours than was in use at any other European porcelain
+factory in the last quarter of the 18th century; and the gilding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
+was rich and elaborate. Apart from its technical merits the ware
+has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of decoration showed
+pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the saving merits
+of the French work in the same style. The works was closed in
+1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should
+be reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small
+Viennese factories, are to be found on the market.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:61px" src="images/img751.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Wegeli&rsquo;s mark.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Berlin.</i>&mdash;The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper
+Wegeli, aided by workmen from other German factories, as
+early as 1750. This business was unsuccessful and
+came to an end in 1757, but its productions are
+highly prized on account of their rarity. Success
+only came when Frederick the Great brought
+workmen, moulds and materials from Meissen
+in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works
+in 1763, founded the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory.
+Though Meissen workmen and methods had been imported, and
+the Meissen style governed the earliest productions, Frederick&rsquo;s
+well-known <i>penchant</i> for French art was doubtless responsible
+for the fact that the rococo style of decoration was more
+determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The
+colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being
+seldom decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured
+enamel, a favourite colour with the great Frederick,
+is quite characteristic. The Royal Berlin Factory passed under
+a cloud in the troubled condition of the Prussian monarchy
+during the early years of the 19th century, and down to 1870
+it was content to follow in the wake of Sèvres like most of
+the other European factories. Since about the year 1880,
+however, it has developed into the most scientific of European
+porcelain works, and it was here that Seger manufactured his
+special porcelain, made to reproduce the qualities of the finest
+Japanese wares. In spite of this scientific success it must be
+remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is artistically disappointing,
+being too exuberant for our taste and recalling anything
+rather than porcelain in its treatment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Minor German Factories.</i>&mdash;It is unnecessary to describe the productions
+of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for
+not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at
+producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin.
+In every case the industry was established under the patronage or
+at the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate
+the success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and
+generally the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron
+or from his unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his
+purse.</p>
+
+<p>The factory at Höchst was started about 1720 by wanderers from
+Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the
+patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The
+general style of Höchst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary
+wares of Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures
+and groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780).
+He modelled, at Höchst, more than three hundred figures, as well as
+many portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end
+during the French invasion of 1794.</p>
+
+<p>Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs
+of Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector
+palatine from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end
+to its activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Höchst
+after 1780, and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sèvres and
+Dresden were made.</p>
+
+<p>Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal
+factory in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of
+fine quality, but without special distinction. Melchior came on here
+about 1800, remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg
+figures are as highly esteemed as those he modelled at Höchst and
+Frankenthal. In the early years of the 19th century elaborate
+painting became the rule here, as at the other royal factories, and
+copies were made on porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the
+Munich galleries. The works is still in existence, in the hands of a
+private company, who unfortunately sell many reproductions of the
+18th-century wares.</p>
+
+<p>Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory
+from 1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Württemberg.
+Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because
+the ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been
+called &ldquo;Kronenberg&rdquo; porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>Fürstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick.
+Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced
+before 1770. Fürstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known
+styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its
+&ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in
+operation until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction,
+imitations of the old pieces are now common.</p>
+
+<p>Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth,
+Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.</p>
+
+<p>Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous
+decorators, like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both
+German and oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim,
+produced effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a
+diamond and rubbing black colour into the lines.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>While France and Germany were each developing their own
+particular type of porcelain, it was only natural that the
+kings and princes of other countries should strive to emulate
+them in the manufacture of this still rare and highly esteemed
+form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the countries to the north
+and east seem to have been influenced most by German methods,
+whilst those to the south and west followed the French example.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Holland.</i>&mdash;The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as
+1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude
+Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L.
+After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the
+&ldquo;Amstel&rdquo; porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The
+ware resembled the German both in material and decoration. The
+best porcelain made in Holland was produced at a factory at the
+Hague, founded some time after 1775. There is a choice collection
+of this ware in the Gemeente Museum at the Hague. No porcelain
+appears to have been made in Holland after about 1810 until 1890
+or later.</p>
+
+<p><i>Denmark.</i>&mdash;It has been stated that porcelain of the German type
+was made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite
+record of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when
+potters, modellers and painters from some of the German works
+founded the enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII.
+in 1779 and converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king&rsquo;s
+patronage, fine porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely
+made down to the end of the 18th century. The collection in the
+castle of Rosenburg contains many examples of the work of this
+period. In the early years of the 19th century the Empire style of
+decoration was adopted, and the artistic influence of Sèvres became
+paramount. Large sums of money were continually required from
+the crown to maintain the establishment until, in 1867, it was sold
+into private hands to get rid of an encumbrance. The subsequent
+new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen porcelain works must
+be noted in the next section.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sweden.</i>&mdash;The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is
+connected with the factories at Rörstrand and Marieberg, both in the
+environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both
+these places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the
+18th century, though the Rörstrand works was reopened some fifty
+years ago and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains
+were of two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the
+German, and the other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at
+Mennecy in France. It is interesting to note that the decorative
+styles in both cases are distinctly French in character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Russia.</i>&mdash;Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain
+factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony,
+but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the
+empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal
+fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian
+porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype.
+In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian
+factory followed the example of Sèvres in producing costly dinner
+services and extravagant vases of large dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of
+Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and
+another by A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these
+Moscow factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes,
+the most interesting being those representing Russian peasant types.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hungary.</i>&mdash;The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at
+Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this
+factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived
+many collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the
+word &ldquo;Herend&rdquo; in the paste.</p>
+
+<p><i>Switzerland.</i>&mdash;Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland,
+and considering the geographical position of the country it seems
+natural that porcelain of the German type should have been made at
+Zurich and of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but
+these productions are of no particular importance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:271px; height:88px" src="images/img752a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Lille and Chantilly Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>French Porcelains.</i>&mdash;The beginnings of French porcelain at
+Rouen and St Cloud have already been mentioned, as they
+preceded Böttger&rsquo;s discovery of true porcelain; but as nothing
+was known in France of the methods and materials used by the
+German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy porcelain held
+sway in France through the greater part of the 18th century.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded
+at Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince
+de Condé, an enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese
+porcelains. One distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain
+is its imitation of the Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century,
+especially those bearing delicate patterns in the Kakiemon
+style. This imitation was not confined to the decoration
+alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the delicious
+tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the
+body of the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel
+used by the French faience makers. Similar imitation of the
+Kakiemon style of decoration became the rage all over Europe,
+and was largely followed at Meissen and in England as well as
+in France; but no European imitations equalled those of the
+famous Chantilly ware.</p>
+
+<p>Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy
+and at Lille, but the most important French factory was that
+founded at Vincennes about 1740, not only because of the many
+beautiful pieces produced there, but also because the works
+was taken under the direct patronage of the king in 1753 and was
+transferred to Sèvres in 1756, becoming ultimately the most
+important porcelain factory in Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition
+of the artificial porcelain (<i>pâte tendre</i>) of Sèvres, and a
+brief account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the
+glassy porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by
+preparing a glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt,
+gypsum, soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered
+and washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded
+by adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or
+marl and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in
+water until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled
+to a thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap
+or parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for
+the workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were
+made from this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of
+considerable thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and
+were then either turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper
+to reduce them to sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other
+ornaments in relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary
+with every other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then
+fired into what is known as the &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; condition; the most
+difficult part of the whole process. During this firing the pieces
+frequently went out of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of
+the material and its tendency to soften as it approached the melting
+point of the frit. Consequently an elaborate system of &ldquo;propping&rdquo;
+the pieces had to be resorted to, and even then a very large proportion
+became deformed. When the porcelain was drawn from the oven
+after the first firing, the supports were removed and the pieces were
+rubbed with sand to clean the surface, and were then coated with
+glaze by sprinkling with a brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very
+rich in lead. The glaze coat was melted by refiring the piece at a
+lower temperature; and it was frequently necessary to repeat this
+process several times in order to get a perfectly even and brilliant
+result. The difficulties of such a process were enormous, and it
+was only by the financial support of wealthy patrons, or of the state,
+that such a method of manufacture was ever carried on for any length
+of time. At its best the material is an exceedingly beautiful one,
+lending itself especially to decoration in on-glaze colours, and the
+pieces produced at Vincennes and at Sèvres, between 1745 and 1770
+or thereabouts, form a distinct class by themselves. Skilful chemists
+like Hellot and Macquer were employed to direct the operations,
+and many beautiful ground colours, such as the famous <i>gros-bleu,
+bleu de roi, rose Pompadour</i>, pea-green and apple-green were invented.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:439px" src="images/img752b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;Sèvres vase, <i>pâte tendre</i>; green
+body and gilt imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Sèvres Porcelains.</i>&mdash;The forms of the Sèvres porcelain are
+exceedingly varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by
+Duplessis, the king&rsquo;s silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are
+more proper to metal than to pottery; but the French glassy
+porcelain is such an artificial material in every respect that such
+a point should not be strained too far. Owing to the want of
+plasticity in the paste the pieces were always made in moulds
+of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were moulded in
+separate parts and these united together with metal screws or
+mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for
+actual use were usually painted on a plain white ground with
+the full palette of on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich
+gilding. The decorative pieces such as vases, candelabra,
+jardinières, &amp;c., were decorated in a much more sumptuous fashion
+by covering the greater part of the piece with a ground of one
+of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned, reserving only
+panels in white on which delicate miniature-like decorations of
+the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired (see
+fig. 52; and examples of Sèvres, Plate IX.). Such collections as
+the Wallace at Hertford House, or
+the Jones Bequest in the Victoria
+and Albert Museum, show at once
+the variety and perfection to which
+the work attained.</p>
+
+<p>This Sèvres porcelain is entirely
+devoid of the broad decorative
+treatment and rich full colour of
+any of the great kinds of fine
+pottery or porcelain. Artistically
+considered, it has no place beside
+the triumphs of the Chinese or
+Persian potters, or of the Italian
+majolists. Its shapes are too
+formal, and are not sufficiently
+imbued with a sense of the qualities
+of the material. The ground
+colours defy every natural tendency
+of pottery colour for they
+are even, flawless and mechanical,
+with none of the palpitating richness
+that comes so naturally from
+the potter&rsquo;s processes. The paintings,
+whether of flowers, birds or
+figure-subjects, are extraordinarily
+skilful regarded as miniatures, but
+as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to
+the swift, apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters
+of earlier times. So pronounced was the demand of the period
+for smooth even finish that such ground colours as <i>gros-bleu</i> and
+<i>bleu de roi</i>, where the colour naturally came varied and uneven,
+were subsequently decorated with small diapers or lines of gold
+in the form of <i>&oelig;il de perdrix</i> or <i>vermicelle</i>, so as to
+produce a more regular and even effect. The most elaborate and costly of
+all the varieties of old Sèvres is what is known as &ldquo;jewelled Sèvres,&rdquo;
+which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such as turquoises,
+pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones. These
+imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased
+mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found
+examples of the punches and other tools used in making these
+mounts. On account of the enormous expense involved in the
+production of such costly triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled
+Sèvres are rare even in the best collections, but the English
+student is fortunate in the fact that the Wallace collection
+contains a considerable number of them.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:245px; height:113px" src="images/img752c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Sèvres Potters&rsquo; marks, 1753 and 1772.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Many reasons&mdash;the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory,
+the knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of
+cost, the mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and
+decoration, as well as the fact that the
+glassy porcelain was abandoned
+as too costly and risky after
+about 1780&mdash;have all conspired
+to raise the prices which modern
+collectors are prepared to pay
+for fine examples of <i>vieux
+Sèvres</i>.  It is doubtful whether
+even the prices paid for paintings
+by old masters have advanced so rapidly as those paid
+for Sèvres porcelain of the best period. In the &rsquo;seventies
+of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of remark that
+a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction
+for three old Sèvres vases; thirty years later one such piece
+would probably fetch the same price. It should be added that
+the extravagant prices now paid for Sèvres porcelain, which is
+much more a triumph of technical than of artistic skill, have led
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span>
+to an extensive system of &ldquo;faking&rdquo; and even forging specimens
+which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.</p>
+
+<p>Beautiful as the old Sèvres porcelain was, those who were
+responsible for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that
+the porcelain made at Meissen and other German factories was
+both harder and whiter in substance, more truly resembling
+the oriental porcelain in every respect. It was also known that
+these German porcelains were not so difficult, and therefore so
+costly to manufacture as the French, and all these causes combined
+to make the directorate of Sèvres unremitting in their
+efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to
+those used by the German and Chinese potters. Père d&rsquo;Entrecolles,
+the famous Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France
+long before an account of the methods used by the Chinese, as
+well as samples of the materials they employed; and after many
+years&rsquo; research Millot and Macquer discovered the precious
+materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, <i>History of
+French Porcelain</i>, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of
+this French porcelain, similar in material to the German and
+Chinese, appear to have been made about 1769; but it was
+some years after this before the manufacture of the new product
+was firmly established, and then to the end of the 18th century
+more and more of the hard porcelain and less of the glassy porcelain
+was made at Sèvres. Speaking broadly, we might say that
+after 1780 comparatively little of the original French porcelain
+was made in France; and from that time to this practically all
+French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain,
+viz. made with china clay and felspathic rock. This
+technical change in the nature of the materials had a profound
+influence on the artistic qualities of French porcelain, and the
+change was doubtless accentuated by the neo-classical rage
+which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
+The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern renderings
+of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague,
+and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter
+of the 18th and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a
+definite period in pottery design and decoration. The introduction
+of hard-paste porcelain rendered the manufacture of
+large vases and other pieces possible; and after 1780 we find
+the manufactory at Sèvres engaged in the production of enormous
+vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been continued
+there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first
+production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies
+of well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The
+earliest of these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this
+material it was only possible to make them of quite modest
+dimensions; with the introduction of hard-paste porcelain very
+large slabs were manufactured, and a series of these are to be seen
+in the museum at Sèvres.</p>
+
+<p>The most artistic of all the productions of Sèvres are undoubtedly
+the &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; figures and groups. These were
+modelled with great skill by many of the best French sculptors
+of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle, Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri,
+Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &amp;c. The best of these Sèvres
+&ldquo;biscuits&rdquo; have a real artistic value which places them in a
+class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at
+Meissen, Frankenthal and Höchst.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Paris</i>.&mdash;Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges
+and prerogatives had been given to the Sèvres manufactory, such
+as the exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the
+breakdown of the monarchical régime, which was rapidly accelerated
+after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris
+and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of
+hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal
+manufactory of Sèvres. In order that the royal edicts might be
+more easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the
+patronage of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen
+Marie Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of
+these Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them,
+such as those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king&rsquo;s
+eldest brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette);
+Rue de Bondy (patronized by the duc d&rsquo;Angoulême), compare
+not unfavourably with those of Sèvres itself.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to do more than mention the other important
+French factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg,
+Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years
+of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these
+factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal
+factory at Sèvres passing through a kind of lingering death between
+1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the
+glories of Sèvres that modern French porcelain really came into being.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into
+Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &amp;c., we find the manufacture
+of a glassy porcelain analogous to the early French arising in
+Belgium, Italy, Spain and England. The materials and methods
+were so like those used in France that it would be ridiculous to
+claim for them an independent origin, even were we unable to
+prove by documentary evidence that workmen trained in the
+French factories had migrated into those countries.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:219px; height:75px" src="images/img753a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Capo-di-Monte Potters&rsquo;
+marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Italy</i>.&mdash;In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano
+(1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese
+Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and Capo-di-Monte
+near Naples (1736-1820); with
+minor factories like those at Vinovo,
+Treviso, and the Volpato factory at
+Rome. The most important of these
+were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte.
+The porcelain made at
+Doccia was famous for its soft translucent
+texture, so that it lent itself
+beautifully to the production of white
+glazed porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of
+Fu-kien.</p>
+
+<p>The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of
+Charles III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions
+are in pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces,
+though modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and
+seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides
+groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have
+the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers,
+plates, &amp;c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high
+relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly admired
+because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period
+the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but
+after about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and
+decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 265px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:215px; height:63px" src="images/img753b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Buen Retiro Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Spain</i>.&mdash;Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in
+1759 and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the
+Capo-di-Monte factory, as well as the best moulds and models.
+He established a new china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a
+palace outside Madrid. As long as Charles III. lived immense sums
+were lavished on this factory, and the ware was not allowed to be
+sold, but was either used for the decoration of the royal palaces or for
+presentation to other European sovereigns. Enormous vases were
+made, following the example of Sèvres,
+and these were often filled with
+bouquets of flowers modelled in porcelain.
+The most famous productions
+of this factory, however, were the
+plaques and slabs of porcelain used
+for lining the walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of
+these rooms still remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish
+<i>rococo</i> style. The factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the
+French war, and since that date no porcelain of any importance has
+been made in Spain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>English Porcelains of the 18th century.</i>&mdash;There can be no doubt
+that whatever experimental work may have been conducted
+by our early English potters, such as the famous John Dwight
+of Fulham, nothing like an established manufacture of porcelain
+existed in this country prior to about 1740-1745. There are
+records of many tentative experiments before this date, but no
+real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important porcelain
+works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby,
+and when we examine the productions of these factories it is
+impossible to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been
+imported from France. The early English porcelains, like all the
+French porcelains of that date, were composed of artificial or
+glassy mixtures.</p>
+
+<p>We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as
+typical of the earliest English porcelain of which there is any
+definite record. The material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand
+from Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, and glass, while the glaze
+was a fusible English flint-glass rich in lead. It is obvious,
+therefore, that we are dealing with substances very similar to
+those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above), and such
+mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to
+great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on
+at the expense of some royal or princely patron; in England,
+however, the manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and
+it is probably for this reason that at a very early date we find the
+English porcelain-makers experimenting with other materials
+than glass and clay in order to make their processes more certain.
+In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas Frye of the Bow works
+we find mention of the use of bone-ash&mdash;the material that was
+to make English porcelain a distinct species by itself. From
+1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large
+proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the
+English porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced
+into the paste in order to obtain a more refractory material;
+yet it was not until about 1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent
+abandoned entirely the use of glass and composed his
+porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic rock for the body,
+glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the foundation of
+distinctively English porcelain. The material has many merits
+both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more
+easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better
+for ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it
+permits the fullest range of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English
+factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the
+various influences that were at work in determining what the
+porcelain-maker should do, both in the way of shape and decoration.
+The eyes of all men were, of course, turned first to the
+porcelain brought from the far East; and in the early efforts of
+the English factories, as of those of France and Germany, we
+notice a predominance of white pieces or of pieces decorated
+with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously inspired by
+the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea produced
+large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early
+days of the Worcester factory little else was made there than
+white, or blue and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese.
+Another oriental influence was to be found in the Imari patterns
+of Japan, particularly those in the style of Kakiemon. It has
+been noted that Meissen, Chantilly and other continental factories
+had already created a vogue for these reproductions of Japanese
+decorations, and in our own country Bow, Chelsea and Worcester
+followed suit. The later Imari patterns, heavily decorated with
+blue and red and gold for the use of &ldquo;the foreigner,&rdquo; furnished
+another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and the vogue
+of these English &ldquo;Japan&rdquo; patterns, in the last quarter of the
+18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great
+that they represent a large proportion of the output of our
+English porcelain works during that period. The productions
+of the German and French factories also exerted a profound
+influence on English potters; so that throughout the 18th
+century English porcelains largely consisted of imitations of
+the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.</p>
+
+<p>We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration
+which undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of
+transfer-printing, whereby patterns printed on paper from
+engraved copper plates are transferred to porcelain or pottery
+and subsequently fired, either under or on the glaze. At the best
+these printed patterns are in no way superior to the stencilled
+work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at the worst, European
+and American printed patterns have been perhaps the most inappropriate
+decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world.
+It has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it
+enables elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so
+brings decorated pottery within the reach of the humblest. The
+truer view is, that the simplest brushwork patterns, or even no
+pattern at all, would be preferable to the tawdry results that the
+cheapest forms of transfer-printing have rendered possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chelsea.</i>&mdash;Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was
+the most important of all the English porcelain works, and fine
+specimens of this period command high prices in the saleroom
+to-day. We know little of the origin of this important factory,
+though it is believed to have been in existence from some time
+after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally demolished and some of
+the workmen and part of the plant were removed to the then
+important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles
+Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750.
+Sprimont retained possession of the works until 1769, and died
+in 1771. It was during his management, from 1750 to 1770,
+that the finest and most characteristic pieces of Chelsea porcelain
+were made.</p>
+
+<p>Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely
+varied, little was produced there that was really English in
+character. The earliest pieces appear to have been either in
+pure white or in white decorated with paintings in under-glaze
+blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish salt cellars, the
+shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats, small cups and
+saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the decorations,
+mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed
+by reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain.
+Afterwards we find the appearance of table wares modelled in
+imitation of leaves, animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently
+adopted from current French and German practice.</p>
+
+<p>In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown
+by the production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.),
+and of the small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of
+which there is such a fine collection in the British Museum. In
+the latter days of the factory (say after 1758) we find Chelsea
+following in the wake of Sèvres in the production of large and
+elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and covers, scroll-work
+bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen in the
+Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of
+this elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine
+blue, turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour,
+while white panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and
+painted in enamel colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects
+in absolute rivalry with the pieces manufactured at Sèvres.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:207px; height:91px" src="images/img754.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chelsea Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the
+ill-health of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury,
+the proprietor of the Derby works. He carried on the establishment
+from 1770 to 1784, but in this period a great change is
+noticeable in the product of the factory. The &ldquo;rococo&rdquo; forms and
+decorations of the true Chelsea porcelain were replaced by works
+in the neo-classical style already rendered popular by the success
+of Josiah Wedgwood, and the Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite
+a distinct production from the early works of Chelsea. The most
+distinctive mark of the Chelsea
+porcelain is an anchor&mdash;either embossed
+in the paste or painted in
+gold or colour. Often the anchors
+occur in pairs, and it is frequently
+associated with other marks such
+as a dagger or a cross. Some of
+the Derby-Chelsea pieces are marked with a conjoined D and
+an anchor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bow.</i>&mdash;The date of the establishment of the factory at Stratford-le-Bow,
+in what is now the East End of London, is quite uncertain,
+but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected
+with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture
+of porcelain. The materials mentioned in this patent are not
+such as would produce porcelain at all, and it appears likely
+that the specification was made purposely defective. In 1748
+a further patent was applied for in which we get the first mention
+of bone-ash, so that from the technical point of view the wares
+made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance as indicating
+the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain
+in which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the
+works at Bow belonged to Messrs Weatherby &amp; Crowther, and
+was then known as &ldquo;New Canton,&rdquo; and as 300 workpeople were
+employed, the operations must have been conducted on a large
+scale; but ultimately, from causes that can only be surmised, the
+partnership was dissolved and the business failed, so that in 1775
+the works was bought for a very small sum by the William
+Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the
+plant and moulds to his more prosperous works at Derby. It
+would appear from what we know of the factory and its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
+productions that the business was conducted on simpler lines than
+at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no elaborate vases
+in imitation of Sèvres, and no important groups of figures which
+might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is common
+with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the production
+of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted
+with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then
+followed the well-known &ldquo;Quail,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Partridge,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Wheat-sheaf&rdquo;
+patterns in red and green and gold in imitation of the
+Japanese patterns; and the manufacture of table ware decorated
+with these simple yet bright and pleasant devices seems to have
+formed the greater part of the work at the factory. Many figures
+and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but they are fewer in
+number and less cleverly made and decorated than the contemporary
+productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise
+that there was considerable rivalry between these two works
+situated on the outskirts of
+the metropolis, for we find the
+&ldquo;anchor&rdquo; mark, which is the
+best recognized mark of Chelsea
+porcelain, often occurring on
+specimens that from internal
+evidence or from the piece
+itself we should rather attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are
+not very certain, but some of the likeliest are here given.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:258px; height:103px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Bow Potters&rsquo; marks</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Worcester.</i>&mdash;The third of the early English factories, and
+ultimately the most important of all, was that founded at
+Worcester in 1751 by Dr Wall, a man of unusual attainments,
+and a number of his friends. How Dr Wall came to learn the
+secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown, but even
+assuming that he acquired some information from wandering
+workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon
+developed on original lines. The nature of the paste and the
+glaze of the early Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety
+of their decorations, stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen
+really developed a native porcelain. Between 1751 and
+1770, the first period of Worcester porcelain, the prevalent
+influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white, and the pieces of
+that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for their artistic
+quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in
+England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied,
+and a collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory
+from the aesthetic point of view. The productions at
+this time were tea and coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and
+plates. The cups were usually made without handles in imitation
+of the oriental practice, but large, two-handled covered cups
+for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made during the early
+period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed pattern
+resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced
+at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets
+were also made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:183px; height:123px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Early Worcester Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was
+introduced at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock,
+an engraver, came from York House, Battersea, where the process
+was first employed for the decoration of the Battersea enamels.
+The early Worcester prints comprised portraits of celebrities of
+the time (the Frederick the Great mug), or adaptations of the
+works of great artists such as Gainsborough and Watteau, or
+copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The first printing
+was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the fired
+glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of printing
+in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to note
+that for many years this process of transfer printing was
+developed side by side with the older method of porcelain painting,
+and until the end of the 18th century the processes appear to
+have been used at Worcester quite independently. The closing
+of the Chelsea factory in 1770 led to the migration of some of
+the Chelsea painters to Worcester, and from about that date a
+considerable amount of Worcester porcelain was decorated on
+the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the styles that
+had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only fair
+to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always
+distinguished by a certain English character both in the style
+and the workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and
+most artistic period of Worcester porcelain came to an end before
+1783,  when, after the death of Dr Wall, the works passed under
+the control of Thomas Flight and his two sons, who had been
+jewellers. The Flight influence was
+soon noticeable from the fact that the
+new shapes were more and more based
+on those of Sèvres and Meissen, while
+the decoration became more mechanical
+and precise as befitted the work of
+jewellers rather than potters. King
+George III. and Queen Charlotte visited
+the works in 1788 and bestowed upon
+the firm the privilege of styling themselves &ldquo;China Manufacturers
+to Their Majesties,&rdquo; since when the works has always
+been known as the Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793
+Martin Barr was taken into partnership; the &ldquo;Flight &amp; Barr&rdquo;
+period, so well known to collectors, lasted until 1807.</p>
+
+<p>Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after
+1784, viz. the Chamberlain factory, which was working in
+rivalry with the original establishment; but its productions
+are of no particular artistic merit, and in 1840 the two firms
+became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the present Worcester
+Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the productions
+of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th
+century were the &ldquo;Armorial&rdquo; services made for various royal
+and noble families, and those adaptations of Imari patterns
+known as &ldquo;Old Japan.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Derby.</i>&mdash;Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear
+to have been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee,
+Andrew Planché; but the business, which was afterwards to
+attain such a great development, was only founded in 1756 with
+William Duesbury as its manager. Duesbury was originally a
+decorator of china figures in London, and his career proves that
+he was a man of great industry and energy, for within twenty-five
+years he not only built up a large business at Derby, but he
+absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in
+the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important
+china manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a
+commercial success like this implied the absence of any distinct
+artistic impulse. The porcelain produced at Derby is for the
+most part only an echo of the successes of Meissen, Sèvres, or
+the earlier English factories. It is only fair to remark that a very
+deep and rich under-glaze blue was attained at the Derby works,
+and that this was associated with very mechanical painting of
+birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional quality. At
+this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with
+exceptional vigour, until &ldquo;Crown-Derby Japan&rdquo; became a
+standard trade name for this clobbered oriental style.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:468px; height:128px" src="images/img755c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Derby Potters&rsquo; marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Mention has already been made of the &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; porcelain
+figures made at Derby, which are superior in style to anything
+else made in-Europe in the 18th century except the &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo;
+porcelains of Sèvres. The Derby &ldquo;biscuits&rdquo; of the best type
+range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest specimens have a &ldquo;waxy&rdquo;
+surface, though there is little or no sheen and every detail remains
+as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its maker. The most
+famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and statuettes
+of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an artist
+named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups
+adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a
+workman named Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic
+figures and animals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plymouth and Bristol.</i>&mdash;The porcelain factories at Plymouth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
+and Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only
+English factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous
+to the Chinese was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a
+Quaker druggist of Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting
+to discover in Cornwall and Devonshire minerals similar to
+those which were described in the letters of Père d&rsquo;Entrecolles
+as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain. After many years of
+travel and research he ascertained the nature of the Cornish stone
+and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at Plymouth
+for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from these
+native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise,
+from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only
+be referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the
+factory was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards
+transferred to Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant,
+who had already been dabbling in the fashionable pursuit of
+porcelain making. Champion&rsquo;s Bristol factory lasted from 1773
+to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number of Staffordshire
+potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed. The
+Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true felspathic
+porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the
+china clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder
+and whiter than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh,
+glittering glaze marks it off at once from the wares of Bow,
+Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.</p>
+
+<p>The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much
+in its style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One
+can point to nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens
+now command very high prices in the salerooms it is on account
+of their rarity rather than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that
+they possess.</p>
+
+<p>Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the
+production of the Bristol works, but a considerable number of
+figures are known, in many cases obviously copied from those of
+Meissen, and a few large hexagonal vases similar in style to
+specimens produced at Chelsea and at Worcester. The most
+distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are certain small
+plaques or slabs in &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; porcelain, usually bearing in the
+centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by
+a wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these
+choice productions are to be seen in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:257px; height:123px" src="images/img756.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and
+Swansea marks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its
+general mark the alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was
+also used to a limited extent at the Bristol factory, though the
+general Bristol mark was
+a cross or a copy of the
+crossed swords of Meissen.
+The Staffordshire potters
+who bought the rights of
+the Bristol porcelain factory
+from Champion established
+a works at Shelton, near
+Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire,
+under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they
+never manufactured anything of artistic account.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Minor English Factories.</i>&mdash;A number of other porcelain factories
+were founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but
+none of these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain
+made at Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy
+and ugly in form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic
+of the factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by
+William Duesbury.</p>
+
+<p>The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain
+amount of porcelain, as well as &ldquo;Delft&rdquo; and other earthenwares,
+and the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their
+productions.</p>
+
+<p>A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th
+century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because
+certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of &ldquo;Armorial&rdquo;
+porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China.
+Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was
+only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing
+cheap wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the
+more important English factories.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English
+porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of
+Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English
+factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English
+factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as
+Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred
+to the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collections.</i>&mdash;The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert
+Museum contain the best general collections of English porcelain.
+The museums at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local
+wares; while the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works
+has an admirable collection of the wares of that factory. Many
+noteworthy private collections are in existence, of which we may
+mention those of Mr Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Alex. Brongniart, <i>Traitié des arts céramiques</i>
+(1844); Jacquemart, <i>Histoire de la céramique</i> (Eng. ed. 1873);
+Jännicke, <i>Grundriss der Keramik</i> (1879); Dr Brinkmann, <i>Handbook
+of European Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum</i>; Marryat, <i>History
+of Pottery and Porcelain</i> (1857); Jewitt, <i>Ceramic Art of Great Britain</i>
+(1878); Auscher, <i>A History and Description of French Porcelain</i>
+(1905); Burton, <i>A History and Description of English Porcelain</i>
+(1902); Dillon, <i>Porcelain</i> (1904); Solon, <i>Old English Porcelain</i>
+(1903); Burton, <i>Porcelain</i> (1906); R. Almstrom, <i>Lervarorna och
+deras Tillverkning</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Pottery and Porcelain during the 19th Century</p>
+
+<p>The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain
+in Europe and America throughout the 19th century need not
+be treated in such detail as the history of its growth up to that
+period, for modern means of communication and the general
+diffusion of knowledge have tended to destroy the individual
+character which was so marked a feature of the pottery of
+different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century was
+distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it
+witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those
+methods of handicraft which made the older pottery individual
+and interesting even in its simplest forms. Collectors are prepared
+to pay very large sums for choice examples of the potter&rsquo;s
+art of bygone centuries, but it is doubtful if much of the pottery
+of the 19th century will ever be collected for its intrinsic merits,
+though it may be preserved as an illustration of the spirit of
+the age.</p>
+
+<p>In preceding sections of this article the development of the
+brightly painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated
+porcelains of various European countries have been traced down
+to the end of the 18th century, because that date marks, quite
+distinctly, the period when the old handicraft of the potter was
+for various reasons displaced by organized manufacture. The
+disturbed economic condition of Europe in the last quarter of the
+18th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century
+proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain works
+where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional
+methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and
+cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood
+and his contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more
+perfectly finished and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled
+pottery of the continent. It vied in finish with the expensive
+continental porcelains, and for nearly half a century it carried
+all before it, not only in England, but throughout the world.
+An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de Saint Fond, writing in the
+beginning of the 19th century, remarks of English pottery that
+&ldquo;Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the advantage which
+it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine glaze impenetrable
+to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and
+the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active
+and so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg,
+from Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from
+Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France one is served at
+every inn upon English ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are
+supplied with it; and vessels are loaded with it for the East
+Indies, the West Indies, and the continent of America.&rdquo;<a name="fa36b" id="fa36b" href="#ft36b"><span class="sp">36</span></a> It
+was calculated that at this time three-fourths of the pottery
+manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of things
+was not likely to continue, and in most of the European countries,
+after the settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as had
+survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose,
+adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
+experienced Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these
+works, and so far as ordinary domestic pottery was concerned,
+the first half of the 19th century witnessed the establishment in
+every country of Europe and in the United States of America
+of pottery works managed by Englishmen, where earthenwares
+were made after the English fashion. We shall refer presently to
+the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and porcelain,
+but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one
+or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England
+itself witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture,
+which became more and more aggregated in that district of North
+Staffordshire designated emphatically &ldquo;The Potteries,&rdquo; where,
+in spite of later developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters
+of all the pottery and porcelain made in the British Isles is still
+produced. This concentration of the industry in England has
+resulted in a race of pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere
+in the world, and while it was the supply of cheap coal and coarse
+clay which first gave Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-eminence
+is now retained as much by the traditional skill of the
+workmen of the district as by the enterprise of its manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate IX</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:305px; height:526px" src="images/img756a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:299px; height:496px" src="images/img756b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin</td>
+<td class="caption">Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pâte-dure</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:487px" src="images/img756c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:534px" src="images/img756d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pâte-dure</td>
+<td class="caption">Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1756</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the
+methods of manufacture which have placed England in the first
+rank as a pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have
+brought within the reach of the humblest domestic utensils of
+high finish and great durability, it is impossible to say much for
+the taste or art associated with them. Neatness, serviceableness
+and durability, English domestic wares undoubtedly possess in
+a degree unknown to any earlier type of pottery, but the general
+use of transfer-printing as the principal method of decoration, and
+the absence of any distinctive style of ornament, must cause them
+to take a low rank in comparison with the wares of past centuries,
+when mechanical perfection was impossible and rich colour
+and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of the
+pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition
+of 1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of
+art as applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as
+marking the period when many of the old handicrafts had been
+extinguished by the use of mechanical appliances and the growth
+of the factory system, and when the delight of men in these
+current developments was so great that they were regarded as
+triumphs in themselves, when they were only &ldquo;means to an end.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain
+has followed two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of
+manufacturers to produce the most artistic results possible with
+modern processes and methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable
+efforts of those individual potters in every country with whom
+art was the first consideration and commercial production was
+disregarded.</p>
+
+<p>Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount
+importance in the first half of the 19th century, it must be remembered
+that some of the oldest factories in Europe were still
+alive and active. The royal factories in Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin,
+Vienna, St Petersburg and elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the
+Napoleonic Wars, continued at the expense of their respective
+states, to produce porcelains which were the legitimate development
+of their work during the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meissen and Berlin.</i>&mdash;At Meissen, efforts were made to improve
+the technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen
+wares had already become valuable, and they were reproduced,
+marks included, until all initiative was destroyed, and the
+factory continued to live, mainly, on its old reputation.</p>
+
+<p>At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy
+throughout the early years of the 19th century were severely
+felt, so that a cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured.
+The only innovations that can be ascribed to the factory during
+this period, though highly esteemed at the time, form striking
+examples of the artistic decadence of the period. Such was the
+lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in porcelain slip so
+that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a porcelain facsimile;
+another was the production of slabs of porcelain modelled
+in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it
+appeared like a picture painted <i>en grisaille</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the
+majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in
+the world has greater attention been paid to the technical and
+scientific problems of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment
+has rendered the greatest service in the development of the
+important chemical and electrical industries of Germany by the
+splendid appliances it has invented for scientific use.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been
+conducted with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger
+perfected his soft porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the
+best Japanese porcelains, and here also he developed the manufacture
+of copper-red glazes in imitation of the old <i>sang-de-boeuf</i>
+and <i>flambé</i>, glazes of the Chinese, at the same time establishing
+some of the scientific principles underlying their production. At
+Berlin, too, all the modern methods of decoration, whether in
+coloured glazes, raised enamels, <i>pâte sur pâte</i>, the elaborate
+paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the use of crystalline
+glazes, have been followed with great success; but the factory
+has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to the
+decorative side of porcelain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vienna.</i>&mdash;Few European factories were so little affected by the
+general trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have
+already referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding
+which became the distinguishing feature of its wares towards the
+end of the 18th century, and this style, once perfected, seems to
+have been continued with little change. It has been stated by
+a renowned German authority, that the Viennese porcelain was
+at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this period the plan
+of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was developed to its
+utmost, and this, in combination with the richest gilding, marks
+the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to an end
+in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap
+porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and therefore
+styled &ldquo;Viennese porcelain,&rdquo; has during the last twenty years
+overwhelmed the English and American markets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sèvres.</i>&mdash;The important part played by the Royal French
+manufactory at Sèvres has already been sketched. During the
+troublous years of the French Revolution the works practically
+came to a standstill, and under the Directory it was a question
+whether this manufactory, along with certain other state establishments
+in France, should be closed. Napoleon, however,
+decided that for the glory of France and as a means of encouraging
+its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the English
+potters, the establishment at Sèvres should be conducted as a
+national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brongniart,
+a man of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was
+appointed director, and retained that post under the successive
+governments of France until his death in 1847. In the hands of
+Brongniart the establishment at Sèvres became at once a school
+of research and a centre of practical accomplishment&mdash;the
+influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its products
+were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French
+monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose
+ideas of Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of
+his victories, and after every campaign a fresh table service or
+new suite of vases was produced to commemorate the emperor&rsquo;s
+successes. The most striking piece of this kind was the vase
+made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon and Marie
+Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled with
+figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than
+115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the
+acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures.
+This vase was three years in making, and is said to have cost
+something like £1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary
+example of the productions of Sèvres, for under every successive
+government of the 19th century the factory has been called to
+produce enormous vases which are to be found in the rooms
+or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and while
+these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their
+manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered,
+very few of them possess either spontaneity or charm. They
+are correct, frigid, cold, and compare most unfavourably from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
+the artistic point of view with the masterpieces of oriental
+pottery.</p>
+
+<p>Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again
+the influence of Sèvres became paramount in Europe, and its
+styles of painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830
+to 1870 by all those European potters who were attempting to
+make anything beyond useful domestic wares. As an instance of
+its aims in the period between 1830 and 1850, large sums were
+spent in the production of great slabs of porcelain many feet in
+area; on which were painted copies of some of the famous portraits
+and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of the Louvre. A
+number of these are preserved in the museum at Sèvres, and must
+always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical
+accomplishment.</p>
+
+<p>The most noticeable invention of Sèvres in the middle part of
+the 19th century was the <i>pâte sur pâte</i> decoration in which
+porcelain clays of various colours are used as the artist&rsquo;s medium.
+The idea appears to have been adopted from an old Chinese vase
+by Robert, the chief painter, and at the London International
+Exhibition of 1862 some small cups decorated in this method, by
+Gely, were first shown. The most successful work in this style
+was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked at Sèvres
+until 1870. In that year he came to England and was employed
+at Minton&rsquo;s, where for about thirty-five years he continued this
+method of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of
+pottery decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M.
+Solon the <i>pâte sur pâte</i> decoration took the form of paintings
+of figure subjects or dainty ornamental designs in white slip on
+a coloured porcelain ground of green, blue, dark-grey or black.
+On such grounds a thin wash of the slip gives a translucent film,
+so that by washing on or building up successive layers of slip,
+sharpening the drawing with modelling tools, or softening or
+rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate gradations
+of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip
+to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly
+adopted by all the principal European factories, though nowhere
+was it carried to such perfection as at Sèvres and at Minton&rsquo;s.
+M. Taxile Doat has executed many extraordinary pieces in this
+style of decoration at Sèvres, and in the British Museum there is
+a large vase of his, presented by the French government at the
+beginning of the present century. One great feature of French
+porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the development
+of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district
+of central France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain
+production in the period between 1780 and 1850, but after the
+latter date it rapidly developed into a pottery centre second only
+in importance to that of the Potteries district in England. We
+can do no more than mention this fact, because, for the most
+part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the production
+of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art.</p>
+
+<p>The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sèvres, and all
+work came to a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory,
+which was almost completed before the outbreak of the war, was
+opened by Marshal MacMahon in 1876, but for many years the
+work was continued under great discouragement. Between 1879
+and 1889 attention was paid to the study and imitation of old
+Chinese methods, and this resulted in the reproduction of many
+of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the despair of
+European potters.</p>
+
+<p>At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sèvres
+was perhaps the most notable feature of the magnificent collection
+of ceramics gathered there. The collection included many
+varieties of porcelain, both hard and soft paste, decorated in all
+the current styles of the period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze
+painting, flambé glazes and crystalline glazes, but most beautiful
+of all were the magnificent groups of &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; figures designed
+as table garnitures by some of the best French sculptors of the
+time.</p>
+
+<p><i>English Progress.</i>&mdash;The demand for elaborate specimens of
+painted porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between
+1851 and 1880, and this demand was undoubtedly fostered by
+the series of international exhibitions held during that period,
+when every European pottery works of note produced large and
+costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware, smothered with
+painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced
+something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of
+European factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton
+at Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the
+Arnoux&rsquo;s of Apt, an old family of French potters, was at this
+time the technical and artistic director of Messrs Minton&rsquo;s
+works, and he was the only pottery director during the 19th
+century who could in any sense be compared with M. Brongniart
+of Sèvres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree artistic
+with technical skill, and under his management the works of
+Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in
+Europe. Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse,
+and Protat, and pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill,
+E. Lessore and L. Solon were engaged at this factory and produced
+many of the most characteristic European decorations of
+the middle of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>To this period, too, we must refer another English invention,
+that of a special porcelain known as &ldquo;Parian.&rdquo; This in its
+finest expression was a &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo; porcelain used for the production
+of statuettes and groups rivalling the finest 18th century &ldquo;biscuit&rdquo;
+figures of Sèvres and Derby. It seems probable that this Parian
+was first made at the works of Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-upon-Trent;
+but it was immediately adopted at Minton&rsquo;s,
+Wedgwood&rsquo;s, and at Worcester; and each of these firms used it
+in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured at
+the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain
+works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by
+the Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of
+Longton, and other English manufacturers until it became an
+important branch of the English porcelain made in the period
+under review.</p>
+
+<p><i>Japanese Influence.</i>&mdash;At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great
+collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm,
+and there was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese
+art in Europe once more; not as in the 18th century, when the
+old Japanese patterns were copied or frankly imitated, but a
+European-Japanese style arose, based on the methods and ideas
+of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen, the workers in
+metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the Worcester
+Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and
+skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and
+minute execution must be ranked before all other European
+works of their kind.</p>
+
+<p>The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese
+art was, however, developed at the Royal Copenhagen works,
+the productions of which are not only famous all over the world,
+but have set a new style in porcelain decoration which is being
+followed at most of the continental factories. By the use of the
+pure Swedish felspar and quartz and the finest china clays from
+Germany or Cornwall a material of excellent quality is prepared,
+and on this naturalistic paintings of birds, fishes, animals and
+water or northern landscapes and figure subjects are painted in
+delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens. The Royal Copenhagen
+works has also produced a profusion of skilfully modelled
+animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately
+tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours.</p>
+
+<p>Not only have Berlin, Sèvres and other European factories
+adopted the modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the
+Japanese are now imitating these skilful productions which were
+originally inspired by their own early work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stonewares.</i>&mdash;Mention must be made of the revival of the
+manufacture of artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and
+Villeroy and Boch, the great German potters. Doultons, besides
+reviving the older forms of English stoneware, made some
+entirely new departures, and their pieces with designs etched in
+the clay are admirable examples of the right use of a refractory
+material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish stonewares,
+and many interesting new departures in addition, but
+mostly in German forms that have not commended the wares
+to other nations.</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate X.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:266px; height:553px" src="images/img758a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:262px; height:520px" src="images/img758b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Chelsea porcelain; 1745-1770
+Figure after Watteau.</td>
+<td class="caption">Worcester Porcelain; c. 1760-1770</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:325px; height:234px" src="images/img758c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Whieldon and Wedgwood,<br />
+cauliflower ware; c. 1750-1760</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:259px; height:426px" src="images/img758d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:324px; height:342px" src="images/img758e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Wedgwood&rsquo;s jasper; c. 1780</td>
+<td class="caption">Turner&rsquo;s jasper; c. 1780</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Artistic Results.</i>&mdash;While the great potteries of Europe have been
+employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in
+consolidating their knowledge on the technical and scientific
+side, so that they are able to produce pottery more perfect
+in shape, with a higher degree of finish and greater certainty of
+result than was ever known before, it cannot be said that the
+artistic results have been commensurate with the labour expended.
+Fortunately, however, the success of these important
+industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited
+a considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists,
+to become artist-potters and producers of individual wares,
+often recalling the works of the great schools of bygone centuries.
+This movement, which to-day has its exponents in every European
+country as well as in the United States of America, originated in
+France between 1840 and 1850, when the formation of the earliest
+ceramic museums and the new-born interest in the old French
+faience led to various attempts at pottery-making by the old
+methods of handwork and rule of thumb. Avisseau of Tours
+(1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859) began to make
+pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863) revived
+painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand
+for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs,
+and in France and other countries artists began to dabble in the
+painting of pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom,
+painting pieces obtained from some pottery manufacturer,
+which he sold on his own account after they had been decorated
+and fired; or he became attached to a particular factory and his
+productions were sold by the potter; or the artist became an
+amateur potter, and either worked alone or encouraged other
+artists to co-operate with him.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent
+men in each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their
+own day, but are also likely to be regarded always as among
+the distinguished productions of the 19th century. Emile
+Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who were attracted by
+the technique of the potter. For some time they bought specimens
+of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at
+Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial
+art for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours
+in a delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from
+old engravings. He worked for a short time at Sèvres, and then,
+like so many other French pottery artists of this period, he
+came to Minton&rsquo;s in England, and finally entered into an engagement
+with the old firm of Josiah Wedgwood &amp; Sons which
+continued almost to his death (1860-1876). On their fine cream-coloured
+earthenware he sketched many thousands of fanciful
+designs which had a great vogue in the &rsquo;seventies and &rsquo;eighties of
+the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His
+first innovation was a method known as &ldquo;Barbotine&rdquo; or slip-painting,
+in which coloured clays were used &ldquo;impasto,&rdquo; often in
+considerable thickness, so that after the work had been fired and
+glazed it bore some resemblance to an oil painting. For a few
+years this style of decoration became the rage all over Europe,
+but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it had found favour,
+and is now only used for the decoration of common wares.
+Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the
+discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first
+European potter to produce flambé glazes after the manner of
+the Chinese, and a fine collection of these productions of his is
+preserved in the museum at Sèvres.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest of all the French innovators was, however,
+Théodore Deck, who had been trained as a working potter and
+was led to forsake the management of an ordinary tile and pottery
+business in Paris to experiment on his own account. He started
+a little workshop in the Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and
+rapidly gathered round him a number of young painters all eager
+to experiment in the magnificent colours which Deck with his
+passionate love of Persian and other oriental pottery could place
+at their disposal. Within a few years this venture was so successful
+that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a great
+potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier,
+Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased
+by the lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of
+his career came in 1887, when he was appointed director of the
+National Manufactory at Sèvres, for he was the only practical
+potter who had ever occupied that position; but he died in 1890
+before he had been able to impress his personality on the work of
+Sèvres.</p>
+
+<p>The same movement that was active in France found its exponents
+in other countries as well. In Italy and the south of
+France the last quarter of the 19th century witnessed a revival
+of Italian majolica and of lustre decoration. Prominent in this
+direction were the productions of Cantegalli of Florence and of
+the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near Cannes; while in England
+William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his tiles
+and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours recalling
+those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages. This
+departure in England was, however, followed up by many
+manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of
+pottery colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw &amp;
+Company of Jackfield, and Minton&rsquo;s of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced
+much excellent work, in tiles and vases inspired from the
+same oriental sources.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, in America there had been growing up a manufacture
+of pottery after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey;
+East Liverpool, Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these
+centres English workmen had been attracted, and earthenware
+after the current English styles was manufactured; but, as
+was the case in Europe, individual efforts were made to produce
+artistic pottery. The first and best known of these artistic departures
+was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and
+again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an
+enterprise which has since produced some very original work.
+From 1880 to 1889 the work was mainly carried on at the
+expense of this lady, but since that date the enterprise has been
+self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery has become known
+throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development
+of new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes&mdash;and
+it is not too much to say that much of the improved
+sanitation of modern dwellings and towns has been rendered
+possible by the special appliances invented by potters for these
+purposes. In this direction the English potters undoubtedly
+led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated
+abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large
+works in Germany, France and the United States of America.
+Varieties, too, of hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares,
+stonewares and porcelains, have been invented for use in the
+chemical and electrical industries. But these belong to the great
+modern branch of pottery manufacture, not to pottery art. In
+the same way, the revived attention paid to the various forms of
+pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings belongs rather
+to the question of mural decoration than of pottery.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and
+Germany the leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany
+excelling in the amount of its output, and England in the fineness
+and finish of its productions. France, in addition to the National
+Manufactory at Sèvres, as much as ever divorced from commerce,
+has its porcelain industry at Limoges and large manufactories
+of tiles and earthenware in many departments; while there are
+also a number of artist potters like Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche
+and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic pottery in
+hard-fired stonewares (<i>grès</i>) and porcelain, while the production
+of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been developed
+by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Müller. A great
+development has also taken place in the production of decorative
+pottery and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides
+producing quantities of painted blue and white earthenware
+(made in the English and not in the old Dutch fashion), has
+been experimenting largely in the development of crystalline
+and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while the Rozenburg factory
+at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near Amsterdam,
+have made some distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery and
+porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+already been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of
+Bing &amp; Gröndhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles
+of decoration initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there
+are two important factories at Rörstrand and Gustafsberg.
+Under the accomplished director of the Rörstrand factory, Mr
+Robert Almström, a great variety of products have been successfully
+manufactured, including hard-paste porcelain, English
+bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy, Spain and
+Belgium have also important modern pottery works.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States of America there are large establishments
+for the manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all
+after the English fashion, while in addition there are a number
+of experimental kilns at work producing artistic pottery. The
+Rookwood factory has already been mentioned, but the wares
+produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs Robineau and T.
+Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See &ldquo;Report on American
+Art Pottery,&rdquo; pp. 922-935 of <i>Special Reports of the U.S. Census
+Office, Manufactures</i>, pt. iii., 1905.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Technical Pottery Works.</i>&mdash;It is only possible to give a selection of
+the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical
+side of pottery production. Brongniart, <i>Traité des arts céramiques</i>
+(3rd ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvétat; E.
+Bourry, <i>Traité des industries céramiques</i> (Paris, 1897); Théodore
+Deck, <i>La Faïence</i> (Paris, 1887); A. Granger, <i>La Céramique industrielle</i>
+(Paris, 1905); E.S. Auscher, <i>La Céramique cuisant à haute température</i>
+(Paris, 1899); <i>Technologie de la Céramique</i> (Paris, 1901); <i>Les
+Industries céramiques</i> (Paris, 1901); Seger, <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>
+(Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., Eastern, Pa., U.S.A., 1902); Langenbeck,
+<i>The Chemistry of Pottery</i> (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895); William
+Burton, <i>Porcelain</i> (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin
+of some example of ancient pottery&mdash;was it made in the district where
+it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre? When we
+possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the use of one
+general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will frequently
+enable such a question to be answered, where now all is doubt and
+speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto are often not
+worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose, the older
+methods of silicate analysis being only approximate.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the
+production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft
+of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less
+interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British
+Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France,
+Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant
+pottery little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical
+skill from the country work of the middle ages. In England the
+cheapness of machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such
+village industries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>I tre libri dell&rsquo; Arte del Vasajo</i>, by Cipriano Piccolpasso of Castel
+Durante, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1548.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once
+dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called
+pottery at all, though we have no other name for them.  The
+material is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Foreign pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early
+as the XIIth Dynasty, <i>e.g.</i> the Cretan polychrome ware of the
+Middle Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib
+(&ldquo;Kahun&rdquo;) and the Cypriote (?) &ldquo;punctuated&rdquo; black ware from
+the same site, and from Khata&rsquo;anah (17).  The date between the
+XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties is certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom
+Egyptians do not seem to have imitated these earlier foreign forms.
+British Museum, No. 17,046, is, however, probably an instance of an
+Egyptian idea imitated by the foreign potter (17).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture
+of sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy porcelain&mdash;the
+earliest porcelain of which we have any record.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> On this subject see in particular Mazard, <i>De la connaissance par
+les anciens des glaçures plombifères</i>, a scientific and valuable monograph
+(1879); also Rayet and Collignon, <i>Hist. de la céramique
+grecque</i>, p. 365 (or <i>B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery</i>, Introduction).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters, <i>Ancient
+Pottery</i>, ii. 443-454.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See examples in colour on Plate V.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many
+shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving
+the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground
+of the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance&mdash;probably
+an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, manganese
+and iron&mdash;and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11b" id="ft11b" href="#fa11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See Drury Fortnum, <i>Archaeologia</i>, vol. xlii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12b" id="ft12b" href="#fa12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with elaborate
+English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these were
+doubtless included under the name of &ldquo;Damas Wares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13b" id="ft13b" href="#fa13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Riaño, <i>Spanish Arts</i>, Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook,
+pp. 149-151; and <i>Sobre la manera de fabricar la antigua loza
+dorado de Manises</i> (1878).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14b" id="ft14b" href="#fa14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See examples in colour, Plate VI.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15b" id="ft15b" href="#fa15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the lustred
+pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th century onwards;
+and it is important to note in this connexion that almost all the fine
+examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern collections have been
+obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian families.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16b" id="ft16b" href="#fa16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Piccolpasso, <i>I tre libri dell&rsquo; arte del Vasajo</i>, dated 1548. It has
+been several times translated both into modern Italian and French.
+The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this interesting
+MS. in the volumes on <i>Majolica</i> by Drury E. Fortnum.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17b" id="ft17b" href="#fa17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, <i>Comptes
+rendus</i> for December 1905, and W. Burton, <i>Society of Arts Journal</i>,
+2846, vol. lv., 1907.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18b" id="ft18b" href="#fa18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> See Magne, <i>Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers</i> (Paris, 1904); also
+Solon in <i>Burlington Magazine</i> (November 1907).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19b" id="ft19b" href="#fa19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See B. Fillon, <i>Les Faiences d&rsquo;Oiron</i> (1862).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20b" id="ft20b" href="#fa20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See E. Bonaffe, <i>Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21b" id="ft21b" href="#fa21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See examples in colour, Plate X.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22b" id="ft22b" href="#fa22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval
+pottery will be found in Hobson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Medieval Pottery found in
+England,&rdquo; <i>Archaeological Journal</i>, vol. lix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23b" id="ft23b" href="#fa23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Böttger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the
+discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwight&rsquo;s death.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24b" id="ft24b" href="#fa24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved
+the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A.H. Church&rsquo;s
+<i>English Earthenware</i>, and W. Burton&rsquo;s <i>English Earthenware and
+Stoneware</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25b" id="ft25b" href="#fa25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> It is amusing or annoying to find in European museums the wares
+of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all
+lumped together as &ldquo;Wedgwood,&rdquo; and yet one can hardly wonder
+at it, remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and
+how little of the other English potters of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26b" id="ft26b" href="#fa26b"><span class="fn">26</span></a> See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27b" id="ft27b" href="#fa27b"><span class="fn">27</span></a> S.W. Bushell, <i>Chinese Art</i> (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks,
+ii. 5-6).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28b" id="ft28b" href="#fa28b"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Yao</i> is the Chinese term equivalent of the English &ldquo;pottery&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;ware.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29b" id="ft29b" href="#fa29b"><span class="fn">29</span></a> See Brinkley, <i>Japan and China</i>, ix. 353-365.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30b" id="ft30b" href="#fa30b"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Solon, <i>The Noble Buccaros</i> (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31b" id="ft31b" href="#fa31b"><span class="fn">31</span></a> M. Reinand, <i>Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans
+dans l&rsquo;Inde el à la Chine dans le IX^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1845).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32b" id="ft32b" href="#fa32b"><span class="fn">32</span></a> The suggestion has been made that the <i>céladon</i> wares found in
+Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the
+Chinese, but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point
+consult Karabacek, &ldquo;Zur muslimischen Keramik&rdquo; in <i>Österreichische
+Monatsschrift für den Orient</i>, vol. x., 1884; A.B. Meyer, &ldquo;Über die
+Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane&rdquo; under &ldquo;Über die Marta
+banis,&rdquo; ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, <i>Ancient Porcelain</i> (1888), and
+Bushell, <i>Oriental Ceramic Art</i> (1899).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33b" id="ft33b" href="#fa33b"><span class="fn">33</span></a> It is of interest to note that the &ldquo;Delft&rdquo; of Holland, also a
+product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest
+approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34b" id="ft34b" href="#fa34b"><span class="fn">34</span></a> See Drake, Sir W., <i>Venetian Ceramics</i>; and Davillier, Baron Ch.,
+<i>Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35b" id="ft35b" href="#fa35b"><span class="fn">35</span></a> A perfect <i>tour de force</i> in this inartistic style of work, preserved
+in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen, has
+been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See <i>Gaz. des beaux-arts</i>,
+September 1904.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36b" id="ft36b" href="#fa36b"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Travels in England and Scotland</i> (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33295-h.htm or 33295-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/2/9/33295/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img655a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img655a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ef09e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img655a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img655b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img655b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..253f92e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img655b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img656.jpg b/33295-h/images/img656.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38755ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img656.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img670.jpg b/33295-h/images/img670.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87e75db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img670.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img671a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img671a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f1710f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img671a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img671b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img671b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3059808
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img671b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img671c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img671c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..754a96f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img671c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img671d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img671d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d6a9ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img671d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img672a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img672a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e367c70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img672a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img672b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img672b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b95066
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img672b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img672c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img672c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fadc4f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img672c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img673a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img673a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1692e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img673a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img673b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img673b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3db5eb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img673b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img674a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img674a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba83467
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img674a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img674b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img674b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3aa9a08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img674b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img675.jpg b/33295-h/images/img675.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c11f71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img675.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img678a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img678a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2e9391
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img678a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img678b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img678b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b54996
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img678b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img686.jpg b/33295-h/images/img686.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..002b908
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img686.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img687a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img687a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05e2321
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img687a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img687b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img687b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36a2889
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img687b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img687c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img687c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..65f9e21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img687c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img688a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img688a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b37cb8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img688a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img688b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img688b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3df3432
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img688b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img689a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img689a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b36c4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img689a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img689b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img689b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3674548
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img689b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img690a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img690a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e18dfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img690a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img690b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img690b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d03359e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img690b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img690c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img690c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b3051c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img690c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img691.jpg b/33295-h/images/img691.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6629fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img691.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img692a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img692a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c95640
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img692a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img692b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img692b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f30308f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img692b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img694a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img694a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c8cc5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img694a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img694b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img694b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53a5ad7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img694b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img694c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img694c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96d4ed9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img694c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img695a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img695a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9de416
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img695a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img695b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img695b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54cab03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img695b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img695c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img695c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c1c39d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img695c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img695d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img695d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b45f93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img695d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img696a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img696a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..681565d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img696a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img696b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img696b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4b4b07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img696b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img696c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img696c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84fcbd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img696c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img697a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img697a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b1f67b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img697a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img697b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img697b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f29c1b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img697b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img698a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img698a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab1dd40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img698a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img698b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img698b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7aec0d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img698b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img698c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img698c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1810e3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img698c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img698d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img698d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e8ce03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img698d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img699a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img699a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62b597a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img699a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img699b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img699b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1b143d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img699b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img700a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img700a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3486b9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img700a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img700b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img700b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..768fea8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img700b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img701a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img701a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8789c27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img701a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img701b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img701b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ee621d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img701b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img702.jpg b/33295-h/images/img702.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11082de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img702.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img705a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img705a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c62b62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img705a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img705b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img705b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e0da82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img705b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img705c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img705c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..352cd48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img705c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img705d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img705d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0eb97e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img705d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img706.jpg b/33295-h/images/img706.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9392c4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img706.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img709a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img709a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d979faf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img709a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img709b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img709b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c6120f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img709b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img709c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img709c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11c8350
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img709c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img710a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img710a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3aa1f6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img710a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img710b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img710b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb9f2db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img710b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img710c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img710c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b08768c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img710c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img711a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img711a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..621a7d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img711a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img711b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img711b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d54f55d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img711b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img712.jpg b/33295-h/images/img712.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ee8fe7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img712.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img713a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img713a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fcbeec8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img713a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img713b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img713b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56af3a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img713b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img714a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img714a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c69581
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img714a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img714b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img714b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1900250
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img714b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img715.jpg b/33295-h/images/img715.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9ddab4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img715.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img716a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img716a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0234de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img716a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img716b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img716b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24dadc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img716b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img716c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img716c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0fc0f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img716c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img716d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img716d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d8b398
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img716d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img716e.jpg b/33295-h/images/img716e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6bb3c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img716e.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img717a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img717a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a0af5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img717a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img717b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img717b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f335fcb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img717b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img718.jpg b/33295-h/images/img718.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa91251
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img718.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img719a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img719a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cf7a53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img719a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img719b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img719b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dd1e83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img719b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img720a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img720a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3869cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img720a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img720b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img720b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a12a4f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img720b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img720c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img720c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3bd4237
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img720c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img721.jpg b/33295-h/images/img721.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..992d1ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img721.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img722.jpg b/33295-h/images/img722.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a326bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img722.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img723.jpg b/33295-h/images/img723.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cac430
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img723.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img725a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img725a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62d269b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img725a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img725b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img725b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2579acc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img725b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img726.jpg b/33295-h/images/img726.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03e74b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img726.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img727.jpg b/33295-h/images/img727.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a02c63c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img727.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img728.jpg b/33295-h/images/img728.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abee8db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img728.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img729a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img729a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f37c6ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img729a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img729b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img729b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78fe7b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img729b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img730.jpg b/33295-h/images/img730.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff7982e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img730.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3b3c56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2de4513
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3bbd366
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..784c5e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d247a32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732e.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc6d310
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732e.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732f.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc5ecac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732f.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732g.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732g.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6527ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732g.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732h.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732h.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c40da29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732h.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732i.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732i.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f011a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732i.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732j.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732j.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a05ab65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732j.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732k.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732k.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0e754e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732k.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732l.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732l.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f756296
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732l.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732m.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732m.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63a0f84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732m.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732n.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732n.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f50754
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732n.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732o.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732o.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a93b9b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732o.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732p.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732p.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0d3a78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732p.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732q.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732q.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ea75d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732q.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732r.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732r.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff2ba30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732r.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img732s.jpg b/33295-h/images/img732s.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97ca1a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img732s.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img733a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img733a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41453bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img733a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img733b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img733b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1322336
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img733b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img734a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img734a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0ca5ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img734a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img734b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img734b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2450fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img734b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img735a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img735a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2dcf54b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img735a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img735b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img735b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9cd797
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img735b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img735c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img735c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7fbd00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img735c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b666fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..19338bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06247f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37034d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736e.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cf4d3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736e.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736f.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..314228d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736f.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736g.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736g.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcc09d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736g.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736h.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736h.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e1c1da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736h.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img736i.jpg b/33295-h/images/img736i.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ff7b0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img736i.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img738a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img738a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60a5df2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img738a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img738b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img738b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ae4236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img738b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img738c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img738c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d02355e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img738c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img739.jpg b/33295-h/images/img739.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcc92e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img739.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img740a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img740a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..971e733
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img740a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img740b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img740b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f642bcb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img740b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img740c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img740c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b123e83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img740c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img740d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img740d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0753aa1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img740d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img740e.jpg b/33295-h/images/img740e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a289fab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img740e.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img742a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img742a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df560b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img742a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img742b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img742b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..041c346
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img742b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img744a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img744a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad53f45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img744a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img744b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img744b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1f26ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img744b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img744c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img744c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f10e39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img744c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img744d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img744d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f02df7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img744d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img748.jpg b/33295-h/images/img748.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f45bfc5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img748.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img748a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img748a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69b9ddf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img748a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img748b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img748b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..161d72c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img748b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img748c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img748c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55509ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img748c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img748d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img748d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f6a14a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img748d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img748e.jpg b/33295-h/images/img748e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0599f11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img748e.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img749a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img749a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a97ca6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img749a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img749b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img749b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebe2b2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img749b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img750.jpg b/33295-h/images/img750.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb7b9d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img750.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img751.jpg b/33295-h/images/img751.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ece4ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img751.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img752a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img752a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f061fab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img752a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img752b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img752b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8e9077
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img752b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img752c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img752c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..372b6df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img752c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img753a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img753a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a348295
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img753a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img753b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img753b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f410a73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img753b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img754.jpg b/33295-h/images/img754.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fc54d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img754.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img755a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img755a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb3ada4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img755a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img755b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img755b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc467b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img755b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img755c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img755c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0918702
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img755c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img756.jpg b/33295-h/images/img756.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c33608
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img756.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img756a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img756a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..493f3ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img756a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img756b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img756b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83c2ad9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img756b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img756c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img756c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c032fea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img756c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img756d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img756d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87fa573
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img756d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img758a.jpg b/33295-h/images/img758a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e27fee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img758a.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img758b.jpg b/33295-h/images/img758b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e46c7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img758b.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img758c.jpg b/33295-h/images/img758c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d278b2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img758c.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img758d.jpg b/33295-h/images/img758d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e70387a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img758d.jpg
diff --git a/33295-h/images/img758e.jpg b/33295-h/images/img758e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ba2505
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295-h/images/img758e.jpg
diff --git a/33295.txt b/33295.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c51a27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,15787 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6
+       "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 30, 2010 [EBook #33295]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME V, SLICE VI
+
+         Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CELTES, KONRAD         CENTO (town of Italy)
+  CELTIBERIA             CENTO (composition)
+  CEMENT                 CENTRAL AMERICA
+  CEMETERY               CENTRAL FALLS
+  CENCI, BEATRICE        CENTRALIA
+  CENOBITES              CENTRAL INDIA
+  CENOMANI               CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR
+  CENOTAPH               CENTUMVIRI
+  CENSOR                 CENTURION
+  CENSORINUS             CENTURIPE
+  CENSUS                 CENTURY
+  CENTAUREA              CEOS
+  CENTAURS               CEPHALIC INDEX
+  CENTAURUS              CEPHALONIA
+  CENTAURY               CEPHALOPODA
+  CENTENARY              CEPHEUS
+  CENTERVILLE            CEPHISODOTUS
+  CENTIPEDE              CERAM
+  CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA     CERAMICS
+
+
+
+
+CELTES, KONRAD (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin poet, the son of a
+vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the Greek translation), was
+born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He early ran away from home to avoid
+being set to his father's trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to
+find a generous patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola.
+After the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of a
+scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of the
+continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere establishing
+learned societies on the model of the academy of Pomponius Laetus at
+Rome. Among these was the _Sodalitas litteraria Rhenana_ or _Celtica_ at
+Mainz (1491). In 1486 he published his first book, _Ars versificandi et
+carminum_, which created an immense sensation and gained him the honour
+of being crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony
+being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of Nuremberg
+in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor Maximilian I. professor
+of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in 1502 was made head of the new
+Collegium Poetarum et Mathematicorum, with the right of conferring the
+laureateship. He did much to introduce system into the methods of
+teaching, to purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the
+study of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a mere
+classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in history and
+topography, especially in that of his native country. It was he who
+first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at Regensburg) the
+remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim, of which he
+published an edition (Nuremberg, 1501), the historical poem _Ligurinus
+sive de rebus gestis Frederici primi imperatoris libri x._ (Augsburg,
+1507), and the celebrated map of the Roman empire known as the _Tabula
+Peutingeriana_ (after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He
+projected a great work on Germany; but of this only the _Germania
+generalis_ and an historical work in prose, _De origine, situ, moribus
+et institutis Nurimbergae libettus_, saw the light. As a writer of Latin
+verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He composed odes,
+elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an unfinished epic, the
+_Theodoriceis_. His epigrams, edited by Hartfelder, were published at
+Berlin in 1881. His editions of the classics are now, of course, out of
+date. He died at Vienna on the 4th of February 1508.
+
+  For a full list of Celtes's works see Engelbert Klupfel, _De vita et
+  scriptis Conradi Celtis_ (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann
+  Aschbach, _Die fruheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes_ (Vienna, 1869);
+  Hartmann, _Konrad Celtes in Nurnberg _(Nuremberg, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+CELTIBERIA, a term used by Greek and Roman writers to denote, sometimes
+the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes the north-east part of the
+central plateau of the peninsula. The latter was probably the correct
+use. The Celtiberi, in this narrower sense, were not so much one tribe
+as a group of cantons--Arevaci, Pelendones, Berones and four or five
+others. They were the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time
+offered a stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian
+mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar
+capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the first
+mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however, keep faith, and
+several campaigns were undertaken against them. In 179 B.C. the whole
+country was subdued by T. Sempronius Gracchus, who by his generous
+treatment of the vanquished gained their esteem and affection. In 153
+they again revolted, and were not finally overcome until the capture of
+Numantia (133). The twenty years' war waged round this city, and its
+siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 B.C.) form only the
+most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its mark in
+entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1906-1907 by German
+archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still more after the
+death of Sertorius (72 B.C.), the Celtiberians became gradually
+romanized, and town life grew up among their valleys; Clunia, for
+instance, became a Roman municipality, and ruins of its walls, gates and
+theatre testify to its civilization; while Bilbilis (Bambola), another
+municipality, was the birthplace of the eminently Roman poet Martial.
+The Celtiberians may have been so called because they were thought to
+be the descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain),
+or because they were regarded (cf. Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race of Celts
+and Spaniards (Iberians); in either case the name represents a
+geographer's theory rather than an ascertained fact. That a strong
+Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by numerous traditions
+and by the more trustworthy evidence of place-names. The Celtic
+place-names of Spain, however, are not confined to Celtiberia or even to
+the north and east; they occur even in the south and west.
+
+  A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi is
+  given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough and
+  unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being chiefly
+  used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a nomadic
+  life or occupied small villages; large towns were few. Their infantry
+  and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they adopted the
+  wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried double-edged swords
+  and short daggers for use hand to hand, the steel of which was
+  hardened by being buried underground; their defensive armour was a
+  light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler, and greaves of felt
+  round their legs. They wore brazen helmets with purple crests, and
+  rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept on the bare ground.
+  Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with urine instead of water.
+  They were said to offer sacrifice to a nameless god (Strabo iii. p.
+  164) at the time of the full moon when all the household danced
+  together before the doors of the houses. Although cruel to their
+  enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate meat of all
+  kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hubner's article in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. (1886-1893), collects all the
+  ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strabo's notice (bk.
+  iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest.     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CEMENT (from Lat. _caementum_, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form
+of _caedimentum_, from _caedere_, to cut), apparently first used of a
+mixture of broken stone, tiles, &c., with some binding material, and
+hence of any material capable of adhering to, and uniting into a
+coherent mass, fragments of a substance not in itself adhesive. The term
+is often applied to adhesive mixtures employed to unite objects or parts
+of objects (see below), but in engineering, when used without
+qualification, it means Portland cement, its modifications and
+congeners; these are all hydraulic cements, i.e. when set they resist
+the action of water, and can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to
+set under water.
+
+_Hydraulic Cements_.--It was well known to builders in the earliest
+historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist the action of
+water, i.e. were hydraulic; it was also known that this property could
+be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture of silicious materials such
+as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here the two classes into which hydraulic
+cements are divided.
+
+
+  Pozzuolanic cement.
+
+When pure chalk or limestone is "burned," i.e. heated in a kiln until
+its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime. This slakes
+violently with water, giving slaked lime, which can be made into a
+smooth paste with water and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The
+setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime (a purely
+physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring between the lime and
+the sand). The function of the sand is simply that of a diluent to
+prevent undue shrinkage and cracking in drying. Subsequent hardening of
+the mortar is caused by the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the
+air by the lime, a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the
+action is superficial. Mortar made from pure or "fat" lime cannot
+withstand the action of water, and is only used for work done above
+water-level. If, however, such "fat" lime is mixed in the presence of
+water, not with sand but with silica in an active form, i.e. amorphous
+and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate containing silica in an
+active condition, it will unite with the silica and form a silicate of
+lime capable of resisting the action of water. The mixture of the lime
+and active silica or silicate is a pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of
+all pozzuolanic cements would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated
+silica, but though the latter is prepared artificially for various
+purposes, it is too expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar
+obstacle lies in the way of using a certain native form of active
+silica, viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of
+nitroglycerine, for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available for
+making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious
+substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be used. They
+are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice, tufa, santorin earth,
+trass and pozzuolana itself. The following analyses show their general
+composition:--
+
+  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                             |Neapolitan |   Roman   |           |
+  |                             |  Pozzuo-  |  Pozzuo-  |   Trass   |
+  |                             |   lana    |   lana    |(per cent) |
+  |                             |(per cent) |(per cent) |           |
+  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------|
+  | Soluble silica (SiO2)       |   27.80   |   32.64   |   19.32   |
+  | Insoluble silicious residue |   35.38   |   25.94   |   50.40   |
+  | Alumina (Al2O3)             | / 19.80   | / 22.74   |   13.86   |
+  | Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)        | \         | \         |    3.10   |
+  | Lime (CaO)                  |    5.68   |    4.06   |   . .     |
+  | Magnesia (MgO)              |    0.35   |    1.37   |    0.13   |
+  | Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)   |   Trace   |   Trace   |   . .     |
+  | Combined water (H2O)        | /  4.27   | /  8.92   |    7.57   |
+  | Carbonic anhydride (CO2)    | \         | \         |   . .     |
+  | Moisture                    |    . .    |    . .    |    5.04   |
+  | Alkalis and loss            |    6.72   |    4.33   |    0.58   |
+  |                             +-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                             |  100.00   | 100.00    |   100.0   |
+  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is
+granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a high
+percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused into
+abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the same slag
+allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy which it
+possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified. It bears to
+ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that borne by plastic
+sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This potential energy becomes
+kinetic when the slag is brought into contact with lime in the presence
+of water, and causes the formation of a true hydraulic silicate of lime.
+The following analysis shows the composition of a typical slag:--
+
+                                       Per Cent.
+  Insoluble residue                      1.04
+  Silica (SiO2)                         31.50
+  Alumina (Al2O3)                       18.56
+  Manganous oxide (MnO)                  0.44
+  Lime (CaO)                            42.22
+  Magnesia (MgO)                         3.18
+  Soda (Na2O)                            0.70
+  Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)              0.45
+  Sulphur (S)                            2.21
+                                       ------
+                                       100.30
+  Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur    1.10
+                                       ------
+                                        99.20
+
+Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime until both
+materials are in a state of fine division and intimately mixed. The
+usual proportions are three of slag to one of slaked lime by weight. The
+product termed slag cement sets slowly, but ultimately attains a
+strength scarcely inferior to that of Portland cement. Although it is
+cheap and suitable for many purposes, its use is not large and tends to
+decrease. Pozzuolanic cements are little used in England. Generally
+speaking, they are only of local importance, their cheapness depending
+largely on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit
+of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured by the
+careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime, but are mixed
+roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being employed. This excess does
+no harm, for that part which fails to unite with the lime serves as a
+diluent, much as does sand in mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic
+cement made on the spot where it is to be used may be regarded as a
+better kind of common mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic
+mortars may be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as
+the pozzuolanic constituent.
+
+
+  Portland Cement
+
+Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the
+pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and active
+silica ready to unite under suitable conditions, but consist of definite
+chemical compounds of lime and silica and lime and alumina, which, when
+mixed with water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of
+great mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert
+material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a high
+temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance and an
+argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances in England are
+chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand it, limestone, marl,
+shale, slag or any similar material may be used, provided that the
+correct proportions of lime, silica and alumina are maintained. The
+earliest forms of cements of the Portland class were the hydraulic
+limes. These are still largely used, and are prepared by burning
+limestones containing clayey matter. Some of these naturally possess a
+composition differing but little from that of the mixture of raw
+materials artificially prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement
+itself. Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient
+times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to water
+have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity to hydraulic lime
+is Roman cement, prepared by heating an indurated marl occurring
+naturally in nodules. Its name must not be taken to imply that it was
+used by the ancients; in point of fact the manufacture of this substance
+dates back only to 1796.
+
+With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th century
+arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply of materials
+containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium carbonate and clay
+being limited, attempts were made to produce artificial mixtures which
+would serve a similar end. Among those who experimented in this
+direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, who added clay to finely ground
+limestone, calcined the mixture, and ground the product, which he called
+Portland cement. The only connexion between Portland cement and the
+place Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles Portland
+stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture Portland cement
+from Portland stone (after adding a suitable quantity of clay), but this
+is merely because Portland stone is substantially carbonate of lime; any
+other limestone would serve equally well. Although Portland cement is
+later in date than either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account
+of its greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an
+artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition and
+properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The greater part of
+the Portland cement made in England is manufactured on the Thames and
+Medway. The materials are chalk and Medway mud; in a few works the
+latter is replaced by gault.
+
+  The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in the
+  following  analyses:--
+
+  +-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |              Chalk.               |                                   Clay.                                    |
+  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+
+  |                         |Per cent.|                            |Per cent.|                  |       |          |
+  |Silica (SiO2)            |   0.92  | Insoluble silicious matter |  26.67  |Consisting of     |       |          |
+  |Alumina+ferric oxide     |         | Silica (SiO2)              |  31.24  |  Quartz (SiO2)   | 19.33 |          |
+  |  (Al2O2 + Fe2O3)        |   0.24  | Alumina (Al2O3)            |  16.60  |  Silica (SiO2)   |  5.19 |\         |
+  |Lime (CaO)               |  55.00  | Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3)       |   8.66  |  Alumina (Al2O3) |  1.47 | >Feldspar|
+  |Magnesia (MgO)           |   0.36  | Lime (CaO)                 |   0.25  |  Magnesia (MgO)  |  0.03 | | 7.34%  |
+  |Carbonic anhydride (CO2) |  43.40  | Magnesia (MgO)             |   1.91  |  Soda (Na20)     |  0.65 |/         |
+  |                         |  -----  | Soda (Na2O)                |   1.00  |                  | ----- |          |
+  |                         |  99.92  | Potash (K2O)               |   0.45  |                  | 26.67 |          |
+  |                         |         | Sodium Chloride (NaCl)     |   1.86  |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         | Combined water, organic    |         |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         |   matter, and loss         |  11.36  |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         |                            | ------  |                  |       |          |
+  |                         |         |                            | 100.00  |                  |       |          |
+  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+
+
+
+    Mixing.
+
+    Loading the kiln.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+  These materials are mixed in the proportion of about 3:1 by weight so
+  that the dried mixture contains approximately 75% of calcium
+  carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may be effected in
+  several ways. The method once exclusively used consists in mixing the
+  raw materials with a large quantity of water in a wash mill, a machine
+  having radial horizontal arms driven from a central vertical spindle
+  and carrying harrows which stir up and intermix any soft material
+  placed in the pit in which the apparatus revolves. The raw materials
+  in the correct proportion are fed into this mill together with a large
+  quantity of water. The thin watery "slip" or slurry flows into large
+  settling tanks ("backs") where the solids in suspension are deposited;
+  the water is drawn off, leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk
+  and clay in the form of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being
+  dried on floors heated by flues is ready for burning. This process is
+  now almost obsolete. According to present practice the raw materials
+  are mixed in a wash mill with so much water that the resulting slurry
+  contains 40 to 50% of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow,
+  is ground between millstones so as to complete the process of
+  comminution begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are
+  of the utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced
+  will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is
+  generally effected by the waste heat of the kilns, so that while one
+  charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the
+  kilns. The kilns commonly employed are "chamber kilns," circular
+  structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but having the
+  top closed and connected at the side with a wide flue in which the
+  slurry is exposed to the hot products of combustion from the kiln. The
+  farther ends of the flues of several such kilns are connected with a
+  chimney shaft. The slurry, in drying on the floor of the flue, forms a
+  fairly tough cake which cracks spontaneously in the process of drying
+  into rough blocks suitable for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of
+  the kiln is a grate of iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled
+  to start the fire. A layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a
+  layer of coke, then a layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is
+  filled with coke and slurry evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on
+  to the drying floors, and the kiln is started. The construction of an
+  ordinary chamber kiln may be gathered from the accompanying diagram
+  (fig. l). The operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln,
+  which will contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will
+  take two days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three
+  days in burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and
+  unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run.
+  The output will be about 30 tons of "clinker" ready to be ground into
+  cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker is
+  effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills,
+  tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the
+  manufacture, because the finished cement should be as fine and
+  "floury" as possible. The foregoing description represents the
+  procedure in use in many English factories. There are various
+  modifications in practice according to local conditions: a few of
+  these may be described. In all cases, however, the main operations are
+  the same, viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the
+  mixture, if necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature
+  (about 1500 Deg. C. =2732 Deg. F.). Thus when hard limestone is the
+  form of calcium carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and
+  mixed with the correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The
+  mixture is slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and
+  burned. A possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix
+  the resulting lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By
+  this method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an
+  extra expenditure of fuel in the double burning.
+
+
+    Other kilns.
+
+  Many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland cement.
+  Besides the chamber kilns which have been described, there are the
+  old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar to the chamber kilns,
+  but are bottle-shaped and open at the top; they do not dry the slurry
+  for their next charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also
+  stage kilns of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical
+  shafts, one above the other, but not in the same vertical line,
+  connected by a horizontal channel. At this middle portion and in the
+  upper part of the lower shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper
+  shaft is full of unburnt raw material which is heated by the hot gases
+  coming from the burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker
+  already burned and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies
+  that necessary for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of
+  Dietzsch kilns, built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are
+  other forms of shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a
+  burning zone, a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no
+  horizontal stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane.
+  Another form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of
+  compartments arranged in a ring and connected with a central chimney;
+  in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw materials
+  are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled. At a given
+  moment one of these compartments is burning and at its full
+  temperature; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or more
+  compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and is
+  thereby strongly heated; the products of combustion pass away through
+  one or more compartments in front of it and heat their contents before
+  they are subjected to actual combustion. It will be seen that the
+  principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage kiln. In
+  each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully hot
+  serves to heat the air-supply to the compartment where combustion is
+  actually proceeding; in like manner the raw materials about to be
+  burned are well heated by the waste gases from the compartment in full
+  activity before they themselves are burned. (It may be noted that here
+  and generally in this article "burn" is used in the technical sense;
+  it is technically correct to speak of cement clinker being "burned",
+  although it is not a fuel; in accurate terms it is the fuel which is
+  burned, and it is the heat it generates which raises the clinker to a
+  high temperature, i.e. technically "burns" it.) By this device a great
+  part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is effected.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+
+    Rotatory kilns.
+
+  The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent. They
+  are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because the
+  cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in fixed kilns.
+  These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in length, an ordinary length
+  in modern practice being 100 to 120 ft.; their diameter
+  correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft. 6 in. The cylinders are
+  made of steel plate, lined with refractory bricks, are carried on
+  rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal, and are rotated by
+  power. At the upper end the raw material is fed in either as a dry
+  powder or as a slurry; at the lower end is a powerful burner. In the
+  early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was used as a fuel, but with
+  little success; about 1895 petroleum was used in the United States
+  with complete success, but at a relatively heavy cost. At the present
+  time, finely powdered coal injected by a blast of air is almost
+  universally employed, petroleum being used only where it is actually
+  cheaper than coal. In the working of this type of kiln the rotation
+  and slight inclination of the cylinder cause the raw material to
+  descend towards the lower end. At the upper end the raw material is
+  dried and heated moderately. As it descends it reaches a part of the
+  kiln where the temperature is higher; here the carbonic acid of the
+  carbonate of lime, and the combined water of the clay are driven off,
+  and the resulting lime begins to act chemically on the dehydrated
+  clay. The material is then in a partially burnt and slightly sintered
+  state, but it is not fully clinkered and would not make Portland
+  cement. The material continues to descend by the rotation of the kiln
+  and reaches the lower end nearest the burner where the temperature is
+  highest, and is there heated so highly that the union of the lime,
+  silica and alumina is complete, and fully burnt clinker falls out of
+  the kiln. It is extremely hot, and is cooled usually by being passed
+  down one or more rotating cylinders, similar to the first, but
+  smaller, and acting as coolers instead of kilns. On its way down the
+  cylinders the clinker meets a current of cold air and is cooled, the
+  air being correspondingly warmed and passing on to aid in the
+  combustion of the fuel used in heating the kiln. This regenerative
+  heating is similar in principle and effect to that obtained by means
+  of the shaft and ring kilns described above. The output of these kilns
+  varies from 200 to 400 tons per kiln per week according to their size
+  and the nature of the raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per
+  week for an ordinary chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also
+  secured. The rotatory system presents many advantages and is rapidly
+  replacing the older methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents
+  diagrammatically a rotatory cement plant on the Hurry & Seaman system,
+  which was one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process
+  successfully on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory
+  kilns of various other makes are now in use, but the same principles
+  are embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder
+  for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and a
+  blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling
+  tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly
+  heated on its way to the burner.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  Another method of making Portland cement which has been proposed and
+  tried with some success consists in fusing the raw materials together
+  in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace. The high temperature
+  necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this process difficult to
+  accomplish commercially, but it has many inherent merits and may be
+  the process of the future, displacing the rotatory method.
+
+
+    Cement clinker.
+
+  Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like
+  substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The
+  product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt and properly
+  vitrified; that from an ordinary fixed kiln of whatever type is apt to
+  contain a certain amount (5 to 15%) of underburnt material, which is
+  yellowish and friable and is not properly clinkered. This material
+  must be picked out, as such underburnt stuff contains free lime or
+  unsaturated lime compounds. These may slake slowly in the finished
+  cement and cause such expansion as may destroy the work of which it
+  forms part. Well-burnt, well-picked clinker when ground yields good
+  Portland cement. Nothing is added during or after grinding save a
+  small amount (1 to 2%) of calcium sulphate in the form either of
+  gypsum or of plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the
+  cement slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water
+  (up to 2%) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by blowing
+  steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This small
+  addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate, but
+  the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone and
+  blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights, is
+  adulteration and therefore fraudulent.
+
+
+    Composition.
+
+  The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively narrow
+  limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending to
+  become smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture increase. The
+  following analysis may be taken as typical of cements made from chalk
+  and clay on the Thames and Medway:--
+
+                             Per cent.
+    Silica (SiO2)              22.0
+    Insoluble residue           1.0
+    Alumina (Al2O3)             7.5
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)        3.5
+    Lime (CaO)                 62.0
+    Magnesia (MgO)              1.0
+    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)   1.5
+    Carbonic anhydride (CO2)    0.5
+    Water (H2O)                 0.5
+    Alkalis                     0.5
+                              -----
+                              100.0
+
+  There may be variations from this composition according to the nature
+  of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range from 19 to
+  27%, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7 to 14%, the lime from
+  60 to 67%. All such variations are permissible provided that the
+  quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient to saturate the whole of
+  the lime and to leave none of it in a "free" condition, likely to
+  cause the cement to expand after setting. Other things being equal,
+  the higher the percentage of lime within the limits indicated above
+  the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed cement is less easy
+  to burn than cement containing about 62% of lime; and unless the
+  burning is thorough and the raw materials are intimately mixed, the
+  cement is apt to be unsound. Although the ultimate composition of
+  cement, that is, the percentage of each base and acid present, can be
+  accurately determined by analysis, its proximate composition, i.e. the
+  nature and amount of the compounds formed from these acids and bases,
+  can only be ascertained indirectly and with difficulty. The
+  foundations of our knowledge on this subject were laid by H. le
+  Chatelier, whose work has since been supplemented by that of Spenser
+  B. Newberry, W.B. Newberry and Clifford Richardson. As the outcome of
+  these inquiries it has been established that tricalcium silicate
+  3CaO.SiO2 is the essential constituent of Portland cement. The
+  constituent of next importance is an aluminate, but whether this is
+  dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO.Al2O3, or tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO.Al2O3,
+  is still in doubt. In the following description it is assumed to be
+  the tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and aluminates
+  present, and ferric oxide and magnesia, if existing in the moderate
+  quantities which are usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of
+  minor importance and may be regarded as little more than impurities.
+  The silicates and aluminates of which Portland cement is composed are
+  believed to exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of
+  each other, these solid solutions taking the form of minerals
+  recognizable as individuals. The two principal minerals are termed
+  alite and celite; according to the best opinion, alite consists of a
+  solid solution of tricalcium aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and
+  celite of a solid solution of dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium
+  silicate. Celite is little affected by water, and has but small
+  influence on the setting; alite is decomposed and hydrated, this
+  action constituting the main part of the setting of Portland cement.
+  Both the components of alite react, and for simplicity their reactions
+  may be stated in separate equations, thus:--
+
+    (1)  2(3CaO.SiO2) + 9H2O = 2(CaO.SiO2).5H2O + 4Ca(OH)2
+        Tricalcium silicate.    Hydrated mono-     Calcium
+                               calcium silicate.  hydroxide.
+
+    (2)  3CaO.Al2O3 + 12H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.12H2O
+        Tricalcium aluminate.  Hydrated tricalcium
+                                 aluminate.
+
+  Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral,
+  is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to
+  tricalcium aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary; but,
+  whatever the proportions, each of these substances will react in its
+  characteristic manner according to the equations given above.
+
+  The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland cement is
+  not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous to that of the
+  setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution of the
+  compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more soluble form,
+  their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent
+  supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus of
+  the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a
+  coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a small
+  quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition of a
+  substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less soluble
+  form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an indefinitely
+  large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there should be
+  present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the reacting
+  substance at any one time; it is sufficient if there is enough for
+  hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive
+  stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the aluminate
+  is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that its
+  ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the
+  tricalcium silicate.
+
+  As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium
+  silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of
+  minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in ordinary
+  cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of silica,
+  alumina and lime in the clinker; its role in the setting of the cement
+  is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement can be
+  prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free also from
+  manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed for
+  exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement in
+  quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is evidence
+  that in larger proportion, e.g. 10-15%, it may hydrate and set after
+  the general setting of the cement, and may give rise to disruptive
+  strains causing the cement to "blow" and fail. In so-called natural
+  cement which is comparatively lightly burnt, the magnesia appears to
+  be inert, and as much as 20 to 30% may be present. Another constituent
+  of Portland cement which influences its setting time is calcium
+  sulphate, naturally formed from the sulphur in the raw materials or
+  fuel, or intentionally added to the finished cement as gypsum or
+  plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable retarding effect on the
+  hydration of the calcium aluminate, and consequently on the setting of
+  the cement; thus it is that a little gypsum is often added to convert
+  a naturally quick-setting cement into one which sets slowly. It will
+  be observed that in the hydration of tricalcium silicate, the main
+  constituent of Portland cement, a large portion of the lime appears as
+  calcium hydroxide, i.e. slaked lime. It is evident that this will form
+  a pozzuolanic cement if a suitable silicious material such as trass is
+  added to the cement. The ultimate product when set may be regarded as
+  a mixed Portland and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this
+  manner as an adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W.
+  Michaelis, and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but
+  it has not become general.
+
+
+    Testing.
+
+  The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis and by
+  determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength and
+  soundness. A good sample will usually have a composition within the
+  limits cited above and approximating to the typical figures given
+  above. It will be ground so finely that not more than 3% will be left
+  on a sieve of 76 X 76 meshes per sq. in., the wires of the sieve being
+  0.005 in. in diameter. It will have, when freshly burned, a specific
+  gravity not lower than 3.15, and briquettes made from it and kept in
+  water will possess a tensile strength of 400-500 lb. per sq. in. seven
+  days after they are made, while briquettes made from a mixture of 3
+  parts by weight of sand and 1 of cement will give about 225 lb. per
+  sq. in. at twenty-eight days. Formerly the soundness of cement was
+  determined by keeping thin pats of the cement in cold water for
+  twenty-eight days, or in warm water (110 Deg.-120 Deg. F.) for
+  twenty-four hours, and examining for cracks or other signs of
+  expansion. Modern practice is to measure the expansion of a test piece
+  of cement kept in water at a temperature of 212 Deg. F. The simplest
+  and most generally used method is due to H.L. le Chatelier, and
+  consists in measuring the increase in circumference of a cylinder of
+  cement 30 mm. in diameter by means of a split ring encircling the
+  cylinder, the motion of which is magnified by two light rods extending
+  radially. Another quantitative test for soundness is that formulated
+  by L. Deval, who has shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of
+  cement kept in water for two days at 80 Deg. C. = 176 Deg. F. attain
+  approximately the same strength as similar briquettes attain at seven
+  days in water at the ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes
+  kept at 176 Deg. F. for seven days are approximately equal in strength
+  to those kept at the ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A
+  cement not perfectly sound will give low results in the hot test, and
+  a cement of indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The
+  test is admittedly severe, but can be passed without difficulty by
+  cement made with proper care and skill. There are many modifications
+  and elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement
+  for all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing
+  and analysis before it is accepted and used.
+
+_Hydraulic Lime_ is a cement of the Portland as distinct from the
+pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is that known as
+Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at Ardeche in France. This
+limestone consists of calcium carbonate most intimately intermixed with
+very finely divided silica. It contains but little alumina and oxide of
+iron, which are the constituents generally necessary to bring about the
+union of silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the
+silica is so finely divided and so well distributed that it unites
+readily with the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently
+high temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class; they
+contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in composition
+resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement.
+
+  Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows:--
+
+                                Chaux de Theil.    Blue Lias.
+                                   Per cent.        Per cent.
+
+    Insoluble silicious matter       0.3              2.39
+    Silica (SiO2)                   21.7             14.17
+    Alumina (Al2O3)                  1.8              6.79
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)             0.6              2.34
+    Lime (CaO)                      74.0             63.43
+    Magnesia (MgO)                   0.7              1.54
+    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)        0.3              1.63
+    Carbonic anhydride (CO2) \       0.6            / 3.64
+    Water (H20)              /                      \ 2.69
+    Alkalis and loss                 . .              1.38
+                                   -----            ------
+                                   100.0            100.00
+
+  Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has to be
+  slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking is
+  conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime being
+  sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking proceeds
+  slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncombined lime
+  is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious compounds,
+  notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In English practice
+  hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that regular and perfect
+  slaking is more easily attained when working systematically on a large
+  scale and by storing the material for a long period, the French method
+  is the better and more rational. The product may then be regarded as a
+  cement of the Portland class mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with
+  water and made into a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes
+  almost as strong as Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage
+  for some purposes, e.g. for foundations and abutments where
+  settlements may occur. The structure is free to take its permanent
+  position before the lime sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in
+  point is the employment of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement
+  as grouting outside the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made
+  by the shield system.
+
+_Roman Cement_ is another cement of the Portland class which came into
+use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Portland cement was
+attempted. It is still in use, though only for special purposes where a
+quick-setting material is required. It is made from septaria nodules
+which are dredged up on the Kent and Essex coasts and consist of about
+60% of calcium carbonate mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently
+indurated to remain coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared
+in any way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat.
+
+  The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but approximates
+  to the following figures:--
+
+                                   Per cent.
+    Insoluble silicious matter       5.86
+    Silica (SiO2)                   19.62
+    Alumina (Al203)                 10.30
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)             7.44
+    Manganese dioxide (MnO2)         1.57
+    Lime (CaO)                      44.54
+    Magnesia (MgO)                   2.92
+    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)        2.61
+    Carbonic anhydride (CO2)         3.43
+    Water (H2O)                      0.25
+    Alkalis and loss                 1.46
+                                   ------
+                                   100.00
+
+  The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives
+  the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also
+  differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains
+  appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of alumina
+  causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard in about
+  five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh, very
+  well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is likely
+  to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place.
+
+The term _Natural Cements_ is applied to cements made by burning
+mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occurring in
+approximately suitable proportions. They may be regarded as badly-mixed
+Portland cements, and need no special description. American "natural"
+cements are of a somewhat different class. They are usually made from a
+silicious limestone containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly
+burned.
+
+  The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind:--
+
+                                        Per cent.
+    Silica (SiO2)                         24.30
+    Alumina (Al203)                        7.22
+    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)                   5.06
+    Lime (CaO)                            33.70
+    Magnesia (MgO)                        20.94
+    Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss    8.78
+                                         ------
+                                         100.00
+
+  These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building
+  materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good
+  artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings.
+
+_Passow Cement _is a recent product which is in a class by itself. It is
+made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable composition and
+finely grinding the product, either alone or with an admixture of about
+10% of Portland cement clinker. It differs from ordinary slag cement
+(see above) in that it is not a pozzuolanic cement depending on the
+interaction of granulated slag and lime. The particular method of
+granulating slag for Passow cement produces a material which sets _per
+se_ and attains a strength comparable with that of Portland cement.
+Passow cement has been successfully made from slag of different
+compositions in Germany, England and America.
+
+
+  Uses of hydraulic cements.
+
+The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic or
+Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which is to be
+exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote antiquity it was found
+that the jointing of masonry which was to be immersed required the use
+of a cement indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar failed
+in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from limestones or
+chalks containing a little clay was found to stand; mortar made from
+lime mixed with trass or similar active silicious material was also
+found to stand. On this observation rests the whole of the present
+enormous employment of hydraulic cements. It was a natural transition to
+utilize these cements not merely for jointing masonry but also for
+making concrete, and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct
+from cements which are not hydraulic (e.g. ordinary mortar), are used
+for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their use in
+above-water work is checked by the low price of common brick. Even in
+such work, where it would be thought that masses of burnt clay would be
+the cheapest conceivable material, concrete is at least on level terms
+with its rival. It must be remembered that one of the great advantages
+of concrete is that five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from
+local sand and gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement,
+on which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose
+incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that the
+largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock and harbour
+work, and for the making of foundations. It is also employed for the
+building of light bridges, floors, and pipes constructed of cement
+mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron rods. Such composite structures
+take advantage at once of the high tensile strength of iron and of the
+high compressive strength of cement mortar. (See also CONCRETE.)
+
+Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials provided certain
+conditions be observed. It might be supposed that hydraulic cements from
+their nature would be indifferent to the action of water, but this is
+only true if the structures of which they form part are sufficiently
+compact. In this case the action of the water is checked by the film of
+carbonate of lime which eventually forms oh the surface of calcareous
+cement. This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the
+ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and ultimate
+destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or mortar is not well
+made and is porous, the continual passage of water through it will
+gradually break up and dissolve away the calcareous constituents of the
+cement until its strength is utterly destroyed. This destructive action
+is increased if the water contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of
+which act chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As
+sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is especially
+necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every care to produce an
+impervious structure. There are various minor external causes for the
+failure and ultimate destruction of cement mortar and concrete, but
+their discussion is a matter for the specialist. Failure from inherent
+vice in the cement has been already touched on; it can always be traced
+to want of skill and care in manufacture.
+
+_Calcium Sulphate Cements._--Under this term are comprehended all
+cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the hydration of
+calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris, Keene's cement and many
+variants of these two types. The raw material is gypsum (q.v.). This may
+be almost chemically pure, when it is generally used for Keene's cement;
+or it may contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which
+case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster of
+Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum at
+temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be produced. If
+plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is carried out at about 204
+Deg. C. (=400 Deg. F.); at this temperature, gypsum, CaS04.2H20, loses
+three-quarters of its combined water and becomes 2CaSO4.H20. If a cement
+of the Keene's cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is
+higher, e.g. 500 Deg. C. (=932 Deg. F.), and the whole of the combined
+water of the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaSO4 being
+obtained.
+
+
+    Plaster of Paris; Keene's cement.
+
+  To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking the
+  mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both
+  processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory kilns, a
+  process which may be regarded as the method of the present and the
+  immediate future. Keene's cement and its congeners are made in fixed
+  kilns so constructed that only the gaseous products of combustion come
+  into contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid
+  contamination with the ash of the fuel.
+
+  The setting of plaster of Paris depends on the fact that when
+  2CaSO4.H2O is treated with water it dissolves, forming a
+  supersaturated solution of CaSO4.2H2O. The excess held temporarily in
+  solution is then deposited in crystals of CaSO4.2H2O. In the light of
+  this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes clear.
+  The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to make it
+  into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite insufficient to
+  dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part, and gives a
+  supersaturated solution of CaSO4.2H2O. In a few minutes the surplus
+  hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution, and the
+  water is capable again of dissolving 2CaSO4.H2O, which in turn is
+  fully hydrated and deposited as CaSO4.2H2O. The process goes on until
+  a relatively small quantity of water has by instalments dissolved and
+  hydrated the 2CaSO4.H2O, and has deposited CaSO4.2H2O in felted
+  crystals forming a solid mass well cemented together. The setting is
+  rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and is accompanied by a
+  considerable expansion of the mass. There is reason to suppose that
+  the change described takes place in two stages, the gypsum first
+  forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystallizing in the
+  monosymmetric system. Gypsum thus crystallized is in its normal
+  monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary conditions than the
+  orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process of dehydration to form
+  plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum is converted into the
+  orthorhombic form before it begins to be dehydrated.
+
+  The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the other
+  class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene
+  class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of
+  knowledge on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential
+  difference between the setting of Keene's cement and that of plaster
+  of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying
+  hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion
+  which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less
+  marked.
+
+  It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low
+  temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO4.H2O, to soak
+  the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to
+  recalcine them at about 500 Deg. C. On grinding they give Keene's
+  cement. Instead of alum various other salts, e.g. borax, may be used.
+  The quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of Keene's
+  cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium sulphate, and make
+  it difficult to explain what, if any, influence these minute amounts
+  of alum and the like can exert on the setting of the cement. It seems
+  probable that the effect of the salts is inconsiderable, and that the
+  governing condition is the temperature at which the cement has been
+  burnt. The setting of Keene's cement takes place by the same sort of
+  process which has been described for the setting of plaster of Paris,
+  the chief differences being that the substance dissolved is anhydrous
+  calcium sulphate and that the operation takes a longer time.
+
+  All cements having calcium sulphate as their base are suitable only
+  for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They form
+  excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white colour
+  and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter quantity
+  being due to their expansion when setting.
+
+  See D.B. Butler, _Portland Cement_ (London, 1905); E.C. Eckel,
+  _Cements, Limes and Plasters_ (New York, 1905); G.R. Redgrave and
+  Charles Spackman, _Calcareous Cements_ (London, 1905); F.H. Lewis,
+  "Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States," _The Mineral
+  Industry_ (New York, 1898); W.H. Stanger and Bertram Blount, "Cement
+  Manufacture in Great Britain," _The Mineral Industry_, New York, 1897
+  and 1905; _Id_. "The Testing of Hydraulic Cements," _Journ. Soc. Chem.
+  Ind.,_ 1894, 13, p. 455; _Id., Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._, 1901; B.
+  Blount, "Recent Progress in the Cement Industry," _Journ. Soc. Chem.
+  Ind.,_ 1906, 25, p. 1020; H.L. le Chatelier, _Recherrhes
+  experimenlales sur la constitution des mortiers hydrauliques;_ Desch,
+  _Concrete_, No. 2, pp. 101-102; Davis, _Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,_ 1905,
+  26, p. 727.     (B. Bl.)
+
+  _Adhesive Cements._--Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral
+  substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making
+  joints, mending broken china and other objects, &c. A strong cement
+  for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared by
+  mixing 12 parts of Portland cement, 8 of fine sand and 1 of infusorial
+  earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of soda; the
+  object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone, marble, and
+  earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be made as
+  follows:--skimmed-milk cheese is boiled in water till of a gluey
+  consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated
+  with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar cement
+  is a mixture of dried fresh curd with 1/10th of its weight of
+  quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with water
+  when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china, &c., is
+  composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster of
+  Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to be
+  united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement,
+  the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg,
+  hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also
+  useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before their
+  application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of wine
+  is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are solutions
+  of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha. For use
+  with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of wooden
+  cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed oil boiled with
+  litharge, and 8 parts of melted glue; other strong cements for the
+  same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine in cold water and
+  dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or by mixing glue with
+  one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little bichromate of
+  potash. _Mahogany cement_, for filling up cracks in wood, consists of
+  4 parts of beeswax, 1 of Indian red and yellow-ochre to give colour.
+  _Cutler's cement_, used for fixing knife-blades in their hafts, is
+  made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin, or of 4 parts of
+  rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For covering bottle-corks
+  a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is employed. A cheap cement,
+  sometimes employed to fix iron rails in stone-work, is melted
+  brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust. For pipe-joints, a mixture of
+  iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac, moistened with water, is
+  employed. _Japanese cement_, for uniting surfaces of paper, is made by
+  mixing rice-flour with water and boiling it. _Jewellers'_ or _Armenian
+  cement_ consists of isinglass with mastic and gum ammoniac dissolved
+  in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep their work firm by means of a
+  cement of pitch and rosin, a little tallow, and brick-dust to thicken.
+  _Temporary cement_ for lathe-work, such as the polishing and grinding
+  of jewelry and optical glasses, is compounded thus:--rosin, 4 oz.;
+  whitening previously made red-hot, 4 oz.; wax, 1/4 oz.
+
+
+
+
+CEMETERY (Gr. [Greek: koimeterion], from [Greek: koiman], to sleep),
+literally a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to
+the places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally
+extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of interment in
+churches or churchyards being unknown in the first centuries of the
+Christian era. The term cemetery has, therefore, been appropriately
+applied in modern times to the burial-grounds, generally extra-mural,
+which have been substituted for the overcrowded churchyards (q.v.) of
+populous parishes both urban and rural.
+
+From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the condition of
+the London churchyards by correspondence in the press and by the reports
+of parliamentary committees, the first of which, that of Mr Chadwick,
+appeared in 1843. The vaults under the pavement of the churches, and the
+small spaces of open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins.
+In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products of
+corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease and death to
+those who frequented them. In the churchyards coffins were placed tier
+above tier in the graves until they were within a few feet (or sometimes
+even a few inches) of the surface, and the level of the ground was often
+raised to that of the lower windows of the church. To make room for
+fresh interments the sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal
+of bones and partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents
+of the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the
+site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles and
+nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the churchyards
+was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the gaseous emanations
+from the graves, and the water, wherever it was obtained from wells,
+containing organic matter, the source of which could not be mistaken. In
+all the large towns the evil prevailed in a greater or less degree, but
+in London, on account of the immense population and the consequent
+mortality, it forced itself more readily upon public attention, and
+after more than one partial measure of relief had been passed the
+churchyards were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of
+1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of ground to
+the north, south, east and west became henceforth the burial-places of
+the metropolis. Several of them had been already established by private
+enterprise before the passing of the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green
+cemetery dates from 1832), but that enactment forms the epoch from
+which the general development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland
+began. Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost
+everywhere abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by
+such safeguards as make it practically innocuous. This tendency has been
+conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the United States. The
+increasing practice of cremation (q.v.) has assisted in the movement for
+disposing of the dead in more sanitary conditions; and the proposals of
+Sir Seymour Haden and others for burying the dead in more open coffins,
+and abandoning the old system of family graves, have had considerable
+effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving the sanitary
+aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the cemeteries themselves
+as fit as possible for this purpose, and beautiful in arrangement and
+decoration.
+
+The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery on the Harrow
+Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of Highgate Hill; the cemetery at
+Abney Park (once the residence of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead
+cemeteries to the south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton;
+the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria cemetery
+and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London; and at a greater
+distance, accessible by railway, the great cemetery at Brookwood near
+Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery at New Southgate. The general plan of
+all these cemeteries is the same, a park with broad paths either laid
+out in curved lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each
+other at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery. The
+ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave spaces, and
+trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between them. The
+buildings consist of a curator's residence and one or more chapels, and
+usually there is also a range of family graves with imposing tombs,
+massive structures containing in their corridors recesses for the
+reception of coffins, generally closed only by an iron grating. The
+provincial cemeteries in the main features of their arrangements
+resemble those of the metropolis. One of the most remarkable is St
+James's cemetery at Liverpool, which occupies a deserted quarry. The
+face of the eastern side of the quarry is traversed by ascending
+gradients off which open catacombs formed in the living rock,--a soft
+sandstone; the ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand
+hundreds of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through
+a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery chapel,
+built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle porticos.
+
+Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries. One of the
+largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn near Boston.
+Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery (1836) at
+Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at Brooklyn (New York); the
+Lake View cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio; while the cemeteries at New
+Orleans (q.v.) are famous for their beauty.
+
+The chief cemetery of Paris is that of Pere la Chaise, the prototype of
+the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes its name from the
+celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom as rector of the Jesuits of
+Paris it once belonged. It was laid out as a cemetery in 1804. It has an
+area of about 200 acres, and contains about 20,000 monuments, including
+those of all the great men of France of the 19th century--marshals,
+generals, ministers, poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors
+and musicians. Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the
+scene of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian
+column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 1871 the
+Communists made their last stand among the tombs of Pere la Chaise; 900
+of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were shot there after its
+capture, and 200 of them were buried in quicklime in one huge grave and
+700 in another. There are other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and
+Montmartre, besides the minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles,
+Passy, La Villette, &c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being
+more or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the
+plateau of Mery sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which it is
+connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit fully 2 sq.
+m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs in many respects from
+the English. Every city and town is required by law to provide a
+burial-ground beyond its barriers, properly laid out and planted, and
+situated if possible on a rising ground. Each interment must take place
+in a separate grave. This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the
+dead are buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the _fosses communes_, the
+poor being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being made
+in all other cases. The _fosse_ is filled and left undisturbed for five
+years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed, the level of
+the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and interments begin
+again. For a fee of 50 francs a _concession temporaire_ for ten years
+can be obtained, but where it is desired to erect a permanent monument
+the ground must be bought by the executors of the deceased. In Paris the
+undertakers' trade is the monopoly of a company, the _Societe des pompes
+funebres_, which in return for its privileges is required to give a free
+burial to the poor.
+
+The _Leichenhauser_, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich form a
+remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The object of
+their founders was twofold--(1) to obviate even the remotest danger of
+premature interment, and (2) to offer a respectable place for the
+reception of the dead, in order to remove the corpse from the confined
+dwellings of the survivors. At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of
+the wings of the propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the
+cemetery. It consists of the warder's room, where an attendant is always
+on duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated,
+kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on which a
+corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a ring connected by
+a light cord with a bell which hangs outside in the warder's room. The
+use of the dead-house is voluntary. The bodies deposited there are
+inspected at regular intervals by a medical officer, and the warder is
+always on the watch for the ringing of the warning bell. One revival,
+that of a child, has been known to take place at Frankfort. The
+Leichenhaus of Munich is situated in the southern cemetery outside the
+Sendling Gate. At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular
+building with an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which
+contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At both
+Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the attendants receive the
+dead confided to them with respect, and no interment is permitted until
+the first signs of decomposition appear; the relatives then assemble in
+one of the halls adjoining the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place.
+In any case there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature
+interment, but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of
+great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which result
+from the prolonged retention of the dead among the living. Mortuaries
+for this purpose have also been established in many places in England.
+
+In Italy the _Campo Santo_ (Holy Field) is best illustrated by the
+famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to other Italian
+burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use in southern Europe the
+catacombs (q.v.) of Sicily are the most curious. There is one of these
+under the old Capuchin monastery of Ziza near Palermo, where in four
+large airy subterranean corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in
+the wall, many of them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or
+hanging with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation
+for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then
+dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end of
+the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely ornamented
+with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones.
+
+Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations from time
+immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton and Macao are crowded
+with tombs, many of them being in the form of small tumuli, with a low
+encircling wall, forcibly recalling the ringed barrows of western
+Europe. But the most picturesque cemeteries in the world are those of
+the Turks. From them it was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern
+cemetery, with its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around
+Constantinople the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under
+whose branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never reopened;
+a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so the dead now occupy
+a wider territory than that which is covered by the homes of the living.
+The Turks believe that till the body is buried the soul is in a state of
+discomfort, and the funeral, therefore, takes place as soon as possible
+after death. No coffin is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few
+boards are arranged round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care
+being taken to leave a small opening extending from the head of the
+corpse to the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently
+enlarged by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone
+of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban in the
+case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low relief if the
+grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying form indicates not
+only the rank of the sleeper below but also the period of his death, for
+the fashion of the Turkish head-dress is always changing. A cypress is
+usually planted beside the grave, its odour being supposed to neutralize
+any noxious exhalations from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a
+forest, where by day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or
+perching on the trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at
+night. Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite
+resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside the narrow
+openings that lead down into a parent's, a husband's, or a brother's
+grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constantinople contrast rather
+unfavourably with the simple dignity of those which belong to the Turks.
+That of the Armenians abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of
+the death of whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones
+there are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging
+on the gallows.
+
+  See also the articles BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CREMATION; FUNERAL
+  RITES; CHURCHYARD.
+
+
+
+
+CENCI, BEATRICE (1577-1599), a Roman woman, famous for her tragic story;
+poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance about her, which modern
+historic research has to a large extent destroyed. Born at Rome, she was
+the daughter of Francesco Cenci (1549-1598), the bastard son of a
+priest, and a man of great wealth but dissolute habits and violent
+temper. He seems to have been guilty of various offences and to have got
+off with short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous
+cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely
+legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve
+children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia Petroni, a
+widow with three daughters, by whom he had no offspring. He was very
+quarrelsome and lived on the worst possible terms with his children,
+who, however, were all of them more or less disreputable. He kept
+various mistresses and was even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his
+sons were equally dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter
+Beatrice was probably due to his discovery that she had had an
+illegitimate child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards
+(A. Bertolotti, in his _Francesco Cenci_, publishes Beatrice's will in
+which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that he
+tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The eldest son
+Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel, who cheated his own
+father and even attempted to murder him (1595). Two other sons, Rocco
+and Cristoforo, both of them notorious rakes, were killed in brawls.
+Finally Francesco's wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and
+Beatrice, assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him.
+Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according to
+Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice's lover), and Francesco was
+assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom of
+Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos murdered, but
+the other was arrested by the Neapolitan authorities and confessed
+everything. Information having been communicated to Rome, the whole of
+the Cenci family were arrested early in 1599; but the story of the
+hardships they underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra
+escaped; Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and
+Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture, also ended
+by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain mercy for the accused,
+but the crime was considered too heinous, and the pope (Clement VIII.)
+refused to grant a pardon; on the 11th of September 1599, Beatrice and
+Lucrezia were beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with
+red-hot pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered. Bernardo's
+penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to perpetual
+imprisonment, and after a year's confinement he was pardoned. The
+property of the family was confiscated.
+
+  The romantic character of the history of this family has been the
+  subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley's tragedy is well known
+  as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts a purely
+  fictitious version of the story. Nor is F.D. Guerrazzi's novel,
+  _Beatrice Cenci_ (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first attempt to
+  deal with the subject on documentary evidence is A. Bertolotti's
+  _Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1879),
+  containing a number of interesting documents which place the events in
+  their true light; cf. Labruzzi's article in the _Nuova Antologia_,
+  1879, vol. xiv., and another in the _Edinburgh Review_, January 1879.
+
+
+
+
+CENOBITES (from Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek: bios], life),
+monks who lived together in a convent or community under a rule and a
+superior,--in contrast to hermits or anchorets who live in isolation.
+The Basilians (q.v.) in the East and the Benedictines (q.v.) in the West
+are the chief cenobitical orders (see MONASTICISM).
+
+
+
+
+CENOMANI, a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose territory
+corresponded generally to Maine in the modern department of Sarthe.
+Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum (corrupted into Subdinnum),
+afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum (whence Le Mans), the original name of
+the town, as usual in the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that
+of the people. According to Caesar (_Bell. Gall._ vii. 75. 3), they
+assisted Vercingetorix in the great rising (52 B.C.) with a force of
+5000 men. Under Augustus they formed a _civitas stipendiaria_ of Gallia
+Lugdunensis, and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii.
+About 400 B.C., under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large
+number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans
+southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of Cato (in
+Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 130), that some of them settled near Massilia
+in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route taken by them.
+The limits of their territory are not clearly defined, but were probably
+the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps
+the Addua) on the west, and the Padus on the south. Livy gives their
+chief towns as Brixia (Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona.
+The Cenomani nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies
+of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 B.C.), when the
+Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and during the war against
+Hannibal. They certainly joined in the revolt of the Gauls under
+Hamilcar (200), but after they had been defeated by the consul Gaius
+Cornelius (197) they finally submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia
+Transpadana, they acquired the rights of citizenship.
+
+The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel of Cenomani
+have given rise to discussion. According to Arbois de Jubainville, the
+Cenom[)a]ni of Italy are not identical with the Cenom[=a]ni (or
+Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the latter, the survival of the
+syllable "man" in Le Mans is due to the stress laid on the vowel; had
+the vowel been short and unaccented, it would have disappeared. In
+Italy, Cenomani is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of
+the Aulerci.
+
+  See A. Voisin, _Les Cenomans anciens et modernes_ (Le Mans, 1862); A.
+  Desjardins, _Geographic historique de la Gaule romaine,_ ii.
+  (1876-1893); Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Premiers Habitants de
+  l'Europe_ (1889-1894); article and authorities in _La Grande
+  Encyclopedie_; C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii.
+  pt. 2 (1899); full ancient authorities in A. Holder, _Alt-celtischer
+  Sprachschatz_, i. (1896).
+
+
+
+
+CENOTAPH (Gr. [Greek: kenos], empty, [Greek: taphos], tomb), a monument
+or tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere. The
+custom arose from the erection of monuments to those whose bodies could
+not be recovered, as in the case of drowning.
+
+
+
+
+CENSOR (from Lat. _censere_, assess, estimate; in Gr. [Greek:
+timaetaes]). I. _In ancient Rome_, the title of the two Roman officials
+who presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens
+for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to the
+community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea of the arbitrary
+assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines _census_ as _arbitrium_,
+and derives the name _censores_ from the position of these magistrates
+as _arbitri populi_ (Varro, _de Ling. Lat._ v. 81; _ap._ Non. p. 519).
+This original idea of "discretionary power" was never entirely lost;
+although ultimately it came to be more intimately associated with the
+appreciation of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the
+point of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman
+manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not unusual
+feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome possessed sumptuary
+laws, and laws dealing with moral offences, which it was the duty of
+other magistrates to enforce; but the organization for the control of
+conduct was mainly exhibited in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited,
+was at once simple and comprehensive.
+
+The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 B.C. to
+relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the periods of
+registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous office; but its
+tenure does not seem to have been fixed until 434 B.C., when a _lex
+Aemilia_ provided that the censors should hold office for eighteen
+months. This magistracy was at first confined to patricians; a plebeian
+censor is first mentioned in 351 B.C. A _lex Publilia_ of 339 B.C. is
+said to have enacted that one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian
+censors were for the first time elected in 131 B.C. The election always
+took place in the Comitia Centuriata (see COMITIA). The censorship,
+although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the right of
+summoning the senate and the people, was not only one of the higher
+magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a political career. It
+was an irresponsible office; and the only limitations on its powers were
+created by the restriction of tenure to a year and a half, the fact that
+re-election was forbidden, and the restraint imposed on each censor by
+the fact that no act of his was valid without the assent of his
+colleague.
+
+The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration of
+citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries; (2) the
+taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their property; (3)
+the right of exclusion from public functions on moral grounds, known as
+the _regimen morum_; (4) the solemn act of purification (_lustrum_)
+which closed the census. Two other functions were subsequently
+added:--(5) the selection of the senate (_lectio senatus_, see SENATE),
+and (6) certain financial duties such as the leasing of the contracts
+for tax-collecting and for the repair of public buildings. The first
+four of these functions were those of the census, which was a detailed
+examination of the citizen body as represented by heads of families
+(_patres familiarum_) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select
+portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights took
+place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see EQUITES). It was in
+connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and the knights, as
+well as with the choice of senators, that the censors published their
+edicts stating the moral rules which they intended to enforce. The
+offences which they punished were sometimes concerned with family life
+and private relations, sometimes with breaches of political duty.
+Certain professions, such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked
+their stigma, and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were
+the consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. _Infamia_ was the
+general name given to the disabilities pronounced by the censor. These
+varied in degree from the deprivation of a senator of his seat, or a
+knight's loss of his horse, to exclusion from the tribes or centuries,
+an exclusion which entailed the loss of voting power. All the
+disabilities pronounced by one pair of censors might be removed by their
+successors.
+
+The censorship, although its control over the senate came to be
+weakened (see SENATE), lasted as long as the republic; and it was only
+suspended, not abolished, during the principate. Although the princeps
+exercised censorial functions, he was seldom censor. Yet the office
+itself was held by Claudius I. and Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title
+of life censor (_censor perpetuus_), but the precedent was not followed.
+A fruitless attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was
+made in A.D. 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, ii. 331 foll. (3rd
+  ed., Leipzig, 1887); Daremberg-Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites
+  grecques et romaines_, i. 990 foll. (1875, &c.); Lange, _Romische
+  Alterthumer_, i. 572 foll. (Berlin, 1856, &c.); de Boor, _Fasti
+  Censorii_ (Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, _Die romische Censur in ihrem
+  Verhaltnisse zur Verfassung_ (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, "Uber die Census"
+  in _Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil._ lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt, "Die
+  Lustra der Romer" in _Rhein. Museum_, xxv. 465, xxvi. i.
+       (A. H. J. G.)
+
+II. In modern times the word "censor" is used generally for one who
+exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of other persons.
+In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it is the title of the
+official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate students (i.e. those
+who are not attached to a college, hall or hostel). In Oxford the censor
+is nominated by the vice-chancellor and the proctors, and holds office
+for five years; in Cambridge he is similarly appointed, and holds office
+for life. The censors of the Royal College of Physicians are the
+officials who grant licences.
+
+_Council of Censors_, in American constitutional history, is the name
+given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsylvania from
+1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont from 1777 to 1870.
+Under both constitutions the council of censors was elected once in
+seven years, for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the
+governmental departments, the conduct of the state officers, and the
+working of the laws, and as to whether the constitution had been
+violated in any particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in
+number to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required
+amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose. A
+convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the constitution by
+abolishing the censors.
+
+  For the censorship of the press, see PRESS LAWS; for the censorship of
+  plays, THEATRE: _Law_, and LORD CHAMBERLAIN.
+
+
+
+
+CENSORINUS, Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer, flourished during
+the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of a lost work _De Accentibus_,
+and of an extant treatise _De Die Natali_, written in 238, and dedicated
+to his patron Quintus Caerellius as a birthday gift. The contents are of
+a varied character: the natural history of man, the influence of the
+stars and genii, music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the
+Greek philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and
+mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining the
+principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is full of curious and
+interesting information. The style is clear and concise, although
+somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity, for the period, good. The chief
+authorities used were Varro and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold
+that the entire work is practically an adaptation of the lost _Pratum_
+of Suetonius. The fragments of a work _De Natali Institutione_, dealing
+with astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually printed
+with the _De Die Natali_ of Censorinus, are not by him. Part of the
+original MS., containing the end of the genuine work, and the title and
+name of the author of the fragment are lost.
+
+  The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Lindenbrog
+  (1614); the most recent critical editions are by O. Jahn (1845), F.
+  Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English
+  translation of the _De Die Natali_ (the first eleven chapters being
+  omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CENSUS (from Lat. _censere_, to estimate or assess; connected by some
+with _centum, i.e._ a count by hundreds), a term used to denote a
+periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times, to population, and
+occasionally to industries and agricultural resources, but formerly
+extending to property of all kinds, for the purpose of assessment.
+
+Operations of this character have been conducted with different objects
+from very ancient times. The fighting strength of the children of Israel
+at the Exodus was ascertained by a count of all males of twenty years
+old and upwards, made by enumerators appointed for each clan. The
+Levites, who were exempted from military duties, were separately
+enumerated from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was
+ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute amongst them
+the functions assigned to the priestly body in connexion with the
+temple. The census unwillingly carried out by Joab at the behest of
+David related exclusively to the fighting men of the community, and the
+dire consequences ascribed to it were quoted in reprobation of such
+inquiries as late as the middle of the 18th century. It appears, too,
+that a register of the population of each clan was kept during the
+Babylonian captivity and its totals were published on their return to
+Jerusalem. In the Persian empire there was apparently some method in
+force by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the
+purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumeration of
+somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in connexion with
+the provincial revenues and military liabilities. In Egypt, Amasis had
+the occupation of each individual annually registered, nominally to aid
+the official supervision of morals by discouraging disreputable means of
+subsistence; and this ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced
+by Solon into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed
+later into an electoral record.
+
+It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the name of the
+inquiry is derived was first established upon a regular footing. The
+original census was ascribed to Servius Tullius, and in the constitution
+which goes by his name it was decreed that every fifth year the
+population should be enumerated along with the property of each
+family--land, live-stock, slaves and freedmen. The main object was to
+ensure the accurate division of the people into the six main classes and
+their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations of
+combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the city the operation
+grew in importance, and was followed by an official _lustrum_, or
+purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the people by the censors
+or functionaries in charge of the classification. Hence the name of
+lustrum came to denote the intercensal term, or a period of five years.
+The word census, too, came to mean the property qualification of the
+class, as well as the process of registering the resources of the
+individual. Later, it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in
+which it has survived in the contracted form of _cess_. Unfortunately
+the statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the
+fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed down
+relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood. In the
+time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole empire. In the
+words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered "the whole world to be
+_taxed_," or, according to the revised version, to be _enrolled_. The
+compilation of the results of this the most comprehensive enumeration
+till then attempted was engaging the attention of the emperor, it is
+said, just before his death, but was never completed. The various
+inquiries instituted during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book
+and the Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that
+they took little or no account of the population, the feudal system
+probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary for the purposes
+of taxation or military service.
+
+The foundations of the census on the modern system were laid in Europe
+towards the middle or end of the 17th century. Sweden led the way, by
+making compulsory the parish record of births, deaths and marriages,
+kept by the clergy, and extending it to include the whole of the
+domiciled population of the parish. In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered
+the extension to the rural communes of the system which had for many
+years been in force in Paris of registering and periodically publishing
+the domestic occurrences of the locality. Five years before this,
+however, a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been
+established in the colony of New France, and was continued in Quebec
+from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered to be the
+earliest of modern censuses.
+
+Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by statistical
+experts in periodical conference to bring about a general understanding,
+first, as to the subjects which may be considered most likely to be
+ascertained with approximate accuracy at a census, and secondly--a point
+of scarcely less importance--as to the form in which the results of the
+inquiry should be compiled in order to render comparison possible
+between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard to the
+scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practicable in a
+country where the agency of trained officials is employed throughout the
+operation which cannot be expected to be adequately recorded where the
+responsibility for the correctness of the replies is thrown upon the
+householder. The standard set up by eminent statisticians, therefore,
+may be taken to represent an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere
+under present conditions, but towards which each successive census may
+be expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance is
+attached from the international standpoint are age, sex, civil
+condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities. Occupation,
+too, should be included, but the record of so detailed a subject is
+usually considered to be better obtained by a special inquiry, rather
+than by the rough and ready methods of a synchronous enumeration. This
+course has been adopted in Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach
+to it is made in the decennial census of Canada and the United States.
+Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested, is of
+considerably more importance in some countries than in others, and the
+same may be said of nationality, which is often usefully supplemented by
+the return of mother-tongue. Nor should it be forgotten that the
+internal classification and the combinations of the above subjects are
+also matters to be treated upon some uniform plan, if the full value of
+the statistics is to be extracted from the raw material. On the whole,
+the progress towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of
+the questions here mentioned which has been made in the present
+generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long laboured in
+the cause of efficient enumeration.
+
+
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE
+
+_England and Wales._--Up to the beginning of the 19th century the number
+of the population was a matter of estimate and conjecture. In 1753 a
+bill was introduced by a private member of the House of Commons, backed
+by official support, to provide for the annual enumeration of the people
+and of the persons in receipt of parochial relief. It was violently
+opposed as "subversive of the last remains of English liberty" and as
+likely to result in "some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper."
+After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by the House
+of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of England the weakness
+of the country in fighting-material was one of the main objections
+offered to the proposal. By the end of the century, however, owing to a
+great extent to the publication of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum
+had swung far in the opposite direction, it was thought desirable to
+possess the means of judging from time to time the relations between an
+increasing population and the means of subsistence. A census bill,
+accordingly, again brought in by a private member, became law without
+opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under it took
+place in March of the following year, the operations being confined to
+Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England to the overseers,
+acting under the justices of the peace and the high constables, and in
+Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under the sheriffs. A supplementary
+statement of births, deaths and marriages for each parish was required
+from the clergy, who transmitted it to parliament through the bishops
+and primates successively. There was no central office or control. The
+schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise, the
+population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under one of the
+three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or industry, or (c)
+other than these two. The results, which were not satisfactory, were
+published without comment. Ten years later, the chief alteration in the
+inquiry was the substitution of the main occupation of the family for
+that of the individual. The report on this census contained a very
+valuable exposition of the difficulties involved in such operations and
+the numerous sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of
+questions. In 1821 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it
+was not repeated in 1831, when the attention of the enumerators was
+concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record. Their efforts
+were successful in getting a better, but still far from complete result.
+The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and the establishment, in
+1836, of civil registration districts, as a rule coterminous with them,
+provided a new basis for the taking of a census, and the operations in
+1841 were made over accordingly to the supervision of the
+registrar-general and his staff. The inquiry was extended to the sex,
+age and occupation of every individual; those born in the district were
+distinguished from others, foreigners being also separately returned.
+The number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction
+respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of births,
+deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the last time. The
+most important innovation, however, was the transfer of the
+responsibility for filling up the schedule from the overseers to the
+householders, thereby rendering possible a synchronous record.
+
+With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated has been
+since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head of the family,
+civil condition, and the blind and deaf-mute were included in the
+inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing for the census was
+interpreted to authorize the collection of details regarding
+accommodation in places of public worship and the attendance thereat, as
+well as corresponding information about educational establishments. A
+separate report was published on the former subject which proved
+something of a storm centre. The census of 1871 obtained for the first
+time a return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums. During
+the next ten years, the separate areas for which population returns had
+to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the creation of sanitary
+districts, to the number of 966. The necessity, for administrative or
+other purposes, of tabulating separately the returns for so many
+cross-divisions of the country constitutes one of the main difficulties
+of the English census operations, more particularly as the boundaries of
+these areas are frequently altered. In anticipation of the census of
+1891, a treasury committee was appointed to consider the various
+suggestions made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its
+proposals were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation column
+into employer, employed and independent worker, and as to the record
+upon the schedule of the number of rooms occupied by the family, where
+not more than five. Separate entry was also made of the persons living
+upon property or resources, but not following any occupation. No action
+was taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that midway
+between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and age should be
+effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for Wales, of those who
+could speak only Welsh, only English, and both languages, but, owing to
+the inclusion of infants, the results were of little value. In 1901 the
+same information was called for, excluding all under three years of age.
+The term tenement, too, was substituted for that of storey, as the
+subdivision of a house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited
+houses, those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately
+recorded. The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be
+returned only for British subjects, was called for from all not born
+within the kingdom.
+
+_Scotland._--In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to 1851,
+provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with that for England
+and Wales, allowance being made for the differences in procedure, which
+mainly concerned the agency to be employed. In 1855, however, civil
+registration of births and deaths was established in Scotland, and the
+conduct of the census of 1861 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the
+registrar-general of that country. The same course was followed at the
+three succeeding enumerations, but in 1901 the former practice was
+resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though far less than in
+England, was simplified, and the census compilation proportionately
+facilitated, by the passing of the Local Government Act for Scotland, in
+1889. In 1881, the definition of a house in Scotland was made identical
+with that in England, since previously what was called a house in the
+northern portion of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south,
+and vice versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of
+the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of children of
+school-age under instruction is also included in the inquiry. The number
+of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded for the first time in 1881. The
+question was somewhat expanded at the next census, and in 1901 was
+brought into harmony with the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx.
+
+_Ireland_.--An estimate of the population of Ireland was made as early
+as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 1712, in connexion with the
+hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a regular census was made in
+1811, through the Grand Juries. It was not successful, and in 1821
+again, the inquiry was considered to be but little more satisfactory.
+The census of 1831 was better, but the results were considered
+exaggerated, owing to the system of paying enumerators according to the
+numbers they returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a
+revisional inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good basis
+for the newly introduced system of public instruction. The completion of
+the ordnance survey and the establishment of an educated constabulary
+force brought the operations of 1841 up to the level of those of the
+sister kingdom. The main difference in procedure between the two
+inquiries is that in Ireland the schedule is filled in by the
+enumerator, a member of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the
+metropolitan police, instead of being left to the householder. The
+tabulation of the returns, again, is carried out at the central office
+from the original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into
+which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency. The inquiry
+in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great Britain. It includes,
+for instance, a considerable amount of information regarding holdings
+and stock. The details of house accommodation are fuller. A column is
+provided for the degree of education, and another for religious
+denomination, an addition which has always been successfully resisted in
+England. This last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the
+following enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the
+record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to those
+_temporarily_ incapacitated from work, whether at home or in a hospital.
+There is also a column for the entry of persons speaking the Irish
+language only or able to speak both that and English. In the report of
+1901 for England and Wales (p. 170) a table is given showing, for the
+three divisions of the United Kingdom, the relative number of persons
+speaking the ancient languages either exclusively or in addition to
+English.
+
+_British Colonies and Dependencies._--A simultaneous and uniform census
+of the British empire is an ideal which appeals to many, but its
+practical advantages are by no means commensurate with the difficulties
+to be surmounted. Scattered as are the colonies and dependencies over
+the world, the date found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother
+country and the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the
+tropics and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope
+of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information is
+thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the inquiry,
+too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the locality allow, and
+the population dealt with is likely to be able and willing to answer. By
+prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity may be obtained in regard to most
+of the main statistical facts ascertainable at a census, at all events
+in the more advanced units of the empire, and proposals to this effect
+were made by the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report
+upon the figures for 1901. Previous to that date, the only step towards
+compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare
+statement of area and population, appended without analysis; comparison
+or comment, to the reports for England and Wales, from the year 1861
+onwards. In 1905, however, the returns published in the colonial reports
+were combined with those of the United Kingdom, and the subjects of
+house-room, sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and,
+where available, instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as
+fully as the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command
+paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states, colonies
+and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of their population are
+set forth below.
+
+_Canada_.--The first enumeration of what was afterwards called Lower
+Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and dealt with the legal,
+or domiciled, population, not with that actually present at the time of
+the census, a practice still maintained, in contrast to that prevailing
+in the rest of the empire. The record was by families, and included the
+sex, age and civil condition of each individual, with a partial return
+of profession or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour
+of a fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has
+remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British occupation,
+a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually from 1824 to 1842, the
+information asked for differing from time to time. Enumerations were
+conducted independently by the different states until 1871, when the
+first federal census was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since
+then, the enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more
+recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North-West, where an
+intermediate census was found necessary in 1885-1886. The census of
+Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the United States rather than
+in accordance with British practice, and includes much which is the
+subject of annual returns in the latter country, or is not officially
+collected at all. The details of deaths in the year preceding the
+census, for instance, are called for, there being no registration of
+such occurrences in the rural tracts. In consideration of the large
+immigrant population again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded,
+with details as to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration.
+Occupation is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary
+unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other particulars. No
+less than eleven schedules are employed, most of them relating to
+details of industries and production. The duty of filling up so
+comprehensive a return, involving an answer to 561 questions, is not
+left to the householder, but entrusted to enumerators specially engaged,
+working under the supervision of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to
+the sparse population and difficulties of communication in a great part
+of the dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not
+completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator for the
+collection of his returns and their revision and transmission to the
+central office. A special feature in the operations is the provision,
+necessitated by the record of the _legal_ population, for the inclusion
+in the local return of the persons temporarily absent on the date of the
+census, and their adjustment in the general aggregates, a matter to
+which considerable attention is paid. The very large mass of detail
+collected at these inquiries entails an unusually long time spent in
+compilation; the statistics of population, accordingly, are available
+considerably in advance of those relating to production and industries.
+
+_Australasia_.--As the sphere of the census operations in Canada has
+been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the east coast to
+the immense territories of the north-west, so, in the island continent,
+colonization, first concentrated in the south-east, has extended along
+the coasts and thence into the interior, except in the northern region.
+The first act of effective occupation of the country having been the
+establishment of a penal settlement, the only population to be dealt
+with in the earlier years of British administration was that under
+restraint, with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated from 1788
+onwards by official "musters," at first weekly, and afterwards at
+lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate that it had no
+statistical value until 1820, when the muster was taken after due
+preparation and with greater care, approximating to the system of a
+regular census. The first operation, however, called by the latter name,
+was the enumeration of 1828, when an act was passed providing for the
+enumeration of the whole population, the occupied area and the
+live-stock. The details of population included sex, children and adults
+respectively, religion and _status_, that is whether free (immigrants or
+liberated convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar
+inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate census
+was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively. The scope of the
+inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat extended and made to include
+occupations other than agriculture and stock-breeding. Five years later,
+the increase of the population justified the further addition of
+particulars regarding birthplace and education. The record of _status_,
+too, was made optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In
+that year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony, took
+its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated in 1846, ten years
+after its foundation as a colony. From 1861 the census has been taken
+decennially by all the states except Queensland, where, as in New
+Zealand, it has been quinquennial since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up
+to and including the census of 1901 each state conducted separately its
+own inquiries. The scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great
+Britain, modified to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered
+population. The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under
+district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the whole
+number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the population in the
+rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In more than one state the
+police are employed as enumerators, but elsewhere, a staff has to be
+specially recruited for the purpose. The operations were improved and
+facilitated by means of an interstatal conference held before the census
+of 1891, at which a standard schedule was adopted and a series of
+general tables agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail
+according to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in
+addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace,
+occupation and house-room, includes education and sickness as well as
+infirmities, and leaves the return of religious denomination optional
+with the householder. Under the head of occupation, the bread-winner is
+distinguished from his dependants and is returned as employer, employed,
+or working on his own account, as is now the usual practice in
+census-taking. Each state issues its own report, in which the returns
+are worked up in the detail required for both local administrative
+purposes, and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the
+neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and Victoria are
+especially valuable in their statistical aspect from the analysis they
+contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively young community under
+modern conditions of progress.
+
+_South Africa._--Almost from the date of their taking possession of the
+Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East Indian Company
+instituted annual returns of population, live-stock and agricultural
+produce. The results from 1687 for nearly a century were recorded, but
+do not appear to have been more accurate than those subsequently
+obtained on the same method by the British government, by whom they were
+discontinued in 1856. The information was collected by district
+officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or procedure.
+The first synchronous census of the colony, as it was then constituted,
+took place in 1865, on a fairly comprehensive schedule. Ten years later
+the inquiry was extended to religion and civil condition, and for the
+census of 1891, again, a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The
+next census was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the
+disorganization produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same
+lines as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries
+and religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration of
+the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with special
+attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more ignorant
+classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy was enlisted. In
+some tracts it was found advisable to substitute a less elaborate
+schedule for that generally prescribed. In Natal, indeed, where the
+first independent census was taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was
+not on that occasion enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were
+counted on a very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to
+40 years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair
+indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable extent
+and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from the white
+population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable difference
+between the European and the Oriental in the matter of age distribution
+and civil condition. The Transvaal and the Orange River colonies were
+enumerated in 1904. In the latter, a census had been taken in 1890, in
+considerable detail, but that of the Transvaal, in 1896, seems to have
+been far from complete or accurate even in regard to the white
+population. In Southern Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in
+1891, but it was not until 1904 that the whole population was included
+in the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring a
+sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large and
+illiterate native population has to be taken into account. For this
+reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up to 1906 of Northern
+Rhodesia, the British possessions and protectorates of eastern Africa,
+or, again, of Nigeria and the protectorates attached to the West African
+colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone and Lagos.
+
+_The West Indies._--Each of the small administrative groups here
+included takes its census independently of the rest, though since 1871
+all take it about the date fixed for that of the United Kingdom. The
+information required differs in each group, but the schedule is, as a
+rule, of a simple character, and the results of the inquiry are usually
+set forth with comparatively little comment or analysis. In some of the
+groups distinctions of colour are returned in general terms; in others,
+not at all. On the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding
+the indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class
+who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad. No
+census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados, in 1901.
+
+_Ceylon_.--Here the census is taken decennially, on the same date as in
+India, in consideration of the constant stream of migration between the
+two countries. The schedule is much the same as in India with the
+substitution of race for caste. Until 1901, however, it was not filled
+in by the enumerator, as in India, but was distributed before and
+collected after the appointed date as in Great Britain.
+
+_India_.--The population of India is the largest aggregate yet brought
+within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumeration. It amounts to
+three-fourths of that of the British Empire, and but little less than a
+fifth of the estimated population of the world. Between 1853 and 1881
+each province conducted its own census operations independently, with
+little or no attempt at uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In
+the latter year the operations were placed for the first time under
+central administration, and the like procedure was adopted in 1891 and
+1901, with such modification of detail as was suggested by the
+experience of the preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be
+brought within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the
+use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than the
+standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to the inquiry,
+and the efficiency of the administrative agency increased. Not more than
+5% of the householders in India can read and write, and the proportion
+capable of fully understanding the schedule and of making the entries in
+it correctly is still lower. From the literate minority, therefore,
+agency has to be drawn in sufficient strength to take down every
+particle of the information dictated by the heads of families. As it
+would be impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the
+course of the census night for more than a comparatively small number of
+houses, the operation is divided into two processes. First a preliminary
+record is made a short time before the night in question, of the persons
+ordinarily residing in each house. Then, on that night, the enumerator,
+reinforced if necessary by aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat,
+and brings the record up to date by striking out the absent and entering
+the new arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include
+about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men were
+required for enumeration alone. To this army must be added the
+controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above number, charged
+with the instruction of their subordinates, the inspection and
+correction of the preliminary record, and the transmission of the
+schedule books to the local centre after the census has been taken. The
+supply of agency for these duties is, fortunately, not deficient.
+Irrespective of the large number of clerks, village scribes and state
+and municipal employes which can be drawn upon with but slight
+interruption of official routine, there is a fair supply of casual
+literary labour up to the moderate standard required. The services, too,
+of the educated public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of
+the local authorities for the census night, with no desire for
+remuneration beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps,
+of a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district.
+By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the
+preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in 1901
+were given to the public within a fortnight of the census, and differed
+from the final results by no more than 94,000, or .03%. The schedule
+adopted contains in addition to the standard subjects of sex, age, civil
+condition, birthplace, occupation and infirmities, columns for
+mother-tongue, religion and sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed
+in about 20 languages. The results for each province or large state are
+tabulated locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final
+compilation is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own
+report upon the operations and results. This work has usually an
+interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the prominent
+place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical variety of the
+population.
+
+
+FOREIGN COUNTRIES
+
+Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of taxation,
+such as the hearth-tax in France, were instituted in continental Europe
+as early as the 14th century; but as the basis of an estimate of
+population they were intrinsically untrustworthy. Going outside Europe,
+an extreme instance of the results of combining a census with more
+definite administrative objects may be found in the census of China in
+1711, when the population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and
+liability to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty
+years later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief
+of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103 millions!
+The notion of obtaining a periodical record of population and its
+movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities, originated, as
+stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth and death registers,
+till then kept voluntarily by the parish clergy, were made compulsory
+and general, the results for each year being communicated to a central
+office. A census, as a special undertaking, was not, however, carried
+out in that country until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in
+the next year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the
+parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring
+state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the 18th
+century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate. Amongst
+them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census was not obtained until
+1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small states of Italy, too, recorded
+their population in the middle of the above century, but the first
+general census of that country took place in 1861, after its
+unification. In Austria, a census was taken in 1754 by the parish
+clergy, concurrently with the civil authorities and the military
+commandants. Hungary was in part enumerated thirty years later. The
+starting-point of the modern census, however, in either part of the dual
+monarchy, was not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal
+countries began the current series of their censuses between 1825 and
+1860. The German empire has taken its census quinquennially since its
+foundation, but long before 1871 a census at short intervals used to be
+taken in all the states of the Zollverein, for the purpose of
+ascertaining the contribution to the federal revenue, the amount of
+which was revisable every three years. The last great country to enter
+the census field was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of
+the population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and
+police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials without
+central direction or systematic organization. In 1897 a general census
+was taken as synchronously throughout the empire as was found possible.
+It embraced a population second to that of India alone, as China,
+probably the most populous country in the world, has not yet been
+subjected to this test. The inquiry was made in great detail, under
+central control, and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the
+requirements of so varied a country and population. As in India, the
+schedules had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were
+dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The principal
+regions of which the population is still a matter of mere conjecture are
+the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of Africa, and a considerable
+portion of South America.     (J. A. B.)
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United States.
+Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative work, "It was
+no European state, but the United States of America that made a
+beginning of census-taking in the large and true sense of that word,"
+and Professor H. Wagner, writing of the censuses of Sweden, said to have
+been taken in the 18th century, uses these words, "Since 1749 careful
+parish registers have been kept by the clergy and have in general the
+value of censuses." The same authority, although mentioning a reported
+census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first real
+census of that country was in 1815. Sweden, Norway and the United States
+are the only countries with any claim to have taken the first modern
+census, as distinguished from a register of tax-payers, &c., the lineal
+descendant of the old Roman census, and the innovation seems to be due
+to the United States. If so, the first modern census was the American
+census of 1790. At the present date more than three-fifths of the
+estimated population of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is
+of interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated.
+
+The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken every ten
+years since under a mandate contained in the Constitution of the United
+States, was the outgrowth of a controversy in the convention which
+prepared the document. Representatives of the smaller states as a rule
+claimed that the vote, and so the influence, of the states in the
+proposed government should be equal. Representatives of the larger
+states as a rule claimed that their greater population and wealth were
+entitled to recognition. The controversy ended in the creation of a
+bicameral legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the
+larger states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each
+state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were to be
+distributed in proportion to the population, and the convention,
+foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an enumeration of the
+inhabitants and a redistribution or reapportionment of seats in the
+House of Representatives every ten years.
+
+The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as
+follows:--"Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among
+the several states which may be included within this Union according to
+their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
+whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
+term of years and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other
+persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
+the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every
+subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law
+direct."
+
+In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and free, the free
+classed as white and others, the free whites as males and females, and
+the free white males as under or above sixteen years of age. In 1800
+and 1810 the same classification was preserved, except that five
+age-groups instead of two were given for free white males and the same
+five were applied also to free white females. In connexion with the
+census of 1810 an attempt, perhaps the earliest in any country, was made
+to gather certain industrial statistics showing "the number, nature,
+extent, situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United
+States." In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white males,
+an age classification of four periods was applied to the free coloured
+and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens and of persons
+engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in commerce was called for.
+The inquiry into industrial statistics begun in 1810 was also repeated
+and extended.
+
+In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of each sex,
+and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex. The number of
+aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were also gathered.
+
+The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained a novel
+provision for the preparation in connexion with the census of
+statistical tables giving "such information in relation to mines,
+agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as will exhibit a full
+view of the pursuits, industry, education and resources of the country."
+This was about the first indication of a tendency, which grew in
+strength for half a century, to load the Federal census with inquiries
+having no essential or necessary connexion with its main purpose, which
+was to secure an accurate enumeration of the population as a basis for a
+reapportionment of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency
+was largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under the
+Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical
+inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent
+member of the party whose contention he states:--
+
+  "The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the
+  general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether purely
+  statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of
+  apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other authority
+  than that of the states themselves. That large party which advocates a
+  strict and jealous construction of the constitution would certainly
+  oppose any independent legislation by the national Congress for
+  providing a registration of births, marriages and deaths, or for
+  obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the
+  satisfaction of the publicist or for the guidance of the legislature.
+  Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to be
+  within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust and
+  opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of the
+  people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought."
+
+The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now mainly of
+historic importance, exerted great influence upon the development of the
+American census prior to 1900.
+
+The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educational
+statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes and of
+causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects. Public
+discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifications of scope
+and method at the census of 1850. Before the census law was passed, a
+census board, consisting of three members of the president's cabinet,
+was appointed to draft plans for the inquiry, and the essential features
+of its report prepared after consultation with a number of leading
+statisticians were embodied in the law.
+
+The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free inhabitants,
+one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding year, one for
+agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social statistics. The
+last asked for returns regarding valuation, taxation, educational and
+religious statistics, pauperism, crime and the prevailing rates of wages
+in each municipal division. It was also the first American census to
+give a line of the schedule to each person, death or establishment
+enumerated, and thus to make the returns in the individual form
+indispensable for a detailed classification and compilation. The results
+of this census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary
+analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them with
+European figures.
+
+The census of 1860 followed the model of its predecessor with slight
+changes. When the time for the next census approached it was felt that
+new legislation was needed, and a committee of the House of
+Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards president of the
+United States, at its head, made a careful and thorough study of the
+situation and reported an excellent bill, which passed the House, but
+was defeated by untoward influences in the Senate. In consequence the
+census of 1870 was taken with the outgrown machinery established twenty
+years earlier, a law characterized by Francis A. Walker, the
+superintendent of the census, who administered it, as "clumsy,
+antiquated and barbarous." It suffered also from the fact that large
+parts of the country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four
+years of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb of
+American census work. Tie accuracy of the results is generally denied by
+competent experts. The serious errors were errors of omission, were
+probably confined in the main to the Southern states, and were
+especially frequent among the negroes.
+
+Since 1870 the development of census work in the United States has been
+steady and rapid. The law, which had been prepared for the census of
+1870 by the House committee, furnished a basis for greatly improved
+legislation in 1879, under which the tenth census was taken. By this law
+the census office for the first time was allowed to call into existence
+and to control an adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators.
+The scope of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto
+volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of the
+population, but also of the products and resources of the United States.
+Probably no other census in the world has ever covered so wide a range
+of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India and the eleventh
+American census has extended through so many volumes. The topics usually
+contained in a census suffered from the great addition of other and less
+pertinent matter, and the reputation of the work was unfavourably
+affected by the length of time required to prepare and publish the
+volumes (the last ones not appearing until near the end of the decade),
+the original underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent
+supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the
+superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability and death
+of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh census was taken under
+a law almost identical with that of the tenth, and extended through
+twenty-five large volumes, presenting a work almost as encyclopaedic,
+but much more distinctively statistical.
+
+The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States, depends
+largely upon the degree to which its figures for the population of the
+country, of states, and especially of cities, meet or fail to meet the
+expectations of the interested public. Judged by this standard, the
+census of 1890 was less favourably received than that of 1880. The
+enumerated population of the country in 1880 was larger than had been
+anticipated; and in the face of these figures it was difficult for local
+complaints, even where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance.
+But according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth of
+population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had shown
+between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade of the century,
+except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%, in spite of an
+immigration nearly double that of any preceding decade. For this change
+no adequate explanation was offered by the census office. Hence the
+protests of those who believed that the figures for population were too
+small swelled into a general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census
+was probably more correct than the critics. Most of the motives
+influencing popular estimates of population in the United States tend to
+exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution of the
+United States attempted to secure a balance of interests by apportioning
+both representatives in Congress and direct taxes according to
+population. A passage in _The Federalist_ suggests the motives of the
+convention as follows:--
+
+  "As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will
+  necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if not
+  co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the states
+  should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the amount
+  of their numbers. Were their share of representation alone to be
+  governed by this rule, they would have an interest in exaggerating
+  their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their share of taxation
+  alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By extending the rule to
+  both objects the states will have opposite interests, which will
+  control and balance each other, and produce a requisite impartiality."
+
+With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal
+revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population
+disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many representatives in
+Congress has been reinforced by the more influential feelings of local
+pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat similar size. Hence a
+complaint that the population is overstated is seldom heard, and hence,
+also, popular charges of an under-count afford little evidence that the
+population was really larger than stated by the census.
+
+After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown that the
+number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was surprisingly small,
+and that this deficiency in children was a leading cause of the slow
+growth in population. Before the tabulation had been made Francis A.
+Walker wrote:--"If the birth-rate among the previously existing
+population did not suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot
+be vindicated. To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of
+the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of the
+inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years of age."
+These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the count of 1890. Efforts
+to invalidate the census returns by comparison with the registration
+records of Massachusetts cannot be deemed conclusive, since in the
+United States, as in Great Britain, the census must be deemed more
+accurate and less subject to error than registration records. A strong
+argument in favour of the eleventh census, apart from its
+self-consistency, is that its results as a whole fit in with the
+subsequent state enumerations. In eleven cases such enumerations have
+been taken; and on computing from them and the results of the federal
+census of 1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census
+should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform, it
+appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon, was the
+difference between the enumerations and these estimates over 4%. In
+Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in 1890 than the estimate
+would lead one to expect; in New York city, about 100,000 less. It seems
+not improbable that in the latter, where the difficulties incident to a
+count during the summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions
+occurred. Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh
+census as a whole.
+
+The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the argument
+that would maintain the eleventh census to be inaccurate because it
+showed a smaller rate of increase in population during the preceding
+decade than had been recorded by other censuses during earlier decades.
+The rate of increase during the decade ending in 1900 was even less than
+that for the preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off
+so marked could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer
+inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating from the
+computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian Territory and
+Indian reservations, was 20.7; the rate of increase if these places are
+included--in which case the figures of the population of Hawaii in 1890
+must be taken from the census of the Hawaiian government in that
+year--was 21%.
+
+  The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with those of
+  1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws relative to
+  census work. By this law the census office was far more independent
+  than ever before. Appointments and removals were made by the director
+  of the census rather than by the secretary of the interior, and in all
+  plans for the execution of the law the head of the office was
+  responsible for success. The law divided the subjects of census
+  inquiry into two parts--first, those of primary importance, requiring
+  the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly, those of subsidiary
+  importance, capable of production without the aid of the enumerator.
+  The former had to be finished and published by 1st July 1902; the
+  latter were not to be undertaken until the former were well advanced
+  towards completion. By this means the attention of the office could be
+  concentrated on a small number of subjects rather than distributed
+  over the long list treated in the volumes of the tenth and eleventh
+  censuses.
+
+  Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all
+  residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no
+  system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is no
+  such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a
+  national system of registration, and the country depends upon the
+  crude method of enumerators' returns for its information on vital
+  statistics, except in the states and cities which have established a
+  trustworthy registration system of their own. These are the New
+  England states and a few others in their vicinity or influenced by
+  their example. Enumerators' returns in this field are so incomplete
+  that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred in any
+  community during the preceding year are obtained by an enumerator
+  visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the computation of
+  death-rates is afforded, and the returns have comparatively little
+  scientific value. In the regions where census tables and
+  interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the
+  several states or cities they are often made more complete than those
+  in the state or municipal documents. The census of agriculture is also
+  liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm accounts
+  and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or the value
+  even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to the calendar
+  year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless answers about
+  the preceding year's crop are almost sure to have been given by many
+  farmers in the midst of the summer's work.
+
+  The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different
+  character. A large proportion of the industries of the country keep
+  satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some
+  correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects of
+  the census, and to fear that the information given will be open to the
+  public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manufacturing
+  schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of accounting among
+  different companies or lines of business, and this is often lacking.
+  Another source of error in the manufacturing census of the United
+  States is that the words of the census law are construed as requiring
+  an enumeration of the various trades and handicrafts, such as
+  carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns are gross and
+  notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek for them and to
+  report what it finds, however incomplete or incorrect the results may
+  be. Even on the population returns certain answers, such as the number
+  of the divorced or the number unable to read and write, may be open to
+  question.
+
+  The wide range of the American census, and the publication of
+  uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the
+  development of accurate census work requires a long educational
+  process in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough
+  approximations must always precede accurate measurements; and these
+  returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably
+  improve with each decade.
+
+  Besides, the breadth of its scope, in which the American census stands
+  unrivalled, the most important American contribution to census work
+  has been the application of electricity to the tabulation of the
+  results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties which this
+  method reduced were two. The production of tables for so enormous a
+  population as that of the United States through the method of tallying
+  by hand requires a great number of clerks and a long period of time,
+  and when complete cannot be verified except by a repetition of the
+  process. The new method abbreviates the time, since an electric
+  current can tally almost simultaneously the data, the tallying of
+  which by hand would be separated by appreciable intervals. The method
+  also renders comparatively easy the verification of the results of
+  certain selected parts.
+
+  Judged by European standards the cost of the American census is very
+  great. The following table gives the total and the per capita cost of
+  each enumeration.
+
+    +------+---------------------+------+-----------------------+
+    |      |         Cost.       |      |         Cost.         |
+    |      +----------+----------+      +------------+----------+
+    | Date.| Total in |Per Capita| Date.|  Total in  |Per Capita|
+    |      | dollars. |in cents. |      |  dollars.  |in cents. |
+    +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+
+    | 1790 |   44,377 |   1.12   | 1850 |  1,423,351 |    6.13  |
+    | 1800 |   66,109 |   1.24   | 1860 |  1,969,377 |    6.26  |
+    | 1810 |  178,445 |   2.46   | 1870 |  3,421,198 |    8.87  |
+    | 1820 |  208,526 |   2.16   | 1880 |  5,790,678 |   11.48  |
+    | 1830 |  378,545 |   2.94   | 1890 | 11,547,127 |   18.33  |
+    | 1840 |  833,371 |   4.88   | 1900 | 16,116,930 |   21.16  |
+    +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+
+
+  For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita cost
+  of the English census of 1901 was 2.24 cents, or little more than
+  one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in part
+  to the greater scope and complexity of the American census, and in
+  part to the fact that in the United States the field work is done by
+  well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most cases by
+  the heads of families, who are not paid.
+
+  The course of events has clearly established the fact that the
+  authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than the
+  strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented by
+  General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be.
+  Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled
+  practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to
+  supplement the state governments in the gathering of statistics that
+  may furnish a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has
+  allowed the Federal census office in its discretion to compile and
+  publish the birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately
+  kept; one Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces
+  throughout the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in
+  1889, and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published
+  in 1908-1909; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for
+  about half the population of the country, including all the states and
+  cities which have approximately complete records of deaths; Federal
+  agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of corporations have
+  been created for the purpose of gathering certain social and
+  industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has been made a
+  permanent statistical office.
+
+  The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation and
+  publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important lines of
+  work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton ginning
+  season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental census reports
+  upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on further
+  interpretation of various population tables, reports on street and
+  electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light and power
+  plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900-1904, on benevolent
+  institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses, on the social
+  statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures in 1905.
+  Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties, and it
+  has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal
+  government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial
+  Statistical Office in Berlin.     (W. F. W.)
+
+
+
+
+CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae,
+containing between four and five hundred species, and of wide
+distribution, but with its principal centre in the Mediterranean region.
+The plants are herbs with entire or cut often spiny-toothed leaves, and
+ovoid or globose involucres surrounding a number of tubular, oblique or
+two-lipped florets, the outer of which are usually larger and neuter,
+the inner bisexual. Four species are native in Britain. _C. nigra_ is
+knapweed, common in meadows and pastureland; _C. Cyanus_ is the
+bluebottle or cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; _C. Calcitrapa_
+is star-thistle, a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of
+England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads enveloped by
+involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine. Besides cornflower,
+a few other species are worth growing as garden plants; they are readily
+grown in ordinary soil:--_C. Cineraria_, a half-hardy perennial, native
+of Italy, is remarkable for its white downy foliage; _C. babylonica_
+(Levant) has large downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow
+flowers; _C. dealbata_ (Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger
+rose-coloured heads; _C. macrocephala_ (Caucasus) has large yellow
+heads; _C. montana_ (Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and _C.
+ragusina_ (S.E. Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow
+flowers.
+
+
+
+
+CENTAURS, in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse part man,
+dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. The name has been
+derived (1) from [Greek: kentein] (goad) and [Greek: tauros] (bull),
+implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from [Greek: kentein]
+and the common termination [Greek: -auros] or [Greek: -aura] ("air")
+i.e. "spearmen." The former is unsatisfactory partly from the
+philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is
+preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele (the
+rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some Magnesian
+mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known for their fight with
+the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to carry off Deidameia on the day
+of her marriage to Peirithous, king of the Lapithae, himself the son of
+Ixion. Theseus, who happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the
+Centaurs were driven off (Plutarch, _Theseus_, 30; Ovid, _Metam._ xii.
+210; Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented
+drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in allusion to
+their drunken and amorous habits. Their general character is that of
+wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the slaves of their animal
+passions, with the exception of Pholus and Chiron. They are variously
+explained by a fancied resemblance to the shapes of clouds, or as
+spirits of the rushing mountain torrents or winds. As children of
+Apollo, they are taken to signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested
+as the origin of the legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom
+riding was unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as
+one and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur as
+half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus, the
+contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between civilization
+and barbarism.
+
+  In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with the
+  body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they were
+  men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, and the
+  adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5; Diod. Sic. iv.
+  II) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney Colvin, _Journal
+  of Hellenic Studies_, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article in Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_). Fig. 34 in article GREEK ART (the west
+  pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the attempt of
+  the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous.
+
+
+
+
+CENTAURUS ("THE CENTAUR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern
+hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued thirty-seven stars in it.
+_[alpha]-Centauri_ is a splendid binary star. Its components are of the
+1st magnitude, and revolve in a period of eighty-one years; and since
+its parallax is 0.75", it is the nearest star to the earth;
+_[omega]-Centauri_, the finest globular star-cluster in the heavens,
+consists of about 6000 stars in a space of about 20' diameter, of which
+about 125 variables have been examined. _Nova Centauri_, a "new" star,
+was discovered in 1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard.
+
+
+
+
+CENTAURY (_Erythraea Centaurium_, natural order Gentianaceae), an annual
+herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched above, and a terminal
+inflorescence with numerous small red or pink regular flowers with a
+funnel-shaped corolla. The plant occurs in dry pastures and on sandy
+coasts in Britain, and presents many varieties, differing in length of
+stem, degree of branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or
+closeness of the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are
+grown as rock-plants.
+
+
+
+
+CENTENARY (from Lat. _centenarius_, of or belonging to a hundred, from
+_centeni_, distributive of _centum_, hundred), a space of a hundred
+years, and particularly the celebration of an event on the lapse of a
+hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The word "centennial" (from
+Lat. _centennis_, from _centum_, and _annus_, a year), though usually an
+adjective as in "the Centennial State," the name given to Colorado on
+its admission to statehood in 1876, is also used as a synonym of
+centenary.
+
+
+
+
+CENTERVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Appanoose county, Iowa,
+U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about 90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop.
+(1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905, state census) 5967 (487 being
+foreign-born); (1910) 6936. Centerville is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Iowa
+Central railways. Among the principal buildings are the county
+court-house and the Federal building, and the city has a public library
+and a hospital. It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the
+state; it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works,
+and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products, woollen
+goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted in 1846, was
+called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name was adopted, was
+incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870 was chartered as a city of
+the second class. The city limits were extended in 1906-1907.
+
+
+
+
+CENTIPEDE, the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda, a class of
+the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda (Millipedes), the
+Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute the now abandoned group
+Myriapoda. The resemblance between the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is
+principally superficial and due to the elongation and vermiform shape of
+the body, which in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar
+somites not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida
+and most Crustacea, into series or "tagmata" of varying function. Until
+1893 no one doubted the correctness of the assumption that the Chilopoda
+and Diplopoda were orders of a class Myriapoda of the same systematic
+status as the Arachnida or Hexapoda. But in that year, R.I. Pocock and
+J.S. Kingsley independently pointed out that they differ as much from
+each other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore,
+rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely
+associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the
+Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the Progoneata
+(Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. As the
+basis for this classification was taken the position of the generative
+orifices which open in the Opisthogonea at the posterior end and in the
+Prosogonea near the anterior end of the body. As a matter of fact, in
+the Chilopoda they are situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic
+somite; in the Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a
+little farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of
+Heymons into the embryology of _Scolopendra_, one of the Chilopods, has
+shown a close correspondence in the number of cephalic metameres between
+the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a correspondence which has not yet been
+established in the case of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last
+discovery bears out the view of relationship between the centipedes and
+insects, to the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda. But
+even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups can be
+brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the head, the
+position of the generative orifices will remain as a fundamental and
+constant character, distinguishing the Chilopoda from the other groups
+of so-called "Myriapods" and the Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in
+many particulars they resemble.
+
+  _Structure of the Chilopoda._--The exoskeletal elements of a typical
+  somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or
+  sternum, a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with
+  chitinous sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior
+  extremity there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when
+  present, and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the
+  _Scutigeridae_, the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply
+  reflexed, ventrally forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior
+  edge of this bears the labrum, which is usually represented by a small
+  median, and two large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a
+  single pair of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable
+  number of walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or
+  gonopods. The antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and
+  preoral in position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or
+  more segments. The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and
+  bi-segmented, with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair or
+  maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They are
+  foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera
+  (_Scutigera_, _Lithobius_) the inner branch consists of two distinct
+  segments meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The
+  outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four
+  segments. Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches
+  are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments of
+  the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The above
+  described condition seen in _Scutigera_ suggests that two pairs of
+  jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the
+  Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second pair
+  of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five or six
+  segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its fellow.
+  The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-jaws, are long
+  and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of six segments,
+  whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its fellow to form a
+  large coxal plate, the second is small and generally suppressed by
+  fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also small, while the
+  sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at the tip of which
+  opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within the appendage.
+
+  The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, mandibles and
+  maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield or cephalite. The
+  tergal element of the somite bearing the palpognath is usually
+  suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes of large size as in
+  some Geophilomorpha (_Himantarium_), sometimes small as in
+  _Scutigera_, _Lithobius_, _Craterostigmus_, sometimes suppressed
+  probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite as
+  in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-bearing
+  somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite of the
+  toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the somites
+  bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements are preserved
+  without fusion with the corresponding plates of the preceding or
+  succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body is retained.
+  The only exception to this is presented by _Scutigera_, where the
+  terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen pairs of legs
+  are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The walking legs are
+  articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural or lateral area of
+  the somites close to the external margins of the sterna, which widely
+  separate those of the left from those of the right side. Generally
+  speaking the legs resemble each other, although as a rule they
+  progressively increase in length towards the posterior end of the
+  body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the basal is
+  termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is armed with a
+  single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilomorpha and a few
+  genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial transverse joint into
+  two segments, as is the case in _Scolopendra_ and _Lithobius_ for
+  example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-footed centipedes of
+  the order Lithobiomorpha (e.g. _Henicops_, _Cermalobius_) the tarsi
+  are further subdivided. The multiplication of sub-segments reaches its
+  maximum in _Scutigera_, where the tarsi are extremely long, slender,
+  flexible and annulated. The legs of the last pair are directed
+  backwards in a line parallel with the long axis of the body, so that
+  their coxae, fused in some cases with the pleural sclerites
+  (_Scolopendra_, _Geophilus_), or free and of large size (_Scutigera_,
+  _Lithobius_), serve to protect the small genital and anal somites.
+  They are often greatly modified. In the males of some species of
+  _Lithobius_ one or more of the segments is inflated or furnished with
+  tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilomorpha the whole
+  limb is thickened in the male sex. In most Scolopendromorpha the basal
+  segment is armed beneath with spines or spikes (_Dacetum_,
+  _Scolopocryptops_); sometimes the whole appendage is thickened and
+  terminated by a sharp and serrate claw (_Theatops_, _Plutonium_). In
+  these cases the legs act as weapons of defence and offence. In other
+  cases (_Newportia_) the tarsi lose the claw, become many-jointed and
+  act as feelers, while in _Alipes_ the terminal segments are flattened,
+  leaf-like and furnished with a peculiar stridulating organ. The
+  genital somite is always small and sometimes retractile within the
+  somite bearing the last pair of legs. Its tergal plate is usually
+  retained, but its sternal plate is generally suppressed. In females of
+  the Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this
+  somite--the gonopods--are jointed, forcipate and relatively well
+  developed although small. In the females of the other orders they are
+  greatly reduced or absent. In the males their development varies
+  considerably. They are well developed in _Scutigera_, where they form
+  two pairs of digitiform sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they
+  are reduced to a pair of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal
+  somite is always small and limbless. In _Craterostigmus_ the genital
+  and anal somites are represented by a pair of elongate valves
+  projecting between the legs of the last pair. The structure of the
+  gonopods is unknown, and the homology between the two valves and the
+  skeletal elements of the somites in question not clearly understood.
+
+  A study of the development of _Scolopendra_ has shown that the
+  antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral
+  metamere and the mandibles those of the fourth, the first postoral
+  metamere, which has a pair of transient preantennal appendages, and
+  the third, which has no appendages, being excalated at an early stage
+  of embryonic growth. Furthermore, behind the legs of the last pair two
+  pairs of appendages are present. The second of these persists as the
+  gonopods of the adult, but the first is suppressed. Possibly, however,
+  it is represented in the male of _Scutigera_ by the anterior branches
+  of the gonopods. The cerebral or cephalic portion of the nervous
+  system consists of a quadrilobate mass. From the two upper lobes,
+  which are set transversely, arise the ocular nerves; from the two
+  lower lobes, which are united by a transverse commissure, spring the
+  antennal nerves in front and the chords which form the oesophageal
+  collar behind. These chords unite below the oesophagus to form the
+  compound suboesophageal ganglion, whence the nerves for the four pairs
+  of jaws arise. The ventral system consists of a double chord uniting
+  in each of the leg-bearing segments in a ganglionic swelling which
+  gives off four pairs of nerves to the limbs and tissues of the somite.
+  There is a single ganglion in the genital segment.
+
+  [Illustration: Modified from Heymons, _Bib. Zool._, 1901, by
+  permission of E. Nagele.
+
+    FIG. 1.
+
+    A, Diagram of anterior extremity of an early embryo of
+    _Scolopendra_, ventral view; cl, clypeus; lb, labrum; m, mouth; p.a,
+    preantennal appendage; a, antenna; int, premandibular rudiment; mdl,
+    mandible; mx, maxilla; p.g, palpognath; t.g, toxicognath; lg. 1,
+    first pair of walking legs.
+
+    B, Posterior end of a later embryo of _Scolopendra_, ventral view,
+    showing the anal segment or telson (t); the legs of the last pair in
+    the adult (lg. 21) and the two rudimentary pairs of legs (lg. 22,
+    lg. 23).]
+
+  Eyes are frequently absent. When present they may be either simple or
+  compound, i.e. consisting externally of a single lens (monomeniscous)
+  of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous). Simple eyes vary in
+  number on each side of the head from one, as in _Henicops_, to many as
+  forty, as in some species of _Lithobius_. In _Scolopendra_, where
+  there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thickening of the
+  cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath the lens
+  consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer
+  continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area. Thus the
+  eye is monostichous. The arrangement of the cells, however, is
+  peculiar. They are invaginated to form what may be described as a very
+  deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly narrow
+  median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed by the inner
+  or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by their outer or
+  distal ends. It results from this arrangement that the cells forming
+  all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizontally, i.e. at right
+  angles to the vertical axis of the eye. From the distal ends of the
+  cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming a rhabdom which
+  occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup beneath the
+  middle of the corneal lens. The outer ends of the cells are nucleated
+  and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve, which passes
+  from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the brain. Compound
+  eyes are found only in the _Scutigeridae_. Externally the eye consists
+  of one hundred or more little lenses or lenticles. The retinal portion
+  is composed of a corresponding number of ocular units or ommatidia.
+  Each ommatidium is an elongated cone with its broad extremity abutting
+  against the corneal lenticle. It consists of a non-nucleated
+  crystalline cone developed from embryonic cells, and is enveloped in
+  three tiers of large nucleated cells. The cells of the outermost tier
+  are heavily pigmented; those of the middle and innermost (proximal)
+  tiers, the retinal cells, are at their inner extremities produced into
+  threads continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve. In the space
+  between these cells and the crystalline cone which they surround,
+  there is a layer of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by the cells.
+
+  [Illustration: A and B after Heymons, _Bibl Zool_, 1901, by permission
+  of E. Nagele.
+
+  C after Adensamer, _Verh. z. b. Verein_, Vienna, 1893, pl. vii.
+
+    FIG. 2.
+
+    A, Brain of _Scolopendra_. n.ant, Antennal nerves; n.opt, ocular
+    nerves; n.pr.ant, preantennal nerves; oes. comm, oesophageal
+    commissure.
+
+    B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra. len, Corneal lens; ret, retinal or
+    visual cells; n.opt, optic nerve.
+
+    C, Ocular unit or ommatidium of compound Eye of _Scutigera_. len,
+    corneal lenticle; c.c, crystalline cone; 1, pigmented cells of
+    outermost tier; 2, 3, retinular cells of middle and innermost tiers;
+    rbd, rhabdomeres; n.opt, optic nerve; pg, pigment cells.]
+
+  The alimentary canal is a simple tube running without convolutions
+  from the mouth to the anus. Its anterior portion or pharynx, which
+  arises from the stomodaeal invagination in the embryo, is short; a
+  pair of large, so-called salivary glands open into it. The mesenteric
+  part of the canal is relatively wide and receives at its junction with
+  the hind-gut the excretory products of a pair of very long and slender
+  malpighian tubes of proctodaeal origin. The posterior end of the
+  canal, arising from the proctodaeum, is relatively short and narrow.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of Alimentary Canal of _Lithobius_.
+
+    a, Anus.
+
+    mg, Mid-Gut.
+
+    hg, Hind-Gut.
+
+    mt, Malphighian tubule.
+
+    s.gl, Salivary gland.
+
+    lg. 1, lg. 15, Legs of first and fifteenth pairs.]
+
+  The generative organs vary in structural details in different
+  centipedes. In the male of _Lithobius_ the testes consist of a single
+  coiled tube lying above the alimentary canal. The slender vas deferens
+  which proceeds from its hinder end divides posteriorly into a right
+  and left branch, embracing the gut and uniting beneath it to form a
+  common chamber or atrium within the genital orifice. The atrium
+  receives the secretion of two pairs of large accessory glands; and a
+  pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales, open, one on each side, into
+  the divided sperm ducts close to their point of origin above the
+  intestine. The organs of the female are very similar. There is a large
+  median ovary followed by a short oviduct forming a circum-intestinal
+  collar and a common atrium. Into the latter open a pair of short
+  receptacula seminis and the slender duct of two pairs of large
+  accessory glands. There is nothing in the female corresponding to the
+  supra-intestinal vesiculae seminales of the male. In the male of
+  _Scolopendra_, on the contrary, there are as many as twelve pairs of
+  somewhat sausage-shaped testes, approximated two by two. From each
+  pair proceed two slender ducts which open into a median duct coiled in
+  the posterior third of the body and much expanded in the last three of
+  the leg-bearing segments. The right and left portions of the
+  intestinal ring of the genital duct are unequally developed, and there
+  are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of accessory glands
+  communicate with the genital atrium as in _Lithobius_. In the female
+  _Scolopendra_ the right and left portions of the intestinal collar are
+  also unequally developed, and only a single pair of accessory glands
+  besides the receptacula seminis open into the atrium.
+
+  [Illustration: After Heymons, _Bibl. Zool_, 1901, by permission of E.
+  Nagele.
+
+    FIG. 4.--Posterior portion of generative organs of male of
+    _Scolopendra_ (A), of female (B). t, Testes; v.d, vas deferens; ov,
+    ovary; _r.s_, receptaculum seminis; gl. acc, accessory glands; g.o,
+    generative orifice.]
+
+  The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately
+  beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers
+  corresponding roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a
+  blood-sinus formed by a pericardial membrane whence large alary
+  muscles extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in
+  _Scolopendra_ a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its
+  posterior extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood
+  re-enters the organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior
+  chamber, which lies in the first or second leg-bearing segment,
+  proceed three arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to
+  supply the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow
+  of the opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the
+  sides of the latter arise vessels to the gnathites, and from its
+  inferior portion an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and
+  another backwards above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the
+  body, supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral
+  branch. In _Scolopendra_ the chambers of the heart, excepting the
+  first and last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms
+  like _Scutigera_ where the terga are very unequal in size a
+  corresponding inequality in the size of the chambers is manifested.
+
+  [Illustration: A after Newport, _Phil. Trans._, 1843. B after Haase,
+  _Zool. Beitrage_, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J.N. Kern. C after
+  Haase, loc. cit.
+
+    FIG. 5.
+
+    A, Anterior extremity of _Scolopendra_, showing two chambers of the
+    heart (h), the aortic ring (a), the alae cordis (a.m) and a cardiac
+    orifice (o).
+
+    B, Two segments of _Scolopendra_, showing the branching and
+    anastomosing tracheae and a spiracle (sp).
+
+    C, A pair of tufted tracheae of _Scutigera_. d, Dorsal plate; t.s,
+    tracheal sac; tr, tracheal tubes.]
+
+  In all centipedes, except _Scutigera_, respiration is effected by
+  chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications
+  throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of spiracles
+  perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or fewer of the
+  somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never present upon
+  the anal, genital and last leg-bearing somites, and only rarely, as in
+  _Henicops_, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first pair. In the
+  majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid or slit-like
+  orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like integumental
+  infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal tubes which soon
+  anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks. In _Dacetum_, one of the
+  _Scolopendridae_, there is no pocket-like infolding, the small
+  tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on a large subcircular
+  plate where their apertures fuse to form a complicated network. The
+  apertures, as in the case of other genera, are protected by fine
+  hairs; and the tracheae themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral
+  filament. In the _Lithobiidae_ the tracheae do not anastomose; but in
+  _Scolopendra_ and _Geophilus_ the main trunks in each segment fuse
+  transversely with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally
+  with those of the preceding and succeeding segments.
+
+  In _Scutigera_ the tracheae differ both in structure and position from
+  those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and seven in
+  number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into a short sac
+  from which five tracheal tubes depend into the pericardial
+  blood-sinus.
+
+  Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders
+  referable to two subclasses--
+
+    Subclass I.         Pleurostigma.
+       Order 1             Geophilomorpha.
+       Order 2             Scolopendromorpha.
+       Order 3             Craterostigmomorpha.
+       Order 4             Lithobiomorpha.
+
+    Subclass II.        Notostigma.
+       Order 5             Scutigeromorpha.
+
+SUBCLASS I, PLEUROSTIGMA.--Chilopods furnished with a rich system of
+branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are paired and open
+upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the somites. Each leg-bearing
+somite contains a distinct tergum and sternum, the number of sterna
+never exceeding that of the terga. Eyes are either preserved or lost;
+when preserved they are represented either by a single one-lensed
+ocellus or by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head.
+The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent sharply
+downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior portion lying
+behind the antennae, so that these appendages, approximated in the
+middle line, project directly forwards from the margin of the head
+formed by this retroversion of the labral area. The maxillae are short
+and have no sensory organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and
+the toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single coxal
+plate.
+
+  _Order 1. Geophilomorpha_.--Chilopods with a large and indefinite
+  number of somites, most of which are partially or completely divided
+  into a smaller anterior segment, represented by a pretergal and two
+  presternal sclerites, and a larger posterior segment bearing the
+  spiracles and legs. Spiracles are present upon all the leg-bearing
+  somites except the first and last; and the legs which are short and
+  subequal in length consist of six segments, the basal of which remains
+  small. There are no eyes, and the antennae consist invariably of
+  fourteen segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the
+  toxicognaths always remains distinct and separates the head-shield
+  from the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and
+  antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the
+  preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial
+  integumental folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the
+  distal segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In
+  the last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the
+  coxa of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this
+  appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal
+  somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and the
+  gonopods typically persist in the male as small two-jointed appendages
+  and in the female as jointed or unjointed sclerites. The young are
+  hatched with the full number of segments.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6. (After Latzel, _Die Myr. ost.-ung. Mon._ vol.
+  i. "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.)
+
+    A, Upper view of anterior extremity in _Geophilus_.
+
+      a, Basal segments of antennae.
+
+      c, Cephalic plate.
+
+      t.palp, Tergal plate of somite, bearing palpognaths.
+
+      t.tox, Tergal plate of somite, bearing toxicognaths (_tox_).
+
+      t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite, bearing legs of first pair.
+
+    B, Toxicognaths of _Scolopendra_, showing the large coxal plate and
+    the reduced penultimate and antepenultimate segments.
+
+    C, Terminal segment or fang of the same, showing the orifice of the
+    poison gland.]
+
+  _Remarks._--The Geophilomorpha are universally distributed in suitable
+  localities. The number of families into which the order should be
+  divided is as yet unsettled, some authors admitting several groups of
+  this rank, others referring all the genera to a single family,
+  _Geophilidae_. In habits the _Geophilidae_ are mostly subterranean,
+  living in the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms.
+  Occasionally they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the
+  sake of moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive
+  to light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to
+  the nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They
+  can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using
+  the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority
+  of the family in habits are the two species _Linotaenia maritima_ and
+  _Schendyla submarina_, which live under stones or seaweed between
+  tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the
+  species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and
+  secrete a fluid which in some forms (_Himantarium_) is blood-red,
+  while in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form _Orphnaeus
+  phosphoreus_ the fluid is known to possess this property; and its
+  luminosity has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in
+  the case of _Linotaenia acuminata_ and _L. crassipes_.
+
+  The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between
+  thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding
+  discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being
+  less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example
+  recorded, a specimen of _Notiphilides_ from Venezuela, was 11 in. long
+  and 1/3 of an inch wide.
+
+  When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking up a
+  spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for that
+  purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered spot,
+  sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them with her
+  body, keeps guard until the young disperse and shift for themselves.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ (after Buffon).
+
+    A, a, Cephalic plate.
+
+    b, Tergum of segment, bearing first pair of legs (d).
+
+    c, Tip of palpognath.
+
+    e, Antenna.
+
+    f, Toxicognath.
+
+    g, Last pair of appendages, enlarged and directed backwards.]
+
+  _Order 2. Scolopendromorpha._--Chilopods differing principally from
+  the Geophilomorpha in that the number of leg-bearing somites is
+  definitely fixed at twenty-three or twenty-one. These are
+  differentiated into larger and smaller, which alternate with nearly
+  complete regularity. The anterior portion of each somite is only
+  partially cut off as a subsegment. The tergal plate of the somite
+  bearing the toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by fusion with the
+  tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The antennae consist of a
+  number of segments varying from seventeen to about thirty, and usually
+  differing in the individuals of a species. The second segment
+  (trochanter) of the legs of the last pair is coalesced with the third
+  (femur). In only one genus, namely _Plutonium_, which occurs in Italy,
+  is there a pair of spiracles for each leg-bearing segment, except the
+  first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha. In most genera there are
+  only nine pairs of spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th,
+  12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-bearing segments, as in
+  _Scolopendra_, _Cormocephalus_, _Cryptops_, &c. In genera with
+  twenty-three pairs of legs, like _Scolopocryptops_, there is an
+  additional pair of spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous segment;
+  and a few genera such as _Rhysida, Edentistoma_, possess a pair upon
+  the 7th segment. Eyes, when present, are always four in number on each
+  side. The newly hatched young has the full complement of appendages.
+
+  This order is divided into four families:--_Scolopendridae_
+  (_Scolopendra_, _Rhysida_), _Cryptopidae_ (_Cryptops_, _Theatops_),
+  _Scolopocryptopidae_ (_Scolopocryptops_, _Otocryptops_) and
+  _Newportudae_ (_Newportia_). Apart from the frigid zones it is
+  cosmopolitan in distribution, though only one genus (_Cryptops_)
+  extends into north temperate latitudes. In the tropics and warmer
+  countries of the southern hemisphere the genera and species are
+  particularly abundant, and individuals reach the greatest dimensions,
+  some specimens of the tropical American species _Scolopendra gigantea_
+  exceeding 12 in. in length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet
+  consisting of any animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to
+  be overcome. They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or
+  stones, and are nocturnal, shunning, like the _Geophilidae_, exposure
+  to light; and as in the _Geophilidae_, the females guard their eggs
+  and young until the latter disperse to lead an independent life.
+
+  _Order 3. Craterostigmomorpha_.--Chilopods with twenty-one tergal
+  plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with only
+  fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some members of
+  the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side of the head,
+  the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are
+  complete on the postaxial side of the appendage, and spiracles are
+  present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing
+  somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxicognaths, of
+  the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing somite,
+  great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (e.g.
+  _Mecistocephalus_) is presented; but in the structure of the posterior
+  end of the body this order differs from all the other orders of
+  Chilopoda. The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are
+  welded together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and
+  anal somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of
+  opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products.
+
+  [Illustration: After Pocock. Q.J.M.S. vol. 45, pl. 23, 1902.
+
+    FIG. 8.
+
+    A, Anterior end of _Craterostigmus_ from above.
+
+    a, Basal segments of antennae.
+
+    c, Cephalic plate with eyes (o).
+
+    t.tox, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxicognaths (tox).
+
+    t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of the first pair.
+
+    B, Maxillae.
+
+    C, Palpognath.
+
+    D, Toxicognath.
+
+    E, Last segment with genital capsule (g.c), and basal segments of
+    legs of 14th and 15th pairs (lg. 14, lg. 15).]
+
+  This order, containing the family _Craterostigmidae_, is based upon a
+  remarkable genus and species _Craterostigmus tasmanianus_, of which
+  only two specimens are known. These were collected under stones upon
+  the summit of Mount Rumney in Tasmania. They are about 1-1/2 in. in
+  length; but nothing has been recorded of their habits. The chief
+  morphological interest attaching to _Craterostigmus_ is that, apart
+  from certain structural peculiarities of its own, it presents features
+  previously believed to be found exclusively either in the
+  Scolopendromorpha, or the Geophilomorpha, or the Lithobiomorpha; and
+  it shows how the Lithobiomorpha may be derived from a
+  Scolopendromorphous type most nearly resembling _Plutonium_ by the
+  excalation of the third, sixth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth and
+  seventeenth leg-bearing somites.
+
+  _Order 4. Lithobiomorpha._ Chilopoda with fifteen pairs of leg-bearing
+  somites differentiated into larger and smaller, the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
+  7th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th being large, the others small. Spiracles
+  present upon all the larger with the exception sometimes of the 1st.
+  The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders hitherto
+  considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused mesially.
+  In correlation with their weaker muscularity the first leg-bearing
+  segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present and usually jointed
+  in both sexes, are especially well developed and forcipate in the
+  female, and arise from a large ventral plate resulting from the fusion
+  of their coxae with the sternum of the genital somite. The antennae
+  are many-jointed, and there is a single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli
+  on each side of the head. The coxae of the legs are large, and those
+  of the last four or five pairs usually contain glands opening by large
+  orifices. The newly-hatched young has only seven pairs of legs, the
+  remaining pairs being successively added as growth proceeds.
+
+  The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the
+  _Lithobiidae_ (_Lithobius, Bothropolys_), _Henicopidae_ (_Henicops,
+  Haasiella_), the _Cermatobiidae_ (_Cermatobius_). _Cermatobius_, based
+  upon a single species, _martensii_, from the isl. of Adenara, is of
+  peculiar interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length
+  and multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it
+  approaches more nearly to _Scutigera_ than does any other
+  pleurostigmous Chilopod. It is also stated that the spiracles have
+  assumed a more dorsal position, thus foreshadowing the completely
+  dorsal situation they have taken up in the Notostigma. The
+  _Henicopidae_, containing centipedes of small size, attains its
+  maximum of development in the southern continents and islands, more
+  particularly Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America.
+  One genus (_Lamyctes_) however, occurs in Europe. The _Lithobiidae_,
+  on the contrary, are almost exclusively northern in range, being
+  particularly abundant and of large size individually in Europe,
+  extra-tropical Asia, and North and Central America. In habits the
+  _Lithobiidae_ closely resemble the _Scolopendridae_. They are,
+  however, comparatively far more agile with their shorter, more compact
+  bodies and stronger legs. They are mostly of small size, the largest
+  species, _Lithobius fusciatus_, of south Europe measuring only 2 in.
+  in length of body. The females do not guard their eggs, but coat them
+  with soil and leave them to their fate.
+
+SUBCLASS 2, NOTOSTIGMA.--Chilopods with a series of median dorsal
+tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the pericardial blood
+space, and opening each by an unpaired spiracle upon the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
+8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing somites. This characteristic is
+accompanied by the complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th,
+either by fusion with that of the 8th or by excalation, and by the
+evanescence of the terga of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and 13th
+pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not strongly
+reflexed inferiorly, and the eyes are large and compound. The maxillae
+are long and have a sensory organ, the palpognaths are long, spiny and
+composed of five segments, like the primitive Chilopod leg, and the
+toxicognaths have their basal segments disunited and independently
+movable. Gonopods duplicated in the male.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Scutigera rubrolineata_ (after Buffon). B,
+Tergum and part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of
+the stigmata o, o; p, hinder margin of tergum.]
+
+  This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the family
+  _Scutigeridae_. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs of
+  legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young is
+  hatched with only seven pairs of legs. The legs and antennae in the
+  adult are extremely long and many jointed. In habits as well as in
+  structure the _Scutigeridae_, of which _Scutigera_ is the best-known
+  genus, differ greatly from other centipedes. Although they hide under
+  stones and logs of wood like _Lithobius_, they are not lucifugous but
+  diurnal, and may be seen chasing their foes in the blazing sun. They
+  run with astonishing speed and have the power of dropping their legs
+  when seized. South of about the 40th parallel of north latitude they
+  are universally distributed in suitable localities. In most species
+  the body only reaches a length of about 1 in.; but twice that size or
+  more is reached by examples of the Indian species _Scutigera
+  longicornis_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Latzel, _Die Myr ost-ung. Mon._ vol. i.
+  "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.
+
+    FIG. 10.--Gnathites of _Scutigera_.
+
+    I. Mandibles.
+    II. Maxillae.
+    III. Palpognaths.
+    IV. Toxicognaths.]
+
+  Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda by
+  Scudder, who refers them to two families, _Gerascutigeridae_ and
+  _Eoscolopendridae_. But until the specimens have been examined by
+  zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken
+  seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to
+  existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds.     (R. I. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA (c. 1667-1723), English dramatic writer and actress,
+was born about 1667, probably in Ireland, whither her father, a
+Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman, had been forced to flee at the
+Restoration on account of his political sympathies. When sixteen she
+married the nephew of Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year
+she married an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in
+poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and some
+of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she married Joseph
+Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who survived her. Her first play
+was a tragedy, _The Perjured Husband_ (1700), and she herself appeared
+for the first time at Bath in her comedy _Love at a Venture_ (1706).
+Among her most successful comedies are--_The Gamester_ (1705); _The Busy
+Body_ (1709); _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1718); _The Basset-table_
+(1706); and _The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret_ (1714), in which, as
+the jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots,
+verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing, though
+coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue fluent. She never
+seems to have acted in London, but she was a friend of Rowe, Farquhar
+and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on the 1st of December 1723. Her dramatic
+works were published, with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872).
+
+
+
+
+CENTO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 18 m. S.E.
+direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-level; it is reached
+by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m.
+S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a steam tramway (18 m. N.) from
+Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901)
+4307 (town), 19,078 (commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with
+Ferrara. It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco
+Barbieri (Guercino). The communal picture-gallery and several churches
+contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A statue of him
+stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Governativo. The town was
+surrounded by walls, the gates of which are preserved. The origin of the
+name is uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+CENTO (Gr. _[Greek: kentron]_, Lat. _cento_, patchwork), a composition
+made up by collecting passages from various works. The Byzantine Greeks
+manufactured several out of the poems of Homer, among which may be
+mentioned the life of Christ by the famous empress Eudoxia, and a
+version of the Biblical history of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the
+later empire and the monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing
+poems out of the verse of Virgil. Such were the _Cento Nuptialis_ of
+Ausonius, the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th
+century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the hymns in
+honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace by Metellus, a monk
+of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the 12th century. Specimens may be
+found in the work of Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1504; Frankfort, 1541,
+1544). In 1535 Laelius Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the
+dissolute lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a
+_Petrarca Spirituale_; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one
+of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a _Virgilius Evangelizans, seu
+Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et versibus
+descripta_.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL AMERICA, that portion of the American continent which lies
+between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British crown colony of
+British Honduras, and the six independent republics of Guatemala,
+Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. These seven
+divisions are described in separate articles. Central America is bounded
+towards the N. by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific
+Ocean, and extends between 7 Deg. 12' and 18 Deg. 3' N. and between 77
+Deg. 12' and 92 Deg. 17' W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and
+stretches for some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of three
+serpentine curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m., between the
+Peninsula of Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras, and diminishing to
+35 m. in the Isthmus of Panama. The eastern boundary of Central America
+was usually regarded as identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903,
+when the republic of Panama was formed out of the northern territories
+of Colombia; and the more modern definition given above does not command
+the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include the
+whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west, i.e. the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however, the support of
+political and historical considerations, as well as of common usage; and
+it may therefore be regarded as adequate, although, in respect of
+climate and natural products, it would be more accurate to define
+Central America as lying between Tehuantepec and Darien.
+
+  _Physical Features._--The _Cordilleras_, or mountain chains of Central
+  America do not form a complete link between the western ranges in the
+  north and south of the continent, for their continuity is interrupted
+  by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine basin of
+  Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central America from
+  end to end, their main axis trending from north-west to south-east.
+  They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges or series of
+  volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras are
+  disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser chains
+  radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude of 12,000
+  and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general character of
+  the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active. Large tracts
+  of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning of the 20th
+  century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical climate, and the
+  dense underwoods which impede exploration. In the northern part of
+  Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same country, in British
+  Honduras, along the Segovia river, on the Mosquito Coast, and in the
+  basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river, there are broad
+  stretches of comparatively flat country. The main line of watershed is
+  everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, except in
+  southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is almost equidistant from
+  the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers of the Pacific seaboard are
+  mostly short and swift,--mere mountain torrents, in many instances,
+  until they reach the sands and swamps which border the sea. The rivers
+  of the Atlantic littoral descend more gradually, and by longer
+  channels. The largest of them is the Segovia, in Nicaragua and
+  Honduras, which has a course of 450 m. Lake Nicaragua, the largest
+  inland sheet of water, has an area exceeding 3500 sq. m. There are
+  also several mountain lakes of exceptional interest and beauty, such
+  as Atitlan and Amatitlan, in Guatemala, besides two great land-locked
+  salt-water lakes--the Pearl Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the
+  Carataska Lagoon in Honduras.
+
+  [Illustration: Geologic Map of Central America.]
+
+  _Geology._--The neck of land which unites the continents of North and
+  South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of either,
+  but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were, between
+  the other two. The folds in the earth's crust which form the Andes and
+  the Western ranges of North America, are not continued along the
+  connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the strata are folded from
+  west to east, obliquely across the trend of the continent. It should,
+  however, be noticed that the Andes, as they approach the Caribbean
+  sea, bend round towards the east; and it is probable that the folds of
+  the North American Cordillera similarly bend eastward beneath the
+  volcanic rocks of Mexico. The folds of Central America are tangential
+  to the two arcs thus formed.
+
+  By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered by
+  Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic; but
+  the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From the
+  Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau the
+  existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet unproved,
+  but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico. South of the
+  plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges composed of
+  granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age, begin to
+  appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front of the
+  series of east and west folds which stand _en echelon_ across the
+  Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels of
+  latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala,
+  there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists
+  with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear, for
+  the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be
+  Pre-Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at
+  least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British
+  Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also in Costa
+  Rica and perhaps in Panama; and wherever the strike has been observed,
+  it is approximately from west to east. The presence of Palaeozoic
+  rocks has been proved in Guatemala and the adjacent state of Chiapas,
+  where limestones have been found containing many unmistakable
+  Carboniferous fossils, and below these is a considerable thickness of
+  beds supposed to be Silurian. Nowhere else in the Central American
+  region is there any palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks.
+
+  The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow clays
+  containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but the
+  occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated
+  outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in Central
+  America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower series of clays,
+  sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably by an upper series
+  of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas, Guatemala and
+  Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The upper series contains
+  hippurites. The greater part of the eastern half of the Mexican
+  plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds.
+
+  The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two divisions.
+  The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally of sand and
+  clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line. The upper
+  division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene (which have not
+  yet been clearly distinguished from each other), is usually of shallow
+  water origin; but in the northern part of Yucatan it includes beds of
+  chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles, which may have been
+  deposited in a deeper sea.
+
+  It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological
+  epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved in
+  the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undisturbed,
+  and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the Miocene
+  period, which appears to have been a period of great earth movement
+  throughout the Caribbean region. From the southern extremity of the
+  Mexican plateau to the Colombian border, the strike of the folds--of
+  the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits, as well as of the older
+  rocks--is in general from east to west; but there is one considerable
+  exception. On both sides of the deep depression which crosses Honduras
+  from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of Fonseca, the strike is commonly from
+  north to south. The depression is probably a "Graben" or trough formed
+  by faulting.
+
+  The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon the
+  Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land contracts
+  to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the Caribbean
+  shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great, and over a
+  wide area they entirely conceal the original structural features of
+  the country. The eruptions began towards the close of the Cretaceous
+  period and continue to the present day. The rocks are lavas and ashes,
+  chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition, but rhyolites and
+  trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met with in one or two
+  places.
+
+  According to R.T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence of any
+  Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific,
+  excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene period. It
+  should, however, be stated that all authorities are not agreed upon
+  this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones which he believes
+  to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally at a height of
+  about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Unfortunately the
+  fossils obtained from these beds were lost.
+
+  _Climate_.--The climate of Central America is subject to the most
+  marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the
+  proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which
+  render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands of
+  British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike the alpine
+  regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may, however, be
+  roughly divided into a tropical zone (_tierra caliente_), from
+  sea-level to about 1500 ft.; a temperate zone (_tierra templada_),
+  from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (_tierra fria_), above 5000 ft.
+  These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it often
+  happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater on the
+  Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on the Pacific
+  slope varies in duration from four to six months, between April and
+  December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On the coast, it
+  corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, the
+  tempestuous _Cordonazo de San Francisco_, or "Flagellation of St
+  Francis," as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted by an
+  interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known as the
+  _Veranillo de San Juan_, or "Little summer of St John." In the rainy
+  season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two or three
+  o'clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great cumulus
+  masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain crashes down;
+  and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North winds are most usual
+  during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast the trade-winds may bring
+  rain in any month, and, owing to the moist atmosphere, the heat is
+  more oppressive. The rainfall may vary in successive years from less
+  than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to the occurrence of
+  cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft., but snow seldom
+  falls.
+
+  _Fauna_.--The fauna of Central America is more closely connected with
+  the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the region is
+  comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are
+  comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own. It
+  is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous to man.
+  Of felines it possesses the jaguar (_Felis onza_), popularly called
+  the tiger; the cuguar (_Felis concolor_), popularly called the lion;
+  the tigrillo (_Felis tigrina_), which is sometimes kept tame; and
+  other species. Several species of monkeys (_Mycetes_ and _Ateles_) are
+  numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (_Cervus
+  mexicanus_) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands.
+  Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as the
+  marrano de monte (_Sus torquatus_) and the jabali or javali (_Sus
+  labiatus javali_). The _Edentata_ are represented by a species of
+  armadillo, the honey-bear (_Myrmecophaga tomandua_), and the
+  _Myrmecophaga didactyla;_ and among the rodents may be mentioned,
+  besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit-eating cotorra and
+  tepes-cuinte (_Dasyprocta aguti_ and _Coelogenys paca_), and the
+  troublesome _Geomys mexicana._ The manatee is common in all the larger
+  streams. Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little
+  marsupial called the tacuacine, or the _Didelphys carcinora,_ its
+  allied species. The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes
+  had to be left to their undisputed occupancy. In the south-east of
+  Costa Rica the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with
+  all their live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires
+  which in a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most
+  of the domestic animals--the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit,
+  common fowl, peacock and pigeon--are of European origin, and are
+  popularly grouped together as _animales de Castilla._ For the bird
+  collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National
+  Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica alone possesses more than
+  twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among birds of
+  prey it is sufficient to mention _Corogyps atratus,_ the commonest of
+  the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger, the _Cathartes
+  aura,_ the beautiful _Polyborus vulgaris,_ and the king of the
+  vultures (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Neither the condor of the southern
+  continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known. The parrot,
+  macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow, blackbird, Mexican
+  jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker, humming-bird and trogon
+  are also widely distributed. A bird of the last-named genus, the
+  quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon resplendens_) is of special note,
+  not only from the fact that its yellow tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long,
+  were formerly worn as insignia by the Indian princes, but because it
+  has been adopted as the emblematical figure on the national arms of
+  Guatemala. The gallinaceous order is well represented, and comprises
+  several peculiar species, as the pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey
+  (_Meleagris ocellata_), which has a bronze sheen on its plumage; and
+  aquatic birds, it is almost needless to add, are unusually numerous in
+  a region so richly furnished with lagoons, rivers and lakes.
+
+  Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost endless
+  varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless boba or
+  chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous corali, taboba,
+  culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great size, scorpions,
+  edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous. In the rivers
+  and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound; turtles and
+  tortoises are exported; and there are valuable pearl and oyster
+  fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the
+  _Coleoptera_, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and
+  the Chrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the
+  _Lepidoptera_ the prevalent genera are--_Ageronia, Papilio, Heliconia,
+  Sphinx_ and _Bombyx_. There are five species of bees, and the European
+  honey-bee, known as _aveja de Castilla_ or "bee of Castile," has been
+  naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen marching in a
+  column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and locust are
+  unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but their
+  distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown in
+  parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the _Timetes
+  Chiron,_ which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests of
+  Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return.
+
+  _Flora_.--The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine to the
+  tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another.
+  Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to
+  those of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is
+  unsurpassed for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic
+  districts, the soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated
+  and irrigated, magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco,
+  coffee, cocoa and maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar
+  yields two or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal
+  supplying a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes,
+  yams, arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical
+  fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests
+  abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum copal,
+  vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods, medicinal
+  plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst the forest trees are
+  the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and the splendid Coyal palm
+  (_Cocos butyracea,_ L.), with feathery leaves 15 to 20 ft. long,
+  golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fermented produces the
+  intoxicating _chicha_ or _vino de Coyol._ In Guatemala occurs the
+  remarkable _Herrania purpurea,_ a "Chocolate tree," whose seeds yield
+  a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself. The same country is
+  famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arborescent thistles, and a
+  remarkable plant called by the Spaniards _Flor de la Calentura_,
+  "fever flower," from the heat which it is said to emit at the moment
+  of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance of medicinal plants,
+  notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (_Myrospermum salvatorense_); in
+  Honduras there are immense forests of conifers, resembling those of
+  the Landes in France; in Nicaragua a characteristic tree is the cortes
+  (_Tecoma sideroxylori_) yielding timber as hard as ebony, and
+  noteworthy for the golden blossom with which it is entirely covered
+  after the leaves have fallen.
+
+_Inhabitants_--In 1905 the population of Central America numbered about
+4,750,000, and this total tends to increase, despite the unhealthy
+climate of many districts, the terribly high average of infant
+mortality, and the slow progress of immigration. Some authorities
+estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of the inhabitants are of
+mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the Indian element predominates
+everywhere except in Costa Rica, where the whites are exceptionally
+numerous. The Indian races have not shown the same power to adapt
+themselves to modern civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there
+are tribes remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the
+Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture (see
+below under _Archaeology_). The density of population throughout Central
+America is little more than 25 per sq. m.; and it is clear that several
+large areas now thinly peopled once maintained a far greater number of
+inhabitants. Such are parts of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the
+flora consists in great measure of plants that were formerly cultivated
+by the Indians. The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by
+tribal wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the
+German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere, the foreign
+population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other centres of
+commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United States being largely
+represented among the wealthier classes of residents; while the foreign
+labourers are mostly Italians or negroes, with a few Chinese on the
+Pacific coast.
+
+_History_.--Central America was discovered by Columbus in August 1502;
+and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica was conquered by the
+Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after 1513. Between 1522 and 1525,
+the authority of Avila was superseded, and his work of conquest
+completed by Hernando Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama
+formed part of a distinct Spanish government, "New Granada"; British
+Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed, in the 18th
+century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British government exercised a
+nominal protectorate after 1665. Otherwise the rest of Central America
+remained a Spanish dependency bearing the general name of "Guatemala,"
+until 1821. It ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a
+military governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding
+in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador,
+Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it was administered by
+Spanish officials, who almost invariably devoted their whole energy to
+enriching themselves and the home authorities. The old Indian
+civilization was swept away; the native races were enslaved, maltreated
+and, for a time, demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to
+that of the West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced
+by hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not only
+survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro population, but
+quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of their masters,
+with whom they intermarried. By the close of the 18th century, the
+majority had attained something like uniformity of life and thought.
+Racial distinctions had been obscured by intermarriage; even the term
+_Ladino_, or "Latin," came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish
+or Indian blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured race
+more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers; but so
+gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost unnoticed. Its
+result, the successful revolt of the Spanish colonies--colonies mainly
+peopled by Indians or half-castes--was no more a conflict of rival races
+or civilizations than the rebellion of the British colonies in North
+America.
+
+"New Granada" attained its independence in 1819; and in 1821 "Guatemala"
+declared itself free. That the subsequent history of the Central
+American republics has been largely a record of civil war,
+maladministration and financial dishonesty, is perhaps due in part to
+racial inferiority. In part, however, it may be explained by the absence
+of any tradition of good government; perhaps also by the brevity and
+artificiality of the evolution which converted a debased
+slave-population into the citizens of modern democratic states. The five
+divisions of "Guatemala" were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican
+empire during 1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras,
+Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a Mexican
+republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the Republic of the United
+States of Central America. The Liberal or Federalist party, which was
+supreme in Honduras, found itself opposed by the Conservatives,
+including the clergy and former Spanish officials, who were very
+influential in Guatemala. A bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In
+1837-1839 a Conservative rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of
+Guatemala, resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General
+Francisco Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to
+restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A fresh
+union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in 1842, and
+dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the conclusion, on
+the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (q.v.) between Great
+Britain and the United States, which was designed to facilitate the
+construction of an interoceanic canal. The history of this project is
+given in detail under PANAMA CANAL. One important result of the treaty
+was the abandonment, in 1860, of the British protectorate over the
+Mosquito Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political
+disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had combined to
+restore federal unity; but their allied armies were defeated by the
+Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the American adventurer, William
+Walker, endeavoured to usurp the government of Nicaragua; in 1860 he
+invaded Honduras and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the
+slave-holders of the United States by adding new slave-states to the
+Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885, and
+its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala, lost his
+life. In 1895 the Greater Republic of Central America was formed by the
+union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras; and a constitution was framed
+providing for the admission of Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December
+1898 it was dissolved, as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of
+November 1903 Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia,
+declared itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immediately
+recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards by the European
+powers. The United States also forbade the landing of any Colombian
+force on the territories of Panama, and thus guaranteed the security of
+the new state.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of Central America, and
+  especially of its physical features, the following monographs by K.
+  Sapper are of prime importance:--_In den Vulcangebieten Mittelamerikas
+  und Westindiens_ (Stuttgart, 1905); _Mittelamerikanische Reisen und
+  Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bis 1900_ (Brunswick, 1902), and _Das
+  nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dem Hochland von
+  Anahuac_ (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many useful
+  illustrations and maps. See also _Central America and the West
+  Indies_, by A.H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London, 1901, 2
+  vols., with maps and illustrations); _Central and South America_, by
+  H.W. Bates (London, 1882); _The Spanish American Republics_, by T.
+  Child (London, 1892); and _Expedition nach Zentral und Sudamerika_, by
+  P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see "The Geological History of
+  the Isthmus of Panama and Portions of Costa Rica," by R.T. Hill, in
+  _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the
+  following by K. Sapper:--"Grundzuge der physikalischen Geographic von
+  Guatemala," in _Petermann's Mitt._ Erganzungsheft, No. 113 (1894),
+  "Uber Gebirgsbau und Boden des nordlichen Mittelamerika," ibid., No.
+  127 (1899), and "Uber Gebirgsbau und Boden des sudlichen
+  Mittelamerika," _ibid_., No. 151 (1905). _The States of Central
+  America_, by E.G. Squier (New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are
+  others of the numerous essays, pamphlets, &c., on Central American
+  affairs left by this author; see the bibliography of his writings
+  published in New York in 1876. The _Bulletins of the Bureau of
+  American Republics_ (Washington, from 1893) give ample information on
+  commerce and industry. See also _History of Central America_, by H.
+  Bancroft (San Francisco, 1881-1887. 3 vols.).
+
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL AMERICA
+
+Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th century have
+thrown much light on the splendid past of Central America. The still
+extant ruins of great buildings, unlike anything which is known in the
+old world, testify to the high culture attained in pre-Columbian days by
+several native peoples differing greatly from one another in speech and
+racial affinities. As a science the archaeology of Central America has
+scarcely yet emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly
+uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await solution must
+still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscriptions, which hitherto
+has not progressed beyond the discovery of calendar systems and the
+relative datings involved in such systems.
+
+For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it has
+been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central America,
+properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican territories
+south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The peoples inhabiting
+Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas and Oaxaca present at the first
+view striking ethnical differences. On a linguistic basis, however, they
+may be united into several large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater
+part of Guatamala are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included
+the still savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically
+are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels in
+Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam, Pokoman,
+Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these there are patches of
+country in which dialects of the Mexican are spoken. In Oaxaca there is
+an extraordinary mixture of languages, some of which, like that of the
+Huave of Tehuantepec, are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the
+population, however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the
+Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects also occur in
+isolated parts of Oaxaca.
+
+_Mayan Culture._--The civilization of the Mayas may well have been
+reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of which the
+ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than 500 years. The date
+of its extinction is unknown, but in certain places, notably Mayapan and
+Chichenitza, the highest development seems to be synchronous with the
+appearance of foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below). This
+quite distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question
+played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which the scanty
+documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other hand the Mayan
+culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate heterogeneous
+elements, obliterating racial distinctions and imposing its own dominant
+character over a wide area. Oaxaca, the country of the Mixtecs and
+Zapotecs, became, as was natural from its geographical position midway
+between Yucatan and Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological
+traditions which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united.
+
+
+  Architecture
+
+Central American architecture is characterized by a fine feeling for
+construction, and the execution is at once bold and aesthetically
+effective. Amongst the various ruins, some of which represent the
+remains of entire cities, while others are no more than groups of
+buildings or single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The
+commonest of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are
+occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with a
+covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top from one
+or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps. Usually the platform on
+the top of a pyramid is occupied by buildings, the typical distribution
+of which is into two parts, viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion
+with the pyramid there are various subsidiary structures, such as
+altars, pillars, and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of
+ritual and worship, besides habitations for officials and
+"tennis-courts" for the famous ball-game like that played by the
+Mexicans. The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the
+buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation to
+particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids constitute
+one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure, within which are
+contained other pyramids, altars or other buildings of various
+dimensions.
+
+The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which the front
+facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors. These divide it
+into a series of rooms, behind which again there may be a second series.
+Occasionally the rooms are distributed round a central apartment, but
+this is ordinarily done only when a second storey has to be placed above
+them. The gallery-buildings may rise to as much as three storeys, the
+height, size and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies
+of vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the
+vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls
+being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so narrow a
+space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At Mitla, where the
+material used in the construction of the buildings was timber instead of
+stone, the larger rooms were furnished with stone pillars on which the
+beams could rest. The same principle recurs in certain ruins at
+Chichenitza. The tops and sides of the doors are often decorated with
+carved reliefs and hieroglyphs, and the entrances are sometimes
+supported by plain or carved columns and pilasters, of which style the
+serpent columns of Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its
+external front one of these galleries may have a cornice and
+half-pillars. Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze
+which generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole
+building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic, serpents'
+heads and human masks. The corners of the wall terminate in
+three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the frieze frequently
+show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated into trunks. The roof of the
+gallery is flat and occasionally gabled.
+
+_Principal Sites._--Such are the general characteristics of Central
+American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every site
+exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the ruined
+settlements even as at present known is very large. The most
+considerable are enumerated below.
+
+_Yucatan_.--Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed over
+Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still await
+exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted to one or two
+sites in the centre of the peninsula which have already become famous.
+At Uxmal the buildings consist of five considerable groups, viz.--the
+Casa del Adivino, which is a step-pyramid 240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide
+and 80 ft. high, crowned by a temple 75 ft. long by 12 ft. wide; the
+Casa de Monjas, a striking erection of four oblong buildings on an
+extensive terrace; the Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa
+de Palomas, the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a
+court. At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite
+insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate
+importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist of
+eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The Casa de
+Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to several distinct
+periods; the Caracol, a round structure with dome in imitation of a
+snail-shell, showing evident traces of Mexican influence; El Castillo, a
+large temple standing on a base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached
+by staircases on all four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a
+kind unknown anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an
+unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of caryatid
+figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple, which contains
+marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures of warriors and
+place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively Mexican style. Yet
+another evidence of Mexican influence at Chichenitza is to be noted in
+five figures of the so-called Chac-mol type, that is to say, horizontal
+figures in which the arms are extended to the navel which is indicated
+by a cup-like depression. This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such
+sites as Tlascala and Cempoallan.
+
+Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine
+wall-paintings; Tantah, with remarkable pillared facades; the ruins of
+Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and Xlabpak de Santa Rosa,
+where there is a three-storeyed temple palace. Two sculptured reliefs
+are of great interest; they represent a person holding a staff on which
+is a figure of the god Ah-bolon-tzacab.
+
+_Guatemala_.--The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide area. The
+most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta river. The most
+important sites in that district are Piedras Negras, and Yaxchilan or
+Menche Tinamit, where there are temples covered with sculptured reliefs
+and hieroglyphic inscriptions, and stelae and slabs carved with human
+figures placed in niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its
+splendid sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near the
+modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-Mixco.
+Chacujal, which Cortes visited on his expedition of 1524-1525 is very
+possibly to be identified with the modern Pueblo Viejo on the river
+Tinaja. Chacula and Quen-Santo between the headwaters of the Rio de
+Chiapas and the Rio Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local
+character. Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two
+settlements, as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms.
+Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character, which proves
+that Mayan science had penetrated into what was probably the home of an
+old Lacantun culture.
+
+Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras, is a
+very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settlement which had
+already been deserted before Alvarado's expedition of 1522. The
+sculptures of gods, goddesses and other figures, executed on enormous
+blocks of stone, show a distinctively Mexican character, with which,
+however, various Mayan features are blended. They may perhaps be
+attributed to some offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil
+Indians, which developed on lines of its own in this remote corner.
+
+Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of Quirigua,
+which rival Copan in importance and have suffered less from the ravages
+of the climate. The ruins of temples and palaces contain gigantic stone
+stelae of very fine workmanship, on which are sculptured human and
+animal figures representing hieroglyphs of the calendar dates.
+
+_Honduras_.--Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan
+civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins comprise
+great buildings, temples, pyramids, &c. and contain sculptures of the
+highest interest. Especially noteworthy are altars in the form of a
+turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs. The hieroglyphs are of the
+kind usually found in such ruins, the meaning of which is so far clear
+that it is known that the commencement of an inscription records certain
+dates in the complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of
+these dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated
+from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries. From this
+it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization, whether or not it was
+preceded by anything older, flourished for only a comparatively short
+period, the beginning of which cannot be placed many centuries before
+A.D. 1000.
+
+According to Squier (_Honduras_, London, 1870, p. 75) the other
+principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the department
+of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and in the ruined town of
+Cururu. They are "large, pyramidal, terraced structures, often faced
+with stones, conical mounds of earth and walls of stone." Further ruins,
+such as those of Calamulla, Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca
+and Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in the side
+valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting and most
+extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo), about 20 m.
+south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence works, terraced stone
+mounds and numerous large pyramids are to be found. Squier found further
+ruins in the west of Honduras, which have also been described in part by
+Stephens, and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de
+Palacio (_Carta dirigida al Rei de Espana_, published by Squier, New
+York, 1860).
+
+[Illustration: (Map of Central America)]
+
+At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a large
+population in past days. Possibly they may be identified with a site
+of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by Bernal Diaz (_Histoire
+veridique de la conquete de la Nouvelle Espagne_, translated by D.
+Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877, ch. 178, p. 690).
+
+_Chiapas_ (Mexico).--The principal site is Palenque, the ruins of which
+were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention. The style of
+architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular comb-shaped gables,
+distinguishes Palenque from Copan and Quirigua, which it surpasses also
+in the unequalled magnificence of its sculptures. Five out of the
+remarkably uniform series of buildings may be specially mentioned. They
+are the Great Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts
+commanded by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the Cross, which are
+galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known reliefs,
+the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the Temple of the Relief.
+The sculptured figures of Palenque are familiar from many reproductions.
+The most characteristic groups represent a deity standing between
+worshippers who hold a staff surmounted by the water-god
+Ah-bolon-tzacab, the "god of the nine medicines." The inscriptions on
+the famous Cross and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which
+are remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and
+hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere.
+
+A whole series of sites is included within the geographical limits of
+Chiapas, which from the archaeologist's standpoint must be considered as
+belonging properly to Guatemala. The country has been quite
+insufficiently explored.
+
+_Oaxaca_ (Mexico).--The bulk of the population of the province of Oaxaca
+is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented by the
+Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time the intermediaries
+between the Nahua civilization of Mexico on the west and the Mayan on
+the east. The influence of the two separate currents may be detected in
+the bastard calendar system no less than in the still undeciphered
+inscriptions. The principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of
+the priests and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite
+distinct character, though presenting certain analogies with the
+Mexican. One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three
+steps to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides
+these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented
+necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and of
+the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the "palaces"
+are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that the deities
+represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon.
+
+Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character of its
+sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with extensive ruins
+including a fine tennis court.
+
+_British Honduras_.--The antiquities of British Honduras have been but
+little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to them a few
+accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style these buildings
+closely resemble those of the neighbouring Yucatan. The ruins in the
+colony New Boston, mentioned by Froebel (_Central America_, p. 167), are
+of this kind. F. de P. Castells (see _American Antiquarian_, Chicago,
+1904, vol. xxvi. pp. 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the
+colony, of "Ixim chech," supposed to be the Indian form of the English
+name "Indian Church." They are on the road to the Lake of Yaxha (green
+water), where further ruins are to be found. Thomas Gann gives detailed
+accounts of numerous mounds also in the northern part of British
+Honduras (see _19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_,
+Washington, 1900, part i. pp. 661-692, with plates). The most
+interesting ruins are those which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at
+the mouth of the New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful
+wall paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann could
+only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by Indians. It should be
+remarked that a number of the mounds in Santa Rita were erected over
+ruins of buildings which must therefore be of older date than the
+mounds.
+
+_Salvador_.--Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls this
+whole district _Cuscatan_ (Mex. _Cozcatlan_), that is, "Land of precious
+stones, of treasures, of abundance." A further description of the land
+is given by Palacio (l.c.) in 1576. Although there are numerous relics
+of Mayan civilization buried in the earth; few ruins are to be seen on
+the surface. Karl Sapper has described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near
+the capital, Tehuacan near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Guija
+in the extreme north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct
+affinity in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they
+are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and western
+districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the same race of
+Mayas, and these tracts of country were later settled by the
+Mexican-speaking Pipiles.
+
+A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is that the
+pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which are higher than
+they are broad, and this peculiarity may be attributed to the influence
+of the Maya tribes, who are related to the Mams of Guatemala.
+
+_Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs._--The key to the decipherment,
+so far as this has progressed at present, was furnished by the _Historia
+de las Cosas de Yucatan_, a work written by Diego de Landa, the first
+bishop of the country. This professed to give, with much other more or
+less doubtful information, the full account of a calendar system
+analogous to that of the Mexicans, which was said to have been used by
+the Mayas (see MEXICO). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18
+weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to compare
+these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the few Mayan
+picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus, Peresianus, Dresden
+Codex) which have survived the destructive fanaticism of the Spanish
+missionaries. Forstemann's acute analysis detected that the bars and
+dots which occur along the margin and in the body of the pictorial
+scenes represented numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five,
+while for five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in
+which these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are
+never more than five in a group. It was established that the first sign
+in such a group is that for the numeral 1 (_Kin_), the next that for 20
+(_Uinal_), the third for 18 X 20 (_Tun_), the fourth for 18 X 20 X 20
+(_Katun_), and the fifth for 18 X 20 X 20 X 20, that is to say, a cycle.
+
+Had the available material for study been confined to the manuscripts,
+little more progress would have been made beyond establishing subsidiary
+details in the actual calendar. But when a similar analysis was applied
+to the numerous monuments discovered and figured by Maudslay and others,
+some important results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found
+that many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were also
+of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that they all
+referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-point or zero is
+no doubt the mythological date at which, according to Mayan cosmology,
+the world was created. It is placed at nine or ten cycles before the
+time when Copan and Quirigua were erected and the picture manuscripts
+made. And it is by reference to it in the inscriptions that such
+students as Seler, Goodman and others have been enabled, as already
+stated, to obtain a record of the relative chronology of the most famous
+monuments, to confine the period of their erection within the space of a
+few centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity.
+Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial results which
+have already been won from the study of the hieroglyphs.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Antiquites mexicaines_ of Dupaix (Paris, 1834),
+  the _Voyage pittoresque et archeologique dans la province d'Yucatan_
+  of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the _Monuments anciens du Mexique_
+  of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are quite out of
+  date and superseded. Stephen's _Incidents of Travel in Central
+  America, Chiapas and Yucatan_ (New York, 1841 and 1867), and B.M.
+  Norman's _Rambles in Yucatan_ (New York, 1843), are still of value,
+  the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by Catherwood. Among
+  the earlier writers may also be mentioned Charnay, _Les Anciennes
+  Villes du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1885) and _Cites et ruines
+  americaines_ (Paris, 1863), the latter written in collaboration with
+  Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily bibliophiles
+  will be content to study the following:--Maudslay (in Godman and
+  Salvin's _Biologia Centrali-Americana_, sect. _Archaeology_, London,
+  1889, &c.), a pioneer work containing the admirably presented results
+  of scientific exploration. Maler, in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_,
+  vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and 1903); Holmes,
+  _Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans_ (Field Columbian
+  Museum, Chicago, 1895); E. Seler, _Die alten Ansiedelungen von
+  Chacula_ (Berlin, 1901), _Wandmalereien von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1895),
+  _Ges. Abhandlungen_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904),
+  _Fuhrer von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1906). E. Forstemann has contributed many
+  valuable essays to _Globus_ and the _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_
+  (Berlin); especially important are his commentaries to the _Dresden
+  Codex_ (Dresden, 1901), to the _Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis_
+  (Danzig, 1902), and to the _Codex Peresianus_ (Danzig, 1903). See also
+  "The Archaic Maya Inscriptions," by F.T. Goodman (in _Biologia
+  Centrali-Americana_, section _Archaeology_, viii., 1897), and _Report
+  of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881_, by A.F. Bandelier
+  (Boston, 1884). Valuable bibliographies have been made by Bandelier
+  (_Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America_,
+  Worcester, U.S.A., 1881) and by K. Habler ("Die Maya Literatur und der
+  Maya Apparat zu Dresden," in the _Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekwesen_,
+  xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published in facsimile
+  as follows:--the _Dresden Codex_ by Forstemann (Leipzig, 1880, and
+  Dresden, 1892), and the _Codex Tro_ by Brasseur de
+  Bourbourg--_Manuscrit Troano, etude sur le systeme graphique et la
+  langue des Mayas_ (Paris, 1869-1870), the _Codex Cortesianus_ by Leon
+  de Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and F.L.
+  de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the _Codex Peresianus_ by Duruy
+  and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de Rosny (Paris,
+  1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in Salvador:--_La
+  Universidad_, by D. Gonzalez, vol. ii. ser. 3, No. 6, p. 283 (San
+  Salvador, 1892-1893); _Le Salvador pre-Colombien, etudes
+  archeologiques_, by F. de Montcasus de Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25
+  plates; Karl Sapper in _Arch. fur Ethnologie_, 9, p. 3 ff. (1896).
+       (W. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL FALLS, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the
+Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence. Pop. (1900) 18,167;
+(1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792 were foreign-born, 4164 being
+French-Canadian, 1587 being English, and 1292 being Irish; (1910)
+22,754. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The
+Blackstone furnishes good water-power, and the chief industry of the
+city is the manufacture of cotton goods; other important industries are
+the refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and
+hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$5,090,984, being 12.9% more than in 1900. A settlement was established
+here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield, and then, after
+1871, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill was erected, and from then
+until 1827 the settlement was known as Chocolateville. It was
+incorporated as the Central Falls Fire District of Smithfield in 1847,
+and in 1895 was chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRALIA, a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of
+the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4763; (1900) 6721
+(571 foreign-born); (1910) 9680. The city is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois Central, the Illinois Southern, and
+the Southern railways; the first two have repair shops here. Centralia
+is situated in the central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as
+"Egypt." Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars,
+concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and
+apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city is a
+shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled in 1853,
+and was first chartered as a city in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL INDIA, a collection of native states in India forming a separate
+agency, which must not be confounded with the Central Provinces. The
+Central India agency was formed in 1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was
+appointed agent to the governor-general. It lies between 21 Deg. 24' and
+26 Deg. 52' N. and between 74 Deg. 0' and 83 Deg. 0' E., and may be said
+to consist of two large detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as
+a pivot, spread outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching
+northward to within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of
+the Nerbudda and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area is
+78,772 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United Provinces,
+on the W. and S.W. by Rajputana, some native states of the Bombay
+presidency, and Khandesh. The Central Provinces and the Bengal district
+of Chota Nagpur enclose it on the S. and E., while the Jhansi district
+of the United Provinces separates the two tracts.
+
+Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions: the
+highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of some 1500 ft.
+above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft. above sea-level,
+comprising the greater part of the eastern section of the agency; and
+the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south. The Malwa plateau
+consists of great undulating plains, separated by flat-topped hills,
+whose sides are boldly terraced, with here and there a scarp rising
+above the general level; it is covered with long grass, stunted trees
+and scrub, which owing to the presence of deciduous plants is of a
+uniform straw colour, except in the rains. The foundation of this
+plateau is a bed of sandstone and shales belonging to the Vindhyan
+series. This bed, which stretches east and west from Sasseram to
+Neemuch, and north and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the
+whole of the agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the
+plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan trap, a
+blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high level
+tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows, the valleys
+of Central India being merely "denudation hollows" carved out by the
+action of rain and rivers. It is apparently the northern limit of what
+was once a vast basaltic plain stretching from Goona to Belgaum, "one of
+the most gigantic outpourings of volcanic matter in the world." The
+sandstone bed on which it rests is visible at a point just north of
+Goona, and in a small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those
+places freed from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly
+that part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and
+comprises the greater part of the political divisions of Bundelkhand and
+Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior. The formation save in north
+Bundelkhand is sandstone of the Vindhyan series, free as a rule from
+"trap." In the north of Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and
+quartz. The quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in
+many places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears here
+and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly to the south
+of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and Kaimur ranges are met
+with. The country is rough forest and jungle land little used for
+cultivation. The greater part of Central India is covered with the
+well-known "black cotton soil," produced by the disintegration of the
+trap rock. It is a very rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and
+an unusual power of retaining moisture, which makes artificial
+irrigation little needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown
+upon it. The ordinary "red soil" covers a large part of northern
+Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a special
+feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as climatically the
+differences between the plateau and the eastern part of the agency are
+distinct and the languages markedly so. The plateau is inhabited by
+pure-blooded Rajput races, whose ancestry can be traced back for
+centuries, with all their numerous offshoots. The inhabitants of the
+low-lying country are also Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a
+rule the families of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with
+them. The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often
+flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but little
+affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of the climate of
+the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the _Ain-i-Akbari_, says: "The
+climate is so temperate that in the winter there is no occasion for warm
+clothing, nor is it necessary in summer to cool the water with
+saltpetre. But in the four rainy months the night here is cold enough to
+render a quilt necessary." The rains of the south-east monsoon reach
+Central India as a rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end
+of September.
+
+_Administrative Divisions._--The Central India agency is divided for
+administrative purposes into eight units, two classed as residencies and
+six as agencies. These are the residencies of Gwalior and Indore, and
+the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal, Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and
+Malwa. But these divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the
+purposes of the British government, the original native divisions
+consisting of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 15 large
+states are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia, Orchha,
+Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch), Dewas (junior
+branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the Pindari War in 1818 the
+whole country that is now under the Central India agency was in great
+confusion and disorder, having suffered heavily from the extortions of
+the Mahratta armies and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of
+the great Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into
+complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands they
+seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of money. Many of
+these minor chiefs had been expelled from their possessions, had taken
+refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated upon the Mahratta
+usurpers by wasting the lands which they had lost, until the Mahrattas
+compounded for peace by payment of blackmail. In this state of affairs
+all parties agreed to accept the interposition of the British government
+for the restoration of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of
+pacification was effected. The policy pursued was to declare the
+permanency of the rights existing at the time of the British
+interposition, conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust
+and guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to their
+superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or encroachments; and to
+settle the claims of the ousted landholders, who had resorted to pillage
+or blackmail, by fixing grants of land to be made to them, or settling
+the money allowances to be paid to them. The general result was to place
+all the privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs
+under the guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all
+disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred, and
+whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to hereditary
+rights or rulership. The states have no general ethnological affinity,
+such as exists in Rajputana. Their territories are in many cases neither
+compact nor continuous, consisting of a number of villages here and
+there, with a nucleus of more or less importance round the chief town.
+Their relations to the government of India and to each other present
+many variations. Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government
+of India; others are held under _sanads_ and deeds of fealty and
+obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states, are held
+under agreements mediated by the British government between them and
+their superior chiefs.
+
+_Population._--The total population of the Central India agency in 1901
+was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of 16.4%.
+Considerable losses were caused by the famines of 1897-1898 and
+1899-1900, which were severely felt, especially in Bhopal and Malwa. The
+greater part of the population of Central India is of the Hindu
+religion, but a few Mahommedan groups still exist, either traces of the
+days when the Mogul emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the
+Deccan, or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired
+out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first Bhopal
+is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable instance of the
+other. Roughly there are four great sections of the population: the
+Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling circles; the Rajputs, who are
+also hereditary noblemen; the trading classes, consisting chiefly of
+Marwaris and Gujaratis; and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian
+stock. The Mahrattas are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater
+part of Central India, have no true connexion with the soil and are
+little met with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and
+administrative centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications
+form a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have
+so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost part of
+the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically all the trade
+of Central India, with the exception of the Bora class of Mahommedans.
+They are either Vaishnavite Hindus or else Jains. Their advent into
+Central India dates, except in the case of one or two families, from the
+time of the Mahratta invasion only. The Jain portion of this community
+is very wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly
+of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being the
+modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants of this
+country.
+
+The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore, and there
+are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and Nowgong. The whole country
+is fairly provided with railways, largely at the expense of Sindhia.
+
+
+
+
+CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, a province of British India, which was
+formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation of the Central Provinces and
+the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The total area of the provinces is
+113,281 sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325.
+As is shown by its name the province is situated in the centre of the
+Indian peninsula, comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of
+hill and plateau country which separates the plains of Hindustan from
+the Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India
+states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the United
+Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the Khandesh district of
+Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the large _zamindari_ estates of the
+Madras presidency; and on the E. by these latter estates and the
+tributary states of Bengal. In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five
+Oriya-speaking hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces
+to Bengal, while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were
+transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province,
+therefore, now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore,
+Nerbudda, Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into the
+twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni,
+Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, Wardha, Nagpur,
+Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur, Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur,
+Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen tributary states of Makrai, Bastar,
+Kanker, Nandgaon, Kairagarh, Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh,
+Sarangarh, Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur.
+
+
+    Central Provinces.
+
+  The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura range
+  of hills (q.v.), which runs south of the Nerbudda river from east to
+  west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of districts north of
+  the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura plateau, and districts south of
+  the Satpuras. North of the Satpuras is the rich valley of the
+  Nerbudda, which may be said to begin towards the north of the
+  Jubbulpore district and to extend westward through the district of
+  Narsinghpur as far as the western limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of
+  nearly 300 m. The elevation of the valley above the sea varies from
+  1400 ft. at Jubbulpore to 1120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about
+  30 m., extending between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the
+  Vindhyas. This great plain, 10,613 sq. m. in extent, contains for the
+  most part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley
+  west of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of
+  Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district of the
+  Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts, this tract
+  of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the base of the
+  hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land which is
+  highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great plain of
+  Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft.; it has an
+  area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the Mahanadi.
+  Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the great plain
+  of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general surface inclines
+  towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at Nagpur to 750 ft. at
+  Chanda. To the south the province is shut in by the wide mountainous
+  tract which stretches from the Bay of Bengal through Bastar to the
+  Godavari, and west of that river is continued onward to the rocky
+  ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by a succession of ranges that enclose
+  the plain of Berar along its southern border.
+
+
+    Berar.
+
+  Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura range of
+  mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south. The
+  Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura mountains, form the
+  northern border. On the east the frontier is marked by the Wardha
+  river down to its confluence with the Penganga, and on the south by
+  the Penganga for about two-thirds of the frontier's length. The tract
+  is half surrounded on the east, north and north-west by the Central
+  Provinces, with which it is amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat
+  mountain tract which walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into
+  two sections, the Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north
+  by the Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the
+  Ajanta range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta
+  ridge, sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead
+  up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward between
+  this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from 40 to 50
+  m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It contains all the
+  best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black alluvial soil, of
+  almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates sufficiently to
+  maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is nothing
+  picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country. The upland
+  tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying plains, high
+  plateaus, fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is rendered
+  picturesque by rivers and groves.
+
+  _Natural Features_.--The provinces may be divided into two tracts of
+  upland and three of plain, consisting of the Vindhya and Satpura
+  plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the north
+  the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary of the
+  Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks are generally
+  overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decaying trap, which is
+  principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring crops, wheat and
+  grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the lighter and more
+  sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of the Nerbudda from
+  Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep alluvial deposits of
+  extreme richness and excellently suited to the growth of wheat. To the
+  south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range stretches across the province,
+  containing the greater part of five districts, its crystalline and
+  sandstone rocks rising in places through the superficial stratum of
+  trap, and with large areas of shallow stony land still covered to a
+  great extent with forest interspersed by black-soil valleys of great
+  fertility. In the latter are grown wheat and other spring crops, while
+  the lighter kinds of rice and the hill millets are all that the poorer
+  land can bear. To the south of the Satpuras and extending along its
+  base from west to east lie successively the Berar, Nagpur and
+  Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of Berar is to a great extent a
+  rich black vegetable mould; and where this surface soil does not
+  exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow upper crust of inferior
+  light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by the Wardha and Wainganga
+  rivers, contains towards the west the shallow black soil in which
+  autumn crops like cotton and the large millet, _juar_, which do not
+  require excessive moisture, can be successfully cultivated. The
+  eastern part of the Nagpur country and the Chhattisgarh plain,
+  comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great rice tract of the
+  province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil rendering it
+  excellently adapted for the growth of this crop.
+
+  _Climate_.---As regards climate the districts of the Central Provinces
+  are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division
+  are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh,
+  Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Satpura
+  districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy, owing
+  to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average temperature
+  than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is from 3 to 4
+  degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in a cooler district
+  being about 105 Deg. as against 108 Deg. in the hotter ones for the
+  month of May, and 79 Deg. as against 83 Deg. for the month of
+  December. In the cold weather the temperature in Nagpur and the other
+  hot districts is about the same as in Calcutta and substantially
+  higher than that of northern India. The climate of Berar differs very
+  little from that of the Deccan generally, except that in the Payanghat
+  valley the hot weather may be exceptionally severe. The rainfall of
+  the province is considerably heavier than in northern India, and the
+  result of this is a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere during the
+  monsoon season. The average rainfall, before it was affected by the
+  abnormal seasons which followed 1892, was 51 in., varying from 33 in.
+  in Nimar to 65 in Balaghat. In the autumn months malarial fever is
+  prevalent in all thickly forested tracts and also in the rice country;
+  but on the whole the province is considered to be healthy, and as the
+  rains break fairly regularly in June and produce an immediate fall in
+  the temperature, severe heat is only experienced for a period of from
+  two to three months.
+
+  _Agriculture_.--Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the
+  province produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and
+  grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the
+  decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan and
+  Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in all the
+  Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur. Cotton and
+  juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur, Wardha and the
+  southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter also in Chanda. In the
+  Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is principally devoted to
+  hill millets. Rice is an important crop in Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla,
+  Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and
+  the two eastern districts of Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of
+  Berar are cotton and juar. The succession of bad seasons which marked
+  the end of the decade affected the distribution of the principal
+  crops, but with the advent of more prosperous seasons things tend to
+  return to their old level.
+
+  _Industries_.--The only important industries are connected with cotton
+  and coal. In 1904 the total number of factories was 391, almost
+  entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received an
+  immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a brewery was
+  established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are worked in the Central
+  Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each of which there is a branch
+  line of railway. In 1903-1904 there was a total yield of 160,000 tons,
+  valued at about L45,000. In connexion with the Warora colliery there
+  is a fire-clay business. The Mopani colliery, which dates back to
+  1860, is worked by a joint-stock company.
+
+  _Trade_.--The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly by
+  rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are cotton piece
+  goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway materials, raw
+  cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil. The chief
+  exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and lac. The
+  exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations, especially during
+  famine periods.
+
+  _Railways_.--Until recently, the only railway in the Central Provinces
+  was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one terminating at
+  Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was continued by the East
+  Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-Nagpur line has now opened up
+  the eastern portion of the country, bringing it into direct connexion
+  with Calcutta; and a new branch of the Indian Midland, from Saugor
+  through Damoh, has been partly constructed as a famine work. Large
+  portions, however, in the hilly centre and in the south-east, are
+  still remote from railways.
+
+  _Administration_.--The administration of the province is conducted by
+  a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India in
+  council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial
+  civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant
+  superintendents of police, and officers specially recruited for
+  various departments. The form of the administration of Berar was in
+  1903 entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by
+  the treaties of 1853 and 1860 the revenues of the province were
+  assigned primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent,
+  such surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the
+  nizam, while the province itself was administered in trust by the
+  government of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November
+  1902 a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in
+  perpetuity to the British government in return for an annual rental of
+  25 lakhs. It remained under the administration of the resident until
+  the 1st of October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the
+  Central Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result
+  of this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except
+  the judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were
+  amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central
+  Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that
+  province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional
+  commissioner as its immediate head.
+
+  _Population_.--The population of the Central Provinces and Berar as
+  now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and is of
+  very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by
+  immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There are
+  six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who formerly
+  held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the north and
+  north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley and the open
+  country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking immigrants from
+  Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur
+  and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking immigrants from Bombay into Berar,
+  the Mahratta districts and the southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu
+  castes in the Sironcha and Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of
+  Bastar; and the Hindu immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed
+  to have arrived many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of
+  Ratanpur rose into power.
+
+  _Language_.--Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of language
+  is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six dialects are
+  found in the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight languages and
+  sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these languages are
+  Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Oriya, Telugu and
+  Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief dialects are Gondi, Oraon
+  or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of which Gondi is by far the most
+  important. There are also the Munda languages, of which the chief are
+  Korku, Kharia and Munda or Kol. The chief languages of Berar are
+  Marathi, Urdu, Gondi, Banjari, Hindi, Marwari, Telugu, Korku and
+  Gujarati.
+
+_History_.--The authentic history of the greater part of the country
+embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till the 16th century
+A.D. By the people of northern India the country was known as Gondwana,
+after the savage tribes of Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman
+invaders of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain
+fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscriptions show
+that parts of it had fallen from time to time under the dominion of one
+or other of the great kingdoms of the north, e.g. of Asoka, of the
+Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar);
+and inscriptions and numerous discoveries of coins prove that, during
+the middle ages, the open spaces were occupied by a series of Rajput
+dynasties. Of these the most important was that of the Haihayas of
+Ratanpur, a family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda
+valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the Pandava
+dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled, though from the 16th
+century onwards over greatly diminished territories, until its overthrow
+by the Mahrattas in 1745. The second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja,
+was the founder of Ratanpur.
+
+The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century, and no
+more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond dynasties from
+the 14th to the 16th centuries. The first of these is mentioned in 1398,
+when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said by Ferishta to have ruled all
+the hills of Gondwana. He was finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang
+Shah, king of Malwa. The 16th century saw the establishment of a
+powerful Gond kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th
+of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his dominions so
+as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan plateau, Jubbulpore and
+Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley, and Seoni on the Satpura highlands.
+Sangram Sah died in 1530; and the break up of his dominion began with
+the enforced cession to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of
+Saugor and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which afterwards
+formed the state of Bhopal.
+
+About 200 years after Sangram Sah's time, Bakht Buland, the Gond
+chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhindwara, having
+visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization he had there
+admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which his successor made his
+capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its widest extent, embraced the modern
+districts of Betul, Chhindwara, Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara
+and Balaghat. In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of
+another Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th
+century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deogarh and
+Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul emperors. In addition to the
+acquisitions made in the north at the expense of Garha-Mandla, the
+Moguls, after the annexation of Berar, established governors at Paunar
+in Wardha and Kherla in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states,
+however, they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over
+them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical
+independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful rule their
+territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul empire and the
+rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta powers, with the organized
+forces of which their semi-barbarous feudal levies were unable to cope,
+brought misfortune upon them.
+
+In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived the
+Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the Nerbudda
+valley. In 1733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundelkhand; and in 1735 the
+Mahrattas had established their power in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa
+advanced to Mandla and exacted the payment of _chauth_ (tributary
+blackmail), and from this time until 1781, when the successors of
+Sangram Sah were finally overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a
+Mahratta dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities of
+Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla of Berar
+established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had conquered the territories
+of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh. In 1741 Ratanpur had surrendered to
+the Mahratta leader Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput
+dynasty came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were
+suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a shadowy
+existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse for avoiding the
+claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though actually decisions in
+important matters were sought at Poona. Raghoji died in 1755, and in
+1769 his son and successor, Janoji, was forced to acknowledge the
+peshwa's effective supremacy. The Nagpur state, however, continued to
+grow. In 1785 Mudhoji (d. 1788), Janoji's successor, bought from the
+Poona court the cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and
+between 1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of
+Hoshangabad and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II. (d.
+1816). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered practically the
+whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar, as well as Orissa and
+some of the Chota Nagpur states.
+
+In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the result was the
+defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the treaty of Deogaon, by
+which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack, Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to
+this time the rule of the Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant
+extraction, had been on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat,
+Raghoji now set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless
+exploitation of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of
+the British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of
+oppression. After Raghoji II.'s death in 1816 his imbecile son Parsaji
+was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa Sahib. In spite of a
+treaty signed with the British in this year, Mudhoji in 1817 joined the
+peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi and forced to cede the rest of
+Berar to the nizam, and parts of Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul,
+Seoni and the Nerbudda valley, to the British. After a temporary
+restoration to the throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild
+of Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority, which
+lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a British
+resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without heirs, Nagpur
+lapsed to the British paramount power. Until the formation of the
+Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province, which consists of the
+present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and Chhatisgarh, was administered by
+a commissioner under the central government.
+
+The territories in the north ceded in 1817 by the peshwa (parts of
+Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820 formed into the
+Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent to the governor-general,
+and in 1835 were included in the newly formed North-West Provinces. In
+1842, in consequence of a rising, they were again placed under the
+jurisdiction of an agent to the governor-general. Restored to the
+North-West Provinces in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur
+province to constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of
+October 1903 Berar also was placed under the administration of the
+commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see BERAR). In 1905
+the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory states of
+Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were transferred to
+Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang Bhakar, Korea, Surguja,
+Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred from Bengal to the Central
+Provinces.
+
+During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered from famine
+more severely than any other part of India. The complete failure of the
+rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity to develop suddenly into
+famine, which lasted until the end of 1897. The total number of persons
+in receipt of relief reached its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897.
+The expenditure on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the
+total cost of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly
+twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole province
+rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average, while the
+birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The Central Provinces were
+stricken by another famine, yet more severe and widespread, caused by
+the complete failure of the rains in 1899. The maximum of persons
+relieved for the whole province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition,
+about 68,000 persons were in receipt of relief in the native states.
+During the three years 1899-1902 the total expenditure on famine relief
+amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered from the
+famines of 1897 and 1900.
+
+  See _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list
+  of authorities.
+
+
+
+
+CENTUMVIRI (_centum_, hundred; _vir_, man), an ancient court of civil
+jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius Tullius.[1] Its
+antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula used in its procedure,
+the lance (_hasta_) as the sign of true ownership, the oath or wager
+(_sacramentum_), the ancient formula for recovery of property or
+assertion of liberty. It is probably alluded to in Livy's account of the
+Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C. (Livy iii. 55, _Consules ... fecerunt
+sanciendo ut qui tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris
+nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset_). If the _judices_ here
+mentioned are the _centumviri_, it is clear that they formed a tribunal
+which represented the interests of the _plebs_. This is in accordance
+with Cicero's account (_de Orat._ i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their
+jurisdiction. He says this was mainly concerned with the property of
+which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in their power
+to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided questions concerning
+debt. Hence the _plebs_ had an interest in securing their decisions
+against undue influence. They were never regarded as magistrates, but
+merely as _judices_, and as such would be appointed for a fixed term of
+service by the magistrate, probably by the _praetor urbanus_. But in
+Cicero's time they were elected by the _Comitia Tributa_. They then
+numbered 105. Their original number is uncertain. It was probably
+increased by Augustus and in Pliny's time had reached 180. The office
+was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and plebeians.
+The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to the municipal
+senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Tigerstrom, _De Judicibus apud Romanos_ (Berlin, 1826);
+  Greenidge, _Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff., 182
+  ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, _Der romische
+  Civilprozess_, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak).     (A. M. Cl.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, i^3. 275, n. 4, ii^3. 231, n. 1, 590 f.)
+    believed that the _Centumviri_ were instituted about 150 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+CENTURION (Lat. _centurio_), in the ancient Roman army, an officer in
+command of a _centuria_, originally a body of a hundred infantry, later
+the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There were therefore in the
+legion sixty centurions, who, though theoretically subordinate to the
+six military tribunes, were the actual working officers of the legion.
+For the most part the centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were
+arranged in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of
+the legion (_primus pilus_) was an officer of very high importance.
+Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were
+"seconded" for various kinds of special service, e.g. for staff
+employment, the command of auxiliaries. See further ROMAN ARMY.
+
+
+
+
+CENTURIPE (formerly CENTORBI, anc. [Greek: Kentoripa] or _Centuripae_),
+a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated 2380 ft. above
+sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of the railway station of
+Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m. W. from Catania. Pop. (1901)
+11,311. Thucydides mentions it as a city of the Sicels. It became an
+ally of the Athenians at the time of their expedition against Syracuse,
+and maintained its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell
+under the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero
+describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the largest
+and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of 10,000,
+engaged in the cultivation of an extensive territory. It was granted
+Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears to have suffered much
+in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and not to have regained its former
+prosperity under the empire. Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in
+1233, but it was soon rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city
+walls and of buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and
+numerous antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic _terra-cottas_,
+have been discovered in casual excavations.
+
+  See F. Ansaldi, _I Monumenti dell' antica Centuripi_ (Catania, 1851);
+  P. Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche_
+  (Rome, 1904), v. 177.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CENTURY (from Lat. _centuria_, a division of a hundred men), the name
+for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting to one hundred men,
+and for one of the divisions into which the Roman people was separated
+for voting purposes (see COMITIA). The word is applied to any group of
+one hundred, and more particularly to a period of a hundred years, and
+to the successive periods of a hundred years, dating before or after the
+birth of Christ. The "Century-plant" is a name given to the Agave
+(q.v.), or American aloe, from the supposition that it flowered once
+only in every hundred years.
+
+
+
+
+CEOS (Gr. [Greek: Keos], mod. _Zea_ or _Tzia_), an island in the Aegean
+Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of Syra, 14
+m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about 15 m. and its
+breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the centre, where it
+culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among its natural productions
+are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and honey; it also exports a
+considerable quantity of valonia. There were formerly four towns of some
+importance in the island:--Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore;
+Coressia, the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the
+neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of Apollo;
+and Poieessa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is represented by the
+town of Zea, and Carthaea by the village of 'S tais Polais; traces of
+the other two can still be made out. Iulis was the birthplace of the
+lyric poets Simonides and Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and
+Ariston, and the physician Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was
+so generally recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a
+proverb. One of them forbade a citizen to protract his life beyond sixty
+years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at Artemisium and
+Salamis; they joined the Delian League and also the later Athenian
+alliance in 377 B.C. They revolted in 363-362, but were reduced again,
+and the Athenians established a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth,
+which was one of the most valuable products of the island. In A.D. 1207
+it was divided between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of
+the duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566. Silver
+coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating from the 6th
+century B.C. (see NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, "Cyclades and Sporades"). The
+present population of the island is about 4000, of which the capital has
+about 2000.
+
+  See Pridik, _De Cei Insulae rebus_ (1892).     (E. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+CEPHALIC INDEX, the term in use by anthropologists to express the
+percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The principle employed by
+Retzius is to take the longer diameter of a skull, the antero-posterior
+diameter, as 100; if the shorter or transverse diameter falls below 80
+the skull may be classed as long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds
+80 the skull is broad (brachycephalic) (see CRANIOMETRY).
+
+
+
+
+CEPHALONIA (Ital. _Cefalonia_, ancient and modern official Greek
+_Cephallenia_, [Greek: Kephallenia]), an island belonging to the kingdom
+of Greece, and the largest of those known as the Ionian Islands,
+situated on the west side of the mainland, almost directly opposite the
+Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally derived from Cephalus, the
+Attic hero who was regarded as having colonized the island. The
+tradition, which is repeated by Aristotle, is probably due solely to the
+similarity of the names (see J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias_, i. 37, 6 note).
+Pop. (1907) 71,235. Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies
+from about 20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the
+projecting part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a
+distance of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The
+whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with rocky
+hills of varying elevation, the main range running from north-west to
+south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato, Monte Negro, or the
+Black Mountain (5315 ft.), frequently retains the snow for several
+months. It is not only the loftiest part of the sierra, but also the
+highest land in the whole Ionian group. The name "Black" was given from
+the darkness of the pine woods which still constitute the most striking
+feature in Cephalonian scenery, although their extent has been greatly
+curtailed by fire. The summit is called Megalo Soros. The island is ill
+supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams except the
+Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers. In the western part
+of the island a gulf runs up from the south, a distance of about 7 m.;
+on its east side stands the chief town Argostoli, with about 10,000
+inhabitants, and on its west side the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000.
+About a mile west of the town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea
+water running down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels.
+About 5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of
+Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island. On an
+eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the ancient
+Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale; while on the
+other side of the island are the remains of Samos on the bay of the same
+name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south above the vale of Rakli and its
+blossoming oleanders, and of an unknown city near the village of Scala.
+The ruins of this city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple,
+rock-cut tombs, and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos
+are remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly of
+the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost unimpaired
+the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants of Cephalonia
+have all along been extremely active; and no slight amount of toil has
+been expended in the construction of terraces on the steep sides of the
+hills. Owing to the thinness of the population, however, but a small
+proportion of the soil is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain
+grown in the island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant,
+in the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit is
+smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it finds a
+market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The grape vine also is
+grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising industry. The olive crop
+is of considerable importance, and the culture of cotton in the low
+grounds has been successfully attempted. Manufactures are few and
+undeveloped, but lace from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and
+basket-work are produced by the villagers, and boats are built at both
+the principal towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and
+Zante are most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental
+activity.
+
+In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to be mentioned
+under the name of Same, and its inhabitants, among the subjects of
+Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes (see, however, under ITHACA). In
+the Persian War they took but little part; in the Peloponnesian they
+sided with the Athenians. The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip
+of Macedon in 218 B.C., because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In
+189 B.C. all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards
+revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months. The island
+was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears again at a later date
+as "free and autonomous." After the division of the Roman empire, it
+continued attached to Byzantium till 1082, when it was captured by
+Robert Guiscard, who died, however, before he could repress the revolt
+of 1085. In 1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who
+accepted the protection of Venice in 1215; and after 1225 it was held
+along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of five counts of the
+Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice in 1350 by the
+prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured by the Turks in 1479; but
+the Hispanico-Venetian fleet under Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of
+Cordova effected their expulsion in 1500, and the island continued in
+Venetian possession till the fall of the republic. For some time it was
+administered for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the
+British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in the hands
+of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who displayed an
+industry and energy in the repression of injustice and development of
+civilization only outdone by the despotic vigour of Sir Charles Napier,
+who held the same office for the nine years from 1818 to 1827. During
+the British protectorate the island made undoubted advances in material
+prosperity, but was several times the scene of political disturbances.
+It retained longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence
+exerted by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming more
+democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight districts, and
+an elaborate system of police was in force; since its annexation to
+Greece it has been broken up into twenty demarchies, each with its
+separate jurisdiction and revenues, and the police system has been
+abolished.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia was
+  written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland's _Travels_ (1815); Ansted's
+  _Ionian Islands_ (1863); Viscount Kirkwall's _Four Years in Ionian
+  Islands_ (1864); Wiebel's _Die Insel Kephalonia_; parliamentary
+  papers. Riemann, _Recherches archeologiques sur les Iles Ioniennes_
+  (Paris, 1879-1880); Partsch, _Kephallenia und Ithaka_ (1890); see also
+  CORFU; IONIAN ISLANDS.     (E. Gr.)
+
+
+
+
+CEPHALOPODA, the fifth of the classes into which the zoological phylum
+Mollusca is divided (see MOLLUSCA). The Cephalopoda are mainly
+characterized by the concrescence of the foot and head. The foot grows
+forward on each side so as to surround the mouth, the two upgrowths
+meeting on the dorsal side of the head--whence the name Cephalopoda. The
+perioral portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like
+processes; these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or
+hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of muscular lobes
+right and left, which are bent round towards one another so that their
+free margins meet and constitute a short tube--the siphon or funnel. The
+hind-foot is either very small or absent. A distinctive feature of the
+Cephalopoda is their bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like
+the torsion of the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda.
+
+  The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median line,
+  is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is deeply
+  produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber around the
+  anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or paired
+  apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only in
+  _Nautilus_, in female Octopoda, female _Ommatostrephes_ and male
+  _Eledone_), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is
+  elevated, and may be very much elongated in a direction almost at
+  right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot.
+
+  A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral
+  hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or
+  lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming habits
+  of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is, enclosed
+  in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented sacs, capable
+  of expansion and contraction, and known as chromatophores, are usually
+  present in the integument. The sexes are separate.
+
+  The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as the
+  efficient branchial organs (figs. 4, 24),
+
+  The vascular system is very highly developed; the heart consists of a
+  pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts are
+  formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known to
+  what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or whether
+  there is a true capillary system.
+
+  The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing
+  among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary or
+  testis--the viscero-pericardial sac--which opens to the exterior
+  either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion with
+  the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs, the
+  walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29).
+  They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in
+  _Nautilus_. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla. Jaws
+  (fig. 6, e) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws have
+  the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (_Nautilus_),
+  and are capable of inflicting severe wounds.
+
+  Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives
+  are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic
+  region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are
+  developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits a very
+  special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a remarkable
+  archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in all. The typical
+  osphradium is not present, except in _Nautilus_, but other organs are
+  present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory function is
+  ascribed both in _Nautilus_ and in the other Cephalopoda.
+
+  Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female individuals
+  always being differentiated. The genital aperture and duct is
+  sometimes single, when it is the left; sometimes the typical pair is
+  developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all
+  Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar
+  modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot,
+  connected with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization is
+  applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate
+  spermatophores or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very
+  usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nidamental
+  glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fig. 4, g.n.). The egg is
+  large, and the development is much modified by the presence of an
+  excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm of the
+  egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development are
+  consequently not recognizable.
+
+The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata and
+Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen) describe the
+number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are several characters,
+of as great importance as those derived from the gills, by which the
+members of these two orders are separated from one another.
+
+ORDER 1. TETRABRANCHIATA (= Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera).
+
+_Characters_.--The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are not
+fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circumoral lobes of
+the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles, not suckers (fig. 6).
+There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence Tetrabranchiata), and two
+pairs of renal organs, consequently four renal apertures (fig. 4). The
+viscero-pericardial chamber opens by two independent apertures to the
+exterior, and not into the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and
+left) in the female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in
+both sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or
+straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the
+mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the
+last-formed of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the hinder
+ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. 1). The pair of
+cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14. A), opening to the exterior
+by minute orifices (pin-hole camera), and devoid of refractive
+structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base of the gills
+(fig. 4, _olf_). Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac is _not_
+present. Branchial hearts are _not_ developed on the branchial afferent
+vessels.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus,
+contracted by spirit and lying in its shell, the right half of which is
+cut away (from Gegenbaur, after Owen).
+
+  a, Visceral hump.
+
+  b, Portion of the free edge of the mantle-skirt reflected on to the
+  shell,--the edge of the mantle-skirt can be traced downwards and
+  forwards around the base of the mid-foot or siphon i.
+
+  l, l, Superficial origin of the retractor muscle of the mid-foot
+  (siphon), more or less firmly attached to the shell, of which a small
+  piece (s) is seen between the letters l, l.
+
+  s, (farther back) points to the siphuncular pedicle, which is broken
+  off short and not continued, as in the perfect state, through the
+  whole length of the siphuncle of the shell, also marked s and s'.
+
+  o, points to the right eye.
+
+  t, is placed near the extremities of the contracted tentacles of the
+  outer or annular lobe of the fore-foot--the jointed tentacles are seen
+  protruding a little from their long cylindrical sheaths.
+
+  v, The dorsal "hood" formed by an enlargement in this region of the
+  annular lobe of the fore-foot (m in figs. 2, 3).
+
+  V, A swelling of the mantle-skirt, indicating the position on its
+  inner face of the nidamental gland (see fig. 4, g.n.).]
+
+_Visceral Hump and Shell._--The visceral hump of _Nautilus_ (if we
+exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which it trails,
+as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the coiled
+form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always slips
+forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber which is
+practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted chambers thrown off
+instead of being accumulated behind the inhabited chamber as a coiled
+series of air-chambers, we should have a more correct indication in the
+shell of the extent and form of the animal's body. Amongst Gastropods it
+is not very unusual to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as
+growth advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the
+shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied cavity by a
+transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be formed, but in no
+Gastropod are these apical chambers known to contain a gas during the
+life of the animal in whose shell they occur. A further peculiarity of
+the nautilus shell and of that of the allied extinct _Ammonites_,
+_Scaphites_, _Orthoceras_, &c., and of the living _Spirula_, is that the
+series of deserted air-chambers is traversed by a cord-like pedicle
+extending from the centro-dorsal area of the visceral hump to the
+smallest and first-formed chamber of the series. No structure comparable
+to this siphuncular pedicle is known in any other Mollusca. The
+siphuncle does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple
+vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous sinus,
+and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial artery. There
+appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers of the nautilus shell
+contain in the healthy living animal a gas which serves to lessen the
+specific gravity of the whole organism. This gas is said to be of the
+same composition as the atmosphere, with a larger proportion of
+nitrogen. With regard to its origin we have only conjectures. Each
+septum shutting off an air-containing chamber is formed during a period
+of quiescence, probably after the reproductive act, when the visceral
+mass of the nautilus may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from
+the dorsal integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by
+the animal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal when
+no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the loosening of the
+animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward when a new septum is
+formed, as well as the mode in which the air-chambers may be used as a
+hydrostatic apparatus, and the relation to this use, if any, of the
+siphuncular pedicle, is involved in obscurity, and is the subject of
+much ingenious speculation. In connexion with the secretion of gas by
+the animal, besides the parallel cases ranging from the protozoon
+_Arcella_ to the physoclistic fishes, from the hydroid _Siphonophora_ to
+the insect-larva _Corethra_, we have the identical phenomenon observed
+in the closely allied _Sepia_ when recently hatched. Here, in the pores
+of the internal rudimentary shell, gas is observable, which has
+necessarily been liberated by the tissues which secrete the shell, and
+not derived from any external source (Huxley).
+
+The coiled shell of _Nautilus_, and of the majority of extinct
+Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the body of the animal,
+inasmuch as the curvature of the coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal
+area is towards the head or forwards, instead of away from the head and
+backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as _Planorbis_; the
+coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the two cases. Such a shell is
+said to be exogastric. But in some extinct forms, e.g. _Phragmoceras_,
+_Cyrtoceras_, _Ptenoceras_, the shell is coiled towards the ventral
+side, when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct allies of the
+nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of a variety of shapes, open
+coils such as _Scaphites_, leading on to perfectly cylindrical shells
+with chamber succeeding chamber in a straight line (_Orthoceras_),
+whence again we may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell of
+_Turrilites_. In some extinct genera, e.g. _Gomphoceras_, among the
+Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is contracted and the edge of the
+aperture is lobed. In these cases the animal was probably able only to
+protrude its appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part of the
+aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated from the dorsal part
+by a constriction. Hence it is possible to distinguish the ventral and
+dorsal sides of the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or
+endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be determined
+by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses the septa centrally,
+ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell apertures occur also in
+Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching an extreme in _Morphoceras_, where
+the original aperture is subdivided by the ingrowth of the sides, so
+that only five small separate apertures remain. Of these the central
+probably corresponded to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the
+remaining two to the pedal appendages.
+
+  _Head, Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-pallial Chamber._--In the pearly
+  nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free
+  flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, d, e). In the
+  antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a
+  little over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the
+  postero-ventral region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive
+  sub-pallial chamber, at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A
+  view of the interior of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the
+  mantle-skirt is retroverted and the observer faces in the direction
+  indicated by the reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in
+  fig. 4. With this should be compared the similar view of the
+  sub-pallial chamber of the Dibranchiate _Sepia_. It should be noted as
+  a difference between _Nautilus_ and the Dibranchiates that in the
+  former the nidamental gland (in the female) lies on that surface of
+  the pallial chamber formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, g.n.;
+  fig. 1, V), whilst in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the
+  body-wall; in fact in the former the base of the fold forming the
+  mantle-skirt comprises in its area a part of what is unreflected
+  visceral hump in the latter.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus,
+  removed from its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn
+  from nature by A.G. Bourne).
+
+    m, The dorsal "hood" formed by the enlargement of the outer or
+    annular lobe of the fore-foot, and corresponding to the sheaths of
+    two tentacles (g, g in fig. 6).
+
+    n, Tentacular sheaths of lateral portion of the annular lobe.
+
+    u, The left eye.
+
+    b, The nuchal plate, continuous at its right and left posterior
+    angles with the root of the mid-foot, and corresponding to the
+    nuchal cartilage of Sepia.
+
+    c, Visceral hump.
+
+    d, The free margin of the mantle-skirt, the middle letter d points
+    to that portion of the mantle-skirt which is reflected over a part
+    of the shell as seen in fig. 1, b; the cup-like fossa to which b and
+    d point in the present figure is occupied by the coil of the shell.
+
+    g.a. points to the lateral continuation of the nuchal plate b to
+    join the root of the mid-foot or siphon.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lateral view of the same specimen as that
+  drawn in fig. 2. Letters as in that figure with the following
+  additions--
+
+    e, points to the concave margin of the mantle-skirt leading into the
+    sub-pallial chamber.
+
+    g, The mid-foot or siphon.
+
+    k, The superficial origin of its retractor muscles closely applied
+    to the shell and serving to hold the animal in its place.
+
+    l, The siphuncular pedicle of the visceral hump broken off short.
+
+    v, v, The superior and inferior ophthalmic tentacles.]
+
+  The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the
+  viscero-pericardial sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are
+  shown in position on the body-wall of the pallial chamber of
+  _Nautilus_ in figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median
+  (the anus) and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice _two_
+  pairs of gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a
+  short papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior
+  gill-plume (see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in
+  a Dibranchiate, we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median
+  anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal
+  apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side)
+  except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts
+  and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are
+  present on the surface of the pallial chamber, since in the
+  Dibranchiata the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each
+  nephridium instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of
+  ctenidia (gill-plumes) is present instead of the two pairs in
+  _Nautilus_. The existence of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of
+  renal sacs in _Nautilus_, placed one behind the other, is highly
+  remarkable. The interest of this arrangement is in relation to the
+  general morphology of the Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this
+  repetition of organs in a linear series as anything else than an
+  instance of metameric segmentation, comparable to the segmentation of
+  the ringed worms and Arthropods. The only other example which we have
+  of this metamerism in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There
+  we find not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some
+  species more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal
+  integument, which carries eight shells. In _Chiton_ the renal organs
+  are not affected by the metamerism as they are in _Nautilus_. It is
+  impossible on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their
+  importance demands the significance of these two instances among
+  Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be wrong to
+  pass them by without insisting upon the great importance which the
+  occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric segmentation in a
+  group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses, and the light
+  which they may be made to throw upon the nature of metameric
+  segmentation in general.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a
+  female Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely
+  reflected so as to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber
+  (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne).
+
+    a, Muscular band passing from the mid-foot to the integument.
+
+    b, The valve on the surface of the funnel, partially concealed by
+    the inrolled lateral margin of the latter.
+
+    c, The mantle-skirt retroverted.
+
+    an, The median anus.
+
+    x, Post-anal papilla of unknown significance.
+
+    g.n., Nidamental gland.
+
+    r.ov, Aperture of the right oviduct.
+
+    l.ov, Aperture of the rudimentary left oviduct (pyriform sac of
+    Owen).
+
+    neph.a, Aperture of the left anterior renal sac.
+
+    neph.p, Aperture of the left posterior renal sac.
+
+    viscper, Left aperture of the viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    olf, The left osphradium placed near the base of the anterior
+    gill-plume.
+
+    The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.]
+
+  The foot and head of _Nautilus_ are in the adult inextricably grown
+  together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the head
+  which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot or front
+  portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying
+  tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The
+  epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an
+  incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and
+  rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The
+  epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in which
+  this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the mantle
+  and the foot.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male
+  Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely reflected so as
+  to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the four
+  ctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne).
+  pe, Penis, being the enlarged termination of the right spermatic duct;
+  l.sp, aperture of the rudimentary left spermatic duct (pyriform sac
+  of Owen). Other letters as in fig. 4.]
+
+  The lobes of the fore-foot of _Nautilus_ and of the other Cephalopoda
+  require further description. It has been doubted whether these lobes
+  were rightly referred (by T.H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and it has
+  been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenadier, H. von Jhering)
+  that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to be impossible
+  to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion of the foot,
+  when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further, when the
+  fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal ganglion. The
+  fore-foot of _Nautilus_ completely surrounds the buccal cone (fig. 6,
+  e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded tentacles similar
+  to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (_Actinia_). A.G. Bourne, of
+  University College, prepared from actual specimens the drawings of
+  this part in the male and female _Nautilus_ reproduced in fig. 6, and
+  restored the parts to their natural form when expanded. The drawings
+  show very strikingly the difference between male and female. In the
+  females (lower figure), we observe in the centre of the disk the
+  buccal cone e carrying the beak-like pair of jaws which project from
+  the finely papillate buccal membrane. Three tentaculiferous lobes of
+  the fore-foot are in immediate contact with this buccal cone; they are
+  the right and left (c, c) inner lobes, and the inferior inner lobe
+  (d)--called inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth.
+  This inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right
+  and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated organ on its
+  surface, known as Owen's organ, probably olfactory in function (n),
+  marks the separation of the constituent halves of this double lobe.
+  Each half carries a group of fourteen tentacles. The right and the
+  left inner lobes (c, c) each carry twelve tentacles. External to these
+  three lobes the muscular substance of the mouth-embracing foot is
+  raised into a wide ring, which becomes especially thick and large in
+  the dorsal region where it is notably modified in form, offering a
+  concavity into which the coil of the shell is received, and furnishing
+  a protective roof to the retracted mass of tentacles. This part of the
+  external annular lobe of the fore-foot is called the "hood" (figs. 2,
+  3, m). The median antero-posterior line traversing this hood exactly
+  corresponds to the line of concrescence of the two halves of the
+  fore-foot, which primitively grew forward one on each side of the
+  head, and finally fused together along this line in front of the
+  mouth. The tentacles carried by the great annular lobe are nineteen on
+  each side, thirty-eight in all. They are called "digital," and are
+  somewhat larger than the "labial" tentacles carried on the three inner
+  lobes. The dorsalmost pair of tentacles (marked g in fig. 6) are the
+  only ones which actually belong to that part of the disk which forms
+  the great dorsal hood m. The hood is, in fact, to a large extent
+  formed by the enlarged sheaths of these two tentacles. All the
+  tentacles of the circumoral disk are set in remarkable tubular
+  sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The sheaths of some of those
+  belonging to the external or annular lobe are seen in fig. 3, marked
+  n. The sheaths are muscular as well as the tentacles, and are simply
+  tubes from the base of which the solid tentacle grows. The functional
+  significance of this sheathing arrangement is as obscure as its
+  morphological origin. With reference to the latter, it appears highly
+  probable that the tubular sheath represents the cup of a sucker such
+  as is found on the fore-foot of the Dibranchiata. In any case, it
+  seems to the writer impossible to doubt that each tentacle, and its
+  sheath on a lobe of the circumoral disk of Nautilus, corresponds to a
+  sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate. W. Keferstein follows Sir R.
+  Owen in strongly opposing this identification, and in regarding such
+  tentacle as the equivalent of a whole lobe or arm of a Decapod or
+  Octopod Dibranch. The details of these structures, especially in the
+  facts concerning the hectocotylus and spadix, afford the most
+  conclusive reasons for dissenting from Owen's view. On the ventral
+  side an extensive part of the internal surface of the muscular ring is
+  laminated, forming the so-called "organ of Valenciennes," peculiar to
+  the female and serving for the attachment of the spermatophores. We
+  have so far enumerated in the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four
+  more remain which have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to
+  the suggestion that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These
+  remaining tentacles are placed one above (before) and one below
+  (behind) each eye, and bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. 3 v,
+  v).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of
+  _Nautilus pompilius_ as seen in the expanded condition, the observer
+  looking down on to the buccal cone e; one-third the natural size
+  linear. The drawings have been made from actual specimens by A.G.
+  Bourne, B. Sc., University College, London.
+
+    a, The shell.
+
+    b, The _outer_ ring-like expansion (annular lobe) of the circumoral
+    muscular mass of the fore-foot, carrying nineteen tentacles on each
+    side--posteriorly this is enlarged to form the "hood" (marked v in
+    fig. 1 and m in figs. 2 and 3). giving off the pair of tentacles
+    marked g in the present figure.
+
+    c, The right and left inner lobes of the fore-foot, each carrying
+    twelve tentacles in the female, in the male subdivided into p, the
+    "spadix" or hectocotylus on the left side, and q, the "anti-spadix,"
+    a group of four tentacles on the right side--it is thus seen that
+    the subdivided right and left inner lobes of the male correspond to
+    the undivided right and left inner lobes of the female.
+
+    d, The inner inferior lobe of the fore-foot, a bilateral structure
+    in the female carrying two groups, each of fourteen tentacles,
+    separated from one another by a lamellated organ n, supposed to be
+    olfactory in function--in the male the inner inferior lobe of the
+    fore-foot is very much reduced, and has the form of a paired group
+    of lamellae (d in the upper figure).
+
+    e, The buccal cone, rising from the centre of the three inner lobes,
+    and fringing the protruded calcareous beaks or jaws with a series of
+    minute papillae.
+
+    f, The tentacles of the outer circumoral lobe or annular lobe of the
+    fore-foot projecting from their sheaths.
+
+    g, The two most posterior tentacles of this series belonging to that
+    part of the annular lobe which forms the hood (m in figs. 2 and 3).
+
+    i, Superior ophthalmic tentacle.
+
+    k, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle.
+
+    l, Eye.
+
+    m, Paired laminated organ on each side of the base of the inner
+    inferior lobe (d) of the female.
+
+    n, Olfactory lamellae upon the inner inferior lobe (in the female).
+
+    o, The siphon (mid-foot).
+
+    p, The spadix (in the male), the hectocotylized portion of the left
+    inner lobe of the fore-foot representing four modified tentacles,
+    eight being left unmodified.
+
+    q, The anti-spadix (in the male), being four of the twelve tentacles
+    of the right inner lobe of the fore-foot isolated from the remaining
+    eight, and representing on the right side the differentiated spadix
+    of the left side. The four tentacles of the anti-spadix are set,
+    three on one base and one on a separate base.]
+
+  In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differences
+  in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see upper
+  drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary, and
+  carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae
+  (d), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left
+  inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows a
+  larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached groups
+  (q) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united whilst
+  one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the
+  "anti-spadix." The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion
+  carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it
+  corresponding to the anti-spadix. This is the "spadix." It carries no
+  tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae
+  appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right
+  internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that
+  modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate
+  Siphonopods to which the name "hectocotylus" is applied. The spadix is
+  in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the male
+  nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata is
+  connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus the
+  spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible
+  to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe
+  that the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with
+  the female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix.
+  The anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also
+  male peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not
+  differ from that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each
+  side. The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male
+  nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two
+  additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelliform
+  structures.
+
+  _Musculature, Fins and, Cartilaginous Skeleton._--Without entering
+  into a detailed account of the musculature of _Nautilus_, we may point
+  out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the
+  mid-foot (siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass
+  of muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the
+  integument on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the
+  free flap of the mantle-skirt (fig. 1, l, l, and fig. 3, k). These
+  muscular areae have a certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to
+  hold the animal in its shell and as the fixed supports for the various
+  movements of the tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be
+  identified with the ring-like area of adhesion by which the
+  foot-muscle of the limpet is attached to the shell of that animal. In
+  the Dibranchs a similar origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot
+  and mid-foot from the sides of the shell--modified, as this is, in
+  position and relations--can be traced.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Minute structure of the cartilage of _Loligo_
+  (from Gegenbaur, after Furbringer)
+
+    a, Simple cells.
+
+    b, Dividing cells.
+
+    c, Canaliculi.
+
+    d, An empty cartilage capsule with its pores.
+
+    e, Canaliculi in section.]
+
+  In _Nautilus_ there are no fin-like expansions of the integument,
+  whereas such occur in the Decapod Dibranchs along the sides of the
+  visceral hump (figs. 15, 16). As an exception among Octopoda lateral
+  fins occur in _Pinnoctopus_ (fig. 38, A), and in _Cirrhoteuthis_ (fig.
+  38, D).
+
+  In _Nautilus_ there is a curious plate-like expansion of integument in
+  the mid-dorsal region just behind the hood, lying between that
+  structure and the portion of mantle-skirt which is reflected over the
+  shell. This is shown in fig. 2, b. If we trace out the margin of this
+  plate we find that it becomes continuous on each side with the sides
+  of the funnel. In _Sepia_ and other Decapods (not in Octopods) a
+  closely similar plate exists in an exactly corresponding position (see
+  b in figs. 10, 26). In _Sepia_ a cartilaginous development occurs here
+  immediately below the integument forming the so-called "nuchal plate,"
+  drawn in fig. 8, D. The morphological significance of this nuchal
+  lamella, as seen both in _Nautilus_ and in _Sepia_, is not obvious.
+  Cartilage having the structure shown in fig. 7 occurs in various
+  regions of the body of Cephalopoda. In all Glossophorous Mollusca the
+  lingual apparatus is supported by internal skeletal pieces, having the
+  character of cartilage; but in the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a
+  wider range.
+
+  In _Nautilus_ a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming
+  the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into
+  the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (a), whilst its
+  two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In _Sepia_, and
+  Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as shown in
+  fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identified in any
+  way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus_. The lower
+  larger portion of this cartilage in _Sepia_ is called the cephalic
+  cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it
+  completely invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the
+  nerves from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage.
+  The outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to
+  form a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing
+  right and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8,
+  C) are the "pre-orbital cartilages"; in front of these, again, there
+  is seen a piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base
+  of the "arms" of the fore-foot, and is the "basi-brachial" cartilage.
+  The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the "nuchal cartilage" already
+  mentioned, and in _Sepia_, a thin plate-like "sub-ostracal" or
+  (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and
+  fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no nuchal
+  cartilage, but two band-like "dorsal cartilages." In Decapods there
+  are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the
+  funnel--"siphon-hinge cartilages"--into which fleshy knobs of the
+  mantle-skirt are loosely fitted. In _Sepia_, along the whole base-line
+  of each lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a "basi-pterygial
+  cartilage." It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in
+  Dibranch Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton
+  than is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other
+  instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the
+  Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage forms
+  a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids
+  (_Mygale_, _Scorpio_) and in _Limulus_ a large internal cartilaginous
+  plate--the ento-sternite--is developed as a support for a large series
+  of muscles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after
+  Keferstein.)
+
+    A, Capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus pompilius._
+
+    a points to the ridge which supports the pedal portion of the
+    nerve-centre.
+
+    B, Lateral view of the same--the large anterior processes are sunk
+    in the muscular substance of the siphon.
+
+    C, Cephalic cartilages of _Sepia officinalis_.
+
+    D, Nuchal cartilage of _Sepia officinalis_.]
+
+  _Alimentary Tract._--The buccal cone of _Nautilus_ is terminated by a
+  villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-like
+  jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are very
+  strong and dense in _Nautilus_, being calcified. Fossilized beaks of
+  Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In Dibranchs
+  the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of _Nautilus_. They
+  resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower beak being the larger
+  and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak. The lingual ribbon and
+  odontophoral apparatus have the structure which is typical for
+  Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is represented a single row of
+  teeth from the lingual ribbon of _Nautilus_, and in fig. 9, B, C, of
+  other Cephalopoda.
+
+  In _Nautilus_ a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, cr)
+  passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral
+  hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard of
+  a bird (fig 10, gizz). A nearly straight intestine passes from the
+  muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small caecum.
+  In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower and the
+  muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important feature in
+  the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all but _Nautilus_
+  the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very capacious--much
+  larger than the stomach in _Loligo vulgaris_--or elongated into a
+  spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the alimentary tract, as
+  seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which it exhibits in the
+  Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of _Nautilus_ are compacted
+  into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm membrane, as also is the
+  case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has four paired lobes in
+  _Nautilus_, which open by two bile-ducts into the alimentary canal at
+  the commencement of the intestine. The bile-ducts unite before
+  entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two large lobes of the
+  liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell in Decapoda), and
+  the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the bile-ducts in
+  Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diverticula, which are
+  known as "pancreas," though neither physiologically nor
+  morphologically is there any ground for considering either the
+  so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly equivalent to
+  the glands so denominated in the Vertebrata. In _Nautilus_ the
+  equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the Dibranchs can be
+  traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single
+  row of lingual teeth of _Nautilus pompilius_ (after Keferstein). B,
+  Two rows of lingual teeth of _Sepia officinalis_ (after Troschel). C,
+  Lingual teeth of _Eledone cirrhosa_ (after Loven).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately
+  median antero-posterior section of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from a
+  drawing by A.G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut
+  muscular surfaces of the foot and buccal mass.
+
+    a, The shell.
+
+    b, The nuchal plate, identical with the nuchal cartilage of _Sepia_
+    (see fig. 2, b).
+
+    c, The integument covering the visceral hump.
+
+    d, The mantle flap or skirt in the dorsal region where it rests
+    against the coil of the shell.
+
+    e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt resting on the lip of the
+    shell represented by the dotted line.
+
+    f, The pallial chamber with two of the four gills.
+
+    g, The vertically cut median portion of the mid-foot (siphon).
+
+    h, The capito-pedal cartilage (see fig. 8).
+
+    i, The valve of the siphon.
+
+    l, The siphuncular pedicle (cut short).
+
+    m, The hood or dorsal enlargement of the annular lobe of the
+    fore-foot.
+
+    n, Tentacles of the annular lobe.
+
+    p, Tentacles of inner inferior lobe.
+
+    q, Buccal membrane.
+
+    r, Upper jaw or beak.
+
+    s, Lower jaw or beak.
+
+    t, Lingual ribbon.
+
+    x, The viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    n.c, Nerve-collar.
+
+    oe, Oesophagus.
+
+    cr, Crop.
+
+    gizz, Gizzard.
+
+    int, Intestine.
+
+    an, Anus.
+
+    nept, Aperture of a nephridial sac.
+
+    r.e, Renal glandular masses on the walls of the afferent branchial
+    veins (see fig. 11).
+
+    a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.
+
+    e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.
+
+    vt, Ventricle of the heart.]
+
+  Posterior salivary glands are not developed in _Nautilus_, but on each
+  side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding to the
+  anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is present in
+  _Nautilus_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram to show the relations of the four
+  nephridial sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large
+  vessels in _Nautilus_ (drawn by A.G. Bourne).
+
+    neph, neph, on the right side point to the two nephridia of that
+    side (the two of the opposite side are not lettered)--each is seen
+    to have an independent aperture.
+
+    x is the viscero-pericardial sac, the dotted line indicating its
+    backward extension.
+
+    visc. per. apert, marks an arrow introduced into the right aperture
+    of the viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    r.e, r.e, point to the glandular enlarged walls of the afferent
+    branchial vessels--two small glandular bodies of the kind are seen
+    to project into each nephridial sac, whilst a larger body of the
+    same kind depends from each of the four branchial afferent vessels
+    into the viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    v.c, Vena-cava.
+
+    vent, Ventricle of the heart.
+
+    ao, Cephalic aorta (the small abdominal aorta not drawn).
+
+    a.b.v, Branchial vessel.
+
+    e.v.b, Efferent branchial vessel.]
+
+  _Coelom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs._--_Nautilus_ and
+  the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters in
+  regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a
+  lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with the
+  trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the original
+  coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan pericardium is
+  shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and communicates,
+  directly in _Nautilus_, in the rest through the renal sacs, with the
+  exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized pericardial cavity is
+  particularly large, and has been recognized as distinct from the
+  blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who have not considered the
+  pericardial space of other Mollusca to be thus isolated. The enlarged
+  pericardium, which may even take the form of a pair of sacs, has been
+  variously named, but is best known as the viscero-pericardial sac or
+  chamber. In _Nautilus_ this sac occupies the whole of the
+  postero-dorsal surface and a part of the antero-dorsal (see fig. 10,
+  x), investing the genital and other viscera which lie below it, and
+  having the ventricle of the heart suspended in it. Certain membranes
+  forming incomplete septa, and a curious muscular band--the
+  pallio-cardiac band--traverse the sac. The four branchial afferent
+  veins, which in traversing the walls of the four renal sacs give off,
+  as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs, also give off at
+  the same points four much larger glandular masses, which hang freely
+  into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, r.e). In _Nautilus_ the
+  viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior directly by a pair of
+  apertures, one placed close to the right and one close to the left
+  posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, visc.per). This direct opening of
+  the pericardial sac to the exterior is an exception to what occurs in
+  all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial sac opens
+  into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal organ to the
+  exterior. In _Nautilus_ there is no opening from the
+  viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external
+  pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a
+  shifting of the reno-pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the
+  renal sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of
+  such shifting are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the
+  ink-bag in Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of
+  Mollusca, which in some few cases (e.g. _Spondylus_) open into the
+  renal organs, whilst in other cases they open close by the side of the
+  renal organs on the surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac
+  of the Dibranchs is very large also, and extends into the dorsal
+  region. It varies in shape--that is to say, in the extensions of its
+  area right and left between the various viscera--in different genera,
+  but in the Decapods is largest. In an extension of this chamber is
+  placed the ovary of _Sepia_, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the
+  branchial hearts and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable
+  that water is drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since
+  sand and other foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into
+  the pair of renal sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from
+  the external orifice (fig. 29, y, y'). There does not seem any room
+  for doubting that each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial
+  orifice which we have seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in
+  the Lamellibranchia.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram to show the relations of the heart in
+  the Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+    A, Part of the dorsal vascular trunk and transverse trunks of a
+    worm.
+
+    B, Ventricle and auricles of _Nautilus_.
+
+    C, Of a Lamellibranch, of _Chiton_, or of _Loligo_.
+
+    D, Of _Octopus_.
+
+    E, Of a Gastropod.
+
+    a, Auricle.
+
+    v, Ventricle.
+
+    ac, Arteria=cephalica=(aorta).
+
+    ai, Arteria abdominalis. The arrows show the direction of the
+    blood-current.]
+
+  The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of _Nautilus_ do not
+  differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the heart is
+  a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent vessel
+  (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta
+  anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram,
+  fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to
+  the dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple
+  flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one
+  auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain
+  the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda
+  (excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart is
+  seen in _Octopus_, and is to some extent approached by _Nautilus_, the
+  median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is shown
+  in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented by the heart
+  of _Nautilus_ is the possession of four instead of two auricles, a
+  feature which is simply related to the metamerism of the branchiae. By
+  the left side of the heart of _Nautilus_, attached to it by a
+  membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial chamber, is
+  the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be the rudimentary
+  left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be (E.R. Lankester and
+  A.G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and its duct being attached
+  by a membrane to the opposite side of the heart.
+
+  The cephalic and abdominal aortae of _Nautilus_ appear, after running
+  to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal respectively, to
+  open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera, muscular masses,
+  &c. These spaces are not large, but confined and shallow. Capillaries
+  are stated to occur in the integument. In the Dibranchs the arterial
+  system is very much more complete; it appears in some cases to end in
+  irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other cases in true capillaries which
+  lead on into veins. An investigation of these capillaries in the light
+  of modern histological knowledge is much needed. From the sinuses and
+  capillaries the veins take origin, collecting into a large median
+  trunk (the vena cava), which in the Dibranchs as well as in _Nautilus_
+  has a ventral (postero-ventral) position, and runs parallel to the
+  long axis of the animal. In _Nautilus_ this vena cava gives off at the
+  level of the gills four branchial afferent veins (fig. 11, v.c.),
+  which pass into the four gills without dilating. In the Dibranchs at a
+  similar position the vena cava gives off a right and a left branchial
+  afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall of the corresponding
+  renal sac and receiving additional factors, dilates at the base of the
+  corresponding branchial plume, forming there a pulsating sac--the
+  branchial heart. Attached to each branchial heart is a curious
+  glandular body, which may possibly be related to the larger masses
+  (fig. 11, r.e) which depend into the viscero-pericardial cavity from
+  the branchial afferent veins of _Nautilus_. From the dilated branchial
+  heart the branchial afferent vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial
+  face of the gill-plume. From each gill-plume the blood passes by the
+  branchial efferent vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed
+  by the dilatation of these vessels.
+
+  The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused
+  colouring matter--the haemocyanin of Fredericque--which has been found
+  also in the blood of _Helix_, and in that of the Arthropods _Homarus_
+  and _Limulus_. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the
+  deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent.
+
+  The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected with
+  the branchial advehent vessels in _Nautilus_ and in the other
+  Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical
+  relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance
+  with the metamerism of _Nautilus_ already noticed, there are two pairs
+  of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a pore to
+  the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a
+  non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac; these portions,
+  however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other
+  cases, but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The
+  glandular renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending
+  along that part of the sac's wall which immediately invests the great
+  branchial afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly
+  from its wall a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and
+  anastomose with one another, and are clothed by the glandular
+  epithelium of the renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac
+  and passed by its aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous
+  excretory product is very rapidly discharged; in _Nautilus_ a
+  pink-coloured powder is found accumulated in the renal sacs,
+  consisting of calcium phosphate. The presence of this phosphatic
+  calculus by no means proves that such was the sole excretion of the
+  renal glandular tissue. In _Nautilus_ a glandular growth like that
+  rising from the wall of the branchial vessel into its corresponding
+  renal sac, but larger in size, depends from each branchial afferent
+  vessel into the viscero-pericardial sac and forms the pericardial
+  gland--probably identical with the "appendage" of the branchial hearts
+  of Dibranchs.
+
+  The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal
+  organs of the Dibranchs and those of _Nautilus_, is the absence of the
+  accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just
+  mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of a
+  pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac (y,
+  y' in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also
+  more prominent in Dibranchs than in _Nautilus_, being raised on
+  papillae (np in fig. 29; r in fig. 25). In _Sepia_ the two renal sacs
+  give off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow
+  and forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral
+  portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber. In
+  _Loligo_ the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still
+  more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In _Octopus_ the
+  renal sacs are quite separate.
+
+  _Gonads and Genital Ducts._--In _Nautilus_it has been shown by E. Ray
+  Lankester and A.G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both sexes are
+  paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and forming the
+  "pyriform appendage," described by Sir R. Owen as adhering by
+  membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart, and shown by W.
+  Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the exterior. The ovary
+  (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies in _Nautilus_, as in
+  the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from the other viscera,
+  near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is formed by the coelomic
+  or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is originally part of the
+  coelom, and in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ is, in the adult, part of the
+  viscero-pericardial chamber. In _Octopus_ it is this genital chamber
+  which communicates by a right and a left canal with the renal sac, and
+  is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary or testis is
+  itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which it only
+  partly fills. In _Nautilus_ the right genital duct, which is
+  functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal
+  surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary
+  or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to
+  represent a single median or bilateral organ.
+
+  The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and the
+  coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the gonad,
+  so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the coelom by
+  a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium, migrate below
+  it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian cavity, pushing
+  the epithelium before them. Each ovum is surrounded by a follicular
+  epithelium which is nourished by numerous blood-vessels, and which
+  penetrates into the surface of the ovum in numerous folds. When
+  mature, the ovum is contained in a membrane or chorion with a
+  micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the follicle into the genital
+  coelom and duct. In its passage to the exterior the ovum passes a
+  glandular structure on the wall of the genital capsule, which probably
+  secretes the gelatinous substance enclosing the eggs. In addition to
+  this internal gland there are other accessory glands, which are not
+  related to the genital duct or sac but are differentiations of the
+  wall of the pallial cavity, and occur on the inner wall of the pallium
+  in _Nautilus_, on the somatic wall in Dibranchiata. In _Nautilus_ they
+  form a continuous mass. These produce the external envelopes of the
+  eggs.
+
+  In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the
+  genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary.
+  The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis
+  to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermiduct
+  is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal
+  reservoir known as Needham's sac or the spermatophore sac. The
+  function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an
+  elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into
+  itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part is
+  called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally
+  coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the
+  connective is extended and evaginated, and the sac containing the
+  sperms bursts. In _Nautilus_ the spermatophore when uncoiled is a
+  little over 30 mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat
+  similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods.
+
+  The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In _Nautilus_ they are
+  laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two
+  thick shells, the outer of which is partly open.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig 13.--Nervous system of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from
+  Genebaur, after Owen).
+
+    t, t, Ganglion-like enlargements on nerves passing from the pedal
+    ganglion to the inner series of tentacles.
+
+    t', Nerves to the tentacles of the outer or annular lobe.
+
+    b, Pedal ganglion-pair
+
+    a, Cerebral ganglion-pair.
+
+    c, Pleuro-visceral ganglionic band (fused pleural and visceral
+    ganglion-pairs).
+
+    d, Genital ganglion placed on the course of the large visceral
+    nerve, just before it gives off its branchial and its osphradial
+    branches.
+
+    m, Nerves from the pleural ganglion to the mantle-skirt.]
+
+  _Nervous System._--_Nautilus_, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits a
+  great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown in fig.
+  13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little
+  differentiated from their commissures and connectives--an archaic
+  condition reminding us of _Chiton_. The special optic outgrowth of the
+  cerebral ganglion, the optical ganglion (fig. 13, o), is
+  characteristic. The cerebral ganglion-pair (a) lying above the
+  oesophagus is connected with two suboesophageal ganglion-pairs, of
+  band-like form. The anterior of these is the pedal _b, b_, and
+  supplies the circumoral lobes and tentacles, and the funnel, a fact
+  which proves the pedal origin of these organs. The hinder band is the
+  visceral and pleural pair fused; from its pleural portion nerves pass
+  to the mantle, from its visceral portion nerves to the branchiae and
+  genital ganglion (fig. 13, d), and in immediate connexion with the
+  latter is a nerve to the osphradium or olfactory papilla. A labial
+  commissure arises by a double root from the cerebral ganglia and gives
+  off a stomatogastric commissure, which passes under the pharynx
+  immediately behind the radula and bears a buccal ganglion on either
+  side.
+
+  _Special Sense-Organs._--_Nautilus_ possesses a pair of osphradial
+  papillae (fig. 4, olf) corresponding in position and innervation to
+  Spengel's organ placed at the base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all
+  classes of Mollusca. This organ has not been detected in other
+  Cephalopoda. _Nautilus_ possesses other olfactory organs in the region
+  of the head. Just below the eye is a small triangular process (not
+  seen in our figures), having the structure of a shortened and
+  highly-modified tentacle and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is
+  followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded as an olfactory organ. The
+  large nerve which runs to this organ originates from the point of
+  juncture of the pedal with the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ
+  upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe of _Nautilus_ is possibly also
+  olfactory in function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is a pit or open
+  canal supplied by a nerve corresponding in origin to the olfactory
+  nerve of _Nautilus_ above mentioned. Possibly the sense of taste
+  resides in certain processes within the mouth of _Nautilus_ and other
+  Cephalopoda.
+
+  The otocysts of _Nautilus_ were discovered by J.D. Macdonald. Each
+  lies at the side of the head, ventral to the eye, resting on the
+  capito-pedal cartilage, and supported by the large auditory nerve
+  which apparently arises from the pedal ganglion but originates in the
+  cerebral. It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and
+  contains whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the
+  otoliths of other Mollusca.
+
+  The eye of _Nautilus_ is among the most interesting structures of that
+  remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk and general
+  elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that of
+  _Nautilus_. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no
+  transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly
+  projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in
+  diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument,
+  whilst in the middle of the drum-membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3,
+  u). Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered
+  this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by
+  him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that the
+  hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which is
+  accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric
+  apparatus in _Nautilus_, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we
+  have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the
+  principle of "the pin-hole camera." There is no other eye known in the
+  whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall of the
+  eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked
+  retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives the
+  fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other
+  Cephalopods (e.g. fig. 33, Ri, Re, p), the retina consists of two
+  layers of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most
+  interesting consideration connected with this eye of _Nautilus_ is
+  found when the further facts are noted--(1) that the elaborate
+  lens-bearing eyes of Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development
+  in which they have the same structure as the eye of
+  _Nautilus_--namely, are open sacs (fig. 34); and (2) that amongst
+  other Mollusca examples of cephalic eyes can be found which in the
+  adult condition are, like the eye of _Nautilus_ and the developing eye
+  of Dibranchs, simple pits of the integument, the cells of which are
+  surrounded by pigment and connected with the filaments of an optic
+  nerve. Such is the structure of the eye of the limpet (_Patella_), and
+  in such a simple eye we obtain the clearest demonstration of the fact
+  that the retina of the Molluscan cephalic eye, like that of the
+  Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that of the vertebrate myelonic eye,
+  is essentially a modified area of the general epiderm, and that the
+  sensitiveness of its cells to the action of light and their relation
+  to nerve-filaments is only a specialization and intensifying of a
+  property common to the whole epiderm of the surface of the body. What,
+  however, strikes us as especially remarkable is that the simple form
+  of a pit, which in _Patella_ serves to accumulate a secretion which
+  acts as a refractive body, should in _Nautilus_ be glorified and
+  raised to the dignity of an efficient optical apparatus. In all other
+  Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from the follicular or pit-like
+  condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire the form of a _closed_
+  sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then filled partially or
+  completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by its walls (fig. 14,
+  B). This is the condition attained in most Gastropoda. It presents a
+  striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye, where, in consequence
+  of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the eye does not form a
+  vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca.
+
+    A, _Nautilus_ (and _Patella_).
+
+    B, Gastropod (_Limax_ or _Helix_).
+
+    C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod (Oigopsid).
+
+    Pal, Eyelid (outermost fold).
+
+    Co, Cornea (second fold).
+
+    Ir, Iris (third fold).
+
+    Int 1,2,3,4, Different parts of the integument.
+
+    l, Deep portion of the lens.
+
+    l^1, Outer portion of the lens
+
+    Co.ep, Ciliary body.
+
+    R, Retina.
+
+    N.op, Optic nerve.
+
+    G.op, Optic ganglion.
+
+    x, Inner layer of the retina.
+
+    N.S., Nervous stratum of the retina. (From Balfour, after
+    Grenacher.)]
+
+  The development of _Nautilus_ is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur
+  Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts to
+  obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native
+  fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in
+  captivity, but without success.
+
+  _Phylogeny and Classification._--As _Nautilus_ is the only living
+  genus of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based
+  upon the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of
+  shell similar in structure to that of _Nautilus_ are known, chiefly
+  from Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two
+  sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial
+  chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse
+  cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated
+  dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle,
+  which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter
+  its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial chamber
+  is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape, with no
+  cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a constriction.
+  The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation which deeply indents
+  the front wall of the initial chamber, called the protoconch, but does
+  not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-Chalmas has shown that the
+  cavity of the protoconch is traversed by a tubular organ, the
+  "prosiphon," which does not communicate with the true siphuncle, the
+  place of which it is supposed to take in the early life of the animal.
+  It is generally held, as suggested by Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial
+  chamber of the Nautiloidea corresponds not to the protoconch of the
+  Ammonoids, but to the second chamber of the latter, and that there
+  existed in the young Nautiloids a true initial chamber, a protoconch
+  which was either uncalcified or deciduous. The shell of the living
+  nautilus does not decide this question, as its early stages are
+  unknown, and there is a little vacuity in the centre of the spirally
+  coiled shell which may have been originally occupied by the true
+  protoconch.
+
+  The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the
+  aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards
+  (fig. 1); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is
+  usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed
+  forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united to
+  the shell are known as "sutures," and these in the Nautiloidea are
+  simply curved or slightly lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea they are
+  folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections of the suture
+  towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those in the
+  opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the _Nautilus_ pierces the
+  centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually central
+  or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that case may be
+  external, i.e. ventral, or internal, i.e. dorsal. In Ammonoids the
+  siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its walls in the
+  living _Nautilus_ are strengthened by the deposit of calcareous
+  granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely calcified.
+  But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from calcareous tubes
+  surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from the septa. In the
+  pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged backwards at the point where
+  it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming a shelly tube somewhat like
+  the neck of a bottle. In many fossil forms these septal necks are
+  continued from the septum from which they arise to the next, so that
+  the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete secondary calcareous tube. In
+  the majority of Nautiloids the septal necks are directed backwards,
+  and they are said to be retrosiphonate. In the majority of the
+  Ammonoids the septal necks are continued forwards from the septa to
+  which they belong, and such forms are termed prosiphonate.
+
+  The Tetrabranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
+  periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing first in the
+  Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the Palaeozoic
+  period, and comparatively few surviving into the Secondary. On the
+  other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic formations, being
+  represented in deposits earlier than the Carboniferous only by
+  comparatively simple types, such as _Clymenia_ and _Goniatites_. In
+  the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abundant, both in genera and
+  species and in individuals, and with few local exceptions none are
+  known to have survived even to the commencement of the Tertiary. In
+  the widest sense the genus _Nautilus_ has existed since the Ordovician
+  (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not properly to be placed
+  in the same genus as the existing form. Even with this qualification
+  the genus is very ancient, shells very similar to those of the living
+  _Nautilus_ being found in the Upper Cretaceous.
+
+  It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea were
+  Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the shell was,
+  therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed with the
+  Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the possession of
+  an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be little doubt that
+  they gave rise to the Dibranchiata.
+
+  About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only a
+  few species of the genus _Nautilus_ survive. Some of the fossil forms
+  are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6
+  in. Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described, and
+  some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in
+  diameter.
+
+  Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been found
+  peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within the
+  body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The most typical
+  form of these structures has been named _aptychus._ It consists of two
+  bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semicircular shape, and
+  attached to one another by their straight inner margins, like a pair
+  of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and horny, but more often
+  it is thick and calcified, in which case the principal layer has a
+  peculiar cellular structure. The surface may be smooth or sculptured,
+  and one side is usually marked by concentric lines of growth. Another
+  type is similar, except that the two halves are united in the middle
+  line; bodies of this character are called _synaptychus_; they occur in
+  the body-chamber of species of _Scaphites_. Another form called
+  _anaptychus_ consists of a thin horny undivided plate which is
+  concentrically striated. This is associated with species of
+  _Ammonites_ and _Goniatites_.
+
+  Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these structures.
+  According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an operculum developed
+  in a part of the body corresponding to the hood of _Nautilus_. E. Ray
+  Lankester suggested that the double plate was borne on the surface of
+  the nidamental gland, with the form and sculpturing of which in
+  _Nautilus_ it closely agrees. On this view the aptychus would occur
+  only in females. The most recent view is that these structures could
+  not have been opercula because of their constant position inside the
+  body-chamber, and that they were not external secretions at all, but a
+  calcified internal cartilage situated at the base of the funnel.
+
+  _Classification of Tetrabranchiata._--Cephalopoda in which the mantle
+  is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell, which may
+  or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the shell occupied
+  by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles around the mouth,
+  which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of the funnel not united.
+  Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of renal tubes without
+  reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens directly to exterior.
+  Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic vesicles with apertures,
+  without crystalline lens.
+
+  _Sub-order 1. Nautiloidea_.--Initial chamber not inflated, with
+  dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Orthoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a
+    simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical siphuncle.
+    _Orthoceras_, Silurian to Trias. _Baltoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Actinoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with
+    wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. _Actinoceras_, Silurian
+    to Carboniferous. _Discosorus_, Silurian. _Huronia_, Silurian.
+    _Loxoceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Endoceratidae_. Shell straight, with wide margina
+    siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another.
+    _Endoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Gomphoceratidae_. Shell globular, straight or arcuate,
+    aperture contracted. _Gomphoceras_, Silurian. _Phragmoceras_,
+    Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Ascoceratidae_. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit
+    truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of shell
+    ventrally. _Ascoceras_, Silurian. _Glossoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Poterioceratidae_. Shell straight or curved, fusiform,
+    aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. _Poterioceras_,
+    Silurian to Carboniferous. _Streptoceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 7. _Cyrtoceratidae_. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple,
+    siphuncle wide, septa approximated. _Cyrtoceras_, Devonian.
+
+    Fam. 8. _Lituitidae_. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal
+    part uncoiled, aperture contracted. _Lituites_, Silurian.
+    _Ophidioceras_, Silurian.
+
+    Fam. 9. _Trochoceratidae_. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or
+    sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. _Trochoceras_,
+    Devonian. _Adelphoceras_, Devonian.
+
+    Fam. 10. _Nautilidae_. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide and
+    simple, siphuncle central. _Nautilus_, recent. _Trocholites_,
+    Silurian. _Gyroceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous. _Hercoceras_,
+    Silurian. _Ptenoceras_, Devonian. _Discites_, Carboniferous.
+
+    Fam. 11. _Bactritidae_. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow
+    and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating.
+    _Bactrites_, Silurian and Devonian.
+
+  _Sub-order 2. Ammonitoidea_,--Initial chamber spheroidal; siphuncle
+  narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture; sutures complex.
+
+  _Tribe 1. Retrosiphonata_.--Siphuncular necks projecting behind the
+  septa as in Nautiloidea. Sutures form simple undulations. Occur
+  exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Goniatitidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and
+    ventral siphuncle. _Goniatites_, Devonian and Carboniferous.
+    _Anarcestes_, Devonian.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Clymeniidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures,
+    siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. _Clymenia_, Upper Devonian.
+
+  _Tribe 2. Prosiphonata._--Siphuncular necks projecting in front of the
+  septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Arcestidae_. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth, with
+    reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an aptychus present.
+    _Popanoceras_, Permian. _Cyclolobus_, Permian, _Arcestes_, Trias.
+    _Lobites_, Trias.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Tropitidae_. Shells globular, but having radiating and
+    tuberculated costae. _Thalassoceras_, Permian. _Tropites_, Trias.
+    _Sibirites_, Trias.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Ceratitidae_. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus,
+    terminal chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. _Trachyceras_,
+    Upper Trias. _Ceratites_, Trias. _Dinarites_, Trias.
+
+  Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled forms,
+  viz. _Cochloceras_, Trias; also some straight forms, e.g.
+  _Rhab-doccras_, Trias.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Pinacoceratidae_. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal
+    chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. _Pinacoceras_,
+    Trias.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Phylloceratidae_. Shell coiled, the whorls overlapping each
+    other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles. _Phytloceras_,
+    Jurassic.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Lytoceratidae_. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or
+    uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles and
+    lobes. _Lytoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous. _Macroscaphites_,
+    Cretaceous. _Reunites_, Cretaceous. _Ptychoeeras_, Cretaceous.
+    _Turrilites_, Cretaceous. _Baculites_, Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 7. _Ammonitidae_. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which do not
+    embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anaptychus present.
+    _Ammonites_, Jurassic. _Arietites_, Jurassic. _Aegoceras_, Lias.
+
+    Fam. 8. _Harpoceratidae_. Shell discord and flattened, with a
+    carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections, a
+    calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. _Harpoceras_, Jurassic.
+    _Oppelia_, Jurassic. _Lissoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 9. _Amaltheidae_. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina
+    continued anteriorly into a rostrum. _Amaltheus_, Lias.
+    _Cardioceras_, Jurassic. _Schloenbachia_, Cretaceous.
+
+    Fam. 10. _Stephanoceratidae_. Shell not carinated, but with
+    radiating costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with
+    lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two
+    pieces. _Stephanoceras, Morphoceras, Pensphinctes, Peltoceras_,
+    Jurassic. _Hoplites_, Cretaceous. _Acanthoceras_, Cretaceous.
+    _Cosmoceras_, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are
+    related to this family, viz. _Scaphites, Crioceras_, Cretaceous.
+
+ORDER 2. DIBRANCHIATA (= Holosiphona, Acetabulifera)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Sepia officinalis_, L., about 1/2 natural
+size, as seen when dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from
+the pouches at the side of the head, in which they are carried during
+life when not actually in use. a. Neck; b, lateral fin of the
+mantle-sac; c, the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; d, the two long
+prehensile arms; e, the eyes.]
+
+_Characters_.--Cephalopoda in which the inflected margins of the
+epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon (fig. 24, i).
+The circumoral lobes of the fore-foot carry suckers disposed upon them
+in rows, _not_ tentacles (see figs. 15, 24). There is a single pair of
+typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills (hence Dibranchiata), and a
+single pair of renal organs, opening by apertures right and left of the
+median anus (fig. 25, r) and by similar internal pores into the
+pericardial chamber, which consequently does not open directly to the
+surface as in _Nautilus_. The oviducts are sometimes paired right and
+left (Octopoda, Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed
+(Myopsida). The sperm-duct is always single except, according to W.
+Keferstein, in _Eledone moschata._
+
+A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the mantle
+(figs 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none, and in _Spirula_
+(fig. 17, D) and the extinct _Belemnitidae_, &c., which have a small
+chambered shell resembling that of _Nautilus_ with or without the
+addition of plate-like and cylindrical accessory developments (fig. 17,
+A, C, fig. 19).
+
+The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a
+refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds,--the vesicle being in
+the embryo, an open sac like that of _Nautilus_ (fig. 34). Osphradia are
+not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recognized. One or two
+pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are present. An ink-sac
+formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and opening near the anus is
+present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, t), and has been detected even in
+the fossil _Belemnitidae._ Branchial hearts are developed on the two
+branchial afferent blood-vessels (fig. 28, _vc'_, _vi_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Decapodous Cephalopods.
+
+  A, _Cheiroteuthis Veranyi_, d'Orb. (from the Mediterranean).
+
+  B, _Thysanoteuthis rhombus_, Troschel (from Messina).
+
+  C, _Loligopsis cyclura_, Fer. and d'Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Internal Shells of Cephalopoda.
+
+  A, _Conoteutliis dupiniana_, d'Orb. (from the Neocomian of France).
+
+  B, Shell _Sepia orbigniana_. Fer. (Mediterranean).
+
+  C, Shell of _Spirulirostra Bellardii_, d'Orb. (from the Miocene of
+  Turin). The specimen is cut so as to show in section the chambered
+  shell and the laminated "guard" deposited upon its surface.
+
+  D, Shell of _Splrula laevis_, Gray (New Zealand).]
+
+In the Dibranchiata the shell shows various stages of degeneration,
+culminating in its complete disappearance in _Octopus_. As in other
+Mollusca, there is a tendency in Cephalopods for the mantle to extend
+over the outside of the shell from its edges, and when these secondary
+mantle-folds entirely cover the shell and meet or fuse together the
+shell is surrounded by the mantle both externally and internally, and is
+said to be internal, though it remains always a cuticular structure
+external to the epidermis. This procebs is generally accompanied by a
+reduction of the size of the shell in comparison with that of the body,
+so that the relations of the two are gradually reversed, the body
+outgrows its house and instead of the mantle being enclosed by the
+shell, the shell is enclosed by the mantle. The earliest stage of this
+process is shown in the recent _Spirula,_ though it is perhaps not
+impossible that in some of the later fossil Ammonoids the shell was
+becoming more and more internal. The shell of _Spirula_ (fig. 18) is
+coiled somewhat like that of _Nautilus_, but the coils are not in
+contact, the direction of the coil is endogastric or ventral instead of
+exogastric, and the shell is very much smaller than the body. Like that
+of _Nautilus_ it is divided by septa and traversed by a siphuncle. The
+relation of the animal to the terminal chamber is as in _Nautilus,_ but
+the body extends far beyond the aperture, and folds of the mantle grow
+up over the shell and cover it everywhere except part of the dorsal and
+ventral surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: After Chun, from Lankester's _Treatise an Zoology_
+
+  FIG. 18.--_Spirula._
+
+    A, Dorsal aspect.
+
+    B, Ventral aspect.
+
+    a, Arms.
+
+    e, Eyes.
+
+    fi, Fins.
+
+    fu, Funnel.
+
+    pa, Mantle.
+
+    po, Posterior fossa.
+
+    sh, Shell.
+
+    te, Tentacular arms.
+
+    td, Terminal pallial disk]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Digram of shell Belemnite (after Phillips). r.
+Horny pen or "proostracum": A, conical cavity or "alveolus," in which
+the chambered "phragmacone" (p) is contained: g, "guard," or "rostrum."]
+
+The next modification in the enclosed shell is the addition to it of
+secondary deposits of calcareous matter, by the inner surface of the
+shell-sac. Successive layers are deposited on the posterior part of the
+original shell, whether coiled or straight, and these layers form a
+conical mass, which may attain great thickness. A somewhat coiled shell
+with such a deposit is seen in _Spirulirostra_ (fig. 17, C) of the
+Miocene. In the next stage of modification secondary secretion forms a
+long and broad projection of the dorsal lip of the aperture; this is
+well developed in the belemnites (fig. 19). Thus in these modified
+shells three parts are to be distinguished: the original septate shell,
+which has been called the phragmacone; the posterior conical deposit,
+called the rostrum or guard; and the anterior somewhat flat projection,
+called the proostracum. In the living Dibranchiata other than _Spirula_
+the phragmacone and rostrum have become very rudimentary. The shell of
+_Sepia_ (fig. 20) consists almost entirely of the proostracum, the
+little ventral hollow posteriorly representing the phragmacone, and the
+posterior pointed projection, the rostrum. In the _Oigopsida_ the shell
+is represented by a proostracum which is no longer calcified by forms a
+chitinous plume or gladuius, and a similar rudiment occurs in
+_Loliginidac_ (fig. 21) and _Sepiolidae_. Lastly, in the Octopoda the
+shell is represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the
+retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are paired
+in _Octopus_, unpaired in other cases as in _Cirrhoteuthis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 20.--The calcareous internal shell
+of _Sepia officinalis, _the so-called cuttle-bone, a, Lateral expansion;
+b, anterior cancellated region; c, laminated region, the laminae
+enclosing air.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of
+_Lohgo_.]
+
+The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which the shell is
+enclosed has led to an erroneous identification of this sac with the
+primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of the Molluscan embryo. The first
+appearance of the shell-sac in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36.
+Its formation as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and the
+fact that it appears and disappears without closing in _Argonauta_ and
+_Octopus_, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers)
+Tr. Float: Br.a, anterior arms: Br p, posterior arms: V, the expanded
+portion of them, once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En,
+the Funnel.]
+
+In _Argonauta_ (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses a shell,
+in which the body is contained; but this is not homologous with the
+true shell in other cases; it is a structure _sui generis_ secreted by
+the expanded arms of the dorsal pair which are closely applied to it on
+either side (fig. 22).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Head and circumoral processes of the
+  fore-foot of _Onychoteuthis_ (from Owen).
+
+    a, Neck.
+
+    b, Eye.
+
+    c, The eight short arms.
+
+    d, Long prehensile arms, the clavate extremities of which are
+    provided with suckers at e, and with a double row of hooks beyond at
+    f. The temporary conjunction of the arms by means of the suckers
+    enables them to act in combination.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Male of _Ocythoe catenulata_, Steenstrup
+  (_Octopus carena_, Ver.), showing the hectocotylized arm. (From
+  Gegenbaur.)
+
+    t^1, t^2, t^3, t^4, The first, second, third and fourth arms or
+    processes of the fore-foot.
+
+    h, The third arm of the right side hectocotylized.
+
+    x, The apical sac of the hectocotylized arm.
+
+    y, The filament which issues from the sac when development is
+    complete.
+
+    i, The siphon.]
+
+  _Head, Foot, Mantle and Mantle-cavity._--If we now compare the
+  fore-foot of the Dibranchiata with that of _Nautilus_, we find in the
+  first place a more simple arrangement of its lobes, which are either
+  four or five pairs of tapering processes (called "arms"), arranged in
+  a series around the buccal cone, and a substitution of suckers for
+  tentacles on the surface of these lobes (figs. 15 and 24). The most
+  dorsally placed pair of arms, corresponding to the two sides of the
+  hood of _Nautilus_, are in reality the most anterior, and are termed
+  the first pair. In the Octopoda there are four pairs of these arms
+  (fig. 38), in the Decapoda five pairs, of which the fourth is greatly
+  elongated (figs. 15, 16). In _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each of
+  these long arms is withdrawn into a pouch beside the head, and is only
+  ejected for the purpose of prehension. In _Loligo_ they are completely
+  retractile, very slightly so in the majority of the Oigopsida, and in
+  _Rhynchoteuthis_ they are united to form a beak-like appendage. A
+  gradual reduction of the tentacular arms can be seen in the Decapoda,
+  leading to their total absence in Octopoda; thus in _Leachia_,
+  _Chaunoteuthis_ and others these arms are reduced to mere stumps. In
+  some _Cheiroteuthidae_ and _Cranchiidae_ the ordinary or sessile arms,
+  especially the dorsal pairs, are reduced. In the Octopoda they are not
+  unfrequently connected by a web, and form an efficient swimming-bell,
+  e.g. in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and _Amphuretidae_. The suckers are placed
+  on the adoral surface of the arms, and may be in one, two or four
+  rows, and very numerous. In place of suckers in some genera, e.g.
+  _Veranya_, we find on certain arms or parts of the arms horny hooks;
+  in other cases a hook rises from the centre of each sucker. The hooks
+  on the long arms of _Onychoteuthis_ are drawn in fig. 23. In various
+  species of _Cheiroteuthis_ the suckers on the tentacular arms are very
+  feeble, but the bottom of the cup is covered by a number of
+  anastomosed epithelial filaments which are used as a fishing-net. The
+  fore-foot, with its apparatus of suckers and hooks, is in the
+  Dibranchiata essentially a prehensile apparatus, though the whole
+  series of arms in the Octopoda serve as swimming organs, and in many
+  (e.g. the common octopus or poulp) the sucker-bearing surface is used
+  as a crawling organ.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male
+  _Sepia_, obtained by cutting longitudinally the firm mantle-skirt and
+  drawing the divided halves apart. This figure is strictly comparable
+  with fig. 4. (From Gegenbaur.)
+
+    C, The head.
+
+    J, The mid-foot or siphon, which has been cut open so as to display
+    the valve i.
+
+    R, The glandular tissue of the left nephridium or renal-sac, which
+    has been cut open (see fig. 29).
+
+    P, P, The lateral fins of the mantle-skirt.
+
+    Br, The single pair of branchiae (ctenidia).
+
+    a, The anus--immediately below it is the opening of the ink-bag.
+
+    c, Cartilaginous socket in the siphon to receive c', the
+    cartilaginous knob of the mantle-skirt--the two constituting the
+    "pallial hinge apparatus" characteristic of Decapoda, not found in
+    Octopoda.
+
+    g, The azygos genital papilla and aperture.
+
+    'i, Valve of the siphon (possibly the rudimentary hind-foot)
+
+    m, Muscular band connected with the fore-foot and mid-foot (siphon)
+    and identical with the muscular mass k in fig. 3.
+
+    r, Renal papillae, carrying the apertures of the nephridia.
+
+    v.br, Branchial efferent blood-vessel.
+
+    v br', Bulbous enlargements of the branchial blood-vessels (see figs
+    28, 29).
+
+    t, Ink-bag]
+
+  In the males of the Dibranchiata one of the arms is more or less
+  modified in connexion with the reproductive function, and is called
+  the "hectocotylized arm." This name is derived from the condition
+  assumed by the arm in those cases in which its modification is carried
+  out to the greatest extent. These cases are those of the Octopods
+  _Argonauta argo_ and _Ocythoe catenulata_ (fig. 24). In the males of
+  these the third arm (on the left side in _Argonauta_, on the right
+  side in _Ocythoe_) is found before the breeding season to be
+  represented by a globular sac of integument. This sac bursts, and from
+  it issues an arm larger than its neighbours, having a small sac at its
+  extremity in _Ocythoe_ (fig. 24. x), from which subsequently a long
+  filament issues. Before copulation the male charges this arm with the
+  spermatophores or packets of spermatozoa removed from its generative
+  orifice beneath the mantle-skirt, and during coitus the arm becomes
+  detached and is left adhering to the female by means of its suckers. A
+  new arm is formed at the cicatrix before the next breeding season. The
+  female, being much larger than the male, swims away with the detached
+  arm lodged beneath her mantle-skirt. There, in a way which is not
+  understood, the fertilization of the eggs is effected. Specimens of
+  the female _Ocythoe_ with the detached arm adherent were examined by
+  Cuvier, who mistook the arm for a parasitic worm and gave to it the
+  name _Hectocotylus_. Accordingly, the correspondingly modified arms of
+  other Cephalopoda are said to be hectocotylized. J.J.S. Steenstrup has
+  determined the hectocotylized condition of one or other of the arms in
+  a number of male Dibranchs as follows:--in all, excepting _Argonauta_
+  and _Ocythoe_ and _Tremoctopus_, the modification of the arm is
+  slight, consisting in a small enlargement of part or the whole of the
+  arm, and the obliteration of some of its suckers; in _Octopus_ and
+  _Eledone_ the third right arm is hectocotylized; in _Rossia_ and
+  _Sepiola_ the fourth left arm is hectocotylized along its whole
+  length, and the fourth right arm also in the middle only; in _Sepia_
+  the fourth left arm is modified at its base only; in _Sepioteuthis_,
+  the same at its apex; in _Loligo_, the same also at its apex; in
+  _Loliolus_, the same along its whole length; in _Ommatostrephes_,
+  _Onychoteuthis_ and _Loligopsis_ no hectocotylized arm has hitherto
+  been observed. Thus, speaking generally, it is one or both of the
+  fourth pair of short arms which are modified in the Decapoda, of the
+  third pair in the Octopoda. In the pallial cavity are situated one
+  pair of gills in the Dibranchiata (fig. 25), attached dorsally along
+  the whole of their afferent borders. On each side of the branchia is a
+  series of lamellae, least in number in the Octopoda. Each lamella is
+  transversely folded, and the folds are in turn folded, so that the
+  respiratory surface is increased. On the somatic wall of the pallial
+  cavity, between and ventral to the gills, are the following apertures:
+  the anus and opening of the ink-sac, close together in the median
+  line; a pair of apertures of the renal sacs, on either side of the
+  median line; external to the renal orifice, on the left side, the
+  genital aperture in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and Myopsida. In other Octopoda,
+  and in nearly all the Oigopsida among the Decapoda, the genital ducts
+  are paired in the female, but only the left is developed in the male.
+  The funnel forms a complete tube in the Dibranchiata, and in the
+  majority of the Decapoda, as in _Nautilus_, it is provided with an
+  internal valve projecting from its somatic surface, which allows water
+  to pass outwards but prevents it passing inwards. The mantle performs
+  rhythmical respiratory movements of expansion and contraction, the
+  water entering between funnel and mantle and passing out through the
+  funnel. In Decapoda the edge of the mantle bears internally on each
+  side a cartilaginous projection which fits into a corresponding
+  depression on the external surface of the funnel; this is called the
+  "resisting apparatus," and serves to make the union of mantle and
+  funnel firmer during expiration. More powerful expiratory movements
+  are used for sudden retrograde locomotion through the water.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately
+  median antero-posterior section of _Sepia officinalis_ (from a drawing
+  by A.G. Bourne). The lettering corresponds with that of fig. 10, with
+  which this drawing is intended to be compared.
+
+    a, Shell (here enclosed by a growth of the mantle).
+
+    b, The nuchal plate (here a cartilage).
+
+    c, (The reference line should be continued through the black area
+    representing the shell to the outline below it), the integument
+    covering the visceral hump.
+
+    d, The reflected portion of the mantle-skirt forming the sac which
+    encloses the shell.
+
+    e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt (mouth of the pallial
+    chamber).
+
+    f, The pallial chamber.
+
+    g, The vertically cut median portion of the siphon.
+
+    i, The valve of the siphon.
+
+    m, The two upper lobes of the fore-foot.
+
+    n, The long prehensile arms of the same.
+
+    o, The fifth or lowermost lobe of the fore-foot.
+
+    p, The third lobe of the fore-foot.
+
+    q, The buccal membrane.
+
+    v, The upper beak or jaw. s, The lower beak or jaw.
+
+    t, The lingual ribbon.
+
+    x, The viscero-pericardial sac.
+
+    n.c, The nerve-collar.
+
+    cr, The crop.
+
+    gizz, The gizzard.
+
+    an, The anus.
+
+    c.t, The left ctenidium or gill-plume.
+
+    vent, Ventricle of the heart.
+
+    a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.
+
+    e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.
+
+    re, Renal glandular mass.
+
+    n.n.a, Left nephridial aperture.
+
+    visc.per.apert, Viscero-pericardial aperture (see fig. 29).
+
+    br.b, Branchial heart.
+
+    app, Appendage of the same.
+
+    i.s, Ink-bag.]
+
+  _Luminous Organs._--In certain Oigopsida living in deep water, e.g.
+  _Histioteuthis, Calliteuthis, Histiopsis, Pterygioteuthis_, the
+  surface of the skin bears photogenous organs directed towards the oral
+  extremity. Anatomically these consist of a deeper photogenous layer
+  and a more superficial refracting layer. In some cases, e.g.
+  _Pterygioteuthis_, they occur even within the mantle-cavity.
+
+  _Fins._--In the majority of the Decapoda and in the _Cirrhoteuthidae_,
+  the mantle is produced into lateral symmetrical expansions which have
+  the function of fins. They originate at the aboral extremity where
+  they remain in _Spirula_ (fig. 18). In most other Oigopsida they are
+  terminal, but more dorsal than ventral, e.g. _Loligopsis_ (fig. 16),
+  and there may be two on each side, as in _Grimalditeuthis_. In other
+  cases they extend laterally along a greater length of the body, as in
+  _Sepia_ (fig. 15). In _Ctenopteryx_ they have a superficial
+  resemblance to the fins of fishes, consisting of a thin membrane
+  supported by a series of muscular rods.
+
+  _Chromatophores._--These are characteristic of the Dibranchiata,
+  apparently absent in _Nautilus_. They are originally single cells of
+  ectodermic origin which sink below the epidermis and become connected
+  with radiating muscular fibres. The cells are single but multinuclear.
+  Different cells contain pigments of different colours, yellow, brown,
+  red or blue. Each cell in life is in constant tremulous movement;
+  under the influence of nervous excitement the cells are suddenly
+  expanded or contracted, producing blushes of colour and pallor. By
+  reflex action of which the afferent stimulus acts upon the eyes as in
+  fishes, the chromatophores assume a condition which approximates the
+  colour of the animal to that of surrounding objects. In the Decapoda
+  there are also reflecting elements which produce iridescent hues.
+
+  _Aquiferous Cavities._--In addition to the pockets into which the
+  tentacular arms of Decapoda are retracted, there are in several
+  Dibranchiata cavities in the integument which open to the exterior by
+  special pores but have no communication with the vascular system or
+  other internal cavities of the body. In _Ocythoe_ there are such pores
+  on the back of the head and at the base of the funnel; buccal pouches
+  on the ventral side of the mouth, internal to the arms, occur in some
+  genera, one in _Loligo_, two in _Sepia_. In some species of _Sepia_
+  there are pouches in the mantle.
+
+  _Alimentary Tube._--The principal differences from _Nautilus_ are the
+  following:--the mandibles are similar in shape, but are chitinous, not
+  calcified. In the radula there are three teeth on each side of the
+  median tooth in each row, except in _Gonatus_, in which there are only
+  two lateral teeth, and the _Cirrhoteuthidae_, in which the radula has
+  entirely disappeared. In front of the radula is the so-called tongue,
+  a fleshy projection corresponding to the sub-radular organ of other
+  Mollusca.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Alimentary canal of _Loligo sagittata_ (from
+  Gegenbaur). The buccal mass is omitted.
+
+    oe, Oesophagus.
+
+    v, The stomach opened longitudinally.
+
+    x, Probe passed through the pylorus.
+
+    c, Commencement of the caecum.
+
+    e, Its spiral portion.
+
+    i, Intestine.
+
+    a, Ink-bag.
+
+    b, Its opening into the rectum.]
+
+  In most of the Dibranchiata there are two pairs of salivary glands. In
+  the Decapoda the ducts of the posterior pair unite into a median duct
+  which opens on the surface of the sub-radular organ. The anterior pair
+  is but slightly developed except in the Oigopsida. In the Octopoda
+  there are also two pairs, but the posterior pair, except in
+  _Cirrhoteuthis_ where they are absent, are large and displaced
+  backwards, being situated near the oesophageal proventriculus.
+  Connected with the intestine immediately beyond the pylorus is a
+  thin-walled caecum, spherical in _Rossia_ and _Leachia_, elongated in
+  _Loligo_, but usually coiled into a spiral (fig. 27). The hepatic
+  ducts open into the caecum. The liver is developed as a paired gland,
+  more or less fused into one in the adult, but the ducts are always
+  paired. The ducts are covered by a number of glandular follicles
+  forming what is called the pancreas.
+
+  The ink-sac, absent in _Nautilus_, is a rectal caecum developed from
+  its dorsal wall. It is present in all Dibranchiata except _Octopus
+  arcticus, O. piscatorum_ and _Cirrhoteuthis_. It consists of a deeper
+  part or gland proper and a reservoir. It extends to the posterior
+  extremity of the body in _Sepia_, but in _Octopoda_ is usually
+  embedded in the surface of the liver. The pigment of the secretion is
+  melanin, and its function is to produce a dense opacity in the water,
+  which conceals the animal.
+
+  _Vascular System_ (fig. 28).--The ventricle lies in the pericardial
+  cavity, except in Octopoda where this cavity is much reduced. The
+  auricles, one pair, are contractile expansions of the efferent
+  branchial vessels. The heart gives off an anterior or cephalic and a
+  posterior or abdominal aorta. The vascular system is almost perfect,
+  arteries and veins being united by capillaries. The principal vein is
+  a vena cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and
+  dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a
+  pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial
+  vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered
+  externally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of
+  the "kidney" (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a
+  contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular
+  appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which are
+  attached to the afferent branchial veins in _Nautilus_, and to the
+  pericardial glands of other Molluscs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Circulatory and excretory organs of _Sepia_
+  (from Gegenbaur, after John Hunter).
+
+    br, Branchiae (ctenidia).
+
+    c, Ventricle of the heart.
+
+    a, Anterior artery (aorta).
+
+    a', Posterior artery.
+
+    v, The right and left auricles (enlargements of the efferent
+    branchial veins).
+
+    v', Efferent branchial vein on the free face of the gill-plume.
+
+    v.c, Vena cava.
+
+    vi, vc', Afferent branchial vessels (branches of the vena cava, see
+    fig. 29).
+
+    vc", Abdominal veins.
+
+    x, Branchial hearts and appendages.
+
+    re, e, Glandular substance of the nephridia developed on the wall of
+    the great veins on their way to the gills. The arrows indicate the
+    direction of the blood-current.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins
+  which run through them, in _Sepia officinalis_ (after Vigelius). The
+  nephridial sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed.
+
+    v.c, Vena cava.
+
+    r.d.v.c, Right descending branch of the same.
+
+    r.s.v.c, Left descending branch of the same.
+
+    v.b.a, Vein from the ink-bag.
+
+    v.m, Mesenteric vein.
+
+    v.g, Genital vein.
+
+    v.a.d, Right abdominal vein.
+
+    v.a.s, Left abdominal vein.
+
+    v.p.d, Right pallial vein.
+
+    v.p.s, Left pallial vein.
+
+    c.b, Branchial heart.
+
+    x, Appendage of the same.
+
+    c.v, Capsule of the branchial heart.
+
+    np, External aperture of the right nephridial sac.
+
+    y, Reno-pericardial orifice placing the left renal sac or nephridium
+    in communication with the viscero-pericardial sac, the course of
+    which below the nephridial sac is indicated by dotted lines.
+
+    y', The similar orifice of the right side.
+
+    a.r, Glandular renal outgrowths.
+
+    w.k, Viscero-pericardial sac (dotted outline).]
+
+  _Coelom._--The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction between
+  the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or genital
+  division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which contain
+  the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial division is
+  suppressed and the genital division communicates by long ducts with
+  sacs containing the appendages of the branchial hearts. The renal sacs
+  communicate with the pericardium by pores near the external renal
+  apertures; in the Octopoda the reno-pericardial openings are in the
+  capsules of the branchial hearts. The genital ducts pass from the
+  genital coelom to the exterior. They are paired in female Oigopsida
+  and Octopoda except _Cirrhoteuthidae_, but only the left persists in
+  the males of all Dibranchiata, and in the female Myopsida.
+
+  [Illustration: FIGS. 30, 31.--Nerve-centres of _Octopus_. Figure 30
+  gives a view from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral
+  aspect.
+
+    buc, The buccal mass.
+
+    ped, Pedal ganglion.
+
+    opt, Optic ganglion.
+
+    cer, Cerebral ganglion.
+
+    pl, Pleural ganglion.
+
+    visc, Visceral ganglion.
+
+    oes, Oesophagus.
+
+    f, Foramen in the nerve-mass formed by pedal, pleural and visceral
+    ganglion-pairs, traversed by a blood-vessel.]
+
+  In the oviduct is a glandular enlargement, and in addition to this the
+  females are provided with the so-called nidamental glands which are
+  developed on the somatic wall of the pallial cavity, one on each side
+  of the rectum, except in certain Oigopsida (_Enoploteuthis, Cranchia,
+  Leachia_) and in the Octopoda, in which these organs are absent. The
+  latter fact is related to the habit of the majority of the Octopoda of
+  guarding or "incubating" their eggs, which have little protective
+  covering. In the other cases the eggs are surrounded by a tough
+  gelatinous elastic material secreted by the nidamental glands.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Lateral view of the nervous centres and
+  nerves of the right side of _Octopus vulgaris_ (from a drawing by A.G.
+  Bourne).
+
+    bg, Buccal ganglion.
+
+    cer, Cerebral ganglion.
+
+    ped, Pedal ganglion.
+
+    pl, Pleural, and visc., visceral region of the pleuro-visceral
+    ganglion.
+
+    gang. stell, The right stellate ganglion of the mantle connected by
+    a nerve to the pleural portion.
+
+    n.visc, The right visceral nerve.
+
+    n.olf, Its (probably) olfactory branches.
+
+    n.br, Its branchial branches.]
+
+  The vas deferens is at first narrow and convoluted, then dilates into
+  a vesicula seminalis at the end of which is a glandular diverticulum
+  called the prostate. By the vesicula and the prostate the
+  spermatophores are formed. These have a structure similar to those of
+  _Nautilus_, and in the Octopoda may be as much as 50 mm. in length.
+  Beyond the prostate the duct opens into a large terminal reservoir
+  which has been called Needham's sac, and in which the spermatophores
+  are stored.
+
+  _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--The figures (30, 31, 32)
+  representing the nerve-centres of _Octopus_ serve to exhibit the
+  disposition of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more
+  distinctly swollen than in _Nautilus_. In _Octopus_ an infra-buccal
+  ganglion-pair are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair
+  of Gastropoda. In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with
+  these are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial
+  nerves of _Nautilus_, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right
+  and left) a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of
+  the pleuro-visceral ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form
+  the stellate ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to
+  supply the powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate
+  ganglia are connected, except in _Sepiola_, by a transverse
+  supra-oesophageal commissure, which represents the pallial cords
+  united by a commissure above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves
+  from the visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the
+  same course as in _Nautilus_, but no osphradial papilla is present. An
+  enteric nervous system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata,
+  connected with the somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia,
+  as in the Arthropoda through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and
+  anastomozing with deep branches of the visceral nerves of the
+  viscero-pleural ganglion-pair. It has been especially described by A.
+  Hancock in _Ommatostrephes_. Upon the stomach it forms a single large
+  and readily detected gastric ganglion.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Horizontal section of the eye of _Sepia_
+  (Myopsid). (From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.)
+
+    KK, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8).
+
+    C, Cornea (closed).
+
+    L, Lens.
+
+    ci, Ciliary body.
+
+    Ri, Internal layer of the retina.
+
+    Re, External layer of the retina.
+
+    p, Pigment between these.
+
+    o, Optic nerve.
+
+    go, Optic ganglion.
+
+    k and k', Capsular cartilage.
+
+    ik, Cartilage of the iris.
+
+    w, White body.
+
+    ae, Argentine integument.]
+
+  In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest
+  elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that
+  we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development of
+  the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the
+  lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate's eye is shown in
+  section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34
+  and 37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate
+  closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or
+  primitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, poc). The lens forms as a
+  structureless growth, secreted by both the internal and external
+  surfaces of the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, l). The
+  integument around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the
+  surface now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the
+  iridian folds (if in B, fig. 37; ik in fig. 33; Ir in fig. 14), and
+  then secondly an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and
+  completely closes over the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive
+  vesicle (fig. 33, C). This covering is transparent, and is the cornea.
+  In the oceanic Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but
+  leaves a central aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are
+  termed Oigopsidae by C. d'Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed
+  cornea are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and
+  there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding
+  the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over the
+  surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an
+  adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of
+  Vertebrates. _Sepia_ and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower
+  eyelid, that is to say, only one-half of the sphincter-like fold of
+  integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventrally between
+  the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed in the
+  cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small blind
+  process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of the vesicle
+  with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at the anterior
+  end of the vesicle forming a macula acustica, and in the cavity is a
+  single otolith, partly calcareous and partly organic except in
+  _Eledone_, in which it is entirely organic. The nerve arises from the
+  cerebral ganglion on each side and passes through the pedal ganglion.
+
+  There is no branchial osphradium in the Dibranchiata corresponding to
+  that of _Nautilus_, but the olfactory organ or rhinophore near the eye
+  is present. In _Sepia_ and the majority of the Dibranchiata it is a
+  simple pit, in some of the Oigopsida it is a projection which may be
+  stalked.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagrams of sections showing the early stage
+  of development of the eye of _Loligo_ when it is, like the permanent
+  eye of _Nautilus_ and of _Patella_, an open sac. (From Lankester.)
+
+    A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-like upgrowth.
+
+    B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to form a sac, the primitive
+    optic vesicle of _Loligo_.]
+
+  _Reproduction and Development._--The modification of one or a pair of
+  the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already been
+  described. In many genera the sexes differ from one another in other
+  characters also. As a rule the males are more slender or smaller than
+  the females. The maximum degree of sexual dimorphism occurs in
+  _Argonauta_ among the Octopods; in this genus the female may be
+  fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar modification of
+  the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs in the female
+  only, no shell being formed in the male. In most cases the females are
+  much more numerous than the males, but the opposite relation appears
+  to exist in those Octopoda in which the hectocotylus is autotomous,
+  for as many as four hectocotyli have been found in the pallial cavity
+  of a single female. When the hectocotylus is not detached it is
+  usually inserted into the pallial cavity of the female so as to
+  deposit the spermatophores in or near the aperture of the oviduct, but
+  in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ they are merely deposited on the ventral lobes
+  of the buccal membrane.
+
+  The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and in
+  _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each egg has a separate envelope
+  continued into a long stalk by which it is attached with several
+  others in a cluster. In _Argonauta_ the eggs are carried by the female
+  in the cavity of the shell. In _Loligo_ the eggs are very numerous,
+  and are enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united
+  at one end into a cluster.
+
+  The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which the egg
+  is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This is the
+  result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the latter
+  assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca the
+  segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal. In the egg
+  of _Loligo_, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the
+  protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation
+  is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From one
+  part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes
+  place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole
+  surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side
+  of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline
+  membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the first
+  stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast cells or
+  their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm forms
+  another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a continuous
+  sheet below the ectoderm.
+
+  The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and
+  extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm.
+  After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon
+  and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle
+  ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and
+  the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomodaeal
+  invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short proctodaeal
+  invagination.
+
+  The external changes of form are as follows:--The mantle is the middle
+  of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland, which,
+  however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other Molluscs.
+  Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form the
+  shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in _Argonauta_ and other
+  Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other
+  forms except _Spirula_ it closes completely and the shell develops
+  within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the
+  foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become
+  the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely
+  posterior to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms
+  gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it. Between
+  the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the funnel, and
+  their position shows them to be the epipodia. The otocysts and eyes
+  are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the former behind the eyes,
+  at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-centres, cerebral, visceral,
+  pedal and optic, are formed as proliferations of the ectoderm. At the
+  sides of the optic ganglia a pair of ectodermic invaginations are
+  formed, which in the adult become the white bodies of the eyes,
+  surrounding the optic ganglion. These are vestiges of lateral cerebral
+  lobes which degenerate in the course of development.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Development of _Loligo_.
+
+    1. View of the cleavage of the egg during the first formation of
+    embryonic cells.
+
+    2. Lateral view of the egg at a little later stage. a, Limit to
+    which the layer of cleavage-cells has spread over the egg; b,
+    portion of the egg (shaded) as yet uncovered by cleavage-cells; ap,
+    the auto-plasts; kp, cleavage-pole where first cells were formed.
+
+    3. Later stage, the limit (a) now extended so as to leave but little
+    of the egg-surface (b) unenclosed. The eyes (d), mouth (e) and
+    mantle-sac (u) have appeared.
+
+    4. Later stage, anterior surface, the embryo is becoming nipped off
+    from the yolk-sac (g).
+
+    5. View of an embryo similar to (3) from the cleavage-pole or
+    centro-dorsal area.
+
+    6. Later stage, posterior surface.
+
+    7. Section in a median dorso-ventral and antero-posterior plane of
+    an embryo of the same age as (4).
+
+    8. View of the anterior face of an older embryo.
+
+    9. View of the posterior face of an embryo of the same age as (8).
+
+    Letters in (3) to (9):--a, lateral fins of the mantle; b,
+    mantle-skirt; c, supra-ocular invagination to form the "white body";
+    d, the eye; e, the mouth; f^1, f^2, f^3, f^4, f^5, the five paired
+    processes of the fore-foot; g, rhythmically contractile area of the
+    yolk-sac, which is itself a hernia-like protrusion of the median
+    portion of the fore-foot; h, dotted line showing internal area
+    occupied by yolk (food-material of the egg); k, first rudiment of
+    the epipodia (paired ridges which unite to form the siphon or
+    funnel); l, sac of the radula or lingual ribbon; m, stomach; n,
+    rudiments of the gills (paired ctenidia); o, the otocysts--a pair of
+    invaginations of the surface of the epipodia; p, the optic ganglion;
+    q, the distal portion of the ridges which form the siphon, k being
+    the basal portion of the same structure; r, the vesicle-like
+    rudiment of the intestine formed independently of the parts
+    connected with the mouth, s, k, m, and without invagination; s,
+    rudiment of the salivary glands; t in (7), the shell-sac at an
+    earlier stage open (see fig. 36), now closed up; u, the open
+    shell-sac formed by an uprising ring-like growth of the
+    centro-dorsal area; w in (5), the mantle-skirt commencing to be
+    raised up around the area of the shell-sac. In (7) mes points to the
+    middle cell-layer of the embryo, ep to the outer layer, and h to the
+    deep layer of fusiform cells which separates everywhere the embryo
+    from the yolk or food-material lying within it.]
+
+  The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in the
+  mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out the
+  genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from the wall
+  of the coelom.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section through aboral end of embryo of
+  _Loligo_ showing shell-sac still open. ep, ectoderm; m, mesoderm;
+  m', endoderm; shs, shell-sac; y, yolk.]
+
+  _Phylogeny and Classification._--The order is divided into two
+  sub-orders, Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the
+  tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming than the
+  Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In the former
+  also there is generally an internal shell of considerable size, often
+  calcined, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges of a shell
+  remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were derived from the
+  Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal structures fossil
+  remains of Octopods are almost entirely unknown. _Palaeoctopus_,
+  however, occurs in the Cretaceous, while shells of _Argonauta_ do not
+  appear before the Pliocene. The Decapoda are abundantly represented in
+  the Secondary formations by the _Belemnitidae_, whose shell (fig. 19)
+  consists of a straight conical phragmacone covered posteriorly by a
+  very thick rostrum, and produced anteriorly into a thin long
+  proostracum which is only occasionally preserved. In certain cases
+  remains of the arms provided with hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been
+  recognized. The _Belemnitidae_ appear first in the Upper Trias, attain
+  their maximum development in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued
+  into the Tertiary period, though represented in the Eocene by a few
+  allied forms.
+
+  There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda from
+  _Belemnitidae_, and many of the extinct forms may have been directly
+  ancestral. Chitinous "pens" like that of _Loligo_, however, begin to
+  appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this case as
+  in many others the parent form and the modified form existed
+  contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived. The oldest
+  shells of the _Sepia_ type are from the Eocene, and it is perhaps
+  possible that the _Sepiidae_ arose separately from the Belemnites.
+
+  It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus _Spirula_
+  have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only
+  in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of
+  _Spirula_ has lost a rostrum and a proostracum; its characters must be
+  regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the
+  protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of
+  _Spirula_ agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position
+  is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric the
+  ventral side is the convex or external, while in _Spirula_ the shell
+  is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell is
+  not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character.
+
+  With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is
+  difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as
+  well as a pair of genital ducts in _Nautilus_ with the view that the
+  original Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of
+  coelomoducts. Considering the great specialization, however, and high
+  degree of organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the
+  earliest Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long
+  evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may have
+  been developed in the course of its own history. In the other
+  direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with only
+  two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata.
+
+  SUBORDER 1. DECAPODA.--Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile arms
+  which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular arms,
+  situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each side and
+  retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated and provided
+  with horny rings, on the tentacular arms confined usually to the
+  distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal shell, and
+  lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic cavity;
+  nidamentary glands usually present.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Right and left sections through embryos of
+  _Loligo_. (After Lankester.)
+
+    A, Same stage as fig. 35 (4).
+
+    B, Same stage as fig. 35 (8); only the left side of the sections is
+    drawn, and the food-material which occupies the space internal to
+    the membrane ym is omitted.
+
+    al, Rectum.
+
+    is, Ink-sac.
+
+    ep, Outer cell-layer.
+
+    mes, Middle cell-layer.
+
+    ym, Deep cell-layer of fusiform cells (yolk-membrane).
+
+    ng, Optic nerve-ganglion.
+
+    ot, Otocyst.
+
+    wb, The "white body" of the adult ocular capsule forming as an
+    invagination of the outer cell-layer.
+
+    mtf, Mantle-skirt.
+
+    g, Gill.
+
+    ps, Pen-sac or shell-sac, now closed.
+
+    dg, Dorsal groove.
+
+    poc. Primitive optic vesicle, now closed (see fig. 34).
+
+    l, Lens.
+
+    r, Retina.
+
+    soc, Second or anterior optic chamber still open.
+
+    if, Iridean folds.
+
+    C, The primitive invagination to form one of the otocysts, as seen
+    in fig. 35 (5) and (6).]
+
+  Tribe 1. _Oigopsida_.--A wide aperture in the cornea. Two oviducts in
+  the female. In fossil genera and _Spirula_, shell has a multilocular
+  phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular and larger than
+  the second chamber. The most ancient forms characterized by the small
+  size of the rostrum and proostracum, and large size of the
+  phragmacone. In the living genera, except _Spirula_, the shell is a
+  chitinous gladius.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Belemnoteuthidae_. Extinct; shell with well-developed
+    phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope; siphuncular
+    necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten equal arms provided
+    with hooks. _Phragmoteuthis_, Trias. _Belemnoteuthis_, Jurassic and
+    Cretaceous. _Acanthoteuthis_, Jurassic.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Aulacoceratidae_. Extinct; phragmacone with widely
+    separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform.
+    _Aulacoceras_, Trias. _Atractites_, Trias and Jurassic.
+    _Xiphoteuthis_, Lias.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Belemnitidae_. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral
+    siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proostracum; rostrum large
+    and cylindrical. _Belemnites_, 350 species from Jurassic and
+    Cretaceous. _Diploconus_, Upper Jurassic.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Belopteridae_. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone well
+    developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber small.
+    _Beloptera_, Eocene. _Bayanoteuthis_, Eocene. _Spirulirostra_,
+    Miocene.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Spirulidae_. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior
+    extremity of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or proostracum;
+    shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and sipnunculated; fins
+    posterior. _Spirula_, three living species known, abyssal.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Ommatostrephidae_. Shell internal and chitinous, ending
+    aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short and thick;
+    suckers with denticulate rings. _Ommatostrephes_, fins aboral,
+    simple and rhomboidal, British. _Ctenopteryx_, fins pectinate, as
+    long as the body; _Bathyteuthis_, fins terminal, rudimentary;
+    tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. _Rhynchoteuthis_, tentacular
+    arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage. _Symplectoteuthis.
+    Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis_; this is the largest of
+    Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including arms.
+
+    Fam. 7. _Thysanoteuthidae_. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows of
+    suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole length of
+    body. _Thysanoteuthis_, Mediterranean.
+
+    Fam. 8. _Onychoteuthidae_. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long;
+    suckers with hooks. _Onychoteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on
+    tentacular arms only. _Enoploteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on all
+    the arms. _Veranya_, body very short, tentacular arms atrophied in
+    the adult, Mediterranean. _Chaunoteuthis_, body elongated,
+    tentacular arms atrophied. _Pterygioteuthis. Ancistroteuthis.
+    Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidoteuthis._
+
+    Fam. 9. _Gonatidae_. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula with only
+    two lateral teeth. _Gonatus_.
+
+    Fam. 10. _Cheiroteuthidae_. Tentacular arms long, not retractile;
+    resisting apparatus well developed. _Cheiroteuthis_, suckers along
+    the whole length of the tentacular arms. _Doratopsis_, body very
+    long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very short.
+    _Histioteuthis_, six dorsal arms united by membrane, photogenous
+    organs present. _Histiopsis_, membrane of dorsal arms only half-way
+    up the arms, photogenous organs present. _Calliteuthis_, no brachial
+    membrane, photogenous organs present. _Grimalditeuthis_, two fins on
+    each bide, no tentacular arms.
+
+    Fam. 11. _Cranchiidae_. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes
+    prominent; fins small and terminal. _Cranchia_, body short,
+    purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. _Loligopsis_,
+    body elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. _Leachia_,
+    tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. _Taonius_, body
+    elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Octopodous Cephalopods.
+
+    A, _Pinnoctopus cordiformis_, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand).
+
+    B, _Tremoctopus violaceus_, Ver. (from the Mediterranean).
+
+    C, _Cranchia scabra_, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean; one of the
+    Decapoda).
+
+    D, _Cirrhoteuthis Mulleri_, Esch. (from the Greenland coast).]
+
+  Tribe 2. _Myopsida_.--No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct only
+  developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phragmacone,
+  calcified or simply chitinous.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Sepiidae_. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending the
+    whole length of the body; shell calcareous and laminated.
+    _Belosepia_, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in shell,
+    Eocene. _Sepia_, shell with a rostrum, British. _Sepiella_, shell
+    without a rostrum.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Sepiolidae_. Body short, rounded at the aboral end; fins
+    rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous, small
+    or absent. _Sepiola_, head united to mantle dorsally, British.
+    _Rossia_, head not united to mantle, British. _Stoloteuthis_ and
+    _Inioteuthis_, without shell. _Heteroteuthis. Euprymna._
+
+    Fam. 3. _Idiosepiidae_. Body elongated, with rudimentary terminal
+    fins; internal shell almost lost. _Idiosepius_, 1.5 cm. long, Indian
+    Ocean.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Sepiadariidae_. Body short; mantle united to head dorsally;
+    no shell. _Sepiadarium_, Pacific Ocean. _Sepioloidea_, Australian.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Loliginidae_. Body elongated and conical; fins extending
+    forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous, well
+    developed. _Loligo_, fins triangular, aboral, British.
+    _Sepioteuthis_, fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length.
+    _Loliolus. Loliguncula._ The following fossil genera, known only by
+    their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near
+    _Loligo_:--_Teuthopsis, Beloteuthis_ and _Geoteuthis_, Lias;
+    _Phylloteuthis_, Cretaceous; _Plesioteuthis_, Jurassic and
+    Cretaceous.
+
+  SUBORDER 2. OCTOPODA.--Only four pairs of arms, all similar and longer
+  than the body. Body short and rounded aborally. Suckers sessile. Heart
+  not contained in coelom. No nidamentary glands.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Palaeoctopus Newboldi_, the oldest Octopod
+  known. From the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)]
+
+  Tribe I. _Leioglossa_.--No radula. Arms united by a complete membrane.
+  Fins on sides of body.
+
+    Fam. _Cirrhoteuthidae_. Tentacular filaments on either side of the
+    suckers. _Cirrhoteuthis_, pallial sac prominent, fins large,
+    pelagic. _Opisthoteuthis_, body flattened, with small fins,
+    deep-sea. _Vampyroteuthis_, four fins. _Palaeoctopus_, fossil,
+    Cretaceous.
+
+  Tribe 2. _Trachyglossa._--Radula present. No fins.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Amphitretidae_. Arms united by membrane; funnel attached to
+    mantle, dividing the pallial aperture into two. _Amphitretus_,
+    pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Alloposidae_. All arms united by membrane; mantle joined
+    to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures. _Alloposus_,
+    pelagic.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Octopodidae_. Arms long and equal, without membrane;
+    hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores.
+    _Octopus_, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. _Eledone_,
+    single row of suckers on each arm. _Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus.
+    Cistopus. Japetella._
+
+    Fam. 4. _Philonexidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal in
+    size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. _Tremoctopus_, two dorsal
+    pairs of arms united by membrane. _Ocythoe_, without interbrachial
+    membrane.
+
+    Fam. 5. _Argonautidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; no interbrachial
+    membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female expanded and
+    secreting a shell; males very small, without shell. _Argonauta_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Use has been freely made above of the article by E. Ray
+  Lankester, on _Mollusca_, in the 9th edition of this Encyclopedia. For
+  the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, "Notes on Living Nautilus,"
+  _Amer. Nat._ xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey, "Contribution to the Natural
+  History of the Pearly Nautilus," A. Willey's _Zoological Results_, pt.
+  vi. (1902); Foord, _Cat. Fossil Cephalopoda in British Museum_;
+  Alpheus Hyatt, "Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comp. Zoology,"
+  _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._ (Cambridge, U.S., 1868); Jalta, "I Cefalopodi
+  viventi nel golfo di Napoli," _Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel_,
+  xxiii. (1896); Joubin, "Cephalopodes de l'atlantique nord," "Ceph. de
+  la Princesse Alice," _Camp. sci. Albert I^er de Monaco_, ix. (1895),
+  xxii. (1900); Paul Pelseneer, "Mollusca," in the _Treatise on
+  Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester.     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CEPHEUS, in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda (q.v.); in
+astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by
+Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy
+catalogued 13 stars in this constellation, Tycho n, and Hevelius 51. The
+most interesting star in it is [delta] _Cephei_, a remarkable double
+star, the brighter component of which is a short period variable (5.37
+days), with a range in magnitude of 3.7 to 4.9; it is also a
+spectroscopic binary.
+
+
+
+
+CEPHISODOTUS, the name of the father and of the son of Praxiteles, both
+sculptors like himself. The former must have flourished about 400 B.C. A
+noted work of his was Peace bearing the infant Wealth, of which a copy
+exists at Munich. Peace is a Madonna-like figure of a somewhat
+conservative type; the child Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus
+also made, like his son, a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus,
+unless indeed ancient critics have made two works of one. He made
+certain statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 B.C. Of the
+work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no remains; he
+was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th century B.C.,
+especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the orator Lycurgus, and
+others (see J. Overbeck, _Antike Schriftquellen_, p. 255).
+
+
+
+
+CERAM (_Sirang_), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the Molucca
+group, lying about 3 Deg. S., and between 127 Deg. 45' and 131 Deg. E.
+Its length is a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about 50 m.,
+and its area, including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m. It consists of
+two parts, Great Ceram and Little Ceram or Huvamohel, united by the
+isthmus of Taruno; and, for administrative purposes, is assigned to the
+residency of Amboyna, being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai
+and Amahai, the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and
+Waru or Eastern Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches west and
+east through the island, but near the north coast hills, rising 2300 to
+2600 ft., slope steeply to the shore. Near the south coast, west of the
+Bay of Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains forms a colossal pyramid,
+with peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft. The isthmus connecting the two
+parts of the island is very narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490
+ft. The chief rivers flow north and south into bays, but are navigable
+only for a few miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very
+heavy, amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the
+north coast the bays of Savai and Waru are accessible for small vessels.
+The geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive rocks and
+crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern Amboyna. In the
+eastern section the prevailing rock is crystalline chalk, similar to
+that of Buru. Several hot springs occur, and earthquakes are not
+infrequent. About 4000 persons perished in the earthquake of 1899. A
+large part of the interior is covered with dense forests, and except
+along the coast the population is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is
+without much interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of
+specimens. The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer;
+there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are
+mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the swallows
+that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are to be found in the
+various rivers; and as early as 1860 no fewer than 213 species were
+described. The most valuable timber tree is the iron-wood. Rice, maize,
+cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a variety of fruits are grown; and some
+tobacco is exported to Europe; but by far the most important production
+is the sago palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts,
+especially of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not
+only to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch have
+established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points. The
+coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay population, Buginese,
+Macassars, Balinese and other races of the archipelago. The interior is
+occupied by the aborigines, a people of Papuan stock. They are savages
+and head-hunters. The introduction of Christianity was hampered by the
+baneful influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which
+pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached themselves;
+and it has several times cost the Dutch authorities considerable efforts
+to frustrate their machinations (see _Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind._, fifth
+year). The total population is estimated at 100,000, including 12,000
+Christians and 16,000 Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at
+the north and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno. There
+was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little Ceram, as early
+as 1646.
+
+
+
+
+CERAMICS, or KERAMICS ([Greek: keramos], earthenware), a general term
+for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this purpose both
+in French (_ceramique_) and in German (_Keramik_), and thus has its
+convenience in English as representing an international form of
+description for a study which owes much to the art experts of all
+nations, though "ceramic" and "ceramics" do not appear in English as
+technical terms till the middle of the 19th century.
+
+The word "pottery" (Fr. _poterie_) in its widest sense includes all
+objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though there is a
+growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner articles of this
+great class and to apply the word "porcelain" to all the finer
+varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is founded on a
+misconception; the word "porcelain" should only be applied to certain
+well-marked varieties of pottery. The very existence of pottery is
+dependent on two important natural properties of that great and
+widespread group of rocky or earthy substances known as clays, viz. the
+property of plasticity (the power of being readily kneaded or moulded
+while moist), and the property of being converted when fired into one of
+the most indestructible of ordinary things.
+
+The clays form such an important group of mineral substances that the
+reader must refer to the article CLAY for an account of their
+occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we shall only
+deal with the various clays as they have affected the problems of the
+potter throughout the ages. The clays found on or close to the earth's
+surface are so varied in composition and properties that we may see in
+them one of the vital factors that has determined the nature of the
+pottery of different countries and different peoples. They vary in
+plasticity, and in the hardness, colour and texture of the fired
+product, through an astonishingly wide range. To-day the fine, plastic,
+white-burning clays of the south of England are carried all over Europe
+and America for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of
+affairs which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to the
+18th century, the potters of every country could only use on an
+extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and the
+influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone centuries
+has never yet received the attention it deserves.[1]
+
+_General Evolution of Pottery._--The primitive races of mankind, whether
+of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as they found on
+the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and with the
+rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone slab if necessary
+and picking out any rocky fragments of appreciable size, then beating it
+with the hands, with stones or boards, or treading it with the feet to
+render it fairly uniform in consistency, proceeded to fashion it into
+such shapes as need or fancy dictated. Fired in an open fire, or in the
+most rudimentary form of potter's kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab,
+brown or red--and these from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or
+black. How many generations of men, of any race, handed on their
+painfully acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was
+passed, we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances
+were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can trace in
+the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually advancing
+skill based on increased technical knowledge. For ages tools and methods
+remained of the simplest--the fingers for shaping or building up
+vessels, a piece of mat or basket-work for giving initial support to a
+more ambitious vase,--until some original genius of the tribe finds that
+by starting to build up his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he
+can turn his support so as to bring every part in succession under his
+hand, and lo! the potter's wheel is invented--not brought down from
+heaven by one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the
+older civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian,
+and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of man
+struggling to fulfil his allotted task.
+
+Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to imagine that
+the very rudest pottery must have been the invention of Egyptian,
+Chinese or some other distinct race from which the knowledge radiated to
+all the other races of the prehistoric world. No conception could be
+more erroneous. Since the middle of the 19th century research has
+established beyond doubt that wherever clay was found men became potters
+of a sort, just as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &c., by
+sheer force of need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded
+view that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that
+the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from such a
+parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable evidence that
+pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of what we now call Greece,
+Italy, Spain and other countries, long before they were aware that any
+other peoples lived on the earth than themselves.
+
+For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by drying in
+the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried grain, &c., but
+the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the amazing fact that a
+baked clay vessel became as hard as stone. Then, too, came the knowledge
+that even in one district all the clays did not fire to the same colour,
+and colour decoration arose, in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay
+or earth (a ruddle or bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright
+red or buff colour on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay--most
+precious of all were little deposits of white clay which kept their
+purity unsullied through the fire,--and by these primitive means the
+races of the dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery
+of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all Egyptian,
+Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive foundations.
+
+We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the great
+nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each develop the
+potter's art in an individual way. The Egyptians evolve schemes of
+glowing colour--brilliant glazes fired on objects, shaped in sand held
+together with a little clay, or actually carved from rocks or stones;
+the Greeks produce their marvels of plastic form, and then, excited by
+their growing skill in metal work, turn the plastic clay into imitations
+of metal forms. These nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some
+knowledge--only a tincture, it must be confessed--over all the lands
+they hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt to
+the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters' fires that have never
+since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and over Europe its
+pottery is forgotten along with its greater achievements; yet still
+pottery-making goes on in a very simple way, to be slowly revived and
+modified once more by the communities of monks, who, in later centuries,
+replace the Roman legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe.
+Meantime Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the
+splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery was
+still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine civilization
+and the Persians played during this obscure time, we are only just
+beginning to realize; but we now know that many interesting kinds of
+decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at Alexandria, at Damascus, in
+Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on which the later Moslem potters founded
+their glorious works), at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple
+red or drab clay, covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were
+the sole evidence of the potter's skill. What the Arab conquests
+destroyed, and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess;
+but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan conquests there
+came a time when the potter's art of the Occident reached its highest
+expression, and when methods and knowledge hitherto confined to Egypt,
+Syria and Persia were spread from Spain and the south of France to
+India--even, it may be, into China.
+
+Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese--the greatest race of potters
+the world has ever seen--were quietly gathering strength, until from
+their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged the marvellous, white
+translucent porcelain, one of the wonders of the medieval world.
+
+With the dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of affairs was
+practically this:--In European countries proper we find rudely fashioned
+and decorated wares in which we can trace the slow development of a
+native craft from the superposition of Roman methods on the primitive
+work of the peoples. The vessels were mostly intended for use and not
+for show; were clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at
+all then only with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no
+case above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or
+tile-maker. The finest expression of this native style is to be found in
+the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England, where all the
+colours are due to the clays and there is no approach to painting. In
+the Moslem countries--including the greater part of Spain and Sicily,
+Egypt and the nearer East, probably even to the very centre of
+Asia--pottery was being made either of whitish clay and sand, or of a
+light reddish clay coated with a white facing of fine clay or of
+tin-enamel, on which splendid decorative patterns in vivid pigments or
+brilliant iridescent lustres were painted.
+
+As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic pottery
+of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of Europeans as
+an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may well believe the
+traditional accounts that Saracen potters were brought into Italy,
+France and Burgundy to introduce the practice of their art, while
+Italian potters certainly penetrated into the workshops of eastern Spain
+and elsewhere, and gathered new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the
+south of France probably, efforts were continuously in progress to
+improve the native wares by coating the vessels with a white "slip" and
+drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and purplish
+black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war and peace, also
+introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion of the famous
+Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the 14th century a knowledge
+of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy and paved the way to the glorious
+painted majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. From Italy and Spain,
+France and Holland, Germany, and finally, though much later, England
+learnt this art, and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern
+Europe, so largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the
+direct offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance.[2]
+
+During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also began to find
+its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its substance and its
+marvellous translucence excited the attention of the Italian majolists
+and alchemists. The first European imitation of this famous oriental
+porcelain of which we have indubitable record was made at Florence
+(1575-1585) by alchemists or potters working under the patronage, and,
+it is said, with the active collaboration of Francesco de' Medici. This
+Florentine porcelain was the first of those distinctively European
+wares, made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connecting
+link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered either as
+pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered opaque by shaping and
+firing a mixture containing a large percentage of glass with a very
+little clay. After the cessation of the Florentine experiments we know
+of no European porcelain for nearly a century, though the importation of
+Chinese porcelain had largely increased owing to the activity of the
+various "India" companies. The next European porcelain, made like the
+Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St Cloud
+(1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy porcelain was made
+in France and England largely, and in other countries experimentally.
+German experimenters worked in another direction, and the first
+porcelain made in Europe from materials similar to the Chinese was
+produced at Meissen by Bottger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not
+only was there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese
+porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain manufacture in
+Europe; and in every country factories were established, generally under
+royal or princely patronage, for the manufacture of artificial porcelain
+like the French, or genuine porcelain like the German. The English made
+a departure in the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either,
+through adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this
+English bone-porcelain--a well-marked species--is now largely made in
+America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in England.
+
+By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant on the
+manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its abandonment,
+and a porcelain made from natural materials like the Chinese has since
+been generally made on the continent of Europe.
+
+The older tin-enamelled wares--derived from the Hispano-Moresque and the
+Italian majolica--so largely made in France, Holland, Germany and
+elsewhere during the 17th and 18th centuries, met with a fate analogous
+to that of the French porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a
+brittle substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the
+middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a
+serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior durability
+and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience gradually
+disappeared between the upper millstone of European porcelain and the
+nether millstone of English earthenware.
+
+The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the output of
+porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the United States.
+Mechanical methods were largely called in to supplement or replace what
+had hitherto remained almost pure handicraft. The English methods of
+preparing and mixing the materials of the body and glaze, and the
+English device of replacing painted decoration by machine printing, to a
+large extent carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical
+aspects of the work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its
+artistic spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely
+affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the painting,
+gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the first half of
+the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and hackneyed. During the
+latter half of the 19th century another influence was fortunately at
+work. Side by side with the increasing mechanical perfection of the
+great bulk of modern pottery there grew up a school of innovators and
+experimentalists, who revived many of the older decorative methods that
+had fallen into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in
+certain directions even beyond, the achievements of the past. The 20th
+century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe and
+America. In every country men were striving once again to bring back to
+their world-old craft something of artistic taste and skill.
+
+  _Technical Methods._--All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or of
+  modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay, dug
+  from the earth's surface, was or is prepared by beating and kneading
+  with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood; stones and
+  hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well tempered with
+  water, was used without any addition. From this clay, vessels were
+  shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump or ball, by building up
+  piece by piece and smoothing down one layer upon another or by
+  squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object or prepared mould or
+  form. The potter's wheel, though very ancient, was a comparatively
+  late invention, arrived at independently by many races of men. In its
+  simplest form it was a heavy disk pivoted on a central point to be set
+  going by the hand, as the workman squatted on the ground; and it may
+  be seen to-day in India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive
+  simplicity (see fig. 1). This form of potter's wheel was the only one
+  known until about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently,
+  the improvement was introduced of lengthening the spindle which
+  carries the throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much
+  larger disk which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have
+  both hands free for the manipulation of the clay (fig. 2). No further
+  advance seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the
+  wheel was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a
+  steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century,
+  this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Potter moulding a vessel on the wheel (from a
+  painting in a tomb at Thebes about 1800 B.C.). Compare the wheel on
+  the left in fig. 5.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Potter's wheel of the time of the Ptolemies,
+  moved by the foot (from a wall-relief at Philae). Compare fig. 5, the
+  wheel on the right.]
+
+  A prevalent misconception with regard to the potter's wheel needs
+  correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is impossible to
+  carry the work to completion on the wheel at one operation as is
+  generally imagined. All that the potter can do while the clay is soft
+  enough to "throw" on the wheel is to get a rough shape of even
+  thickness. This operation completed, the piece is removed from the
+  wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about leather-hard, it may be
+  re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old practice), or placed in a
+  horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and turned down to the exact
+  shape and polished to an even, smooth surface. The Greek vase-makers
+  were already adepts in what is often reckoned a modern, detestable
+  practice. Many Greek vases have obviously been "thrown" in separate
+  sections, and when these had contracted and hardened sufficiently they
+  were luted together with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed
+  and turned down on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of
+  mechanical finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the
+  Chinese; many of their forms have been made in two or three portions,
+  subsequently joined together and finished on the outside as one piece.
+  Indeed it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered for
+  themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held up to
+  opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age. Always it
+  should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by "pressing"
+  cakes of clay into moulds is much older than the potter's wheel, and
+  has always been the method of making shapes other than those in the
+  round. The modern method of "casting" pottery by pouring slip, a fluid
+  mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds seems to have
+  originated in England about the middle of the 18th century; and this
+  too is a genuine potter's method which does not merit the disapproval
+  with which it has been generally regarded by writers on the potter's
+  art.
+
+  In all ages the work of the "thrower" or "presser" has been largely
+  supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape, and applies to it
+  handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Early Greek pottery-kiln, about 700-600 B.C.
+  (from a painted votive tablet found at Corinth, now in the Louvre).
+  The section shows the probable construction of the kiln.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is
+  for the insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated
+  floor, made of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing,--it was
+  probably a dome.]
+
+  _Firing._--The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a
+  specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be
+  referred here to the technological works mentioned in the bibliography
+  at the end of this article. It is, however, necessary that we should
+  briefly describe the earlier forms of potters' kilns used by the
+  nations whose pottery counts among the treasures of the collector and
+  the antiquary. Here again we now know that the primitive types of kiln
+  used by the potters of ancient Egypt or Greece have not vanished from
+  the earth; it is only in the civilized countries of the modern world
+  that they have been replaced by improved and perfected devices. The
+  potters of the North-West Provinces of India use to-day a kiln
+  practically identical with that depicted in severest silhouette on the
+  rock-tombs of Thebes; and the skilful Japanese remain content with a
+  kiln very similar to the one shown in fig. 3. This Greek type of kiln
+  was improved and enlarged by the Romans, and its use seems to have
+  been introduced wherever pottery was made under their sway, for
+  remains of Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4).
+  With the end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their
+  technical methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter
+  of the period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his
+  methods afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of
+  medieval potter's kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an
+  Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria
+  and Albert Museum[3] (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal
+  reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-fired pottery of
+  Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &c.), as well as for Chinese porcelain and
+  the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery as a
+  factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were introduced,
+  and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries is
+  practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section, from
+  10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore, of
+  containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would have formed
+  the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every device that can be
+  thought of for the better utilization of heat and its even
+  distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experimented with;
+  and, though the results have been most successful from the point of
+  view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired ovens remain very
+  wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of available heat being
+  relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-fired kilns and ovens
+  are now being used or experimented with in every country, and their
+  perfection, which cannot be far distant, will improve the most vital
+  of the potter's processes both in certainty and economy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two forms of Italian potter's wheels, about
+  1540.]
+
+  _Glazes._--We are never likely to known when glaze (i.e. a coating of
+  fired glass) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of
+  knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed
+  objects we possess are those of ancient Egypt,[4] but the practice may
+  have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of the
+  elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes were of
+  the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass before they
+  can be applied to pottery.
+
+  Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after it was
+  fired, in order to get a glossy surface; and in other cases the
+  surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with waxy or
+  resinous substances which were often coloured. It is possible that the
+  black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such a method, and though
+  that point is not settled, we have many types of primitive pottery,
+  both modern and ancient, which are coated in this way. Such a coating
+  is only a substitute for glaze in the work of peoples who do not know
+  or have not mastered the technical secrets of true glazes. We can only
+  consider as glazes those definite superficial layers of molten
+  material which have been fired on the clay substance. Glazes are as
+  varied as the various kinds of pottery, and it must never be forgotten
+  that each kind of pottery is at its best with its appropriate glaze.
+  The earliest known glazes (Egyptian and Assyrian) were silicates of
+  soda and lime containing very little alumina and no lead. Such glazes
+  are very uncertain in use, and can only be applied to pottery
+  unusually rich in silica (i.e. deficient in clay). Consequently these
+  alkaline glazes cannot be used on ordinary clay wares, and when they
+  have been used successfully, the clay has always been coated with a
+  surface layer of highly siliceous substance (e.g. the so-called
+  Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian pottery of the early middle
+  ages). The fact that glazes containing lead-oxide would adhere to
+  ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes would not was discovered at a
+  very early period; for lead glazes were extensively used in Egypt and
+  the nearer East in Ptolemaic times, and it is significant that, though
+  the Romans made singularly little use of glazes of any kind, the
+  pottery that succeeded theirs, either in western Europe or in the
+  Byzantine empire, was generally covered with glazes rich in lead.
+  Throughout Europe, and over the greater part of the world, leaded
+  glazes have been continuously used and improved for all ordinary
+  pottery, and it is only with certain special hard-fired types of ware
+  that they have yet been successfully replaced. Chinese porcelain and
+  all the European porcelains made by analogous methods are fired at so
+  high a temperature that a glaze by felspar softened by lime and silica
+  is found most suitable for them, and the hard-fired stonewares, rich
+  in silica, are often glazed with a salt glaze, or a melted earth rich
+  in oxide of iron.
+
+  Every kind of potter's clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &c.,
+  from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze, and
+  from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could produce
+  in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him by the
+  clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay which cannot
+  be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have always proved
+  the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large quantities of
+  sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of common salt; and
+  mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European porcelain, can be
+  glazed by melting felspathic materials upon them. Naturally those
+  species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the most
+  durable--the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable than lead
+  glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes.
+
+  The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (e.g.
+  Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &c.), the oldest and most uncertain; (2)
+  lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all ordinary
+  purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired porcelains,
+  generally unsuited to any other material; (4) salt glaze, produced by
+  vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares. Many
+  intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs, but these
+  remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this important
+  subject must be sought in the technical works.
+
+  _Colours._--The primitive potters of ancient and modern times have all
+  striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest, and
+  therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in natural
+  earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition that they
+  fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream, buff, red,
+  brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One clay daubed or
+  painted upon another formed the primitive palette of the potter,
+  especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze was used these
+  natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths, other than
+  clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were gradually
+  discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some of the
+  very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or iron
+  (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians and
+  Assyrians). Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials, but
+  the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian, Syrian
+  and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time the art of
+  glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been thoroughly
+  learnt. Vases, tiles, &c., shaped in good plastic clay, were covered
+  with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive glazes of this
+  type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted colours then
+  known. With this rudimentary technique the potters of the countries
+  south and east of the Mediterranean produced, between the 9th and 16th
+  centuries of our era, a type of pottery that remains ideal from the
+  point of view of colour: for, with nothing more than the greens given
+  by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise of pure copper, the deep
+  yet vivid blue of cobalt, the beautiful uncertain purple of manganese,
+  and in certain districts the rich red of Armenian bole, they achieved
+  colour schemes that have never been surpassed in their brilliant yet
+  harmonious richness.
+
+  When the coating of white siliceous clay was replaced by an opaque
+  tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &c., a necessary
+  change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the copper-greens
+  and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground; the fine manganese
+  purple turned to brown or black and the rich iron-reds to filthy
+  shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the Spanish-Arab potters paid
+  more attention to their lustre decoration, for that was the natural
+  thing to do. How strong and fine a palette could be evolved for use on
+  a tin-enamel ground was shown by the Italian majolists of the 15th and
+  16th centuries; and when the later developments of tin-enamelled
+  pottery took place in France, Holland, Germany, &c., their colour
+  schemes are only echoes of Italian majolica crossed with Chinese
+  porcelain. Delft, Nevers, Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with
+  its individuality; Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us
+  that they too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always
+  go back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian
+  and Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them.
+
+  The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are
+  known as "under glaze" colours, because they were painted on the
+  pottery before the glaze was fired.
+
+  The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been white,
+  but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of coloured
+  glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along with the
+  painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and Persian potters.
+  Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the only artistic
+  productions of the medieval European potters' kilns, and their use
+  everywhere preceded the introduction of painted pottery. The most
+  extensive application of coloured glazes was, however, that made by
+  the Chinese, who developed this type of colour decoration before they
+  used painted patterns in underglaze colour. The earliest Chinese
+  porcelains, and the hard-fired stonewares out of which their porcelain
+  arose, were decorated in this way, and the beauty of many of the early
+  Sung coloured glazes has never been surpassed.
+
+  With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese porcelain
+  very few underglaze colours could be used; and the prevalence of blue
+  and white among the early specimens of Chinese porcelains is due to
+  the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance known to the
+  potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the high temperature
+  needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the Chinese were driven to
+  invent the method of painting in coloured fusible glasses on the
+  already fired glaze. They adopted for this purpose the coloured
+  enamels used on metal; hence the common term "enamel decoration,"
+  which is so generally applied to painting in those colours which are
+  attached to the already fired glaze by refiring at a lower
+  temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured Chinese
+  porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly followed by our
+  European potters, and a new palette of colours and fresh styles of
+  decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-glaze colours, being
+  executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass painting, and it
+  generally offers a striking contrast both in technique and
+  colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the glaze. In
+  the former the work can be highly finished and the most mechanical
+  execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich nor so
+  brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same softness as
+  is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour when the glaze
+  is melted over it.
+
+  It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method of
+  pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at which
+  the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally more
+  limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in their turn
+  than the on-glaze colours.
+
+  When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery took on
+  its modern form, of earthenware made after the English fashion, and
+  porcelain like the French and German, the lead or felspathic glazes
+  used brought about another revolution in the potter's palette. The
+  growing ideal of mechanical perfection discounted the freedom of the
+  earlier brushwork, and printed patterns, or painting that might almost
+  have been printed, removed the mind still farther from the richness of
+  painted faience or majolica. It is useless to look for the glorious
+  colour of Persian faience, Italian majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in
+  modern wares produced by manufacturing processes where mechanical
+  perfection is demanded to a degree undreamt of before the 19th
+  century. The finest modern pottery colour is only to be sought in the
+  work of those enthusiasts and experimenters who are striving to
+  produce work as rich and free as the best of past times.
+
+  _Metals_.--The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver, have,
+  since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as
+  adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white
+  earthen-wares and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the
+  gold was applied with a kind of japanner's size and was not fired to
+  the glaze, but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally
+  been fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing
+  the metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass.
+  There can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia,
+  Syria and Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their
+  decorative effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been.
+  The early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to
+  have been "sized" or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable that
+  the use of "fired" gold was taught to the Oriental by the European in
+  the 18th century. To-day "liquid" gold is exported to China and Japan
+  from Europe for the use of the potter.
+
+
+PRIMITIVE POTTERY
+
+We can group together that great and widely-spread class of vessels made
+by the primitive races of mankind, whether before the dawn of
+civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting to note that
+many modern races still make pottery by the same rude method as the
+Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with striking similarity of
+result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods and practices of the
+primitive potters of our own time furnishes the best possible guide to
+the methods of fabrication and ornamentation of the ancient specimens
+that are dug up from barrows, grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only
+natural that the materials and methods of such pottery are always of the
+simplest. The clay is used with very little preparation, and it is no
+unusual thing to find bits of stone, gravel, &c., embedded in the paste
+of such wares, though at a later stage of development they would have
+been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of potters
+practised the art for long without discovering that their vessels were
+not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in firing, if fine
+sand or pounded "potsherds" were mixed with the clay; and when we are
+dealing with the work of races that have passed beyond the Stone Age and
+have learned the use of metals we find this custom universal.
+
+There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common to almost
+every primitive race:--
+
+  1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay.
+
+  2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or
+  matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and smoothing
+  down successive layers of clay.
+
+  3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and these
+  are coiled round and round upon each other and smoothed down with the
+  hands and with simple tools of bone, wood or metal.
+
+The use of the potter's wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable how
+beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery is. The
+primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders Petrie in Egypt,
+and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric date from Spain, are
+remarkable instances of this. Some primitive races leave their pottery
+without decoration, especially when they have a fine red-burning clay to
+work in, but, generally speaking, primitive pottery of every race and
+time is elaborately decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such
+decorations consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions
+arranged in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. All
+this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it is
+fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so obviously
+been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the neck or bowl of a
+vase; though the thong may have been used in the first instance merely
+to serve as a support while the vessel was dried. At a later stage the
+ornament is generally obtained by scratching with a tool, by pressing
+the end of a hollow stick into the clay to form rows of circles, by
+using a stick cut at the end into the shape of a half-moon, or other
+equally simple decorative device. In certain tropical countries this
+rudimentary pottery becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when
+merely dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries it
+must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an open
+fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into the
+ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imperfect the
+firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke. In those
+countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired the pieces
+naturally become buff, drab, brown or red.
+
+The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-mounds of
+England and the northern countries generally have received a number of
+fanciful names for which there is very little warrant except in the case
+of the cinerary urns. These are generally the largest vessels of this
+class, and as they were used to contain burnt bones there seems
+sufficient warrant for the supposition that they were made for this and
+for no other purpose.
+
+Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved during
+recent years by the labours of a number of American students connected
+with the United States Geological Survey, who have carefully recorded
+the present-day practices of those native tribes who make and use
+pottery in various parts of North America and Mexico; while, in the same
+way, Peruvian, Brazilian and other South American pottery has been as
+closely investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no
+primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze, though much
+of it has been highly polished after firing, and in some cases a varnish
+has been applied which may perhaps be regarded as the earliest kind of
+"glazing" ever applied to pottery vessels.
+
+  LITERATURE.--On primitive pottery the following works may be specially
+  mentioned. W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_ (1877); Boyd-Dawkins,
+  _Early Man in Britain_ (1880); Mortimer, _Forty Years' Researches in
+  British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire_ (1905); Abercromby,
+  "The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in Britain," _J. Anth. Inst._ vol.
+  xxxii. (1902), 373; _Guide to Antiquities of the Bronze Age_ (British
+  Museum, 1904); Koenen, _Gefasskunde der vorromischen, romischen und
+  frankischen Zeit in den Rheinlandern_ (1895); Wosinsky, _Der
+  inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-zeit_ (1904); Walters,
+  _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek and Roman) (1905); Holmes,
+  _Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States_ (Bureau of
+  Ethnology, Washington, 1899); also Holmes and Cushing in _Report_ of
+  Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; Wiener, _Perou et Bolivie_ (1880); Von
+  der Steinen, _Natur-Volkerei Central Brasiliens_ (1894); Hartman,
+  _Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica_ (1905); Strebel, on "Mexican
+  Pottery" in _Publications_ of Museum fur Volkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6,
+  1899); Werner, _British Central Africa_ (1907); Fullborn, _Deutsche
+  Ost-Afrika_, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer, "Kabyle Pottery," _Journ. Anth.
+  Inst._ vol. xxxii. p. 245, and "Upper Egypt," _ibid_. xxxv. p. 20;
+  Myres, "Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia Minor," _Journ. Anth. Inst._
+  xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, _Notes analytiques sur les
+  collections ethnographiques du Congo_, tome ii. (1907); Cupart,
+  _Debuts de l'art de l'ancienne Egypte_ (1903).     (W. B.*)
+
+
+EGYPT AND WESTERN ASIA
+
+_Egyptian Pottery_.--Egypt affords us the most striking instance of the
+development of the potter's art. As in other countries pottery was made
+even in Neolithic times, for the Nile mud forms a fine plastic clay and
+sand is of course abundant. With these materials various kinds of
+pottery, often extremely well made and of good form, have been
+continuously produced for common domestic requirements, but such pottery
+was never glazed.
+
+The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a special
+preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all, it contained so
+little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty the Egyptians had learnt to
+shape little objects in this tender material and cover them with their
+wonderful turquoise glazes. We have therefore to study the development
+of two independent things: (1) the ordinary pottery of common clay left
+without glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be
+special to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the
+technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the nearer
+East.
+
+We probably do not possess any specimens of the most primitive Neolithic
+pottery; the oldest type known to us, the black and red ware of Ballas
+and Nagada (1), dates from the later Neolithic age, when copper was just
+beginning to be used. This ware is very hard and compact and the face is
+highly burnished. The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red
+clay; the black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of
+air in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie suggests,
+by placing the pot's mouth down in the kiln, and leaving the ashes over
+the part which was to be burnt black. Both red and black colour go right
+through in every case. All-red and all-black vases are occasionally
+found, the red with geometrical decorations in white colour, and the
+black with incised decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at
+the same time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it
+is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the wheel.
+Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete in 1905 during
+the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hierapetra. The general
+appearance of the Cretan pottery is much the same as that of the
+Egyptian, and the duller red and black decoration (which here has a
+spotted or mottled appearance) was probably obtained in the same way,
+the black spots being due to the action of separate fragments of the
+baking material. This discovery is important in view of the probable
+early connexion of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres.
+
+A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and harder make,
+and often with a brighter surface, was introduced into Egypt at a later
+date (XIIth Dynasty), probably by Nubian tribes who were descended from
+relatives of the Neolithic Egyptians. From their characteristic graves
+these people are called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known
+by the same name.
+
+Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares, but by
+no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of primeval
+Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface decorations in
+red. These decorations are varied in character, including ships, birds
+and human figures; wavy lines and geometrical designs commonly occur.
+The whole _facies_ of this ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been
+compared with the decorated "Kabyle pottery" of modern times. To call
+the people who made this ware "Libyans" on the strength of this
+resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six thousand
+years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric Egyptians were not
+Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the peculiar decoration of their
+pottery, which seems so strangely barbaric, is in reality merely the
+most ancient handiwork of the Egyptian painter, and marks the first
+stage in the development of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (2).
+Other types of pottery (3), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also
+in use at this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase
+with a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed
+out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This cylindrical
+type outlived the red and black and the red and buff decorated styles
+(which are purely Neolithic and predynastic) and continued in use in the
+early dynastic period, well into the Copper age. The other unglazed
+pottery of the first three dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty
+of form or colour, and is indeed of the roughest description (4), but
+under the IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and
+vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (4). This fine ware continued in
+use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though the forms of course
+differed from age to age. Under the XIIth Dynasty, and during the Middle
+Kingdom generally, either this or a coarser unpolished red ware was in
+use. The forms of this period are very characteristic (5); the vases are
+usually footless, and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape--some
+small ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign "Pan-Grave"
+black and red pottery was also in use (see above).
+
+The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated
+with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly
+early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the
+Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.). Under the XIIth Dynasty pottery made of this
+characteristic Egyptian faience seems to have come into general use, and
+it continued in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor
+of the glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (6). The
+oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape of beads,
+plaques, &c.--rarely in the form of pottery vessels. The colour is
+usually a light blue, which may turn either white or green; but beads of
+the grey-black manganese colour are found, and on the light blue vases
+of King Aha (who is probably one of the historical originals of the
+legendary "Mena" or Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have
+the king's name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the
+blue-white glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid.
+This style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue
+continued till the end of the "New Empire" shortly before the XXVIth
+(Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the decoration
+before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light blue glaze was used
+well into the time of the XIIth Dynasty (British Museum, No. 36,346),
+but was then displaced by a new tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on
+which the black decoration shows up in sharper contrast than before.
+This blue, and a somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the
+time for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of
+scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite --not
+faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of glazed stone
+begins about this period, and not only steatite or schist was employed
+(on account of its softness), but a remarkably brilliant effect was
+obtained by glazing hard shining white quartzite with the wonderfully
+delicate XIIth Dynasty blue. A fragment of a statuette plinth of this
+beautiful material was obtained during the excavation of the XIth
+Dynasty temple at Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948).
+Vessels of diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the
+blue glaze. A good specimen of the finest XIIth Dynasty blue-glazed
+faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 B.C.) in the Cairo
+Museum (No. 3666) (6). The blue-glazed hippopotami of this period, with
+the reeds and water-plants in purplish black upon their bodies to
+indicate their habitat, are well known. Fine specimens of these are in
+the collection of the Rev. Wm. MacGregor at Tamworth (8).
+
+The blue glaze of the XIIth Dynasty deepened in colour under the XIIIth,
+to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the manganese black) of
+fish and lotus plants belong (8) (British Museum, Nos. 4790, &c.). The
+finest specimens of XVIIIth Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir
+el-Bahri, in the neighbourhood of which place there may have been a
+factory for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &c., of this
+fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor (good
+collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this dynasty
+polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and dark blue, violet,
+purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other tints were used, not
+only for smaller objects of faience, such as rings, scarabs, kohl-pots,
+&c., but also for vases, e.g. No. 3965 of the Cairo Museum (Amenophis
+III. wine-bottle), the ground colour of which is white with a decoration
+of flower wreaths in blue, yellow and red, with an inscription in
+delicate blue (6). This polychrome faience was also now used for the
+_ushabti_ figures which were placed in the tombs; hitherto they had been
+made exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery;
+henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the polychrome
+glazes (e.g. British Museum, Nos. 34,180, 34,185) were soon abandoned,
+and the plain blue and black of the ordinary vases was adopted. The
+_ushabtis_ of King Seti I. (British Museum, No. 22,818, &c.) (9) are
+fine specimens of this type. Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and
+became weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used for
+their _ushabtis_ a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary colour
+which at once distinguishes the faience of this period from that of all
+others (9). The same brilliant glaze was used for vases of various kinds
+as well. The polychrome ware had developed into a style of inlaying with
+glazed faience, which we see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty
+(1400 B.C.) (10), and at Tel el-Yah[=u]d[=i]ya under the XXth (1200
+B.C.), used for wall decoration. After this time polychrome ceramic
+decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained in Asia
+(see below).
+
+The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by such a
+remarkable object as the gigantic _Uas_-sceptre of blue glazed faience,
+now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (12, 8). This is the largest known
+piece of Egyptian glazed faience; really large vases of faience are not
+found. Faience vases were very commonly built up or carved out of a ball
+of the dried material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous
+substance --it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have
+been fashioned on the wheel. Sometimes even small vases were made of
+separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (6). Under the
+XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of deities or animals in
+relief became common; these were made in moulds (6). In the matter of
+form the faience pottery of the New Empire follows the lead of the new
+earthenware types. Forms had altered considerably from those of the
+XIIth Dynasty. In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we
+now find egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without
+handles, great _amphorae_ with almost pointed bases, sometimes with the
+handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-tipped, squat jugs;
+little handleless vases somewhat resembling the modern _kulla_, "_mit
+mehrfach eingezogenem Bauch_" (V.B.), and the common flat flask-like
+type known as the "pilgrim bottle" (6, 13, 14, 15).
+
+Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time, imported
+vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean _Bugelkannen_ and
+Cypriote black "base ring" jugs, have been found in the tombs and
+deposits of this age (14). Imitations of foreign forms, especially the
+_Bugelkannen_, are found[5] chiefly in faience (British Museum, 22,731,
+is an imitation of a Minoan jug from Crete). The faience forms of the
+XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties include also the _kulla_ shape, the pilgrim
+bottle, miniature _amphorae_, &c. (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous forms
+not found in common pottery, imitating metal and stone vases, e.g. the
+blue-green ribbed pots of the XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze
+originals, and the _alabastron_ of the XVIIIth; these last go back to
+the XIIth Dynasty. Very pretty cups in the shape of lotus flowers (see
+fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are of the XIXth Dynasty,
+and mostly came from Tuna (6, 8).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Egyptian pottery made of fine blue paste.]
+
+The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth Dynasty during
+the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty has already been
+mentioned. Characteristic of the latter period of this ware are long
+jugs with attenuated body and single handle, which, because they have
+been found with Mycenaean objects in Cyprus, have been considered to be
+of foreign, probably of Syrian origin. They may, however, be Egyptian.
+Vases of the same ware in the shape of men and animals are not uncommon
+(17). Another ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face,
+sometimes becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in this
+ware the pilgrim bottles are common. An unpolished, brittle, and thin
+yellow ware was also used largely for wine-vases. The rougher, commoner
+red and brown ware at this period became decorated with designs, chiefly
+of lily wreaths, &c., in paint of various colours (13). This new
+development hid the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply
+obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of the
+period (see fig. 8). This painted pottery continued in use until about
+the time of the XXIInd Dynasty. From this time onwards, till the
+Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a red ware, usually covered
+with a white slip. Under the XXVIth Dynasty a finer homogeneous white
+ware occurs, usually for vases with a rude representation of the face of
+the god Bes on their bodies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.]
+
+The XXVIth Dynasty marks a new period of development in the history of
+Egyptian faience. The old deep blue colour had gradually deteriorated
+into an ugly green (British Museum, No. 8962), which was replaced by the
+Saite potters with a new light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in
+accordance with the archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light
+blue of the earliest Dynasties. The glaze itself is very thin and
+"sugary" in texture. The old decoration of the blue with designs and
+inscriptions in manganese-black is abandoned; on the _ushabtis_ the
+inscriptions are now incised. Side by side with this light blue glaze
+was used an unglazed faience, a sort of composition paste with the
+colour going right through.[6] It has more variety of colour than the
+glazed faience, light green and a dark indigo blue being found as well
+as the Saite light blue. Sometimes it is of a very soft, almost chalky
+consistency. It was used for vases, but more generally for small figures
+and scarabs (6). The commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim
+bottle, now made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with
+inscriptions on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the
+possessor. These flasks appear to have been common New Year's gifts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Egyptian pottery with painted ornament and sham
+marbling.]
+
+Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further new development
+of glaze began, of a more radical character than ever before. The colour
+deepened, and the glaze itself became much more glassy, and was thickly
+laid on. The new glaze was partly translucent, and differed very greatly
+from the old opaque glaze. It first appeared on _ushabtis_ at the end of
+the Saite period. A curious effect was obtained by glazing the
+head-dress, the inscription &c., of the _ushabtis_ in dark blue, and
+then covering the whole with translucent light blue glaze. This method
+was regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman periods,
+when the new style of glaze came into general use. A yellowish green
+effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body of the vases in yellow
+and covering this with the translucent blue glaze. This method was used
+to touch up the salient portions of the designs in relief, imitated
+from foreign originals, a style which now became usual on vases. The
+usual decoration is mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally
+predominating. A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue,
+blue-green, grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found. The glaze is
+very thickly laid on, and is often "crazed" (6, 8). A remarkable
+instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the god Bes in
+the British Museum (No. 35,028). A hard, light blue, opaque glaze like
+that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally, but rarely, met with in the
+case of vases (British Museum, Nos. 37,407, 37,408).
+
+We know something of the common wares in use during this period from the
+study of the _ostraka_, fragments of pottery on which dated
+tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written. From the _ostraka_ we
+see that during the Ptolemaic period the commonest pottery was made of
+red ware covered with white slip, which has already been mentioned. At
+the beginning of the Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar
+light pink ware with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark
+brown ware. About the 3rd century A.D. horizontally ribbed or fluted
+pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use. These were
+often large-sized _amphorae_, with very attenuated necks and long
+handles (see fig. 9). During the Byzantine (Coptic) period most of the
+pottery in use was ribbed, and usually pitched inside to hold water, as
+the ware was loose in texture and porous.
+
+During the Coptic period, a lighter ware was also in use, decorated with
+designs of various kinds in white, brown or red paint on the dull red or
+buff body. In Nubia a peculiar development of this ware is
+characteristic of the later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712).
+
+A polished red ware of Roman origin (imitation Arretine or "Samian") was
+commonly used as well.
+
+The heavily glazed blue faience continued in use until replaced in the
+early Arab period by the well-known yellow and brown lead-glazed
+pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds of Fostat (Old
+Cairo).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Egyptian pottery under the Ptolemies, showing
+Greek influence in the shapes.]
+
+_Western Asia.--Palestine_. The most ancient Palestinian pottery is the
+rough "Amorite" ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi) which sometimes has wavy
+handles like the prehistoric Egyptian (18). Later we find actual
+Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (19), an interesting testimony to the
+truth of the legend which brings the Philistines from Crete; the fourth
+and fifth cities of Lachish (1200-1000 B.C.) show us the first ordinary
+Phoenician or Israelite pottery--buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter
+with the handles sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong
+Egyptian influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found as
+in Egypt.
+
+The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery is the
+Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite period, of which
+the characteristics are well known. Some of this may actually have been
+made in Egypt.
+
+The course of the potter's art in Mesopotamia and Persia appears to have
+run on lines of development parallel with the art in Egypt, for the
+country between the Tigris and the Euphrates is rich in good clays, and,
+wherever the invention of glass arose, its application to pottery
+decoration was certainly developed at an early period in Egypt and in
+Mesopotamia.
+
+  Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed out,
+  though they have nothing to do with vase-making.
+
+  1. The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets,
+  cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the
+  literature of the time. The cylinders and prisms were thrown on the
+  potter's wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form was then
+  sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform
+  inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried
+  and fired.
+
+  2. The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs. While the
+  Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application of
+  their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished
+  objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture
+  decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork. The bricks were of very
+  open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects were
+  obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which formed a kind
+  of _cloison_ or boundary, the shallow cells between being filled in
+  with coloured clays--yellow, red or white--or with coloured glazes of
+  turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown. These glazes are
+  obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely prepared and
+  are always full of bubbles and consequently more or less opaque. Yet
+  the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid colour effect,
+  strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to a very high rank
+  among all the world's work in clay and glaze. The "Frieze of the
+  Archers" now in the Louvre may be mentioned as one of the finest
+  productions of its kind, and the Louvre and British Museum possess the
+  finest collections of this early architectural use of glazed and
+  coloured clay. (See also MURAL DECORATION )
+
+Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-formed vases
+made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were made. Small figures of
+deities made of the same clay are often found. It is practically the
+same terra-cotta as that of the inscribed tablets. None of the forms are
+particularly distinctive (see fig. 10). The excavations of the French in
+Persia have brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely
+interesting painted ware, which belongs to a very early period. The
+decoration is usually geometrical. The technique seems to be analogous
+to the Mycenaean-Greek (_Firnismalerei_), and the whole effect is very
+like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon pottery. The ware is
+buff in colour and fine in texture, with a polished surface. The
+decoration is sometimes in polychrome, but usually in the grey-brown
+iron-glaze (?) alone. This pottery degenerates later and finally
+disappears (20).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Assyrian biscuit pottery.]
+
+During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century B.C.) we find a
+polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown) obviously of
+Egyptian origin. It was used, not for vases, but architectonically for
+friezes, ornamental bosses, &c. Its origin may be found in Egypt under
+the XVIIIth Dynasty, when Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and
+Babylonia had regular diplomatic relations with Egypt In Asia this
+polychrome decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had
+ceased to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick
+decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay
+decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik. In the
+Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see fig. 11) which are
+probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imitations of Egyptian
+faience.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.]
+
+Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed pottery
+of which the slipper-shaped coffins, of the time were made (British
+Museum, Nos. 1645-1647) (21). This glaze possibly contains a small
+amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the contemporary
+translucent blue glaze of Egypt. The Egyptian glaze certainly spread
+into western Asia, and we find the last specimens of it in the tiles
+from the destroyed city of Rhagae in Persia, which may be as late as the
+13th century A.D. The lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman
+period, may be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no
+means clear.
+
+  REFERENCES.--(1) Petrie-Quibell, _Ballas and Nagada_ (date erroneous);
+  (2) Jacques de Morgan, _L' Age de la pierre et des metaux_; (3)
+  Petrie, _Diospolis Parva_, frontispiece (also for "sequence-dates" of
+  pottery); (4) Garstang, _Mahasna and Bet Khallaf_, pls. xxix.--xxxii.;
+  (5) Petrie, _Illahun_, pl. xii. (corr. by V. Bissing in (14)); (6) V.
+  Bissing, _Catalogue generale du musee de Caire, _"Die
+  Fayencegefasse"; (7) Petrie, _Abydos_, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry
+  Wallis, _Egyptian Ceramic Art_ (Macgregor Collection); (9) _Guide to
+  Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum_, p. 252 ff.; (10)
+  Petrie, _Tel-el-Amarna_; (11) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian
+  Rooms_, p. 261; (12) Petrie, _Nagada_, pl. xxviii.; (13) Petrie,
+  _Illahun_, pls. xx., xxi.; (14) V. Bissing, _Strena Helbigiana_, p. 20
+  ff.; (15) Garstang, _El Arabah_, pls. xviii.-xxi., xxviii., xxix.;
+  (16) Hall, _Oldest Civilization of Greece_, p. 143 ff. ibid. figs. 29,
+  30, 69; (17) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms_, pl. viii.;
+  (18) Petrie, _Tell-el-Hesy_, pl. v.; (19) Welch, _Ann. Brit. Sch.
+  Ath_. vi.; (20) de Morgan, _Delegation en Perse_, viii. (1905); (21)
+  _Brit. Mus.: Guide to Babylonian and Assyrian Room_.     (H. R. H.)
+
+
+GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN
+
+GREEK. _Study of Greek Vases_.--It is not so many years since an account
+of Greek pottery would naturally have followed chronologically the
+history of Egyptian pottery with little overlapping; but recent
+discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and, while up to the end of
+the 19th century the earliest remains to be traced on Greek soil could
+be assigned at the furthest to the period 2500-2000 B.C., it is now
+possible not only to show that at that period technical processes were
+highly developed, but even to trace a continuous development of Greek
+pottery from the Neolithic age. This result has been mainly brought
+about by Dr Arthur Evans's researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of
+similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece. Whether the
+race which produced this pottery can strictly be called Greek may be
+open to question, but at all events the ware is the independent product
+of a people inhabiting in prehistoric times the region afterwards known
+as Greece; its connexion with the pottery of the historic period can now
+be clearly traced, and in its advanced technical character and the
+genuinely artistic appearance of its decoration even this early ware
+proclaims itself as inspired by a similar genius.
+
+The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional impetus from
+the light that it throws on the early civilization of the country, and
+its value for the student of ethnology. But it has always appealed
+strongly to the archaeologist and in some degree also to the artist or
+connoisseur, to the former from its importance as a contribution to the
+history of Greek art, mythology and antiquities, to the latter from its
+beauty of form and decoration. Attention was first redirected to the
+painted vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time
+they served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur
+or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the 18th
+century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of more than
+merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted to the elucidation
+of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive at a chronological
+classification. Two facts must, however, be borne in mind: firstly, that
+down to the middle of the 19th century the great majority of painted
+vases had been found only in Italy; secondly, that these vases were
+mostly of the later and more florid styles, which, if artistically
+advanced, are now known to represent a decadent phase of Greek art.
+
+From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were the product
+not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the term "Etruscan vase"
+arose and passed into the languages of Europe, surviving even at this
+day in popular speech in spite of a century of refutation. Meanwhile,
+the study of the subjects depicted on the vases passed through the
+successive stages of allegorical, historical and mystical
+interpretation, until a century and more of painstaking study led to the
+more rational principles of modern archaeologists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Jug from Cyprus of Oriental style, 10 in.
+high.]
+
+  _Sites and Discoveries_.--The sites on which Greek vases have been
+  found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from the
+  Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt. By far the great
+  majority, at all events of the finer specimens, have been extracted
+  from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the later
+  period or decadence have been found in large numbers on various sites
+  in southern Italy, such as Capua, Curnae and Nola in Campania, Anzi in
+  Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia. In the western Mediterranean, Sicily has
+  also been a fruitful field for this pottery, early varieties being
+  found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti and elsewhere. Painted
+  vases have also come to light in Sardinia and in North Africa,
+  especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds mostly belong to the 4th
+  century B.C. In Greece proper the most prolific site has been Athens,
+  where the finds extend from the Dipylon vases of the 8th century B.C.
+  down to the decadent productions of the 4th century; one group, that
+  of the white funeral _lekythoi_, is almost peculiar to Athens. Next to
+  this city, Corinth has been most productive, especially in pottery of
+  the archaic period and of local manufacture. Large quantities of
+  pottery of all periods have been yielded by Thebes, Tanagra and other
+  sites in Boeotia, and remains of the "Mycenaean" period at Mycenae,
+  Argos and elsewhere. But on the whole painted pottery is rare in other
+  parts of the mainland. Among the western islands of the archipelago,
+  Aegina and Euboea have proved fruitful in vases of all periods; Thera,
+  Melos and others of the Cyclades are remarkable for pottery of the
+  prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all Crete is
+  now famous for the wondrous series of painted and ornamented pottery
+  of pre-Mycenacan date, which can be traced back even to the Neolithic
+  period, and the discovery of which has entirely revolutionized the
+  preconceived theories on the appearance of painted pottery in Greece.
+  This has been found in the recent excavations at Cnossus, Palaeokastro
+  and elsewhere. In Asia Minor there have been some important finds on
+  the mainland, but only along the coast; some of the islands, more
+  especially Samos and Rhodes, have been more fruitful in this respect.
+  At Kertch and elsewhere in the Crimea, large numbers of fine but
+  somewhat florid vases of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. have come to
+  light. Cyprus has long been known as a rich field for pottery of all
+  periods, from the Mycenaean onwards, the later varieties being marked
+  by strong local quasi-oriental characteristics, with little
+  development from the more primitive types (figs. 12 and 13). The
+  principal sites are Salamis, Amathus, Marion (Poli) and Curium.
+  Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have
+  yielded results of considerable importance for the history of early
+  Greek vase-painting.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pottery from Cyprus with geometrical
+  ornament.]
+
+  The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs; but some
+  important discoveries have been made on the sites of temples and
+  sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Naucratis. In such
+  cases the vases are seldom complete, having been broken up and cast
+  away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments have remained
+  undisturbed. The tombs vary greatly in form, those of Greece being
+  usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy often fine and
+  elaborate chambers with architectural details, and the manner in which
+  the vases are found in these tombs varies greatly. Plain unornamented
+  pottery is almost universal, and may be considered to have formed the
+  "tomb-furniture" proper--the painted vases being as in daily life
+  merely ornamental adjuncts.
+
+  _Shapes and Uses of Greek Vases_.--The enormous number of painted
+  vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence of the
+  important part they must have played in the daily life, of the Greeks,
+  and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows the high
+  estimation in which they were held. It is, however, remarkable that,
+  with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its use in
+  daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical literature
+  which throw light on the purposes for which these vases were used.
+  Where any are described at full length there is always evidence that
+  metal vases are intended. Athenaeus and the lexicographers have indeed
+  put on record a long list of names of shapes, but it is only in a few
+  cases that we can be certain what forms they describe, or whether any
+  of the typical forms of existing vases can be identified with the
+  literary descriptions.
+
+  We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly, the
+  uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly, the
+  classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery
+  which have come down to us.
+
+  As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been discovered in
+  tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were made
+  principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had their uses
+  in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware cannot be
+  doubted. They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the commoner
+  wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us, being largely
+  ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on special occasions
+  for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at banquets or in
+  religious ceremonies.
+
+  Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled cup
+  in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (_Cythera_) and
+  inscribed with the word [Greek: hemikotylion] or "half-kotyle,"
+  equivalent to about one-fourth of a pint. Another vase found at Athens
+  is supposed to represent the official [Greek: choinix] or quart,
+  having a capacity of 0.96 litre; it is inscribed [Greek: demosion] or
+  "official measure," and bears the official stamp of the state.
+  Conversely many names of vases, such as the _amphora_ or the _kotyle_,
+  were adopted to indicate measures of capacity for liquid or dry
+  commodities. Earthenware vessels were used for storing both liquids
+  and food, for the preparation of foods and liquids, and for the
+  various uses of the table and the toilet. That the painted ware was
+  used at banquets or on great occasions we learn from scenes depicted
+  on the vases themselves, in which vases painted with subjects appear
+  in use. In connexion with athletics, they were given as prizes, as in
+  the case of the Panathenaic _amphorae_, a class of vases given for
+  victories in the games held at Athens at the Panathenaic festivals,
+  where, however, they do not represent prizes so much as marks of
+  honour corresponding to modern racing cups. Vases were also used as
+  toys for children, as is proved by the discovery of many diminutive
+  specimens, chiefly jugs, in the tombs of children at Athens, on which
+  are depicted children playing at various games. They also served a
+  purely decorative use as domestic ornaments, being placed on columns
+  or shelves; or, in the case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the
+  wall. Many of the later Greek and Italian painted vases are very
+  carelessly decorated on the one side, which was obviously not intended
+  to be seen.
+
+  We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory,
+  sacrificial or funerary. Of all these uses, especially the last, there
+  is ample evidence. That vases were often placed in temples or shrines
+  as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature
+  of the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that
+  painted pottery served the same purpose for those who could only
+  afford the humbler material. Of late years much light has been thrown
+  upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis of Athens,
+  at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta, where numerous
+  fragments have been found bearing inscriptions which attest their use
+  for such purposes. It was a well-known Greek custom to clear out the
+  temples from time to time and form rubbish-heaps (_favissae_) of the
+  disused vases and statuettes, which were broken in pieces as useless,
+  but it is to this very fact that we owe their preservation. At
+  Naucratis many of the fragments bear incised inscriptions, such as
+  [Greek: Apollonos eimi], "I am Apollo's" (possibly a memorandum of the
+  priest's, to mark consecrated property), or [Greek: ho deina anetheke
+  te Aphrodite], "So-and-so dedicated me to Aphrodite." Fig. 14 gives
+  another example with a dedication to Apollo. At Penteskouphia, near
+  Corinth, a large series of painted tablets ([Greek: pinakes]), dating
+  from 600 to 550 B.C., with representations of Poseidon and dedicatory
+  inscriptions to that deity, were found in 1879. Votive offerings in
+  this latter form were common at all periods, and tablets painted with
+  figures and hung on trees or walls are often depicted on the vases,
+  usually in connexion with scenes representing sacrifices or offerings.
+
+  There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones)
+  must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of
+  the Greeks. We read of them in connexion with the Athenian festival of
+  the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis. They were also
+  used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured cup in the
+  British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to Dionysus.
+  In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (_phiale_) is
+  invariable.
+
+  But their most important use, and that to which their preservation is
+  mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies. They were not
+  only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the tombs
+  to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the ashes of the
+  dead or as "tomb-furniture," in accordance with Greek religious
+  beliefs in regard to the future life. Several classes of vases are
+  marked out by their subjects as exclusively devoted to this purpose,
+  such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at Athens, which
+  were placed outside the tombs, the white Athenian _lekythoi_ of the
+  5th and 4th centuries B.C., and the large _krateres_ and other vases
+  of the 4th century B.C. found in the tombs of Apulia and other parts
+  of southern Italy. Their use as cinerary urns was perhaps more
+  restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases, though the
+  custom is well known and is referred to in literature from Homer
+  downwards. In "Mycenaean" times coffers ([Greek: larnakes]) of clay
+  were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine painted
+  examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the best periods
+  there are but isolated instances.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication
+  to Apollo.]
+
+  The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of
+  Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of
+  form was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest
+  nomenclature; each form has its conventional name appended. These
+  shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in which
+  food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids were mixed
+  or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids were poured out or
+  food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other vases for the use of
+  the table or toilet. Thus we have the _pithos_ and _amphora_ for
+  storing wine, the _krater_ for mixing it, the _psykter_ for cooling
+  it, the _kyathos_ for ladling it out, and the _oinochoe_ or _prochoos_
+  for pouring it out; the _hydria_ was used for fetching water from the
+  well. The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumerable, the
+  principal being the _kylix_, _kotyle_, _kantharos_, _rhyton_
+  (drinking-horn) and _phiale_ (libation bowl). The _pyxis_ was used by
+  women at their toilet, and the _lekythos_, _alabastron_ and _askos_
+  for oil and unguents.
+
+  _Technical Processes_.--Though the Greeks succeeded in making pottery
+  of a very high order from the point of view of form and decoration,
+  the technical processes remained throughout of the most
+  elementary--for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the
+  simplest, and the temperature at which the ware was fired was not high
+  enough to introduce any serious difficulties. As we should expect, it
+  is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical processes
+  in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no
+  vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative
+  triumphs on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as
+  those that satisfied his predecessors. As in every other case
+  technical and artistic refinement went hand in hand. In the earliest
+  times the clay was used with very little preparation; at all events
+  before the introduction of the potter's wheel the finish is not to be
+  compared with that of the early races in Egypt. As the practice
+  developed no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain
+  districts, and these became centres of manufacture or the clays were
+  carried to other established centres. The primitive wares usually
+  exhibit the natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other
+  elementary pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no
+  gloss. Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it
+  becomes finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the
+  glowing orange, inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th
+  century B.C. In the vases of the later Italian centres the colour
+  again reverts to a paler hue.
+
+  The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of
+  sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles. It was mixed
+  with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately fine
+  clay of two or three grades was obtained. Both red and whitish clays
+  were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that mixtures of
+  different clays gave the best results. The clay for the Athenian vases
+  was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica; and as it did not burn to a
+  very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (_rubrica_) was added to it to
+  produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes the best vases.
+  Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were also famous for their
+  clays, and at the first named tablets have been found bearing
+  representations of the digging of clay for pottery.
+
+  [FIG. 15.--Shapes of Greek Vases.]
+
+  The improved manipulation of the clays, and the increasing knowledge
+  that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture of other
+  substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way for what is
+  known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This delicate gloss, so
+  thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called glaze, but it
+  cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of finely-ground
+  glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability, as the Greek
+  potter used finer and finer clays and so was enabled to perfect his
+  shapes, he found that after a vase had been "thrown" he could get a
+  closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer clay
+  material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the wheel when
+  sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for such a purpose--of
+  very siliceous clay and ochre--would, when they were burnt in the
+  Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright colour, but also to
+  a glossy surface, especially where the flames had freely played about
+  them; and it is more in accordance with our knowledge to believe that
+  the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest Greek red vases was produced
+  in this way, for it seems impossible that it can have been a coating
+  of any special glaze.
+
+  In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is
+  always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic
+  sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of about
+  900 Deg. C., which a modern potter would consider very low. When broken
+  the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and is often
+  yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The material
+  is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it (another
+  proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the material of
+  Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing of the
+  secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of these
+  analyses may be summed up as follows: silica, 52-60 parts; alumina,
+  13-19 parts; lime, 5-10 parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts; oxide of iron,
+  12-19 parts. Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple red burning clays
+  would give a similar result. It is to the glory of the Greek potter
+  that with such ordinary materials, by the exercise of selection,
+  patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results we see. He
+  did as much as can be done with natural clay materials, but the glory
+  of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or Chinese, was
+  not for him.
+
+  _Manufacture of Vases_.--The earliest Greek pottery is, like all
+  primitive pottery, hand-made. The introduction of the potter's wheel
+  into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but we now
+  know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive pottery
+  of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, for instance, the Bronze age
+  tombs of 2500-1500 B.C. contain only hand-made pottery, but in the
+  next period (1500-1000 B.C.) we find hand-made and coarse vases side
+  by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery--the
+  "Mycenaean"--obviously made on the wheel. It seems probable,
+  therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about 1500 B.C.;
+  it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion shows (_Il._
+  xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with the hand,
+  not the foot; representations of its use are seen on several vases of
+  the archaic period (fig. 16), and they further prove that the vase was
+  replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of painting,
+  polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as for the
+  original shaping or "throwing."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Votive tablet from Corinth; a potter applying
+  painted bands while the vessel revolves on the wheel.]
+
+  The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same as that
+  still in use, need not be described in detail; the feet, necks, mouths
+  and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds, and attached
+  while the clay was moist, as is also indicated on a vase. Large and
+  coarse vases, such as wine casks ([Greek: pithoi]), were always
+  modelled by hand on a kind of hooped mould ([Greek: kannabos]).
+
+  Parts of vases were modelled by hand at all periods by way of
+  decoration. Even in the geometrical period we find horses modelled in
+  the round on the covers of vases and later on handles enriched with
+  moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such embellishments
+  are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations of metal forms,
+  but the plastic principle is one which obtained in Greek pottery from
+  the very first, as for instance in the primitive pottery of Troy, in
+  which the vases are often modelled in human or animal forms; and the
+  same principle is involved in the common practice of speaking of the
+  "neck," "shoulder" or "foot" of a vessel. In the best period the
+  practice of adding moulded ornaments or of modelling vases in natural
+  forms took a subsidiary place, but examples occur from time to time,
+  as in the beautiful _rhyta_ or drinking-horns of the red-figure period
+  (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller details such as are seen in
+  handles enriched with heads in relief, a favourite practice of the
+  potter Nicosthenes. In the 4th-century vases of southern Italy the
+  handles are often much ornamented in this fashion, as in the large
+  _krateres_, where they are adorned with masks in relief.
+
+  The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with designs in
+  relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence of the art,
+  when imitations of metal were superseding the painted pottery. Even
+  then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a mould, except in
+  the case of those in the form of human figures or animals (Plate II.,
+  figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the heading of terra-cotta
+  figures, except for the fact that they are usually painted in the
+  manner of the vases. But in southern Italy the tendency to imitate
+  metal led to the popularity of ornaments made separately from moulds
+  and attached or let in to vases otherwise plain. Vases of this period,
+  with reeded bodies, must also have been made from moulds, as were a
+  series of _phialae_ or libation-bowls associated with Cales in
+  Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are known to be direct imitations
+  of metal.
+
+  All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black glaze
+  or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of those
+  moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia with
+  opaque colouring laid on the varnish. Some of these plain black vases
+  of the 4th century are ornamented with _stamped_ patterns made with a
+  metal punch impressed in the moist clay. This decoration is confined
+  to simple patterns.
+
+  After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried in the sun
+  and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnishing and
+  painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought out by a
+  process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed with a
+  piece of wood or hard leather. On a vase in Berlin a boy is seen
+  applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably for this
+  purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has evidently not
+  been varnished. Many vases are varnished black all over the exterior
+  (whether decorated with designs or not) with the exception of the foot
+  and lip.
+
+  The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in the
+  potter's art. It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-dried
+  vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have come
+  down to us have been baked. The amount of heat required was regulated
+  by the character of the ware, but was not very high. Many examples
+  exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected to too much or
+  too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish or reddish
+  hue. Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an ashen-grey
+  colour, the black remaining unimpaired. Other accidents were liable to
+  occur in the baking, such as cracking under too great heat, or the
+  damaging of the shape by vases knocking against one another and so
+  being dented in or crushed. The form of the oven was of the simplest
+  (fig. 17). No furnaces have been found in Greece, and only one or two
+  in Italy, but we have a variety of evidence from vase-paintings. They
+  were fed by fires from beneath, and the vases were inserted with a
+  long shovel. They were heated with charcoal or wood fuel, and there
+  are representations of men poking or raking the fires with
+  long-handled implements. One vase-painting gives a bird's-eye view, in
+  horizontal section, of the interior of an oven full of jugs of various
+  forms. Others have more complete presentations of potteries, with men
+  engaged in the different processes of vase manufacture, modelling,
+  painting or supplying the kilns with newly-made wares.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Model of Kiln found in Essex.]
+
+  _The Painting of Vases_.--We may distinguish three principal classes
+  of painted pottery, of Which two admit of subdivision.
+
+  1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly
+   linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush.
+   The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing
+   into black.  The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse.
+
+  2. Greek vases painted with figures.  These may be subdivided as
+   follows:--
+
+    (a) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground.
+
+    (b) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of shining
+    black.
+
+  3. Vases with polychrome decoration.
+
+    (a) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in
+    various colours on white ground (these range from the 6th to the 4th
+    century B.C.).
+
+    (b) Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid over a
+    ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive period to the
+    3rd century B.C.).
+
+  Of these the second group is by far the largest and most important,
+  including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek
+  vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the
+  technical processes by which the most successful results were
+  obtained. In both the classes (a) and (b) the colouring is almost
+  confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black.
+
+  This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies
+  under different circumstances according to differences of locality, of
+  manufacture or accidents of production. It is seen in its greatest
+  perfection in the "Nolan" _amphorae_ of the earlier red-figure period,
+  at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Greek vases.
+  The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat,
+  i.e. stoving at a higher or lower temperature. It also varies in
+  thickness. At present no certainty has been attained as to its
+  composition--Brongniart's oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted --nor
+  has any acid been found to have an effect upon it, though the chemical
+  action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear.
+
+  The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the
+  black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the
+  former which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole
+  vase being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red
+  to receive the figures. It is obvious that the transition to merely
+  leaving the figures red is but a slight one. But in all black-figured
+  vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black
+  silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly
+  indicated by a pointed instrument making a faint line. The surface
+  within these outlines being filled in with black, details of anatomy,
+  dress, &c., were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed
+  tool. After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the
+  designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple and
+  white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in their
+  respective use. After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix
+  these colours the vase was complete.
+
+  In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background.
+  But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not
+  by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their
+  contours. Recent researches have attempted to show that the instrument
+  with which this was achieved may have been a feather brush or pen, by
+  which the lines were drawn separately, not concurrently. The other
+  tools used for painting would be an ordinary metal or reed pen and a
+  camel's-hair brush, or at any rate something analogous. Thus the
+  outlines of the figures were clearly marked, and the process is one of
+  drawing rather than painting, but it was in draughtsmanship that the
+  best vase-painters excelled. The next stage was to mark the inner
+  details by very fine black lines or by masses of black for surfaces
+  such as the hair; white and purple were also employed, but more
+  sparingly than on the earlier vases. The main processes always remain
+  the same down to the termination of vase-painting, though the tendency
+  to polychromy, which came in about the end of the 5th century B.C.,
+  effected some modifications. The blacking of the whole exterior
+  surface--a purely mechanical process--took place after the figures had
+  been completed and protected from accidents by the thick black border
+  of which we have spoken.
+
+  A fragment of an unfinished vase preserved in the Sevres Museum gives
+  a very clear idea of the process just described, the figures being
+  completed, but the back ground not yet applied (fig. 18). There is
+  also another vase in existence which gives the interior of a
+  vase-painter's studio, in which three artists are at work with their
+  brushes, their paint-pots by their side.
+
+  [Illustration: (From a photo supplied by the Director of the Sevres
+  Museum)
+
+  FIG. 18.--Fragment of unfinished red-figured vase]
+
+  In the class of vases (3 (a)), with polychrome figures on a white
+  ground, the essential feature is the white slip or _engobe_ with which
+  the naturally pale clay is covered. In the archaic vases of the 7th
+  and 6th centuries B.C., especially in the Ionian centres, as at
+  Rhodes, Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but
+  with this, difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary
+  black-figure method, the only additional colour being purple laid on
+  the black. We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or
+  outline, in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th
+  century B.C., which technically are of a very advanced character. The
+  colours used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow,
+  crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were
+  not fired.
+
+  In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in the
+  class of _lekythoi_ or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral
+  uses. Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with
+  handles, &c., were covered with a coating of white clay. A second
+  coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration,
+  and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and
+  finally fired at a low temperature. The decoration was achieved as
+  follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines, ignoring
+  draperies, &c., and not always followed when the colours were laid on.
+  This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour being applied
+  with a fine brush in monochrome--black, yellow or red--following the
+  lines of the sketch. For the drapery and other details polychrome
+  washes were employed, laid on with a large brush. All varieties of red
+  from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow, blue, black and
+  green. Hair is treated either in outline or by means of washes.
+
+  Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (b)) in which
+  opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with
+  which the whole vase is coated. This method is met with at three
+  distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long
+  distances of time.
+
+  We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where it seems
+  to have been introduced not long after the close of the Neolithic
+  period, about 2500 B.C., and where it holds its own for about a
+  thousand years against the contrasted method of "dark on light"
+  painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of
+  "Mycenaean" civilization in Crete. The colouring is very varied,
+  orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed.
+
+  The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a small
+  class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of transition
+  between the black-figured and red-figured. White and orange-red are
+  here employed, sometimes with accessory details in purple and black
+  and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually black-figured,
+  though the appearance of the vases is often red-figured. Lastly, it
+  appears in southern Italy as a final effort of vase-painting to
+  flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd century. Some of
+  these vases were made in Campania, where the method resembles that of
+  the Attic class just described, others in Apulia, probably at Gnathia.
+  The latter have feeble conventional decoration in purple and white
+  with details in yellow, confined to one side of the vases, and are
+  also distinguished by the use of ornaments in relief. They were also
+  occasionally made in Greece proper.
+
+  Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters,
+  especially in the best periods. The deep purple used for accessory
+  details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on
+  the white _lekythoi_ is an ochre ([Greek: miltos], _rubrica_). The
+  white also used for accessories is an earth or clay; in the slip
+  coating of the white ground vases it assumes the consistency of
+  pipe-clay. Yellow, where used for details on the later vases, is an
+  ochre, and blue and green are produced from artificial compounds
+  containing copper. A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and
+  green, used by the polychrome painters, are obviously artificial
+  pigments which have not been fired. When gilding was employed it was
+  laid on over a raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool
+  or brush, and was attached by varnish, not by fire.
+
+  _Potters and Inscriptions_.--The potters who made these vases were
+  mostly--at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, B.C.--[Greek:
+  metoikoi], or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply. We
+  have an Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and
+  a Scythes. The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases
+  seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities
+  may be merely due to the use of a vernacular. They formed a gild or
+  fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less
+  division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of
+  slaves. This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing
+  the interior of potteries. Others again "specialized" in different
+  shapes, and were known as [Greek: chutroplathoi], [Greek:
+  lekuthopoioi], and so on.
+
+  Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five hundred
+  vases. They go back to about 700 B.C., the earliest names being found
+  on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority of the signatures
+  are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares. Some, such as
+  Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are combined. The best
+  known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs eighty times. The
+  ordinary forms of signature are four--(1) [Greek: ho deina epoiesen];
+  (2) [Greek: ho deina hegrapsen ]; (3) [Greek: ho deina hegrapse kahi
+  epoiesen]; (4) A [Greek: hegrapse]. B [Greek: epoiesen]. Where [Greek:
+  epoiese] alone occurs (as in a signature of Euxitheus), it probably
+  refers to the master of the pottery who designed the vase and
+  superintended its production; in other cases the share of the actual
+  artist is clearly indicated. Some artists, such as Duris and Makron,
+  sign [Greek: hegrapse] alone; in all cases, the form of signature
+  affords us a useful guide to their style.
+
+  Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases,
+  which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations
+  uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the [Greek: kalos]
+  names discussed below; all these are painted on the designs
+  themselves. There is also another class of _graffiti_ inscriptions,
+  which includes those incised by the owners with their names and
+  memoranda scratched under the foot, probably made by the potter or his
+  workmen relating to the number of vases in a batch or "set" and their
+  price.
+
+  _Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares_.--In Greek tombs a class of pottery
+  is often found which approximates, more in appearance to porcelain,
+  but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porcelain at all,
+  but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which it is in
+  point of fact an imitation. It is distinguished by the white gritty
+  material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and forming
+  what is sometimes known as "frit" from its semi-vitreous consistency.
+  The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale blue or cream
+  colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple or brown are
+  sometimes found. Some of the earliest examples of this ware have been
+  found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus, in the form of vases
+  moulded in the shape of human or animal heads. These exhibit a
+  remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more like Greek work
+  of the 6th century B.C. Apart from the technique they have nothing in
+  common with the Egyptian importations so often found in Mycenaean
+  tombs.
+
+  In a subsequent period (8th-7th century B.C.) Egyptian objects in
+  faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those of
+  Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy, through
+  the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of faience occur in
+  the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 B.C.) and similar vases with a
+  pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs of the same date. In
+  Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found ornamented with friezes of men
+  and animals in relief, or imitating in colour and design the glass
+  vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems probable that the Greeks of
+  Rhodes and other centres attempted the imitation of this ware (see
+  fig. 19), for we find faience _aryballi_ or globular oil-flasks
+  modelled in the form of helmeted heads or animals, which are purely
+  Greek in style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Enamelled pottery from tombs in Rhodes, made
+  under Egyptian influence.]
+
+  In the Hellenistic period the fashion was revived at Alexandria, and
+  under the Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled faience with figures
+  in relief and bearing the names of reigning sovereigns were made and
+  exported to the Cyrenaica and to southern Italy. Two of these are in
+  the British Museum (Egyptian department). The same collection includes
+  a very beautiful glazed vase in the form of Eros riding on a duck,
+  found in a tomb at Tanagra, but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a
+  head of a Ptolemaic queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze.
+
+  Subsequently in the 1st century B.C., this so-called porcelain ware
+  was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly
+  coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often
+  indicated. This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus
+  in Asia Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was
+  probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not
+  confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures;
+  the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal
+  (Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green
+  to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different
+  tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with figures
+  or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of these
+  glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and oxide
+  of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the green
+  and yellow glazes of medieval Europe.[7]
+
+HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF GREEK VASE-PAINTING.--It has been indicated in the
+section dealing with technical processes that Greek vases may be
+classified under four headings according to the character of the
+decoration, and this classification may with a slight modification be
+adopted as a chronological one, the history of the art falling under
+four main heads, under which it will be convenient to describe its
+development from the earliest specimens of painted pottery down to the
+period when it was finally replaced by other methods of decoration.
+
+  These four classes and their main characteristics may be summarized as
+  follows:--
+
+  I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_ from about 2500 or 2000 to 600
+  B.C., including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages of
+  historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated in
+  polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining black on
+  a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown or black
+  (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying from white to
+  pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked by its
+  naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the latter the
+  ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals; human
+  figures and mythological scenes being very rare.
+
+  II. _Black-figured Vases_ from about 600-500 B.C.; figures painted in
+  shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to bright
+  orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for details;
+  subjects mainly from mythology and legend.
+
+  III. _Red-figured Vases_, from 520 to 400 B.C.; figures drawn in
+  outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining
+  black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple
+  and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are
+  included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In these,
+  which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of vase-painting
+  is reached between 480 and 450 B.C.
+
+  IV. _Vases of the Decadence_, from 400 to 200 B.C.; mostly from
+  southern Italy, technique as in Class III., but the drawing is free
+  and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal,
+  theatrical and fanciful. At the end of this period vases are largely
+  replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms, or
+  with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal
+  vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation
+  of the Hellenistic world.
+
+I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_.--It has been noted in the
+introductory section that it is possible to trace the development of
+pottery in Greece as far back as the Neolithic period, owing chiefly to
+the light recently thrown on the subject by the excavations in Crete.
+These have yielded large quantities of painted pottery of high technical
+merit, usually with decoration in polychrome or white on a dark ground,
+in what is known as the Kamares ware, covering the period 2500-1500 B.C.
+(fig. 20). This was gradually superseded by painting in dark shining
+pigments on a light glossy ground during the later Minoan period
+(1500-1000 B.C.), forming what is known as the "Mycenaean" style. The
+subjects, though chiefly confined to floral ornaments or aquatic plants
+and creatures, are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their
+treatment, often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East.
+In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread all
+over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found in Greece,
+especially at Mycenae, in Rhodes and other Greek islands, and in Cyprus,
+where a series of vases with animals, monsters, and even human figures
+shows what is probably the latest development of the pure Minoan or
+Mycenaean style.
+
+[Illustration: From _Annual of the British School at Athens_.
+
+FIG. 20.--Minoan or "Kamares" ware, from Crete.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Primitive black pottery from the Troad.]
+
+Outside Crete the earliest Greek pottery has been found in Cyprus and at
+Troy, with simple incised or painted patterns on a black polished
+ground, the vases being all hand-made, and often treated in a plastic
+fashion with rude modelling of human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22);
+these cover the period 2500-2000 B.C. Early painted pottery, parallel
+with the Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important
+cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos. But until the general spread of
+Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second
+millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and
+successful development can be studied.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Primitive red pottery from the Troad.]
+
+About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by the Dorian
+invasion (1100 B.C.) the then decadent Mycenaean civilization was
+replaced by a new one much more backward in development, making pottery
+of a far simpler and more conventional type, the decoration being
+largely confined to geometrical patterns to the exclusion of motives
+derived from plant forms. This is usually known as the geometrical
+style, and the pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 B.C. It
+is found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits a
+certain development towards a more advanced stage. The patterns include
+the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander, and the circle, in
+various combinations, painted in dull black on a brown ground. In most
+places the art advanced no further, but in Boeotia, and still more at
+Athens, we can trace the gradual growth of decorative skill, first in
+the introduction of animals, and then in the appearance of the human
+figure. In the Athenian cemetery outside the Dipylon gate a series of
+colossal vases has come to light, on which are painted such subjects as
+sea-fights and funeral processions. The human figures are exceedingly
+rude and conventional, painted almost entirely in silhouette, but there
+is a distinct striving after artistic effect in the composition and
+arrangement. In Boeotia the vases do not advance beyond the animal
+stage, and many exhibit a tendency to decadence in their carelessness,
+as contrasted with the painstaking helplessness of the Athenian artists.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vase with bands of animals, Oriental in style,
+(British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles
+and Hera, and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.]
+
+In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the art of
+vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean tradition, and was
+distinguished by its naturalism and originality, and by the bold and
+diverse effects produced by variety of colour or novelty of subject. The
+ornamentation is at first elementary, consisting of friezes of animals,
+especially lions, deer and goats (figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand
+out sharply in black against the creamy buff ground which is
+characteristic of nearly all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out
+by means of engraved lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by
+drawing parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the
+clay ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments such
+as rosettes and crosses in great variety of form to cover the
+background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek artist abhorred.
+The system of decoration has been thought to owe much to Assyrian
+textile fabrics.
+
+One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic pottery is
+a _pinax_ or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum, on which is
+represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus
+(fig. 25); their names are inscribed over the figures, and this is
+almost the earliest known instance of a mythological subject, the date
+of the painting being not later than 600 B.C. To a slightly later date
+belongs another remarkable group of cups with figures on a white ground,
+probably made at Cyrene in North Africa. Of these the most famous has a
+painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Cyrene from 580 to
+550 B.C., weighing goods for export in a ship. Others have mythological
+subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus, Cadmus and Pelops.
+
+But these vases, though still retaining the older technique, really
+belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases, and they belong
+to a time when in all Ionian centres this method was being superseded by
+the new technique which Corinth had introduced and Athens perfected, to
+the consideration of which we must return.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest
+of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.]
+
+For some 150 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry of pottery on
+the west of the Aegean. Large numbers of examples have been found in or
+near the city itself, many bearing inscriptions in the peculiar local
+alphabet. They show a continuous progress from the simplest
+ornamentation to fully-developed black-figured wares. In the earliest
+(Plate I. fig. 52) oriental influence is very marked, the surface being
+so covered with the figures and patterns that the background disappears
+and the designs are at times almost unintelligible. The general effect
+is thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely
+chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian art, such
+as the sphinx and gryphon. The vases are mostly small, the ground varies
+from cream to yellow, and the figures are painted in black and purple.
+
+Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th century
+the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a unification of
+styles under the growing influence of Athens. In Ionia (see above)
+figure subjects become more common, and the technique approaches
+gradually nearer to the black-figure method. Similarly at Corinth the
+ground ornaments diminish and disappear, the friezes of animals are
+restricted to the borders of the designs, and human figures are
+introduced, first singly, then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged
+in some definite action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last
+stages Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new development,
+traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of Athens, was the
+distinguishing of female figures by the use of white for flesh tints. A
+somewhat similar development was in progress at Athens, though
+represented by comparatively few vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian
+and Ionian technical improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th
+century the fully developed black-figure style which by degrees
+supplanted or assimilated all other schools.
+
+II. _Black-figured Vases_.--At the head of this new development stands
+the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi in 1844 (Plate I.
+fig. 53). Its shape is that of a _krater_ or mixing-bowl, and it bears
+the signatures of its maker and decorator in the form "Ergotimos made
+me, Klitias painted me." It might be described as a Greek mythology in
+miniature, with its numerous subjects and groups of figures all from
+legendary sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager,
+or the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their names
+inscribed.
+
+The general technique of the black-figured vases has already been
+described. It may be noted as a chronological guide that the use of
+purple for details is much commoner in the earlier vases, white in the
+later, but towards the end of the century when the new fashion of red
+figures was gaining ground, both colours were almost entirely dropped.
+The drawing of the figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and
+conventional, though it advanced considerably in freedom before the
+style went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully and
+delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and
+affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias (Plate I.
+fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication of date, ranging
+from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing lines of angular falling
+folds.
+
+The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters of this period
+are the _amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe_ and _lekythos,_ the
+first-named being the most popular. A special class of _amphorae_ is
+formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given as prizes in the
+Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure of the patron goddess
+Athena on one side and a representation of the contest in which they
+were won on the other (fig. 26). They usually bear the inscription
+[Greek: ton Athenethen athlon eimiruv] "I am (a prize) from the games at
+Athens." Some of these can be dated by the names of Athenian archons
+which they bear, as late as the 4th century, the old method of painting
+in black figures with a stiff conventional pose for the goddess being
+retained for religious reasons.
+
+FIG. 26.--Panathenaic amphora.
+
+The chief interest of the black-figured vases is really derived from
+their subjects, which range over every conceivable field, the proportion
+of myth and legend to scenes from daily life being much greater than in
+the succeeding period. They include groups of Olympian and other
+deities, and the various scenes in which they take part, such as the
+battle of the gods and giants, or the birth of Athena (treated in a very
+conventional manner, as on a fine _amphora_ in the British Museum);
+Dionysus and his attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits
+of Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy and
+other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life, battle scenes,
+athletics, the chase and so on. The same classification of course holds
+good for the later periods of vase-painting, with some exceptions. The
+proportion of genre-scenes subsequently becomes greater, and some myths
+disappear, others rise into prominence, new deities such as Eros
+(Love), and Nik[=e] (Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally
+speaking, the later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or
+tendency to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional
+stereotyped compositions of the 6th century artist.
+
+A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is that a
+stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted at least for the
+principal figures, but minor variations are generally to be found, as,
+for instance, in the number of bystanders; and it is almost an
+impossibility to find any two vase-paintings which are exact duplicates.
+The form of the composition, was partly determined by the field
+available for the design; when this took the form of a long frieze the
+space was filled up with a series of spectators or the repetition of
+typical groups, but when the design is on a framed panel or confined by
+ornamental borders the method of treatment is adapted from that of a
+sculptured metope, and the figures limited to two or three. In many
+cases it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether
+or no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological types are
+over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary life, even to the
+divine attributes or poses of certain figures.
+
+[Illustration: Vase by Andocides. Black figures on obverse.
+
+Vase by Andocides. Red figures on reverse.
+
+FIG. 27.]
+
+Among the artists of the period who have left their names on the vases,
+besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous is Nicosthenes, a
+potter of some originality, from whose hand we have over seventy
+examples, a few being in the red-figure method. He is supposed to have
+introduced at Athens a revival of the Ionic fashion of painting on a
+cream-coloured ground instead of on red, of which some very effective
+examples have been preserved. He was always a potter rather than a
+painter, and most of his vases are remarkable for their
+forms--introducing plastic imitations of metal vases--rather than for
+their painted decoration. Most of the artists of this period, as in the
+succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (_kylikes_), but this
+form did not receive so much attention from the painter as at a later
+period, and many of these examples bear only inscriptions and no painted
+decoration.
+
+III. _Red-figured Vases._--The sudden reversal of technical method
+involved in the change from black figures on a red ground to red figures
+on black is not at first sight easy of explanation. Some artists, like
+Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods, sometimes on the same
+vase, and there is no doubt that the two went on for some years
+concurrently. As, however, no intermediate stage is possible, there is
+no question of development or transition. The new style was in fact a
+bold and ingenious innovation. It may possibly have been suggested by a
+small class of vases in which the figures are painted in the
+black-figure _method_, but have the converse appearance, that is to say
+they are painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black. It
+may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could obtain the same
+effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted on the red clay and
+surrounding them with the black. The change, must, however, be closely
+associated with the career of the artist Andocides, who not only
+produced vases in each method, but also several in which the two are
+combined (fig. 27). In two or three cases the subject is actually the
+same on each side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the
+colouring is reversed.
+
+The date at which the change took place was formerly placed well on in
+the 5th century, on account of the great advance in drawing which most
+of the red-figured vases show, as compared with the black. They were
+thus regarded as contemporary with the painter Polygnotus, if not with
+Pheidias. But the excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many
+fragments in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier than
+480 B.C., that it has become necessary to find an earlier date for its
+appearance. This is now usually placed at about 520 B.C., overlapping
+with the preceding period.
+
+The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking the chief
+stages of development, and known respectively as the "severe," "strong,"
+"fine," and "late fine" periods. Their principal characteristics and
+representative painters may be briefly enumerated.
+
+In the _severe_ period there is no marked advance on the black-figured
+vases as regards style. The figures are still more or less stiff and
+conventional, and some vases even show signs of an analogous decadence.
+The real development is partly technical, partly in the introduction of
+new subjects. Although the change of style probably had its actual
+origin in the _amphora_, as treated by Andocides, the new developments
+are best seen in the _kylix_, a form of vase which now sprang into
+popularity and called forth the chief efforts of the principal artists.
+Its curved surface gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and
+decorative arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their
+attention to perfecting it as a work of decorative art. For other
+shapes, such as the _hydria_, and _lekythos_, the old method was for a
+time preferred.
+
+The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other famous
+cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias. The earliest cups
+are decorated in a quite simple fashion like those of the black-figure
+period, often with a single figure each side between two large
+"symbolical" eyes, and a single figure in a circle in the interior. To
+the latter the artist at first devoted his chief efforts, though even
+here his scope was at first limited. But although he had not yet
+attained to skill in composition, he did discover that the circular
+space was well adapted for exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a
+draughtsman and for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived
+attitudes. In all cases the object was to fill the space as far as
+possible, a characteristic of all the best Greek art. By degrees more
+attention was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single
+figures were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form of
+friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the end of
+this period. Epictetus was throughout his career a thoroughly "archaic"
+artist, but a considerable advance was made by Cachrylion, who stands
+on the verge of the succeeding stage.
+
+The _strong_ period centres round the name of Euphronius, the author of
+a really great artistic movement. His capacity for inventing new
+subjects or new poses--or otherwise overcoming technical and artistic
+difficulties--marks a great advance on all previous achievements, and he
+seems to represent the stage of development traditionally associated
+with the painter Cimon of Cleonae, the inventor of foreshortening and
+other novelties. Thus figures were no longer represented exclusively in
+profile, as in the black-figured vases which had made no advance beyond
+the conventions of Egyptian art. Ten vases signed by him are in
+existence (though it is not certain that all were actually painted by
+him), most of them having mythological subjects (fig. 28).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Cup by Euphronius.]
+
+Of his contemporaries, Duris, Hieron and Brygus take foremost rank, all
+three being, like Euphronius, essentially cup-painters, though they use
+other forms at times. For decorative effect and beauty of composition
+their vases have never been surpassed. As an example we may quote a
+_kotyle_ or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with a group
+of Eleusinian deities. The larger vases of this period are more rarely
+signed, but many of them rival the cups in execution, though the
+subjects are characterized by greater simplicity and largeness of style.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.]
+
+In _the fine_ style (460-440 B.C.) breadth of effect and dignity are
+aimed at, and although cup-painting had passed its zenith, and signed
+specimens become rarer, yet, considering the red-figured vases as a
+whole, this period exhibits the perfection of technique and drawing. In
+many of the larger vases the scenes are of a pictorial character,
+landscape being introduced, with figures ranged at different levels, and
+herein we may see a reflection of the style of the painter Polygnotus.
+One of the finest cups in this style is in the Berlin Museum, it is
+signed by the artists Erginus and Aristophanes, and the subject is the
+battle of the gods and giants. To the end of the period belongs a
+beautiful _hydria_ in the British Museum by the painter Meidias with
+subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29). Generally speaking,
+there is a reaction in favour of mythological subjects.
+
+In the _late fine_ style, which begins about 440 B.C., the pictorial
+effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the
+compositions deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once
+over-refined and careless. The figures are crowded together without
+meaning or interest. The fashion also arose of enhancing the designs by
+means of accessory colours--almost unknown in the previous stages--such
+as white laid on in masses, blue and green, and even with gilding.
+Athletic and mythological subjects yield place to scenes from the life
+of women and children or meaningless groups of figures (fig. 30).
+
+A good example of this style is an _amphora_ from Rhodes with the
+subject of Peleus wooing Thetis, in which polychrome colouring and
+gilding are introduced. There are also many imposing and elaborate
+specimens found (and perhaps made) in the colonies of the Crimea and the
+Cyrenaica; in particular one signed by Xenophantus with the Persian king
+hunting, and another representing the contest of Athena and Poseidon for
+the soil of Attica, both from the Crimea.
+
+Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the figures are
+painted on a white slip or _engobe_ resembling pipe-clay, with which the
+whole surface was covered; the figures are drawn in outline in red or
+black, and partly filled in with washes of colour, chiefly red, purplish
+red, or brown, but sometimes also with blue or green. This style seems
+to have been popular about the middle of the 5th century B.C. and was
+employed for the funeral _lekythoi_ which came into fashion at Athens
+about that time. These vases, which form a class by themselves, were
+made specially for funeral ceremonies and were painted with subjects
+relating to the tomb, such as the laying-out of the corpse on the bier,
+the ferrying of the dead over the Styx by Charon, or (most frequently)
+mourners bringing offerings to the tomb (fig. 31). They continued to be
+made well on into the 4th century, but the later examples are very
+degenerate and careless.
+
+Of other forms, especially the _kylix_ and the _pyxis_ (toilet-box),
+some exceedingly beautiful specimens have come down to us, which show a
+delicacy of drawing and firmness of touch never surpassed, although the
+lines were probably only drawn with a brush. The technique of these
+vases may reflect the methods of the painter Polygnotus and his
+contemporaries, who used a limited number of colours on a white ground.
+Among them no finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum
+with Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown
+outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and
+refinement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis,
+showing painted vases used to decorate a lady's room. On the left is a
+gilt pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right
+two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated
+with painted figures, and contain flowers.]
+
+In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same variety of
+choice as on the black-figured, but on the other hand there is
+infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The stereotyped form of
+composition is almost entirely discarded, and each painter forms his own
+conception of his subject. The class of slim _amphorae_, known as
+"Nolan" from the place where they were mostly found, are distinguished
+by having the design limited to one or at most two figures on each side,
+often on a large scale; these vases are also famous for the marvellous
+brilliance of their shining black (fig. 32).
+
+Towards the middle of the 5th century the patriotism of the Athenian
+artist finds expression in the growing importance which he attaches to
+local legends, especially those of Theseus, the typical Attic hero. He
+seems to have been regarded as the typical Athenian athlete or
+_ephebus_, and his contests as analogous to episodes of the gymnasium.
+Hence the grouping on some vases of scenes from his labours are like so
+many groups of athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general tendency of
+the red-figured vases, especially the cups, to become a sort of
+glorification of the Attic _ephebus_, the representations of whom in all
+sorts of occupations are out of all proportion to other subjects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Funeral lekythos showing vases placed inside
+tomb.]
+
+We find evidence of this, too, in another form. Many vases, especially
+the cups of the "severe" and "strong" periods, bear names of persons
+inscribed on the designs with the word [Greek: kalos], "fair" or
+"noble," attached; sometimes merely, "the boy is fair." The exact
+meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evidence seems to
+show that the persons celebrated must have been quite young at the time,
+and were probably youths famous for their beauty or athletic prowess.
+Some of the names are those of historical characters, such as
+Hipparchus, Miltiades or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be
+identified with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been
+obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases, Further,
+the practice of the vase-painter of adopting his own particular
+favourite name or set of names has enabled us to increase our knowledge
+of the characteristics of individual artists by identifying unsigned
+vases with the work of particular schools.
+
+IV. _Vases of the Decadence_.--For all practical purposes the red-figure
+style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the city in 404 B.C.
+Painted vases did not then altogether cease to be made, as the
+Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral _lekythoi_ testify, but at the
+same time a rapid decadence set in. The whole tendency of the 4th
+century B.C. in Greece was one of decentralization, and the art of
+vase-painting was no exception, for we find that there must have been a
+general migration of craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and
+to North Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief
+centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and flourishing
+Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Tarentum, Paestum and
+Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an addition to their many
+luxuries. In the character of the vases of this period we see their
+tendencies reflected, especially in their splendid or showy aspect; the
+only aim being size and gaudy colouring.
+
+The general method of painting remains that of the Athenian red-figure
+vases, but with entire loss of simplicity or refinement, either in the
+ornamentation, the choice of colours, or the drawing of the figures.
+Large masses of white are invariably employed, especially for the flesh
+of women or of Eros, the universally present god of Love, and for
+architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair or
+features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-purple
+uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have subjects, are devoid
+of all accessory colouring, and the figures are drawn with the greatest
+carelessness, as if not intended to be seen. There is throughout a
+lavish use of ornamental patterns such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves,
+or ornaments strewn over the field (a reversion to an old practice).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--"Nolan" amphora by Euxitheus (c. 450 B.C.),
+figure of Briseis; the other side has Achilles.]
+
+The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the opposite
+extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often effeminate. The
+fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of the figures and the
+frequent architectural settings seem to indicate that theatrical
+representations exercised much influence on the vase-painters. The great
+painters of the 4th century may also have contributed their share of
+inspiration, but rather perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to
+style; though the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly
+pictorial, they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic
+themes.
+
+The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as comedy
+plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others indirectly,
+from the plays of Euripides, such as the _Medea_, _Hecuba_ (Plate II.
+fig. 60), or _Hercules Furens_, and the arrangement of the scenes is
+essentially theatrical. The influence of comedy is seen in subjects
+derived from the _phlyakes_, a kind of farce or burlesque popular in
+southern Italy, and here again the setting is adapted from the stage,
+some vases having parodies of myths, others comic scenes of daily life.
+
+Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were
+expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear
+representations of the underworld, with groups of figures undergoing
+punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted--sometimes
+containing effigies of the deceased, at which the relatives make
+offerings--as on the Athenian _lekythoi_. But by far the greater portion
+of the subjects are taken from daily life, many of these being of a
+purely fanciful and meaningless character like the designs on Sevres or
+Meissen china; the commonest type is that of a young man and a woman
+exchanging presents, the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes
+of courtship.
+
+The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four different
+types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania, Campania and
+Apulia, each with its special features of technique, drawing and
+subjects. In Lucanian vases the drawing is bold and restrained, more
+akin to that of the Attic vases; in Campania a fondness for polychromy
+is combined with careless execution. In Apulia a tendency to
+magnificence exemplified in the great funeral and theatrical vases is
+followed by a period of decadence characterized by small vases of
+fantastic form with purely decorative subjects. Besides these we have
+the school of Paestum, represented by two artists who have left their
+names on their vases, Assteas and Python. A well-known example of the
+work of the former is a _krater_ in Madrid with Heracles destroying his
+children, a theatrical and quasi-grotesque composition, and there is a
+fine example of Python's work in a _krater_ in the British Museum, with
+Alkmena, the mother of Heracles, placed on the funeral pyre by her
+husband Amphitryon, and rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig.
+55).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Cup with exploits of Theseus.]
+
+About the end of the 3rd century B.C. the manufacture of painted vases
+would seem to have been rapidly dying out in Italy, as had long been the
+case elsewhere, and their place is taken by unpainted vases modelled in
+the form of animals and human figures, or ornamented with stamped and
+moulded reliefs. These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and
+so-called "Samian" red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we
+see a tendency to the imitation of metal vases, which, with the growth
+of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced painted pottery
+both for use and ornament; the pottery of the period is reduced to a
+subordinate and utilitarian position, merely supplying the demands of
+those in the humbler spheres of life.
+
+  _Collections_.--The majority of the painted vases now in existence are
+  to be found in the various public museums and collections of Europe,
+  of which the largest and most important are the British Museum, the
+  Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come the collections at
+  Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and St Petersburg; isolated
+  specimens of importance are to be found in other museums, as at
+  Florence, Madrid or the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. Most of the
+  great private collections of the two preceding centuries have now been
+  dispersed. In recent years the Boston Museum has raised America to a
+  level with Europe in this respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New
+  York contains a vast collection of Cypriote pottery.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Important original articles are to be found in various
+  archaeological journals such as _American Journal of Archaeology_
+  (1885, &c); _Annual of the British School at Athens_ (1894, &c.);
+  _Athenische Mitteilungen_ (1876, &c.); _Bulletin de correspondance
+  hellenique_ (1877, &c.); _Comptes rendus de la commission imperiale
+  archeologique_ (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); _Gazette archeologique_
+  (Paris, 1875-1889); _Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen
+  archaologischen Instituts, Berlin_ (1886, &c.); _Journal of Hellenic
+  Studies_ (1880, &c.); _Monumenti antichi_ (Milan, 1890, &c.);
+  _Monuments grecs_ (Paris, 1872-1898); _Monuments Piot_ (Paris, 1894,
+  &c.); _Revue archeologique_ (Paris, 1844, &c.). The older works have
+  been recently superseded by important publications embodying the
+  latest views such as Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen des
+  strengen rotfigurigen Stils_ (1893); Louvre, _Catalogue des vases
+  antiques de terre cuite_, by E. Pottier (1896, &c.); S. Reinach,
+  _Repertoire des vases peints_ (Paris, 1899-1900); H. B. Walters,
+  _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with
+  an excellent bibliographical list; also art. "Hischylos" in _J.H.S._
+  xxix. (1909) p. 103.
+
+ETRUSCAN POTTERY--Parallel with the development of the art of pottery in
+Greece runs the course of the art in Etruria, though with far inferior
+results; in its later stages it is actually no more than a feeble
+imitation of the Greek. The period of time which we must consider
+extends from the Bronze age (1000 B.C. or earlier) down to the 3rd
+century B.C., when Etruscan civilization was merged into Roman.
+
+The earliest civilization traced in Italy is not, strictly speaking,
+Etruscan, but may perhaps be more accurately styled "Umbrian." It is
+usually referred to as the "Terramare" period from the remains
+discovered in that district in the basin of the Po. These people were
+lake-dwellers, barely removed from the Neolithic stage of culture, and
+their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and roughly baked. Cups
+and pots have been found sometimes with simple decoration in the form of
+knobs or bosses, and many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a
+support for the thumb.
+
+The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as "Etruscan," is
+known as the "Villanova" period, from a site of that name near Bologna,
+or as the period of pit-tombs (_a pozzo_), from the form of the graves
+in which the pottery has been found (see VILLANOVA). It begins with the
+9th century B.C. and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs
+usually contain large cinerary urns or _ossuaria_ (containing the ashes
+of the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic clay
+known as _impasto Italico_. These vessels were irregularly baked in an
+open fire, and the colour of the surface varies from red-brown to
+greyish black. They appear to have been covered with a polished slip,
+intended to give the vases a metallic appearance. The shape of the urns
+is peculiar, but uniform; they have a small handle at the widest part
+and a cover in the form of an inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig.
+63). Their ornamentation consists of incised or stamped geometrical
+ornaments formed in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body;
+more rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery is also
+found showing little advance on that of the Terramare period except in
+variety of decoration. The technique and ornament are the same as in the
+case of the urns. They correspond in development, though not in date, to
+the early pottery of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive
+pottery of other races, but one marked difference is the general
+fondness of the Italian potter for vases with handles.
+
+Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (_tuguria_), though
+these are more often found in the neighbourhood of Rome. One of the best
+examples is in the British Museum; it still contains ashes which were
+inserted through a little door secured by a cord passing through rings.
+The ornamentation suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the
+cover or roof being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams.
+The surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted
+with patterns in white.
+
+In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs, the pit
+being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known as the
+"trench-tomb" or _a fossa_ period, and extends from the 8th century B.C.
+to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of Greek pottery now first
+make their appearance. The character of the local pottery actually
+remains for some time the same as that of the preceding period, but it
+improves in technique. By degrees an improvement in the forms is also
+noted, and new varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is,
+however, no evidence that the wheel was used.
+
+Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri (Caere)
+belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars ([Greek:
+pithoi]) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while the
+upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or friezes. These
+designs were either produced from single stamps or rolled out from
+cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The subjects are usually
+quasi-oriental in character, and it is not certain that this ware was
+made in Etruria, especially as similar vases have been found in Rhodes
+and Sicily; either it was imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek
+models.
+
+The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature of the
+clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in white outlines
+on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of _impasto Italico_, was first
+hardened by baking, and then a mixture of wax, resin and iron oxide was
+applied and polished; on this the pigments, a mixture of chalk and
+earth, were laid. The subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least
+Greek in character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the
+drawing is crude and un-Greek in the extreme.
+
+The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third; but the
+difference is defined firstly by the appearance of a new type of tomb in
+the form of a chamber (_a camera_), secondly, by the all-pervading
+influence of oriental art, and to a less extent of that of the Greeks.
+The period extends from about 650 to 550 B.C., and is further marked by
+the general introduction of the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance
+of inscriptions in an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the
+earlier tombs the typical local pottery is of hand-made _impasto
+Italico_ resembling that of the previous periods; in the later we find
+what is known as _bucchero_ ware--the national pottery of Etruria--which
+is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked tendency
+to imitate metal.
+
+To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or Grotto d'lside
+at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the British Museum and
+include some remarkable specimens of pottery. It dates from about
+620-610 B.C. The most remarkable of the vases is a _hydria_, of
+reddish-brown clay covered with a lustrous black slip on which have been
+painted designs in red, blue and a yellowish white. The colours have
+unfortunately now almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had
+been fired. The principal subject is from the story of Theseus and
+Ariadne. This tomb also contained a large wheel-made _pithos_ of red
+_impasto_ ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the
+Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri (about 650 B.C.) large cauldrons of
+red glossy ware were found, with gryphons' heads projecting all round,
+to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from Falerii on a high
+open-work stand is now in the British Museum.
+
+We now come to the _bucchero_ ware, which is characteristic of the later
+portion of this period, though the earliest examples go back to the end
+of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black paste of which it is
+composed, covered with a more or less shining black slip. Modern
+experiments seem to indicate that the clay was smoked or fumigated in a
+closed chamber after baking, becoming thereby blackened throughout, and
+the surface was then polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware
+have proved that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired.
+The oldest _bucchero_ vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with
+incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like metal-work.
+Oriental influence then appears in a series of chalice-shaped cups found
+at Cervetri with friezes of animals. From about 560 B.C. onwards the
+vases are all wheel-made, with ornaments in relief either stamped from a
+cylinder or composed of separate medallions attached to the vase. The
+subjects range from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants
+making offerings (fig. 34); in other cases we find meaningless groups of
+figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern
+Etruria, but at Chiusi (_Clusium_) a more elaborate variety found favour
+from about 500 to 300 B.C. The shapes are very varied and the ornament
+covers the vase from top to bottom, the covers of the vases being also
+frequently modelled in various forms. The figures are stamped from
+moulds, incised designs being added to fill up the spaces. The range of
+subjects is much widened, including scenes from Greek mythology and
+oriental types combining Egyptian and Assyrian motives, which must have
+been introduced by the Phoenicians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Etruscan oinochoe, of black bucchero ware, with
+figures in relief. (British Museum.)]
+
+Thus the technique of the _bucchero_ wares is purely native, but the
+decoration is entirely dependent on foreign types whether Greek or
+oriental, and throughout the whole series the tendency to imitate
+metal-work is to be observed in every detail, both in the forms and in
+the methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing work
+in bronze.
+
+The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for notice
+is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the [Greek:
+kanopoi] in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their mummies. They
+are rude representations of the human figure, the head forming the
+cover, and in the tombs were placed on round chairs of wood, bronze or
+terra-cotta. An example of such a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be
+seen in the Etruscan Room of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65).
+Their origin has been traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest
+Etruscan tombs. From these a gradual transition may be observed from the
+mask (1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head
+modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at last the
+complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are found in the
+"pit-tombs" of the 8th century B.C., and the latest and most developed
+types belong to the 5th century B.C.
+
+The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-engraving never
+extended to their pottery, which is always purely imitative, especially
+when they attempted painted vases after the Greek fashion. The kinds
+already described are all more or less plastic in character and
+imitative of metal, except in the case of the Cervetri and Polledrara
+finds, which have little in common with anything Greek, and exhibit a
+quite undeveloped art. But towards the end of the 6th century B.C., when
+Greek vases were coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were
+made to imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular
+class of Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most
+museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from peculiarities of
+style, drawing and subject, as well as their inferior technique (fig.
+35).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting
+scene of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.]
+
+At a later date (4th-3rd century B.C.) they began to copy red-figured
+vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the exception of a small
+class of a somewhat ambitious character made at Falerii (Civita
+Castellana), of which there is a good example in the British Museum with
+the subject of the infant Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all
+marked by their inferior material and finish and their bizarre
+decoration. The style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as
+ineffective, and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are
+generally introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in
+the Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate into
+barbarism.
+
+Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the extreme south
+of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous races of the
+Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is partly geometrical,
+partly in conventional plant forms, and is the result of natural
+development rather than of imitation of Greek types. Some of the shapes
+are characteristic, especially a large four-handled _krater_. They cover
+the period 600-450 B.C., after which they were ousted by the
+Graeco-Italian productions we have already described.
+
+ROMAN POTTERY.--Roman vases are far inferior to Greek; the shapes are
+less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes not without merits
+of its own, owes most of its success to the imitation or adaptation of
+motives learnt from earlier Grecian, Egyptian or Syrian potters. They
+required only the skill of the potter for their completion, and, being
+made by processes largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower
+scale of artistic production.
+
+It has been noted that during a certain period--namely, the 3rd and 2nd
+centuries B.C.--ceramic art had reached the same stage of evolution all
+round the Mediterranean, painted pottery had been ousted by metal-work,
+and such vases as continued to be made were practically imitations of
+metal both in Greece and Italy. These latter we must regard as
+representing ordinary household pottery, or as supplying to those who
+could not afford to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in
+metal, a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta
+bowl of the 2nd century B.C. in the British Museum which is an exact
+replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same collection, and
+may serve as an illustration of this condition of things (Plate II. fig.
+56).
+
+These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy, a
+district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria, and we
+have already seen that the same principle had long been in vogue among
+the Etruscans. Hence it is not surprising that an important centre of
+pottery manufacture should have sprung up in Etruria, in the and century
+B.C., which for many years set the fashion to the whole Roman world. But
+before discussing such products it may be as well to say something on
+the technical character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general.
+
+  _Technical Processes_.--Roman pottery regarded in its purely technical
+  aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek, chiefly
+  owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters' apparatus in
+  western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which only
+  the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far the
+  greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull
+  earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red shining
+  wares, usually known to archaeologists as _terra sigillata_, clay
+  suited to receive stamps (_sigilla_) or impressions.
+
+  For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in
+  different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to
+  grey, drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in
+  quality; most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from
+  the ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at
+  St-Remy-en-Rollat and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In
+  Italy we find a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being
+  devoted to its preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration
+  and style there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the
+  Italian and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is
+  often very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured
+  where they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of
+  manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have been
+  common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain and
+  Germany, and perhaps even to Britain.
+
+  The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has been a
+  much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the excavator of
+  the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming that it was a
+  natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing of the surface,
+  by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now generally agreed
+  that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman lamps and many of
+  the commoner wares have a gloss produced by polishing only, varying in
+  colour and brightness with the proportion of iron oxide in the clay
+  and the degree of heat at which the pieces were fired. But the surface
+  finish of the finer or _terra sigillata_ wares is something quite
+  distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully uniform perfection.
+
+  It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman
+  world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it
+  does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant
+  glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to
+  leave no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated
+  attempts have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but
+  chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that
+  it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body than
+  glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface polish or
+  than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have to wait
+  for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at once
+  a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. Whatever its
+  nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze itself
+  was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour of the
+  clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the quality of
+  red coral.
+
+  In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes as the
+  Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of abnormal
+  size, such as the large casks (_dolia_), which were built up on a
+  frame. Specimens of potters' wheels have been found at Arezzo and
+  Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for the pivot, and
+  bearing small cylinders of lead round the circumference to give a
+  purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum of the wheel. For the
+  ornamental vases with reliefs an additional process was necessary, and
+  the decoration was in nearly all cases produced from moulds. The
+  process in this case was a threefold one: first the stamps had to be
+  made bearing the designs; these were then pressed upon the inside of a
+  clay mould which had been previously made on the wheel to the size and
+  shape required; finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the
+  vase was thus produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare
+  occurrence in Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete,
+  requiring only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in
+  various materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64).
+  The moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired
+  when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in clay.
+  Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III. fig. 61),
+  and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo. Those
+  discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable evidence as
+  to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their presence
+  obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of this
+  evidence is increased when they bear potters' names.
+
+  Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery[8] are very numerous in
+  western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are at
+  Lezoux near Clermont, at Chatelet in Haute-Marne, and near Agen in
+  Lot-el-Garonne. In Germany good remains have come to light at
+  Heiligenberg in Baden, al Heddernheim near Frankfort, Rheinzabern near
+  Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In England the best kilns are
+  those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at Castor in Northamptonshire
+  (see fig. 4).
+
+  _Shapes_.--As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of
+  shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same
+  difficulties as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They
+  may, however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing
+  liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on.
+  In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of archaic
+  and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in sacrifices.
+
+  The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were:--The
+  _dolium_, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the _amphora_, a jar
+  holding about six gallons; and the _cadus_, a jar about half as large
+  as the _amphora_. The _dolium_ had no foot, and was usually buried in
+  the earth; it was also used for purposes of burial. The _amphora_
+  corresponds to the Greek wine-jar of that name, and had, like its
+  prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii stamped
+  with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. _Od._ in. 21. I), or with painted
+  inscriptions relating to their contents. The _cadus_ is mentioned by
+  Horace and Martial.
+
+  Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and
+  flasks, the principal were the _urceus_, answering to the Greek
+  [Greek: oinochoe], the _ampulla_, a kind of flask with globular body,
+  and the _lagena_, a narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups
+  the Romans had almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great
+  majority of the ornamented vases preserved to the present day were
+  devoted to this purpose. The generic name for a cup was _poculum_, but
+  the Romans borrowed many of the Greek names, such as _cantharus_ and
+  _scyphus_. The _calix_ appears to have answered in popularity, though
+  not in form, to the Greek _kylix_, and is probably the name by which
+  the ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are
+  _lanx_, _patina_ and _catinum_. Another common form is the _olla_
+  (Greek [Greek: chutra]), 	which served many purposes, being used for a
+  cooking-pot, for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn.
+  The form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or
+  elliptical body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases
+  the principal was the _patera_ or libation-bowl, corresponding to the
+  Greek [Greek: phiale].
+
+_Arretine Ware_.--The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny, mention
+numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere, which were famous
+for the production of pottery in Roman times. Pliny mentions with
+special commendation the "Samian Ware," the reputation of which, he
+says, was maintained by Arretium (Arezzo). Samian pottery is also
+alluded to by other writers, and hence the term was adopted in modern
+times as descriptive of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs,
+whether found in Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only
+accepted with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840
+discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases found
+there as a local product, now known as "Arretine" ware. The name
+"Samian" has, however, adhered to the provincial wares and at the
+present day is often used even by archaeologists. But recent researches
+have shown that nearly all the provincial wares can be traced to Gaulish
+or German potteries, and, since it is implied by Pliny that "Samian"
+pottery is older than "Arretine," the name may now be fairly rejected
+altogether, as we have rejected the name "Etruscan" for Greek pottery.
+The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak of
+"china," and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later Greek
+pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century B.C.
+
+There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery centres in
+Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere, as well as at Saguntum
+in Spain, but all were surpassed in excellence by Arretium. In more
+modern times its pottery came under notice even in the middle ages, and
+discoveries were made in the time of Leo X (about 1500) and again in the
+18th century. The Arretine ware may be regarded as _the_ Roman pottery
+_par excellence_, and its popularity extended from about 150 B.C. down
+to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height in the
+1st century B.C., after which it rapidly degenerated, and its place was
+taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general characteristics may be
+summed up as follows:--(1) The fine local red clay, carefully levigated
+and baked very hard to a rich coral red or a colour like sealing-wax;
+(2) the fine red glaze, which has already been discussed; (3) the great
+variety of forms employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work;
+(4) the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters' names. The
+majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself, but there
+was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing pottery almost equal
+in merit, and it was also exported to central and eastern Europe and
+Spain.
+
+The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red appears to
+have been introduced by 100 B.C., when the first potters' stamps appear.
+These are usually quadrangular in form, though other shapes are found,
+and are impressed in the midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or
+on plain wares on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters'
+names is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific than
+others, and to have employed a large number of slaves, whose names
+appear with their masters' on the stamps. The best known is Marcus
+Perennius, whose wares take highest rank for their artistic merit, the
+designs being copied from good Greek models. He employed seventeen
+slaves, of whom the best known is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing
+as M.PEREN and TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his
+finest vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of
+Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures were designed
+by the masters, but that the vases were actually moulded by the slaves.
+Other important artists are Calidius Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P.
+Cornelius, who had no less than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself
+A.TITI.FIGVL.ARRET; the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus, a
+degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish wares.
+
+The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed from metal
+shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37, Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11).
+They are mostly of small size and devoid of handles, but a notable
+exception is a bell-shaped _krater_ or mixing-bowl, of which there is a
+very fine example in the British Museum, found at Capua and decorated
+with the four seasons (Plate III. fig. 62). For the decoration and
+subjects the potters undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the
+"new-Attic" reliefs of the Hellenistic period, of which the _krater_
+just cited is an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing
+maenads or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes
+which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others again
+are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament, figures when
+they occur being merely decorative. There is throughout a remarkable
+variety both in the ornamentation and in the methods of composition.
+
+_Provincial Wares_.--The Arretine ware, as has been noted, steadily
+degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and the manufacture of
+ornamental pottery appears to have entirely died out in Italy by the
+time of Trajan. Its place was taken by the pottery of the provinces,
+especially by that of Gaul, where the transference of artistic
+traditions led to the rise of new industrial centres in the country
+bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine.
+
+As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is, of
+the ornamented wares or _terra sigillata_, the clay is fine and
+close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows a light
+red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a brighter yet
+darker red colour (i.e. less like coral) than that of Arretine ware, but
+the tone varies with the degree of heat used. The most important feature
+is the fine glaze with which it is coated, similar in composition to
+that of the Arretine; it is exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid
+equally over the whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of
+the clay. The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware,
+by which, however, it is indirectly inspired.
+
+The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various types
+of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are preferred
+almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently bear the stamp
+of the potter impressed on the inside or outside. Although this ware is
+found all over the Roman world, by far the greater portion comes from
+Gaul, Germany or Britain, and evidence points to two--and only
+two--districts as the principal centres of manufacture: the valleys of
+the Loire and the Rhine and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st
+century A.D. Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and
+isolated finds of it occur in Spain and other parts.
+
+The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. Dechelette have shown
+that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be clearly traced, both
+in the shapes employed and in the method of decoration; and, further,
+that it is possible--at least as regards Gaul--to associate certain
+potters' names and certain types of figures, though found in many
+places, with two centres in particular, Graufesenque near Rodez
+(department of Aveyron) in the district occupied by the Ruteni, and
+Lezoux near Clermont (department of Puy-de-Dome) in the country of the
+Arverni. The periods during which these potteries flourished are
+consecutive, or rather overlapping, but not contemporaneous, the former
+being practically coincident with the 1st century A.D., the latter with
+the 2nd and 3rd down to about A.D. 260, when the manufacture of _terra
+sigillata_ practically came to an end in Gaul.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Bowl of Gaulish ware, with moulded patterns in
+slight relief.]
+
+There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a
+transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north of
+Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, e.g. St Remy-en-Rollat, and
+others of later date, as at Banassac and Montans in the latter district,
+but none of these produced pottery of special merit or importance. The
+early Rhenish wares are, strictly speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic
+character, while the later German _terra sigillata_, for which the
+principal centres were Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in
+Bavaria, are of similar character but inferior to the 2nd-century
+pottery of Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV.
+fig. 66.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine;
+18-65, Gaulish and German.]
+
+The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we have said,
+almost confined to two or three varieties, which follow one another
+chronologically. A shape favoured at first is the _krater_, which has
+been mentioned as one of the characteristic Arretine forms; but this
+enjoyed but a short term of popularity. Early in the 1st century we find
+a typical form of bowl in use, which, following the numeration of Dr
+Dragendorff's treatise, is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is
+characterized by its moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings,
+and by the division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes
+for the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative,
+consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds are
+introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular panels
+or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a second variety
+of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was introduced; this is
+cylindrical in form, and, being found both at Graufesenque and Lezoux,
+may be regarded as transitional in character. In the latter half of this
+century a new form arises (No. 37; fig. 37), a more or less
+hemispherical bowl which holds the field exclusively on all sites down
+to the termination of the potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new
+system of decoration is introduced, the upper edge being left quite
+plain. The panels and medallions at first prevail, but are then
+succeeded by arcading or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and
+finally after the end of the 1st century (and on form 37 only) we find
+the whole surface covered with a single composition of figures
+unconfined by borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze;
+this is known as the "free" style (Plate IV. fig. 69).
+
+As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down that the
+conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are obvious
+imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the absence of
+Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include representations of gods and
+heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters and animals, the two latter
+classes being pre-eminently popular.
+
+The potters' names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common Roman
+type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux are Gaulish in
+form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, Illixo or Laxtrucisa. This seems to
+imply that Roman influence was still strong in the earlier centre which
+drew its inspiration more directly from Arretium. But even the purely
+Roman names are sometimes converted into Gaulish forms, as _Masclus_ for
+Masculus, or _Tornos_ for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form,
+depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief; on the
+plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but on the
+ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the figures. The
+usual formula is OF (for _officina_) or M (for _manu_) with the name in
+the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for _fecit_ with the nominative.
+
+Besides the ordinary _terra sigillata_ with figures produced in moulds
+we find other methods of decoration employed. In the south of France,
+about Arles and Orange, vases were made with medallions separately
+moulded and attached round the body; these have a great variety of
+subjects, both mythological and gladiatorial or theatrical, or even
+portraits of emperors. There is a remarkable specimen in the British
+Museum with a scene from the tragedy of the _Cycnus_, on which Heracles
+and Ares are represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate
+IV. fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ.
+
+Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux. Here each
+figure is attached separately to the vase, and the background is filled
+in with foliage produced by the method known as _en barbotine_
+(slip-painting), of which we shall speak presently. The effect of these
+vases, which are mostly large jars or _ollae_ (Plate IV. fig. 70), is
+often very decorative, and there is a fine specimen in the British
+Museum from Felixstowe, on which the modelling is really admirable.
+Other good examples have been found in various parts of Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Jar of Castor ware, with reliefs of a stag
+pursued by a hound, executed in semi-fluid slip. 6 in. high.]
+
+The "slip-decoration" process is practically unknown in Italy, but it is
+found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany, and appears to
+have originated in the Rhine district. It is not confined to the red
+ware, but in the early German examples is applied on a dull grey or
+black background. On the continent its use is almost limited to simple
+decorative patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in Britain it was largely
+adopted, as in the well-known Castor ware made on the site of that name
+(_Durobrivae_) in Northamptonshire. Many of the vases found or made here
+have gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes, or chariots executed by this
+method (fig. 38). The decoration was applied in the form of a thick
+viscous slip, usually of the same colour as the clay, but reduced to
+this consistency with water, and was laid on by means of a narrow tube
+or run from the edge of a spatula. The Castor ware appears to date from
+the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.
+
+Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally produced in
+Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such ware seems to have
+been produced in the Rhine district, represented by small jars covered
+with a glossy black coating, on which are painted in thick white slip
+inscriptions of a convivial character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or
+VIVAS (Plate IV. fig. 68). A very effective ware, obviously imitating
+cut glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux in
+both the red and black varieties.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Dragendorff in _Bonner Jahrbucher_, xcvi. 37 ff.;
+  Dechelette, _Vases ceramiques de la Gaule romaine_ (1904); Walters,
+  _Ancient Pottery_, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii.; _British Museum Catalogue
+  of Roman Pottery_ (1908).     (H. B. Wa.)
+
+
+PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH POTTERY[9]
+
+Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter's art, it was the custom
+to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman empire and the
+appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian pottery of the early
+middle ages, as if the intervening centuries had produced nothing worthy
+of note. Even yet the successive steps by which this beautiful art arose
+are largely matters of inference and deduction, but it must be borne in
+mind that while the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of
+glaze and painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and
+Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction. In
+discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already pointed out at
+what a very early period they had developed the production of rich and
+beautiful coloured glazes--the Egyptians as a jewel-like decoration of
+small pieces made in a very sandy paste, or actually carved from stone,
+and the Assyrians, on a bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured
+brickwork. Though the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the
+peoples of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried
+on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There is
+abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of Roman times and
+later with rich turquoise blue and yellow glazes, though the potters had
+learned to produce this glaze on a material containing more clay and
+less sand than that used in earlier days. We know also that they had
+learned that the addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to
+be applied on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to
+be shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt, but
+appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia Minor; and
+throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of pottery were made which
+were clearly the starting-points of much of the fine pottery produced in
+Europe in later times. We find, for instance, side by side, a
+manufacture of bowls, dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of
+two distinct materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise
+blue, green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda
+and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple painted
+patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2) similar vessels
+made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and porous, coated with a
+white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin) covered with a yellowish lead
+glaze. These vessels were decorated in a variety of ways: (1)
+_Graffiati_; patterns cut or scratched through the coating of white slip
+while it was still soft, down to the red ground, so that when the vessel
+was glazed it displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2)
+Yellow and red ochre and copper scales were rudely "dabbed" over the
+white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it presented a
+marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red, yellow, brown or
+green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the section on _Egyptian
+pottery_ above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron were added to the lead
+glaze, and the resulting green or yellow glazes were applied to plain
+vases or to vessels decorated with moulded reliefs. In all these methods
+we see the continuation of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall
+also see that these, in their turn, became the starting-point of much of
+the medieval pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other
+southern countries.
+
+In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian times
+seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters of Assyria,
+just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian device of raising
+strong brown outlines round a design to control the flow of coloured
+glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze of Archers in the Louvre, was
+carried on by them, for it appears unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque
+of Mahommed I. built at Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse
+between the Persian and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to
+a general diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of
+the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean, though
+our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient data for any
+definite placing of the progress made. Our information is mainly derived
+from the examination of the rubbish mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in
+Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat
+was built in A.D. 640 by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century;
+partially rebuilt, it was given over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke
+sultan, and all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the
+site being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same way
+Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the site of which
+lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about 1220 by Jenghiz
+Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but was destroyed again in
+the following century, so that its existence practically ceased in the
+14th century. Rhagae was once an important centre of the ceramic
+industry, but this was transferred to the neighbouring town of Veramin,
+in the 13th century. Excavations have also been made on the site of
+Rakka, near Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few
+others of minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on
+the development of the potter's art in these countries during the period
+between the 4th and 12th centuries. Yet, until systematic excavations
+have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the Delta, on the same
+scale as those which have proved so valuable in Greece, Crete, Cyprus
+and the valley of the Nile, we cannot hope to possess sound
+chronological data of the developments of the arts in these countries.
+Meantime the exact share which should be allotted to each district for
+its discoveries will remain ground of contention for scholars of
+conflicting schools, though there can be little doubt that Egypt and the
+southern part of Syria played a more important part than has generally
+been supposed in the development of the potter's art at this period.
+
+_Persian Pottery_.--The most important pottery of the nearer East,
+whether considered on its own merits or from the influence it has
+exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly valued by
+collectors under the distinctive name of Persian; though much that
+passes under that name may not have been made in Persia. From the 10th
+to the 16th centuries the craftsmen of Persia were perfect masters of
+decorative design and colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of
+the forms proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity
+ever exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly of metal
+than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling for the
+material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are not only true
+clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to exhibit the qualities of
+the glaze and colour with which they were to be decorated. Certainly
+from the 12th to the 16th centuries the pottery of the Persians must
+rank among the greatest achievements of the potter's art. The ware was
+shaped from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of--but
+whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large proportion of
+sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish or red tint, and
+was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous slip, or with a
+mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin, which made it whiter
+still--the one aim was to produce a white pottery. On this white
+ground--with a coarsish absorbent surface--beautiful patterns, in
+conventional floral or animal forms, were deftly painted in
+cobalt-blues, manganese-purples, copper-greens and turquoise, with
+mixtures for intermediate tints; while a strong brownish-black outline
+colour was compounded by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be
+turned into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and
+later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour, often used
+in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze, generally of
+considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused; and the resultant
+effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour relieved on a ground of
+slightly toned white. Judging from fragments which have been found at
+Rai, and which can scarcely therefore be later than the 13th century, we
+find the characteristic Persian style of ornament already developed;
+dumpy little figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between
+cypress trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with
+conventional borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known
+type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral ornament
+which often runs to a beautiful tracery of "arabesque" lines. The
+drawing is generally finely outlined with brown or black (a survival of
+the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the earliest pieces the flat
+washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-blue, turquoise or green
+from copper, and shades of purple and brown from manganese. From the
+16th century onwards Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the
+designs and in the colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted
+with patterns in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the
+imitation of Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks.
+Finally, Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number of
+Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan, and we find
+that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-te-Chen, with blue
+decorations in the Persian taste, so that we cannot be surprised at the
+growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style of decoration. From this period,
+however, Persian pottery deteriorated both in its technical and artistic
+aspects. Crudely moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with
+an opaque yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and
+turquoise, began to make their appearance, especially on the famous
+Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black outlines of
+the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource) vanish, and we get
+brighter and more glittering, yet poorer colours, including a rose-red
+enamel fired over the glaze, evidently imitated from the Chinese
+_famille-rose_ porcelains of the 18th century.
+
+The finest work appears to have been produced from the 11th to the 14th
+centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge of what is truly Persian,
+Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced to accept many conventional names
+that have perhaps little but custom to recommend them. There is, for
+instance, an important class of pottery known, until recently, only from
+a few remarkably handsome vases, and once called "Siculo-Arab" because
+these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware is
+characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished
+ornament--leaf-shaped panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns;
+striped and dotted bands; friezes of animals or birds amidst flowers and
+foliage, inscriptions, &c.; all strongly and firmly drawn in black or
+brown outlines and washed in with a very pure cobalt-blue or with
+turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of these pieces to the oldest
+Persian wares, we know that bowls, dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of
+the same kind have been dug up on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar
+ware has been found at Fostat, together with evidences of local
+manufacture, and occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so
+that probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria between
+the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards made by Syrian
+potters both in Persia and Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria
+and Albert Museum.)]
+
+_Other Persian Wares_.--We have already spoken of the prevalent use of
+coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer East--from Egypt to
+Persia--from remote times, either as the sole colour decoration or in
+conjunction with modelled or painted ornament. The fragments from Rai
+and Fostat include rich turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient
+Egyptian), deep and light-green glazes containing lead and copper,
+imitations of ancient Chinese celadon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a
+coffee-brown glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze.[10] All these may be
+found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled ornament; or
+covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted in white slip or
+incised in the paste. Sometimes, even at this early period, there are
+traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but not fired, to the glaze.
+
+At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls, dishes and
+vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque patterns in a singularly
+still underglaze black, and covered with the blue turquoise or green
+copper glazes. This characteristic and beautiful ware is common to
+Persia, Syria and Egypt in Saracen times, and it was soon prized in
+Europe, as is shown by the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury
+Fortnum built into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was
+apparently placed in the 12th century.[11]
+
+At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance, and in the
+13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there is a comparatively
+modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces bearing patterns modelled
+in low relief.
+
+_Persian Porcelain_.--This beautiful and somewhat mysterious ware--often
+called "Gombroon" ware--apparently made its appearance in the 13th
+century, though the bulk of the known examples are not earlier than the
+17th or 18th century. The ware is quite translucent and is of soft and
+delicate texture. Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture
+of pipe-clay and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a
+fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary porcelain
+oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes, bowls (often
+mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are generally very thin and are
+either perfectly plain or bear flutings or simple wavy patterns incised
+in the paste. Most characteristic and beautiful is the decoration by
+means of delicate perforations either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the
+finest pieces the perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form
+a decoration analogous to the well-known "rice-grain" decoration of the
+Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour, either a
+delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright celadon, or the
+well-known Persian blue ground; and this is sometimes decorated with
+lustre patterns. Nowhere can this rare and delicately beautiful ware be
+so well studied as in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+_Lustred Ware_.--The decoration of pottery with iridescent metallic
+films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inventions ever made
+by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only coloured clays, coloured
+glazes, or colours fired under the glaze, but we are now brought face to
+face with a colour effect produced by refiring the finished glazed
+pieces, at a lower temperature, with pigments painted upon the glaze
+(fig. 40; see also Plate V. 13th-century Persian lustre). How such a
+practice originated is probably an idle speculation, but it may have
+come through repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold
+was painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably
+vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver, applied
+over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make it adhere,
+may have given the first films of iridescent colour. We know certainly
+that before the 13th century the elements of the process had been
+mastered, and that the potters of the nearer East had learnt that by
+mixing some compound of silver (doubtless the sulphide) with clay, and
+painting the mixture on the finished vase, which was refired in such a
+way that the pieces were only raised to a dull red heat and were then
+exposed to the vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were
+left on the ware that looked like metal--but metal shot over with all
+the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green. Numerous
+fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred from the site at
+Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the beautiful process was of
+Persian origin, particularly as most of the examples then known bore
+designs of distinctly Persian style. We are now inclined to think that
+the process really arose in Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward
+to Persia, just as it was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In
+support of this view there is the written record of the Persian
+traveller Nasiri Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the 11th century
+(1035-1042). He was apparently familiar with the pottery of his own
+country, and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of
+Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the traffic of
+East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He mentions, specially,
+certain translucent bowls of earthenware decorated with colours
+resembling a stuff called "bougalemoun," "the tints changing according
+to the position which one gives to the vase." Such a description could
+only apply to "lustred" pottery, and it would seem as if this process
+must have been known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia
+(see Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret was
+soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it was practised
+at Rhagae in the next century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in
+brown copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting is
+gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)]
+
+The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-shaped tile
+of the year A.D. 1217 (A.H. 614), decorated with spotted hares,
+heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre relieved by dots and
+curls, and surrounded by an inscribed border. A vase in the Godman
+collection bears the date A.D. 1231 (A.H. 629), and some of the
+well-known "star and cross" tiles from Veramin belong to the year A.D.
+1262. The early Persian lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles
+with which the walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the
+more ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller numbers
+and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives of decoration were
+animals and birds (sometimes showing Chinese influence), the hare and
+the deer being favourites; roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and
+women, mounted or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend),
+conventional foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in
+a lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots
+etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered all
+over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out of this when
+it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white tin-enamel with which
+the early wares are generally coated. The lustre itself when viewed
+directly may look like some golden or deep chocolate-brown colour, but
+as the piece is turned to catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to
+bear a thin iridescent film, which glows with golden, green, purple or
+ruby-red metallic _reflets_. On the earliest examples the decoration is
+often entirely in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a
+pattern painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the
+glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear
+14th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decoration,
+more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised in low
+relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class, belonging to the
+14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze, with designs in low
+relief, picked out with scrolls and arabesques in white enamel or bold
+floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is frequently found applied to the
+rich cobalt-blue ground, and there are still existing a few magnificent
+vases which show the artistic possibilities of this scheme of
+decoration. It should be noted that when the pieces are in the round,
+the pattern is usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre
+ground as on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was
+replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration continued in
+use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629). To the last
+period belong many charming bowls, narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown
+lustre, with ruby _reflets_, on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware
+is pure white in substance and generally translucent, and the pieces are
+occasionally signed (see _Persian porcelain_ above).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Lamp from the Mosque of Omar.]
+
+_Damascus Ware_.--This time-honoured name (for "Damas Ware" was often
+mentioned in medieval inventories, and appears to have included many
+varieties of oriental pottery which were highly prized in Italy, France
+and England in the middle ages)[12] forms rather a puzzle nowadays for
+the archaeologist, for many diverse wares have been included under this
+title, some of which were not made at Damascus. Yet Damascus is one of
+the oldest cities in the world, and has seen unnumbered dynasties come
+and go around its desert-fringed oasis. An important centre of caravan
+traffic, a nexus of palpitating life from east and west, north and
+south, we cannot wonder if it developed a special pottery of its own,
+tinged with something of a cosmopolitan spirit. Formerly the Damascus
+wares were treated as a variety of the Persian pottery we have just
+described, but the best examples of the class now known under this name
+exhibit a mingling of various influences such as we might expect, and
+have well-marked affinities both with the Persian wares and those
+brilliant productions now commonly recognized as Syrian and Turkish,
+while even far-off echoes of Chinese decorative mannerisms are not
+wanting. The characteristic Damascus ware of the collector is marked by
+its quality; the ground is of very clear white, the colours are pure and
+brilliant, and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made.
+The decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more
+formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish
+pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay pigment
+of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably occur in the
+design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple made from
+manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in quality. Fine
+examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the British Museum and in
+the Louvre; its characteristic style of pattern is well shown in the
+16th-century Damascus piece reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid
+example is the lamp from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the
+British Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the
+Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong rather to
+Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears a dated
+inscription, "In the year 956 in the month _Jemazi-l-oola_. The painter
+is the poor and humble Mustafa." This is reckoned as June A.D. 1549. It
+may be remarked that our difficulties of identification are increased by
+the fact that, under Arab rule, Syrian and Persian potters were at work
+in Damascus, in Old Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments
+classified by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian
+workmen. In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese
+blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the nearer East, and
+quantities of fragments have been found at Fostat, Ephesus and
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Rhodian Jug.]
+
+_Turkish Pottery_.--This beautiful and striking ware, formerly called
+Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a known centre of
+manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in all the countries overrun
+by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th century, so that the name "Turkish," in
+spite of some opposition, is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42;
+and the 16th-century Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine
+white body of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash
+of pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly
+blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped up in
+palpable relief--the whole of the ornament being outlined with black or
+dark green. The ware was glazed with an alkaline glaze of great depth,
+so that the colours soften and sometimes run, producing one of the most
+brilliant and attractive of all the oriental wares. In certain districts
+the white ground was not used, but over it a slip of the red colour
+(Armenian bole), varying in strength from bright red to pale salmon, was
+laid over the piece, reserving the pattern only in the white slip, which
+consequently lies lower than the red ground. Other examples are known
+where the ground has been covered with lavender, blue, sage, apple and
+turquoise greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect of
+the whole was often increased by the application of gold-leaf over the
+fired glaze. The decorative motives are distinguished from those of the
+Persian wares by a breadth and boldness which are in keeping with the
+brilliant, and not always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is
+true, the Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the
+thistle-bloom and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment which
+permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish flowers such as
+the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, cornflower and lily (some of
+which were imported into Europe by the Turks), is as original and
+distinctive as the arrangement of the different elements of the design
+is artistic and charming. Other styles of design include formal patterns
+and diapers, rarely human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial
+devices and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining
+the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile
+hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic articles,
+dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers, sprinklers, jugs,
+tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls and mosque lamps are also
+plentiful. The tiles are found in all parts of the Turkish empire,
+though they were probably made at certain centres, such as Nicaea (which
+gave its name to the ware in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many
+of the mosques in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other
+centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot be
+distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and Kutaia. A
+small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian inscription stating
+that it was made by "Abraham of Kutaia" in the 16th century. A few fine
+bowls and vases, painted in a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and
+rosette scrolls, recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but
+of very characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place;
+and later, in the 18th and up to the end of the 19th century, an
+inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware usually
+takes the form of small objects--plates, cups, jugs, egg-shaped
+ornaments, &c.--with a thin, well-potted, white body and slight patterns
+of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &c., in blue, black and yellow.
+Turkish pottery was at its best in the 16th and the early part of the
+17th century, and though good tile work of later date exists, the
+general pottery deteriorated before the 18th century. An inferior ware
+of poor colour is still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some
+attempt has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration, but
+the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old times.
+
+  _Collections_.--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest
+  collection of the medieval pottery of the nearer East--the British
+  Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent examples.
+  The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten collection of
+  Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The museums of the
+  Louvre and of Sevres have also many beautiful examples. Berlin,
+  Frankfort and other German towns have collections, but much smaller in
+  extent. Private collectors in England and France own many fine
+  specimens, and mention may be made particularly of those owned by Mr
+  Ducane Godman and Mr George Salting.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Fortnum, _Majolica_ (1896) (also in South Kensington
+  Museum Handbook); Falke, _Majolica_ (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet,
+  _Contributions a l'etude de la ceramique orientale_ (Cairo, 1900);
+  Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik," in _Monatsschrift fur den
+  Orient_ (1884); Lane-Poole, _Art of the Saracens in Egypt_ (1886);
+  Migeon, _Manuel de l'art musulman_, vol. ii. (1907); Sarre, _Persische
+  Keramik_; and _Jahrbuch der koniglichen preussichen Kunstsammlung_
+  (1905), part ii.; H. Wallis, _The Godman Collection_ (1) _Lustred
+  Vases_ (London, 1891); (2) _The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles_
+  (1894); _Notes on some Early Persian Lustre Vases_ (1885); _Egyptian
+  Ceramic Art_ (1898).     (R. L. H.; W. B.*)
+
+
+HISPANO-MORESQUE POTTERY
+
+With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round the eastern
+Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting to follow the
+westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see how in their wake there
+also sprung up in Spain a ware of high distinction and beauty. The
+Iberian peninsula had been the scene of pottery-making from prehistoric
+times--a red unglazed ware was made before the dawn of civilization as
+finely finished as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see
+EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_), and the Romans had one of their great
+provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when a great
+part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and distinctive
+pottery was produced. What is by no means clear is how it came to pass
+that when the traditional methods, learnt by the Arabs in Egypt and
+Syria, were carried westward they should have undergone such a radical
+change. Oxide of tin, the opacifying and whitening material in glazes
+_par excellence_, was certainly known and used in the East from at least
+the 6th century B.C.; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of
+white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and it was
+similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and not general in
+those countries, where we find instead a consistent development of the
+pottery made with a white slip-coating and a clear alkaline glaze.
+Perhaps it was that at this period tin was almost as costly as gold, and
+it was only when potters with an oriental training brought their skill
+to Spain, where tin abounded, that the relative cheapness of the
+material led them to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There
+is a wide distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced
+wares, glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental
+type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is
+finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or no lead:
+in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for the addition
+of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense coating of white
+enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color of the clay beneath.) Such
+colours as were used for painted patterns were painted over this enamel
+coating before it was fired, so that they became perfectly incorporated
+with it, and then this ground furnished a splendid medium for the
+development of those thin iridescent metallic films that we call
+"lustres." The knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from
+the East also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing
+use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver--until the
+red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter silver
+lustres--we get the simple technique of one of the most distinctive
+kinds of pottery known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and
+copper lustre.]
+
+Briefly, the wares were "thrown" upon the wheel or "pressed" on modelled
+forms--handles, ribs and dots of clay, or strongly incised patterns were
+often added by hand--and they were then fired a first time. A coating of
+the tin-enamel (rich in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this
+coating designs were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these
+colours were only used as masses to break up the background. Then the
+second firing took place and the piece came from the firing all shining
+and white, except where the blue or brownish purple had been painted
+(see fig. 43). The lustre pigments, a mixture of sulphide of copper or
+sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre or other earth, was then
+painted over the glazed surface with vinegar as a medium. The repainted
+piece was fired a third time to a dull red heat, and smoked with the
+smoke from the wood used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent
+ochre and metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent
+films in all their beauty.
+
+The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the composition of
+the lustre pigments are given in Cocks's account of the processes
+followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises receipt of 1785
+gives:--copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver 1 peseta piece, sulphur 3
+oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped off the pots after lustring 36
+oz.[13] Interesting documents have recently been published concerning
+the works executed by the "Saracen," John of Valencia, at Poitiers in
+1384, and it is certain, from the list of materials supplied to him,
+that he made there tiles that were enamelled and lustred.
+
+The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer
+Edrisi's mention of the manufacture of "golden ware" then carried on at
+Calatayud in Aragon in 1154. Ibn Sa'id (1214-1286) speaks of the glass
+and the golden pottery made at Murcia (city), Almeria and Malaga. From
+the 4th century the notices which have come down to us divide themselves
+into two main groups relating to the industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at
+various localities, but especially Manises in Valencia.
+
+_Malaga_--Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom of Granada,
+which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century, the last remnant of
+Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under the art-loving Nasride dynasty,
+Mussulman arts and learning flourished to an unprecedented degree. In
+1337 Ahmed ben-Yahya al-Omari enumerates, among the craft productions of
+Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not to be
+met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta mentions (1350)
+the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada,
+in his description of Malaga. The principal monument of the period is
+the royal palace of Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th
+century, from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases
+were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the "Alhambra
+vase," is admittedly the most imposing product of Hispano-Moresque
+ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped body (4 ft. 5 in. high) is
+encircled by a band of Arabic inscription, above which are depicted
+gazelles reserved in cream and golden lustre upon a blue field; the rest
+of the body and the prominent handles are covered with compartments of
+arabesques and inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck,
+divided by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques. Vases
+similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic characters and
+arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in the museums at St
+Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to the exact date of these,
+experts are not agreed. Though presenting all the characteristics of the
+14th-century Hispano-Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were
+produced at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in
+the Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which is
+by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1409-1418), not to Yusuf
+I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a dish (Sarre collection,
+Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon its back, in Arabic, the word
+Malaga; it is ornamented with eight segmental compartments filled
+alternately with strap-work designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was
+reconquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its
+industry probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in
+1539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished.
+
+_Valencia._--The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by Aragon in 1238.
+The history of its lustred ware is known from 1383, when Eximenes (whose
+evidence has been erroneously held to date from 1499) mentions the
+golden ware (_Obra dorada_) of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind
+was an offshoot of the Malagan industry, as in documents lately
+published (ranging from 1405 to 1517) it is repeatedly designated Malaga
+ware (_Obra de Malaga_). Its decorative qualities became famous
+throughout the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly
+manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl or Boil
+family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output of the kilns,
+and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is distinguished as regards
+its ornamentation from the pottery of Malaga by the adoption of a more
+natural rendering of plant form motives and by the use of armory. The
+ware consists of drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates,
+aquamaniles, vases, &c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed
+during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic
+inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the vine,
+bryony, &c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently bear the
+arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of Manises, or other
+Valencian or Italian families for whom they were made. Great dexterity
+is shown in the execution of minute and complicated schemes of ornament
+and in the richness of the colour schemes; golden lustre of various
+hues, with blue and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the
+ruby, violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours a
+wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and manganese was
+gradually discontinued and the ornament quickly became nondescript, but
+the brilliancy of the lustre pigment nevertheless obtained a wide
+popularity for the ware, as is attested by Marineo (1539), Viciana
+(1564) and Escolano (1610). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609)
+the industry was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by
+Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their productions
+can be summed up in the word "decadence." In the course of the 15th
+century the manufacture of lustred pottery was carried on at various
+other small towns near Valencia; in 1484 it was produced at Mislata,
+Paterna and Gesarte. It is known to have flourished at Calatayud in
+1507, and at Muel, also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district
+much pottery for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also
+produced.
+
+_Majorca._--Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was
+imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these
+imitations "majolica," changing the letter in the name of the islands
+(then called Majorica) where they originated. The truth would appear to
+be that Valencian wares, being exported in Balearic vessels that called
+at Majorca on the voyage to Italy, acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin.
+There is extant a potter's petition praying for permission to establish
+himself in Majorca (1560), in which he states that "Manises ware," &c.,
+had to be imported, as it was not made there.
+
+  _Collections._--In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British
+  Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny Museum
+  collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains many fine
+  typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the archaeological
+  museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg museums, the Metropolitan
+  Art Museum at New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain
+  good specimens. The private collections of England, France and Italy
+  are rich in these wares, among the finest being those of Mr F.D.
+  Godman (Horsham), and of Don G.J. de Osma (Madrid).
+
+  LITERATURE.--A. Van de Put, _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the 15th
+  Century_ (1904); F. Sarre, "Die spanisch-maurischen Lusterfayencen des
+  Mittelalters," &c. (in _Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen_,
+  xxiv. (1903); G.J. de Osma, "Apuntes sobre ceramica morisca: textos y
+  documentos valencianos," No. 1, 1906, and "Los Letreros ornamentales
+  en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv." (in the review _Cultura
+  Espanola_, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Guma, _Rajolas valencianas y
+  catalanas_ (1905); J. Tramoyeres Blasco, "Ceramica valenciana del
+  siglo xvii." (in the _Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico Las
+  Provincias de Valencia_; J. Gestoso y Perez, Historia de los barros
+  vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J.C. Davillier, _Histoire des
+  faiences hispano-moresques a reflets metalliques_ (1861).
+       (A. v. de P.)
+
+
+MEDIEVAL AND LATER ITALIAN POTTERY[14]
+
+Little is known of the potter's art in Italy after the fall of the Roman
+empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the Roman potters appear
+to have been gradually lost, leaving behind only sufficient skill to
+make rude crocks for domestic use and to coat them, if required, with a
+crude yellowish lead glaze sometimes stained to a vivid green with
+copper oxide. Applied ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched
+designs were the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the
+same class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of
+Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with Asia
+Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had been highly
+developed in fresh directions, as we have seen, introduced into Italy as
+well as the rest of Europe those superior wares characterized by a white
+surface decorated with bright colours under a brilliant transparent
+glaze, and glorified by metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not
+long remain unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian
+and Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the households
+of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque wares from
+which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for a new ware of their
+own. The technique of a siliceous slip-coating with colour painted on
+that and covered with a transparent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly
+used, and then not very successfully; it is only the introduction of the
+tin-enamel that was turned to fruitful account and led to the production
+of the magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. In
+the same way the practice of lustre decoration might have been learnt
+from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares (16th century)
+and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain, rather than to the
+earlier lustres of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are further evidence that
+though oriental decorative motives gave the Italians certain early types
+of design, it is the Hispano-Moresque potters from whom the Italians
+learnt the art they were afterwards to develop so splendidly in a new
+direction.[15]
+
+All the Italian pottery above the level of common crocks may be
+conveniently grouped into four classes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Italian Graffiato Plate, 16th century. (South
+Kensington Museum.)]
+
+1. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay, coated with
+a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered with a crude lead
+glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of rendering this ware
+ornamental, and fitting it for more than vulgar use, led to a great
+development of the _graffiato_ process; where, while the vessel, with
+its white clay coating was firm yet soft enough, patterns were scratched
+or engraved through the white slip to the red body beneath. This
+decorative method has been already mentioned several times, for it was
+practised during the early middle ages in all the countries from India
+to Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor has its
+practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times when painted
+majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier and humbler pottery
+was used by those who could not afford the former; and the
+gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a fine decorative quality
+of their own. From the depth beneath the present soil at which fragments
+of this ware have been disinterred, it is obvious that the method was
+widely practised in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known
+except those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early
+examples have been found all over northern Italy--in Faenza, Florence,
+Pisa, &c., and particularly in Padua, where it seems to have been
+extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its manufacture, even to
+the end of the 17th century, and Citta di Castello must have been noted
+for it in the 16th century, for Piccolpasso describes this ware as "alla
+Castellana" (see fig. 44). Apparently in the latter half of the 15th
+century a sudden advance takes place in the colouring of this
+_graffiato_ ware. Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of
+the earlier productions, underglaze colours--green, purple, blue and a
+brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black where
+it is thick--were applied in bold splashes under the straw-coloured
+glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very simple means. As
+fine examples of this kind we may mention the dish with the mandoline
+players, and one with cupids disporting themselves in a tree, in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum; the tazza, supported by three modelled
+lions, in the Louvre; and the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two
+saints, in the museum at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite
+erroneously, _mezza-majolica_. It had nothing to do with majolica, being
+the natural development of a much older process; and its manufacture was
+carried on all through the period of majolica manufacture and has never
+ceased.
+
+2. _Mezza-Majolica_--This name is accurately applied to certain Italian
+wares that made their appearance in the 12th century or even earlier,
+when rude patterns--a clumsy star, a rude crossing of strokes or some
+equally elementary work--are found painted on a thin white ground
+covering a drab body. The pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms,
+are uncouth in the extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and
+then thinly coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first
+to have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were added
+to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the rude painting
+were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese, and the final glaze, which
+is generally thin and often imperfectly fused, seems to have been based
+on the alkaline glazes of the nearer East. The specimens so assiduously
+recovered by Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are to
+be found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert museums,
+are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller knowledge of
+Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew.
+
+3. _Majolica_--For the last three centuries the word majolica has been
+used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but comparatively soft buff
+body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel of varying degrees of whiteness
+and purity, on which a painted decoration was laid and fired. In the
+later pictorial wares, a fine coating of transparent alkaline glaze was
+fired over the painting to soften the colours--really to varnish them.
+The word itself appears to have been derived from the name of the island
+Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the lustred wares
+of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably arriving in
+ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do not believe that
+the ware was actually made in that island. That the secret of the
+tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian majolica, was known
+in Italy in the 13th century is practically proved; and there is both
+literary and archaeological proof of its use there in the 14th. Mention
+of it is made in the _Margarita Preciosa_ published at Pola by Pierre Le
+Bon in 1336, and the well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I.,
+discovered under the Manfredi palace at Faenza, must have been made
+shortly after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of
+the mezza-majolica, until it practically superseded the latter for
+painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples have little
+more than an archaeological interest, and it was only after the last
+decade of the _quattrocento_ or the first of the _cinquecento_ that it
+blossomed into an artistic creation. In its prime the production of
+majolica was confined to a very small part of Italy. Bologna on the
+north, Perugia to the south, Siena on the west, and the Adriatic to the
+east, roughly enclose the district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini,
+Pesaro, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena.
+Towards the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and in
+the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurian factories at Genoa, Albissola
+and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent styles, while, at the
+end of the 17th and in the early part of the 18th centuries, the
+southern town of Castelli, near Naples, produced a ware which closes the
+period of artistic majolica.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I
+
+  FIG. 52.--CORINTHIAN JAR.
+
+  FIG. 53.--FRANCOIS VASE. (From Furtwangler and Reichhold, <i>Griechische
+  Vasenmalerei</i>, by permission of F. Bruckmann.)
+
+  FIG. 54.--BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA BY EXEKIAS.
+
+  FIG. 55.--VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY. Signed by Python.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II
+
+  FIG. 56.--BOWL MADE AT CALES IN IMITATION OF METAL. (2ND CENT. B.C.)
+
+  FIG. 57.--VASE OF 5TH CENT. B.C., MODELLED IN FORM OF HEAD.
+
+  FIG. 58.--VASE OF 6TH CENT. B.C., IN FORM OF HELMETED HEAD.
+
+  FIG. 59.--FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE. (ROMAN PERIOD.)
+
+  FIG. 60.--AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH SCENE FROM EURIPIDES'
+  "HECUBA."]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III
+
+  FIG. 61.--MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL.
+
+  FIG. 62.--JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA.
+
+  FIG. 63.--EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR. (VILLANOVA PERIOD.)
+
+  FIG. 64.--STAMP FOR ORNAMENTING ARRETINE VASE.
+
+  FIG. 65.--ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC" JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV
+
+  FIG. 66.--MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE. (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 67.--MEDALLION FROM VASE MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE FROM
+  TRAGEDY. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 68.--JAR OF RHENISH WARE WITH INSCRIPTION. (3RD CENT. AFTER
+  CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 69.--BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES IN "FREE" STYLE.
+  (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)
+
+  FIG. 70.--JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)]
+
+4. _Lustred Majolica_--This brilliant species of Italian pottery (to
+which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to have been
+mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though experiments were made at
+Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza and Siena. Considering how much the
+Italian majolist owed to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable
+that this beautiful method of decoration should have made so tardy an
+appearance, for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier
+than the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently
+abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of Deruta,
+probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-marked affinities
+with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier examples are hardly to be
+distinguished from Spanish wares, and to the last the ware remained
+technically like the earlier ware, though with perfectly Italian
+decorative treatment. Yet the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have
+a quality of tone that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a
+wash of very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the
+most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us through
+the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre is a magnificent
+ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability the lustre process was so
+quickly abandoned on the fine painted majolica, because the increasing
+efforts to make a "picture" were discounted by so uncertain a process.
+When one of the later majolica painters had spent weeks on the
+decoration of some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of
+carefully drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose
+it to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process
+were inordinately great--Piccolpasso says, "Frequently only six pieces
+were good out of a hundred"--so that its use was relegated only to
+inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished and forgotten
+until its rediscovery in the second half of the 19th century.
+
+The history of the development of these noble wares is by no means
+clear, nor is it always certain what part was played by each town in the
+successive inventions of technical methods, decoration and colouring, so
+that it is better, in such a general sketch as this, to treat the
+subject in its broadest features only. In the earlier painted wares the
+only colours used were manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green
+as on the mezza-majolica, but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was
+added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate of
+lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were largely
+influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain,
+specimens of which were so prized as to be used for the decoration of
+church fronts and the facades of public buildings. The lustre of the
+Saracenic wares was not yet understood, but its place was taken first by
+manganese and afterwards by yellow. The designs were chiefly
+conventional flower-patterns in the Persian or Moorish style,
+arabesques, and floral scrolls, the ground being filled at times with
+those tiny spirals, scrolls and dots to which the Eastern potters were
+so partial. Figures, human and animal, were introduced either among the
+formal ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the
+outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see the
+early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures were, in fact,
+drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and not the vessel made
+to display the figure-subject as in the majolica of the succeeding
+century. The earliest dated example of this period is the pavement laid
+down in the Caracciolo chapel in the church of San Giovanni a Carbonara,
+in Naples, about 1440. Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the
+British Museum, and from their style it has been suggested that they
+were made by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen
+Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period also have
+been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain drugs or confections,
+and decorated with bold scrolls of formal oak leaves enclosing spirited
+figures of men or animals, or heraldic devices. These are characterized
+by a rich blue colour generally piled up in palpable relief and
+sometimes verging on black; the outlines are usually in manganese, and
+transparent green is used for details and occasionally even as a ground
+colour. This ware has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem
+very inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as
+Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert itself, and
+it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that he soon freed
+himself from repeating the styles of the wares from which he obtained
+his methods, and produced a distinctive type of ornament of his own. He
+revelled in patterns with bold floral scrolls, or those based on
+peacocks' feathers (see fig. 45), and then he advanced to concentric
+bands of painted ornament, borrowed from classic art yet breathing the
+true spirit of the Renaissance; while cable borders, chequer and scale
+patterns, bands of stiff radiating leaves, festoons of fruit and
+flowers, zigzags and pyramidal scrolls occupied nearly the whole surface
+or framed an armorial or emblematic central subject. Figure-subjects
+occur with increasing frequency as the century advanced; Madonnas and
+other sacred subjects, portraits, and, occasionally, groups of figures
+after the early Italian masters, or scenes borrowed from the first
+illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the
+conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface of the
+piece. The provenance of these 15th-century pieces still remains
+uncertain--Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other places offering
+rival claims,--but there is no doubt that from the earliest times Faenza
+was the most fertile centre of their manufacture, and almost all the
+motives of the _quattrocento_ wares are found on fragments discovered
+there or on examples that can be traced to Faventine factories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Early Faenza plate, with peacock-feather
+design, in blues, yellow and orange-red. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Early Faenza Potter's mark.
+
+Late Faenza Potter's mark.]
+
+It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca della
+Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1399-1482), and his followers,
+Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members of the family, as
+belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than of pottery, and this is
+right, for there is nothing certainly known of the work of this great
+sculptor which connects it with painted majolica. The old theory that
+Luca invented the tin-glaze is long since exploded; what he did was to
+use coloured glazes made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly
+modelled terra-cottas--a very different thing,--and it is by no means
+certain that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert
+Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every kind; and
+one may see there these beautifully modelled figures in high relief
+covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a background of slatey blue
+or rich manganese purple and framed in wreaths of flowers and fruit
+which are coloured with blue, green, purple and sometimes yellow. There
+are altar vases too, of classic shape with low relief ornament, covered
+with the same peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with
+modelled fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of
+roundels painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months;
+but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method is not
+that of painted majolica.
+
+A remarkable development took place at the beginning of the 16th
+century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest perfection of
+manipulative skill, both in potting and painting, was attained.
+Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed methods of painting
+then adopted are too much allied to fresco-painting to be considered as
+fit treatment for enamelled clay; but this view was certainly not
+accepted at the time, nor is it subscribed to by many modern collectors;
+yet, regarded as decorated pottery, the 15th-century majolica, simpler
+and more conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable.
+The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry under
+their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite view and
+spared no expense to provide subjects for their pot-painters. During
+the first two decades the influence of Faenza was paramount, and though
+the encroachments of purely pictorial motives are clearly indicated on
+the wares, room was still found for ornamental patterns. The broad rims
+of the dishes were covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently
+including grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza
+Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.). Sometimes reserved in the white on
+a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and yellow, sometimes
+traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze (called _berettino_) or
+painted in darker tints on a ground of orange or full yellow, the
+Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous feature of the early wares of
+this century. Honeysuckle patterns and interlaced lines drawn in pure
+white on a toned tin-enamel (white on white or _sopra-bianco_
+decoration) commonly appear on the sides of the deep wells of the
+dishes, while in the centre is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a
+small figure-subject. A similar treatment, without the _sopra-bianco_,
+was accorded to the fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &c., with
+moulded gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to
+Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also noted for
+delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a rich
+brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too, the "grotesque"
+decoration was practised with marked success. Other developments of this
+style are the "_a candelieri_" designs, in which grotesques were
+symmetrically arranged round some central subject, such as a candelabrum
+or vase, and "_a trofei_" in which trophies of arms, musical
+instruments, and other objects were symmetrically disposed, or arranged
+in studied disarray throughout the design; these patterns are generally
+associated with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers' gifts,
+dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust of a girl
+or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective inscribed on a
+ribbon in the background, were common to Faenza, Castel Durante and many
+other factories. Elaborate figure-subjects also were attempted early in
+the century at Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a
+dish in the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of
+the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schongauer, delicately
+painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500.
+
+In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are almost
+always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the grey-blue
+_berettino_ ground, and blue was the prevailing colour of the shading
+and details. In the third decade of the century the style affected at
+Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The majolica painter's palette was now
+complete; in addition to the primitive blue, manganese-purple,
+transparent green and yellow, we find black, white, orange, greens of
+varying shades, brown, and a great number of intermediate tints obtained
+by mixing the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the
+best periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing,
+and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a thing as
+painting in enamels on the finished ware and refiring them at a lower
+heat was unknown before the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th
+century. A true red colour seems to have been beyond the power of most
+of the Italian majolists, and was only attained at Faenza, and with less
+complete success at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery
+behaves very indifferently on tin-enamel.
+
+[Illustration: Urbino Potter's mark.]
+
+In the Urbino style, which now became general, the ware was given over
+entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes from history or romance,
+scriptural and mythological, copied from the compositions of the Italian
+painters and usually set in a background of Italian landscape.
+Guidobaldo II., duke of Urbino, spared no pains to develop this phase of
+the art; the cartoons of Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others,
+were placed at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the
+paintings of Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi,
+Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together with
+engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico and others,
+were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the majolica. Some of the
+painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli, were eclectic in their tastes
+and made up their subjects by taking a figure here or there from various
+pictures. Thus of three figures on a plate in the British Museum,
+painted with the Dream of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and
+another from Mantegna. These "_istoriati_" wares reached their zenith at
+Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops of the
+Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity was very
+general, and skilful painters at many other towns produced specimens
+that it is hard to distinguish from those of Urbino. Baldasara Manara
+was a prolific painter in this style at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel
+Durante were little behind Urbino in the skill of their artists, the
+Lanfranchi family in the former town having a well-deserved reputation,
+while the founders of the Fontana factories learnt their art in the
+latter; and a few pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini
+as their place of origin.
+
+There will always remain a large number of specimens of majolica which
+cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular factory, partly
+because the same style of painting was in vogue at many places at the
+same time, and partly because of the itinerant propensities of many of
+the painters, whose signed works prove that they moved from place to
+place to practise their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists
+whose touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear their
+signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion of the
+finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the founder of the
+Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante to Urbino in 1519, and
+worked at the latter place in the factory of his son, Guido Fontana.
+There is little doubt that he was the painter of the famous service in
+the Correr Museum at Venice, which marks the transition from the style
+of Faenza to that of Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces
+with strongly marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the
+careful landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily
+recognized in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the
+Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.). His pupil, who frequently signed his
+name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost Urbino
+painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring and fine
+figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish flesh tints. But
+Niccola's grandson, Orazio Fontana (see example, Plate VI.), was perhaps
+the most celebrated exponent of the pure Urbino style, and his free
+drawing and soft harmonious colouring, in which a brilliant blue is
+usually conspicuous, are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the
+period.
+
+[Illustration: Venetian Majolica Potter's mark.]
+
+Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been noted. Those
+with the grey-blue (_berettino_) glaze were principally made at the
+factory called Casa Pirota, though inferior imitations were also
+produced at Padua, and a blue glaze of paler tint was largely used at
+Venice. Dolphins are a frequent motive in the arabesque ornaments of the
+same Faventine workshop, and many of the wares are marked with a circle
+divided by a cross and containing a dot in one of the quarters. A
+capital P crossed with a line or paraph is another Faventine mark, and a
+somewhat similar monogram, with an S added to the upper part, is found
+in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has already been stated that a red colour
+is peculiar to Faenza and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo;
+it was used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto in
+the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici family, many
+fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faventine style; a deep blue,
+heavily applied and showing the marks of the brush, was freely used in
+backgrounds, and delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and
+reminiscent of Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see
+example, Plate VI). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the
+reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and Siena are
+richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric bands; those of
+Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or have one or two rings of
+yellow. A few pre-eminently beautiful dishes, with central figure
+subjects of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes with poplar
+trees in a peculiar mannered style, are probably the work of M.
+Benedetto of Siena. Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange
+ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps decorated by the same
+hand. The dishes covered, except for a few small medallions, with
+interlaced oak branches ("_a cerquate_" decoration), are no doubt the
+productions of Castel Durante; and a certain class of large dishes with
+figure subjects in blue on a toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal
+ornaments in relief, are of undisputed Venetian origin.
+
+[Illustration: Later Cafaggiolo Potter's mark.]
+
+Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle of the 16th
+century and synchronized with the decline of the pictorial style. The
+figure subjects were relegated to central panels or entirely replaced by
+small medallions, and the rest of the surface covered with fantastic
+figures among floral scrolls, inspired by Raphael's grotesques painted
+on the walls of the Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this
+ornament was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is
+always more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed over
+with a pure milk-white, known as _bianco di Ferrara_ or _bianco
+allatato_, said to have been invented by Alphonso I., duke of Ferrara,
+who took an active interest in his private factory founded at Ferrara,
+and managed by potters from Faenza and Urbino.
+
+The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara; at the
+first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi family, and
+lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica was now in full
+decline, partly through the falling off of princely patronage, and
+partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour of Chinese porcelain,
+which was becoming more plentiful and better known in Europe. The
+manufacture, however, never entirely ceased, and revivals of the old
+style were attempted at the end of the 17th century by Ferdinando Maria
+Campori of Siena, who copied Raphael's and Michelangelo's compositions,
+and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli. The
+majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the ware, good
+technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak colouring; it
+continued into the 18th century. A coarse and inferior ware was made at
+Padua and Monte Lupo; and the factories of Faenza were still active,
+producing, among other kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops
+and gadroons. The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the
+north. Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the
+17th century, and at Savona and Genoa blue painted ware in imitation of
+Chinese blue and white porcelain made its appearance. In the 18th
+century a new departure was made in the introduction of enamel painting
+over the glaze, a method borrowed from porcelain; but this process was
+common to all the faience factories of Europe at the time, and though it
+was widely practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any
+particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th century wares
+continue to be made in the factories of Ginori, Cantigalli and others,
+not excepting the lustred majolica of Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared
+with the old pieces, the modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in
+drawing, suspiciously wanting in the quality of the colours and the
+purity of the final glaze which distinguish the work of the best period.
+
+[Illustration: Turin Potter's mark.
+
+Savona Potter's marks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46--Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre
+only, made at Pesaro or Deruta, c. 1500. The motto on the scroll may be
+Englished as follows: "He who steers well his ship will enter the
+harbour." (Louvre.)]
+
+_Lustred Wares._--The lustred wares of Deruta have marked
+characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from the
+Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour of such a
+derivation. The most characteristic examples are large dishes and
+plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel on the upper face only, the
+back having a lead glaze. They are often decorated (see fig. 46) with a
+single figure or bust in the centre (with or without an inscribed
+ribbon), which is usually set against a dark blue background which
+covers only half the field, while in the other half is a formal flower,
+and in the borders are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with
+scale pattern, or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic,
+the designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a
+greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent _reflets_ recalling
+mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this _madreperla_ tint to a
+brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes modelled
+in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the Deruta lustred
+wares are scarcely older than the 16th century, and the style was
+continued as late as the second half of that century. Deruta pottery was
+not always lustred, and some of the pieces signed by the painter El
+Frate, who flourished between 1541 and 1554, are without the lustre
+pigment, though showing the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares.
+The lustred majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the
+work of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from Pavia,
+with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained citizenship in
+1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction of sculpture, and some
+of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia are still in existence;
+indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred majolica attributed to him is
+a plaque of 1501, with the figure of St Sebastian in relief, in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum. It is not known whence he learnt the secret
+of the beautiful transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or
+rosy lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares, and no
+doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter and developed by
+Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden, yellow, brown and opalescent
+lustres were also freely used at Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly
+applied. Finished painted pieces were sent from other factories to
+receive the addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be
+distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre is an
+integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred enrichment, the
+majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities, for its styles were
+various and almost all borrowed (see fig 47). The archaic taste of
+Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques of Faenza and Castel Durante, and
+in a lesser degree the "_istoriato_" style of Urbino, reigned in turn.
+Perhaps the most characteristic paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the
+central medallions of cups and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of
+a child or a cupid in _grisaille_. Giorgio's larger figure compositions,
+if indeed his signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted
+the designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising
+to a very high standard--as the dish with "the Three Graces" in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum, and the "Bath of Nymphs" in the Wallace
+collection--while in others the figure drawing is quite inferior. The
+arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio wares are usually of great
+merit. There are a few known pieces of unlustred Gubbio wares with
+figure subjects, painted chiefly in blue and in the style of the early
+Faventine artists. After 1517, when we may assume that the lustre
+process was thoroughly mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed
+with the initials or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly
+executed scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of
+the plates and dishes. The master's latest signed work is dated 1541,
+and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene assisted
+him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor of the lustre
+secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who signed his wares with
+the initial N, but this conjecture rests solely on the ingenious, but
+unsupported notion that N is a monogram of the first three letters of
+the name Vincentio. Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio
+plates, and the latest dated example of the ware is signed by one
+"Mastro Prestino" in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that
+it is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely
+disappear.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and
+blue outline. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: Gubbio Potters' marks.]
+
+  The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows:--among the earliest
+  are small bowls (_scodette_), often with flattened sides; jugs
+  (_boccali_) with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil
+  form; large dishes with gradually shelving sides (_bacili_), or with
+  flat broad rims and deep centres; akin to these are the plateaux with
+  a raised flat disk in the centre; small dishes with broad flat rims
+  and deep though narrow central walls (_tondini_), suitable for handing
+  a wine-glass or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (_piatti_ or
+  _taglieri_); saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with
+  moulded sides (_tazze_ or _fruttieri_) suitable for holding fruit.
+  Among the vase forms ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat
+  handles are common in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars
+  for confectionery, drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form
+  with graceful concave sides known as the "_albarello_," in shape of
+  Eastern origin, and in name perhaps derived from the Persian _el
+  barani_ (a vase for drugs, &c.); other vase forms with spouts and
+  handles were used for the same purpose; ornamental vases after
+  classical designs (_vasi a bronzi antichi_); and in the best Urbino
+  period a great variety of fanciful forms--ewers, vases, cisterns,
+  shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots, &c., with applied masks and serpentine
+  handles, were made in the exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece
+  of furniture for the bedside of ladies in childbirth (_vaso
+  puerperale_) consisted of a bowl with a foot surmounted by a flat
+  trencher on which fitted an inverted drinking-bowl (_ongaresca_); and
+  above this again a salt-cellar with cover. Many of these shapes were
+  suited to daily use, but the richly decorated majolica was designed to
+  adorn the walls, the _credenze_, table-centres and cabinets of the
+  rich. This alone could have been the destination of the large dishes
+  (_piatti di pompa_) with rim pieces for suspension, and the smaller
+  dishes (_coppe amatorii_) with portraits of young men and girls and
+  lovers' symbols; and it is inconceivable that the costly lustred wares
+  of Gubbio or the fine _madreperla_ dishes of Deruta were designed for
+  anything but decorative use. The ware was in fact an article produced
+  for the wealthy in the century of Italy's glory, and under no other
+  conditions could such magnificent and expensive pieces have been made.
+
+  _Technical Methods._--This is a convenient place to give an account of
+  the methods used by the early medieval potters--(1) because they
+  represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th century,
+  and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because, besides
+  all that a potter could derive from an examination of the wares, we
+  have ample written accounts of the methods and processes followed by
+  the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published an epitome of
+  the account given in Biringuccio's _La Pyrotechnica_ (Venice, 1540),
+  and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a potter of Castel
+  Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and Albert Museum, which,
+  besides giving an account of the processes, contains illustrations of
+  kilns, mills, decorative motives, &c.[16]
+
+  1. The potter's clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds
+  prepared by (a) beating and picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing
+  with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic
+  clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the
+  potter's clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish,
+  Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known
+  geologically as "marls," which contain a large percentage of carbonate
+  of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and
+  give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other
+  kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see
+  Deck's _La Faience_). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares are
+  useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery
+  bodies for such purposes.
+
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
+    |                |  Delia  | Majolica. | Delft. |  French  |
+    |                | Robbia. |           |        | Faience. |
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
+    | Silica         |  49.65  |   48.00   | 49.07  |  48.65   |
+    | Alumina        |  15.50  |   17.59   | 16.19  |  17.05   |
+    | Lime           |  22.40  |   20.12   | 18.01  |  19.43   |
+    | Magnesia       |   0.17  |    1.17   |  0.82  |   0.27   |
+    | Oxide of iron  |   3.70  |    3.75   |  2.82  |   4.33   |
+    | Carbonic Acid, |         |           |        |          |
+    |   water, &c.   |   8.58  |    9.46   | 13.09  |  10.27   |
+    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
+
+  2. _Shaping._--The vessels were either "thrown" on the potter's wheel
+  (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian times), or
+  they were formed by "pressing" thin cakes of clay into moulds, made of
+  a composition of plaster (_gesso_), bone-ash and marble dust. In the
+  latter way all shapes that were not circular were made, as well as
+  those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated from embossed metal
+  forms. It is interesting, though not surprising, to note that for the
+  fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when sufficiently dry,
+  were recentred on the wheel or were placed in a joiner's lathe and
+  smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The Greek potters did the
+  same, and this practice must always be followed where fine painting or
+  gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the later florid vases of the
+  Urbino style the piece was built up of thrown parts and moulded parts
+  (handles, masks, spouts, &c.), luted together with slip when they were
+  dry enough to be safely handled, and then retouched by the modeller or
+  vase-maker, a method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of
+  pottery or porcelain.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.
+
+    Syro-Persian: 13th century.
+
+    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.
+
+    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.
+
+    Damascus: 16th century.
+
+    Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.]
+
+  3. _The Glaze._--The white enamel which formed at first both the glaze
+  and the ground for painting upon--_bianco_, as it was called--was
+  prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (_marzacotto_) was
+  made by melting together clean siliceous sand (_rena_) and the potash
+  salt left as the lees of wine (_feccia_). This corresponds to the
+  alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash for
+  soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian
+  potter, and accordingly the _bianco_ was made by melting together
+  thirty parts of _marzacotto_ and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes.
+  The white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and
+  potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin.
+
+  4. Pigments (_colori_) were compounded from metallic oxides or earths;
+  the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed with oxide of
+  iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper (the turquoise
+  tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide of copper is
+  impossible with a glaze of lead and tin); and the greens were made by
+  mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or oxide of iron; blue,
+  from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue glass (_smalto_, or
+  _zaffara_); brownish-purple, from manganese; black, from mixtures of
+  the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish brown, of Faenza and
+  Cafaggiolo was probably the same Armenian bole that was used so
+  magnificently by the makers of the Turkish pottery, but on the white
+  enamel ground this colour was most treacherous and uncertain. It must
+  be remembered that many of these colours owe their tint to the lead
+  used in their composition, or to the grounds containing oxides of lead
+  and tin on which they were painted. Piccolpasso describes the
+  preparation and composition of the various colours used in his day.
+
+  5. _Coperta_, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin
+  coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to give
+  a smooth bright surface. This _coperta_ was a soft lead glass
+  consisting of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts;
+  potash, 12 parts; and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then
+  finely ground in water.
+
+  6. _Methods of Glazing and Decorating._--In the mezza-majolica and the
+  early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in the
+  white bath to give it an envelope (_invetriatura_) before it was fired
+  at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much better
+  to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and brittle
+  as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel, by
+  dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This was
+  the practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel, the
+  thickness of glove leather, having been obtained, the piece was
+  carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the
+  absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes,
+  &c., in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other
+  colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second time to a
+  heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted on the
+  vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the same
+  operation. This method of painting on the unbaked enamel demanded a
+  bold direct treatment--for alteration or retouching was
+  impossible--and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due to
+  this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was
+  felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface,
+  and so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of _coperta_
+  and fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother
+  and more glossy. Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs
+  of pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The
+  white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy
+  surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could
+  execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film
+  of _coperta_ was then washed over the painting, and the piece was
+  fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances
+  it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method
+  has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally we
+  should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been
+  painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely
+  certain when delicate white patterns have been "picked out" in a
+  coloured ground.
+
+  Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica it
+  indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final
+  firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those
+  used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an
+  otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were
+  placed in a special kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just
+  visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was
+  allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films
+  (silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze.[17]
+
+  _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the
+  most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at
+  the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan
+  collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection is
+  valuable, being rich in "signed" pieces of the first quality. The
+  Wallace collection and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum
+  collection, &c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable
+  examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at Sevres have
+  fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be found in the
+  Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum at Brunswick contains
+  one of the largest collections known, but many inferior and doubtful
+  examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St Petersburg have noteworthy
+  collections. In Italy, the Bargello at Florence and the museums of
+  Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, Pesaro, Urbino, Rome and Naples all have
+  collections, whilst interesting examples of local manufactures are to
+  be found in many of the smaller Italian towns. The American museums,
+  especially those in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine
+  examples.
+
+  LITERATURE.--F. Argnani, _La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine_ (Faenza,
+  1889 and 1903); D. Bonghi, _Intorno alle Majoliche di Castelli_
+  (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, "Siena," in the _Nineteenth
+  Century_, September 1900; Hensel, _Essai sur la majolique_ (Paris,
+  1836); G.I. Montanari, _Majoliche dipinte nella collezione del N.S.C.
+  Domenico Mazza_ (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, _Di un insigna raccolta di
+  majoliche_ (Bologna, 1844); also _Di un pavimento in majolica_
+  (Bologna, 1853); J.C. Robinson, _Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages_
+  (London, 1862); E. Darcel, _Musee du Louvre: Notice des faiences
+  peintes_; Drury E. Fortnum, _Contribution to the History of Pottery_
+  (London, 1868); Delange, _Recueil de faiences italiennes du XV^e au
+  XVII^e siecle_ (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, _Italienische Maiolika
+  Fliesen_ (Berlin); E. Molinier, _Les Majoliques italiennes en Italie_
+  (Paris, 1883), also _La Ceramique italienne au XV^e siecle_ (Paris,
+  1888); C. Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, Castel
+  Durante 1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris,
+  1841 and 1860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari,
+  _Notizia della raccolta Correr_ (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, _A
+  Descriptive Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum_
+  (London, 1873); Beckwith, _Majolica and Faience_ (New York, 1877); G.
+  Corona, _La Ceramica_ (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, _Istoria delle
+  fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi_ (Pesaro, 1879); A. Genolini,
+  _Majoliche italiane_ (Milan, 1881); Mely, _La Ceramique italienne_
+  (Paris, 1884); J.E. Jacobsthal, _Sud-italienische Fliesen_ (Berlin,
+  1886); Bertolotti, _Figulini, fonditori, e scultori_ (Milan, 1890); H.
+  Wallis, _Italian Ceramic Art_ (1897), _The Oriental Influence on the
+  Ceramic Art of the Italian Renaissance_ (1900), _The Art of the
+  Precursors_ (1901), _The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century_
+  (1902), _Oak-leaf Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware_ (1903), _The
+  Albarello_ (1904), also _Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana_ (1905),
+  and _Italian Ceramic Art: Figure Designs_ (1905); Tesorone, _L'Antico
+  Pavimento delle Logge di Raffaello in Vaticano_ (Naples, 1891);
+  Columba, _Il "Quos Ego" di Raffaello_ (Palermo, 1895); Drury E.
+  Fortnum, _Majolica_ (London, 1896); also _Fortnum Collection in the
+  Oxford Museum_ (London, 1896); O. von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin,
+  1896); also _Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italienischen
+  Majoliken_ (Leipzig, 1899); Antaldi Santinelli, _Museo di Pesaro_
+  (Pesaro, 1897); De Mauri, _L'Amatore di Majolica_ (Milan, 1898); E.
+  Hannover, _De Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence_
+  (Copenhagen, 1906).     (R. L. H.; W. B.*)
+
+
+FRENCH POTTERY FROM THE 15TH TO THE 19TH CENTURY
+
+The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here, for it was,
+in the main, similar to that which was made generally in Europe--rudely
+shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated with modelled ornament
+and glazed with yellow or brown lead glaze, or, if coated with white
+slip, decorated with bright green glazes, and towards the end of the
+15th century with greyish blue. The later specimens of this simple
+ware--pronouncedly Gothic in feeling--were often extremely decorative.
+Avignon, Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly
+national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work, the
+reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumulates that
+from time to time the princes and great nobles imported Spanish or
+Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decoration of their
+palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought Jehan de Moustiers and
+Jehan-le-Voleur, "_ouvriers en quarrieaux peints et jolis_," in 1391, to
+paint tiles for his palaces at Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we
+have already referred to the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at
+Poitiers by John of Valencia, the "Saracen," in 1384 for Duke Jean de
+Berry.[18] Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign
+work left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at a
+later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia from Italy to
+decorate his "Petit Chateau de Madrid" in 1529, or when Masseot
+Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at Rouen the painted tile pavements
+for the chateau of Ecouen, the cathedral of Langres, and other places,
+nothing came of the imported methods; the works were executed and left
+no traces on the general pottery of the country. During the 16th
+century, however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France of
+distinctive quality, and both eminently French--the Henri-Deux ware and
+the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators.
+
+_Henri-Deux_, _Oiron_ or _St Porchaire_ ware, for all these names have
+in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery, specimens
+of which are now valued at more than their weight in gold, was once
+believed to have been made by the librarian Bernard, and his assistant
+Charpentier, for their patroness Helene de Hangest about 1529 at her
+chateau at Oiron, near Thouars.[19] A few years ago this theory was
+discarded in favour of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of
+St Porchaire in the same region;[20] but even of this theory there is
+insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the maker and
+the place of origin. All we know is that the ware dates from the reign
+of Henry II., and that it was probably made somewhere near Oiron, as
+most of the specimens have been found in that district. The work is _sui
+generis_, for it had no direct ancestry, neither did it leave any mark
+on contemporary French pottery. Sixty-five pieces of the ware (see fig.
+48) are known to be in museums and private collections; the Louvre and
+the Victoria and Albert Museum have the best collections of their kinds,
+but the Rothschilds still hold the greater number of examples. The ware
+is fashioned in a simple whitish pipeclay, and ornamented with
+interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of the period, inlaid in
+yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The forms are generally graceful, but
+some examples are over-elaborate and overloaded with modelled ornament.
+The pieces were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas,
+ewers, holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been "thrown"
+and "turned" to a perfect shape, metal tools, such as were used by the
+bookbinders and casemakers of that day, were pressed into the clay, so
+as to form sunk cells of ornamental tooling. These cells were carefully
+filled with finely-prepared slips of other clays, that would burn
+yellow, buff or dark-brown; and when the whole was dry the piece was
+carefully smoothed again, and moulded reliefs were attached, or touches
+of colour were applied. After being fired the ware was glazed,
+apparently with the ordinary lead glaze of the time carefully prepared
+and fired again. At a later period the ornament was not inlaid in this
+elaborate manner, but was simply painted, as indeed it might all have
+been so far as decorative effect is concerned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Tazza of Oiron pottery. (Louvre)]
+
+[Illustration: Oiron Potter's mark.]
+
+_Palissy Ware._--Bernard Palissy was a genius of original talent, but,
+at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained a legendary rank as
+one of the great potters of the world which his pottery does not
+warrant. He is supposed to have spent sixteen years in the search for
+the white enamel which was being used all the time in Italy and
+Spain--probably he was searching for the mystery of Chinese
+porcelain--and when he settled down to make the "Palissy ware," he did
+nothing more than carry to perfection the methods of the village
+pot-makers of his own district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed
+groups of moulded plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with
+crude green, brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a
+well-prepared lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators, like A.
+Clericy and B. de Blemont, who executed works quite as good as those of
+their master; but their works also vanished and left no permanent
+impression on the general trend of French pottery.
+
+Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed over the
+French border and attempted to introduce the manufacture of their
+tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works of Gambin and Tardessir of
+Faenza, established at Lyons about 1556; of Sigalon at Nimes in 1548; of
+Jehan Ferro at Nantes about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed
+impetus came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague, became
+duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists, working under
+princely patronage, planting their decadent art in the centre of France.
+The first efforts met with little success until, with the appearance of
+the Conrades from Savona, who were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get
+the genuine ware of Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of
+the Conrades or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased
+majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder, the
+colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited. The first
+departure from Italian traditions is seen in the ware of the so-called
+"Persian style" of Nevers--probably adopted from contemporary work in
+Limoges enamels on metal--where conventional and fanciful designs of
+flowers and foliage, birds, animals or figures were thickly raised in
+white enamel on a ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the
+middle of the 17th century the Italian style of design appears to have
+been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in blue or in
+polychrome, but really imitated from the "Delft" copies of Chinese and
+Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and Moustiers became famous for their
+distinctive wares Nevers copied their designs also, and on a gradually
+descending scale the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th
+century, when France was flooded with the rude _Faiences patriotiques_
+from this centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Dish of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in
+blues and deep red.]
+
+The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces of Italian
+influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the famous Poterats in
+the later part of the 17th century. A new scheme of ornamentation was
+gradually evolved in the daintily-designed scalloped and radiating
+patterns adapted from oriental fabrics, lace and needlework, and from
+the ornamental devices of contemporary printers. These designs, having
+been skilfully drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue,
+strong yellow, light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief,
+applied as flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and
+sparkling ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian
+majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that rival
+factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny, Quimper, Lille,
+and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and Lille made fine pottery
+of this class at the end of the 17th and in the early 18th century. It
+was imitated at Nevers, the potters' marks shown being those of J.
+Bourdu and H. Borne. In the south of France, Pierre Clerissy established
+the industry at Moustiers in 1686, and, though the early Moustiers ware
+bears a strong resemblance to the debased Italian majolica of the time,
+the Moustiers painters soon left that behind, and on a glaze of
+inimitable whiteness and softness they deftly pencilled blue patterns
+based on the engravings of designs after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a
+later date Olerys, who had been to Alcora to introduce the French
+faience into Spain, returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale
+polychrome style very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are
+covered with patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale
+green and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the
+grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of Callot.
+Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as those at Apt, Ardus
+and Montauban, and even at Narbonne, Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just
+as the northern factories had sprung from Rouen.
+
+[Illustration: Nevers Potters' marks.]
+
+We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns in the
+Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly followed at all the
+French factories during the 18th century. At Strassburg a fresh impetus
+was given in this direction when, about 1721, Charles Hannong introduced
+the practice of painting his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze
+colours used by the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French
+potter to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and
+moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the coveted
+porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe. This new departure
+marks the end of the best period of French faience, but so successfully
+did it meet the demands of the time that it gradually displaced the old
+method of decoration where the colours were painted on the raw glaze and
+fired along with it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new
+ware in the first half of the 18th century at Niederviller, Luneville
+and Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at Rouen,
+Sinceny, Marseilles, &c. With its general adoption the old French
+faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed, to make way for a
+tin-enamelled imitation of _famille-rose_ porcelain. But this last style
+was not of long life. The wealthy classes were no longer patrons of
+pottery but of porcelain, and when, after 1786, the newly perfected
+English earthenware was thrown upon the French market, the French
+faience-makers had to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of
+this neater and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery.
+This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary times,
+brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we shall treat
+of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a subsequent
+section.
+
+  _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British Museum
+  contain typical examples; but not such collections as are to be seen
+  in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sevres, or the French
+  provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles, Lille, St Omer, &c.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Deck, _La Faience_ (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and Garnier,
+  _French Pottery_ (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks, 1884); Le
+  Breton, _Le Musee ceramique de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1883); Milet, (?)
+  _Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1898);
+  Pottier, _Histoire de la faience de Rouen_ (Amiens, 1870); L'Abbe H.
+  Requin, _Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers_, tome I^er
+  (Paris, 1903); M.L. Solon, _The Old French Faience_ (London,
+  1903)--the best survey of the whole subject, with a very full
+  bibliography. The various volumes of the _Gazette des beaux-arts_
+  contain many valuable original articles.     (W. B.*)
+
+
+GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN POTTERY
+
+In northern Europe until the time of the Renaissance the making of tiles
+is the only branch of the potter's craft of artistic rank. The pavement
+tiles of Germany of the Gothic period, examples of which have been
+found in the valley of the Rhine from Constance to Cologne, often bear
+designs of foliage or grotesque animals full of character and spirit.
+Their decoration is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood
+or clay, or by "pressing" the tile in a mould to produce a design in
+relief. The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze--green, brown
+or yellow--but is generally left unglazed.
+
+Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as the 14th
+century for the construction of stoves, such as have continued in use in
+Germany to the present day. About 1500 a development took place in the
+combination of glazes of different colours on a single tile. In the
+middle of the 16th century Renaissance ornament appears in place of
+Gothic canopies and tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used
+in combination with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the costume
+of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches are a
+favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares of similar
+technique known as _Hafnergefasse_, which have been wrongly attributed
+to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were made not only in that city but
+also in Silesia and at Salzburg, Steyr, and elsewhere in Upper Austria;
+their manufacture continued into the 18th century.
+
+Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on a white
+enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany about 1525, and it
+is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel should really be
+associated. The same style survived for more than a century and a half
+in the stoves and pottery made by the Pfau family at Winterthur in
+Switzerland, from the end of the 16th century onwards. An interesting
+development is exhibited by certain rare productions, of Silesian
+origin, dating from about 1550, with decorations in coloured enamels
+which are prevented from flowing together by a strong outline incised in
+the clay.
+
+_Stoneware_.--The most important feature of the history of German
+pottery is the development of stoneware along the valley of the Rhine.
+This ware is of a highly refractory white or grey body of intense
+hardness, glazed by the introduction of salt into the kiln when the
+highest temperature was reached. It was exported in large quantities
+through the markets of Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England,
+France and other parts of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in
+its decoration of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the
+German potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers.
+
+The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at Siegburg
+near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to the neighbourhood,
+made from local clay, must have been made and exported in considerable
+quantities at least as early as the 15th century; plain beer-jugs of
+that date with cylindrical neck and slightly swelling body have been
+unearthed in London and the eastern counties of England. In the 16th
+century an artistic development took place, and the potters were formed
+into an exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture
+lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent
+attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a creamy
+white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely coloured by
+staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression with small stamps
+or by the application of reliefs pressed from separate moulds. The
+motives include sacred and classical figure subjects, portraits of
+contemporary sovereigns, and armorial bearings, with accessory foliage
+in which a survival of Gothic feeling is often perceptible.
+Characteristic forms are the high tankard (_Schnelle_) and the ewer with
+long spout (_Schnabelkrug_), but the fancy of the potter also found
+expression in various quaint or extravagant forms.
+
+At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained importance
+about 1550, and was continued for over seventy years; 1539 is the
+earliest date known to occur on this ware. The pieces were of two kinds,
+brown-glazed and grey; the latter usually decorated with blue. The
+favourite form is a baluster-shaped jug with heraldic designs or a
+frieze of figures round the middle. The subjects are from Scripture
+history or contemporary peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham
+and the German and French "Little Masters." Examples are known bearing
+dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among them Ian Emens and
+Baldem Mennicken; but it must not always be inferred that a piece is as
+old as the date introduced in its decoration, for the same set of moulds
+might be used for many years.
+
+Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen near
+Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as _Bartmanner_, from the bearded mask
+applied in front of the neck, covered with a brown glaze, which in later
+examples is often coagulated into thick spots, were first made here
+towards the end of the 15th century, and continued to be the staple
+product well into the 17th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards
+or Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England, Scandinavia
+and the Low Countries, were mostly made here. At Cologne itself there
+were also factories, probably before the 16th century, the later
+productions of which resemble those of Frechen.
+
+During the 17th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware centre was the
+district surrounding Hohr-Grenzhausen in Nassau known as the
+Kannebackerlandchen, where artistic ware was being made before 1600.
+Soon after that date manganese purple was first used in the decoration
+in addition to cobalt blue, and henceforward colour in combination with
+impressed and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede
+decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes, foliage on
+wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels of large size and
+fantastic shape appear beside the standard forms of the earlier
+factories. In the 18th century the forms of beer-vessels became
+stereotyped in the globular jug with cylindrical neck and the
+cylindrical tankard, while tea and coffee pots, inkstands and other
+vessels, hitherto unknown, began to be made. A stoneware manufacture
+dating back to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria. The
+productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries consist
+of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red body, covered
+with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently painted after the first
+firing in brilliant enamel colours with figures of the Apostles, the
+electors of the Empire, or other oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the
+wares of Raeren and Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi;
+other minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near Cologne
+and Bunzlau in Silesia.
+
+As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain Delft potters)
+and in Germany, attempts were made with some success, early in the 18th
+century, to imitate the Chinese red stoneware, known as _boccaros_. The
+early efforts of Bottger, the discoverer of the secret of true
+porcelain, at Meissen, belong to this category. His red ware is of such
+hardness that it was cut and polished on the lapidary's wheel. For some
+time after the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed
+brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration was made at
+Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories of this class cannot now
+be identified.
+
+Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery, such as the
+bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical devices modelled in
+relief and applied. Slip-covered wares with _graffiato_ decoration,
+apparently of indigenous growth and not inspired by foreign examples,
+were made well on into the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in
+Germany, at Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in
+Pennsylvania. In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made in the
+18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling the Dutch
+carved woodwork of the period.
+
+_Delft._--One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of pottery
+is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed state, of the
+manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at Delft. It was introduced
+in that town by Herman Pietersz of Haarlem, but whence he learned his
+art is unknown. The faience-makers (_plateelbackers_) were one of the
+eight crafts of Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 1611.
+About 1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years of
+the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more serviceable
+wares of the English potteries, Delft remained the most important centre
+of ceramic industry in northern Europe. The ware is of fine
+buff-coloured clay, dipped after the first firing in a white tin-enamel,
+which formed the ground for painted decoration; after painting, this was
+covered with a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that
+in its technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian
+majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly ranked
+among the greatest achievements of the potter's art.
+
+Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in blue
+monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular life in the style
+of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of the oriental porcelain
+imported by the Dutch East India Company were introduced about 1650 by
+Aelbregt de Keizer and continued for some time among the finest
+productions. At the same time the earlier tradition was developed in the
+finely painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and
+Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were Lambartus
+van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the large reeded vases with
+Chinese floral designs in polychrome, Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen
+Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale; to the last are attributed the pieces with
+yellow decoration on an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples
+with polychrome decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese
+lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker. With the 18th century came
+a largely increased demand and a consequent deterioration in artistic
+quality. The rise of the German porcelain factories had its effect in
+the introduction of overglaze painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified
+by the work of the Dextras, father and son. This innovation, by which
+the Delft potters attempted to compete with European porcelain,
+contributed to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch
+required for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but
+not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory (the
+rose, the peacock, the three bells, &c.), or the name or initials of its
+proprietor.
+
+A small faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff about 1755 at
+Arnhem; its productions were of good quality, chiefly in the rococo
+style, marked with a cock.
+
+The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned the rise of
+numerous factories in that country for making faience in imitation of
+the Dutch. Among these may be named Hanau (founded about 1670),
+Frankfort and Cassel. Others, such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their
+inspiration from the productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (q.v.). At
+Nuremberg a factory was founded in 1712, which was but little affected
+by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions are
+dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs with long
+necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted. Similar wares were
+made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French styles were carried by German
+potters into Scandinavia; factories were established at Copenhagen in
+1722, at Rorstrand and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1728 and 1758, and at
+Herreboe in Norway about 1759.
+
+At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported English
+earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops were established for
+painting the English cream-coloured ware with subjects suited to the
+Dutch taste; and in Germany cream-coloured wares and _steingut_ in
+imitation of Wedgwood's productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau
+and elsewhere. The "Delft" ware of Holland during the 17th century was a
+beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters caught
+successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value, of Chinese
+blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over the whole of Europe, and
+its styles were readily imitated by the potters of all other countries
+who made a similar ware. Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so
+beautiful as the "blue and white," is strongly decorative, and one sees
+in the polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more than a
+trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted by English
+earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that was technically
+superior displacing a more artistic product.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+  Calaggiolo: 16th century.
+
+  Faenza. Casa Pirota, 1525.
+
+  Urbino. Decorated by Orario Fontana.
+
+  Urbino. 1525 (?). A plate of the famous Gonzaga Este service.
+
+  Faenza: early 15th century.]
+
+  _Collections._--For German wares the German museums are naturally
+  best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid collections
+  of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany. Cologne has a
+  wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and Berlin and Hamburg
+  have good general collections. Copenhagen and Stockholm are especially
+  good for Scandinavian wares, and Zurich for Swiss. There are also good
+  collections of German stoneware in the Victoria and Albert and the
+  British museums, and in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum
+  at Sevres; but there are no notable collections of the German
+  tin-enamelled wares out of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best
+  studied in the museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an
+  interesting collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchere in
+  Delft. The principal museums in England, France and Germany all have
+  fair to good collections of this renowned ware.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, _Geschichte
+  der europaischen Fliesen-Keramik_ (Strassburg, 1900; chapters on the
+  Netherlands and Germany); Walcher von Molthein, _Bunte Hafnerkeramik
+  der Renaissance in Osterreich ob der Enns und Salzburg_ (Vienna,
+  1906); Hafner, _Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Ofen in Winterthur_
+  (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, _Tulip-ware of the Pennsylvania
+  German Potters_ (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware, see Solon, _The
+  Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Germany_ (London,
+  1892); Van Bastelaer, _Les Gres wallons_ (Mons, 1885). For Bottger's
+  red ware, see Berling, _Das Meissner Porzellan_ (Leipzig, 1900), chap.
+  iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, _Histoire de la faience de Delft_
+  (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on "La Faience d'Arnhem" in
+  _Gazette des beaux-arts_, 2nd series, vol. xx. (1879). For German
+  faience, see von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin, 1896), and articles by
+  Stieda, "Deutsche Fayencefabriken des 18. Jahrhunderts," in
+  _Keramische Monatshefte_, vols. ii. and iii. For Scandinavian pottery,
+  see Nyrop, _Danske Fajence og Porcellainsmaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1881);
+  Strale, _Rorstrand et Marieberg_ (Stockholm, 1872); Grosch,
+  _Herreboe-Fayencer_ (Christiania, 1901). Excellent accounts of most
+  branches of the subjects are given by Brinckmann, _Das hamburgische
+  Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe_ (Hamburg, 1894).     (B. Ra.)
+
+
+LATER WARES OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
+
+We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds of pottery
+that have exerted real influence on the historical development of the
+art. Offshoots from the main stem that have developed little or no
+individuality can only be briefly mentioned. When the characteristic
+Spanish-Moorish lustre wares ceased to be desired by the wealthy they
+rapidly sank into insignificance, though as a decorative peasant pottery
+their manufacture never really ceased and has been revived again in our
+day. The course of pottery importation was changed and the now
+fashionable Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and 17th
+centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the opposite course
+two centuries earlier. Besides the influence which these imported wares
+had on the Spanish potters, a number of wandering Italian majolists
+found their way into Spain, so that we find the use of painted colour,
+particularly blue, yellow, orange, green and purple, making its
+appearance at various centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville,
+&c., but the most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of
+the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian majolica
+of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain designs, probably
+filtered through to the Spanish potters by the then popular enamelled
+Delft wares, is very apparent. The potteries of Talavera are mentioned
+as early as 1560, and they continued at work, with varying fortunes,
+down to the end of the 18th century. Many and varied wares were
+produced, including tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery
+pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, _tinajas_, holy-water vessels,
+drug-pots, and hanging flower vases, together with moulded and painted
+snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind of fruit.
+Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of ornament also rendered
+the ware much inferior to that of Italy or of France. The popular
+Talavera wares were imitated elsewhere in Spain, and a number of
+factories existed at Toledo in the 17th century, but their wares are
+very inferior. In the 18th century, besides debased imitations of this
+ware, some coarse but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo
+near Toledo.
+
+An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be found in
+the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from the early 17th
+century. It is said that Spanish potters were settled at this place by
+the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the making of a debased form of
+Spanish majolica continued there for nearly two centuries. See Barber's
+"Tin-Enamelled Pottery," _Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum_, 1907.
+During the 18th century determined efforts were made by King Charles
+III. and by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery
+wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain. The efforts
+of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain works at Buen Retiro
+near Madrid, which will be mentioned later, and considerable success
+also attended the revival of strong copper lustre, like that of the late
+Hispano-Moresque wares; but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those
+made at Alcora in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726,
+which continued in operation down to the French wars. For his purposes
+the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the famous French pottery
+centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a well-known pot-painter. He went to
+Alcora as chief draughtsman and designer, having charge of a number of
+Spanish potters and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of
+decoration, and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best
+period recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to
+add that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow
+and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to France in
+1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he introduced this new
+style of delicate polychrome decoration at Moustiers. The mixture of
+motives and ideas that animated the duke and his potters may be seen by
+the following list of wares produced about 1750. Vases of different
+shapes; small teapots; teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and
+covers, Dutch fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entree dishes;
+salt-cellars, Chinese style; _escudillas_ (bowls) of Constantinople;
+_barquillos_ (sauce-bowls), Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of
+different kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work, and
+finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and refrigerators.
+Later in the century the manufacture of porcelain was introduced here,
+as well as white earthenware made in imitation of the productions of
+Wedgwood, and the tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did
+elsewhere.
+
+The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also practised in
+Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times; but the ware never
+attained to any distinction and is little known outside that country.
+The best-known specimens were made at Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory
+was founded in 1767 under the patronage of the court.
+
+Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain and
+Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots, and other
+domestic utensils are still made in these countries for ordinary
+domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of the most primitive
+kind. Many of these vessels, especially the _tinajas_ (wine-jars) and
+water-coolers, are based on ancient, classical or Arab forms, and in
+every country market-place it is still common to see groups of vessels,
+in unglazed pottery of fine shape and finish, exposed for sale--a very
+different state of things from what obtains in France, Germany, and
+particularly in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are
+being imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to the
+18th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known as
+_buccaros_ was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal. The body of
+the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, according to the special
+kind of clay. The curious point about this ware is that, if we may
+believe contemporary documents, the vessels were delicately scented,
+like a ware imported from Mexico; and the soft vessels are said to have
+been eaten--a custom common enough in certain parts of Central and
+Southern America. (See M.L. Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_, 1896.)
+     (W. B.*)
+
+
+ENGLISH POTTERY FROM THE 16TH TO THE 18TH CENTURY[21]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are
+shown]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Common forms of medieval pottery; the upper
+part of the slender jug is covered with a green vitreous lead glaze; the
+other is unglazed with stripes of red ochre.]
+
+The course of pottery manufacture in England followed, generally rather
+in the rear, that of France, Germany and other northern countries.
+Before the coming of the Romans much pottery of the late Stone age and
+the Bronze age was made in Britain. The Romans introduced their more
+advanced technique, and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery,
+they founded numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch,
+Castor, Uriconium, &c. With the departure of the Roman legions their
+simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery vanished, and Saxon and
+early Norman times have left us little but wares resembling those of the
+Germanic and Frankish productions (fig. 50). The early middle ages
+passed without much improvement, and, though rare specimens--like the
+ewer in the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum--proved that
+glazed wares were made in this country, the general run of our medieval
+pottery vessels never soared above the skill of the travelling brick or
+tile maker.[22] The monastic tile-makers, with their strong, Gothic tile
+pavements, produced artistic work of a very high order; but the patrons
+of the common potter remained content with his rudely made and simply
+glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even in the
+16th century the excellence of English pewter probably acted as a
+barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it was only the
+importation of foreign wares--Italian, German, Dutch and French--that
+stirred up our native clay-workers to the possibilities of their art. In
+early Tudor times there was some importation of Italian majolica as well
+as of the Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the
+constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to the eastern
+counties not only the stonewares of the Rhineland and the "Delft" wares
+of Holland, but also emigrant potters from those countries who tried to
+practise their native crafts amongst us. The Civil War appears to have
+been unable to check this new spirit, for we have the evidence of dated
+examples to show that various immigrants went on quietly practising
+their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the outskirts of
+London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent as well. It seems
+probable that the earliest influence was an Italian one, but before this
+was firmly domiciled it was supplanted by that of the Dutch and Germans.
+The first wares of an improved kind that were made in England are so
+closely related to the German stonewares and the "Delft" wares that it
+is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of English
+or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the greatest, of
+English potters was John Dwight, an educated man, who had held the
+office of secretary to three successive bishops of Chester, and who
+obtained a patent in 1671 for the manufacture of certain improved kinds
+of pottery. We have no knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the
+potter's art, for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan
+(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign potters had
+settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory at Fulham, where he
+resided till his death in 1703. He was always an eager experimenter, and
+from his diaries it seems certain that he was searching after the, then,
+mysterious Chinese porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he
+ever attained success in this search, for his known productions may be
+grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stoneware--mostly
+small vessels, teapots, mugs, &c., in imitation of the Chinese
+buccaros.[23] (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed stoneware made in
+imitation of, and often not to be distinguished from, the wares of the
+Rhineland. But Dwight produced a considerable number of modelled
+portrait-busts, statuettes, &c., all in stoneware of various tints,
+which entitle him to a place in the very first rank of potters. The
+portrait-bust of Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of
+Meleager (British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &c., are worthy of a
+sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy of Lydia
+Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the most beautiful works
+ever executed by an English potter.
+
+Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style of
+"Delft," was prosecuted with increasing industry in London on the south
+side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth. By the end of the 17th
+century the same imitation "Delft" wares were made at Bristol and
+Liverpool, continuing until, in the closing years of the 18th century,
+tin-enamelled earthenware was abandoned in favour of the perfected
+English cream-colour. There is a strong family likeness in all this
+English "Delft," whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body
+of the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares of the
+continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose, as it is
+generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually painted in cobalt
+blue of good tone, though inferior in softness and richness of tint to
+that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome painting was not so common,
+and it differs from that of the Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a
+pale yellow colour and the general absence of any good red like that
+found on the polychrome wares of Delft, Rouen, Sic.
+
+German stoneware also received a well-merited share of attention long
+before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible to distinguish the
+grey and brown ale-jugs, greybeards, &c., presumably of English
+manufacture in the 17th and early 18th centuries, from their German
+prototypes. Fulham remained an important centre of this manufacture, and
+a fine brown stoneware was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700;
+in each case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to this
+day.
+
+The development of a native English pottery took place in North
+Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters, who manufactured
+some strongly decorative English wares by very simple means, was
+established here from the middle of the 17th century. Rudely fashioned
+dishes, jugs, bottles, &c., were shaped in the local red-burning brick
+clays, and, while the pieces were still soft, simple but effective
+decorative patterns were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip),
+trailed on through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient
+and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic Egyptian, the
+Roman and the Byzantine potters) has furnished the peasant potters of
+every European country with characteristic wares, but nowhere was it
+used with greater skill than in England. The English slip-decorated
+wares are often spoken of as "Toft ware," because Thomas Toft, living in
+what is now Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his
+pieces (1670, &c.); but similar wares were made at Wrotham in Kent, in
+Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of the Staffordshire
+district must have spread by the time of the Revolution, for soon after
+1690 John Philip Elers, a Dutchman of good family, settled there and
+began to make a superior pottery to any previously made in the district.
+Elers is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds
+of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known to have
+made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite recently, records
+of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers and some other Staffordshire
+potters with suborning his workmen and infringing his patents have been
+brought to light. It is certain that, from the time of Elers, the
+Staffordshire potters made great advances in the fabrication of their
+wares, and during the 18th century they evolved two distinctively
+English kinds of pottery, (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English
+earthenware.
+
+_Staffordshire Salt-glaze._--It is uncertain when and how the
+Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could be
+glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height of the
+firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland more than a
+century before. Many writers have maintained that the practice was
+introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain. Early in the 18th century a
+fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware was made in Staffordshire, in many
+quaint and fanciful forms largely influenced by Chinese porcelain--still
+an object of wonder and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies,
+plates, dishes, bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great
+variety, and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a
+brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time, a
+distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent and to the
+American colonies.
+
+_English Earthenware._--The manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery
+scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the invention of the
+white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one of the greatest revolutions
+in the potter's art that the world has ever seen. This was nothing less
+than the abandonment of the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of
+white slip or of tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white
+throughout its substance, prepared by mixing selected white-burning
+clays and finely-ground flint (silica).[24] The change has generally
+been associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters, but he
+really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the Warburtons,
+Turners and others, the work of half a century's experiment and
+discovery. The ware compared most favourably, from the point of view of
+serviceableness, neatness and mechanical finish, with all that had gone
+before it, and as the tin-enamelled wares had almost everywhere in
+Europe sunk to the position of domestic crockery--for the Chinese,
+German, French and English porcelains had displaced it with the
+wealthy--this better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its
+final death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be met
+with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from Cadiz to
+Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the continental
+nations soon began a similar manufacture for themselves. Everywhere this
+great change was encouraged by the growing fondness for mechanical
+perfection, and it is not without a sigh that a lover of pottery can
+witness the gradual disappearance of the painted tin-enamelled
+wares--degenerate survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French
+faience and Dutch "Delft"--before the unconquerable advance of another
+form of pottery which in its inception was based on technical rather
+than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a century passed before
+the new material was turned to artistic account.
+
+By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been pre-eminently
+associated with this great change, and with good reason, for though he
+had many contemporaries who equalled or even excelled him in certain
+kinds of pottery, no other potter ever approached him in the range of
+his products and the varied applications to which he turned the exercise
+of his remarkable talents.[25] True, he soon abandoned the simple
+Staffordshire wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to
+which the names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the
+varied productions of his factory united the best work of a district
+fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial to Wedgwood
+himself. Thus he adopted and improved the green and yellow glazes which
+had come down from medieval times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate
+X.), and gave a new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert
+services, candlesticks, &c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-fired
+red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &c., introduced by
+Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he invented drab, grey, brown
+and other colours in similarly hard-fired unglazed bodies. He neither
+invented nor alone perfected the Staffordshire cream-coloured
+earthenware, but he made it so well that his "Queen's ware" was the best
+of its class. He undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on
+grounds of unglazed blue, green, black, &c., white figures and
+ornamental motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and
+other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to reproduce the
+painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours painted over a hard
+black body.
+
+Wedgwood's "Jasper ware," his most original production (see Plate X.),
+differed both in nature and composition from all the species of pottery
+that had preceded it. In an attempt to obtain the qualities of the
+finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood discovered, after years of
+experiment, that by mixing together a plastic white clay and "cawk" or
+barytes he could obtain a "body" which might be "thrown" on the wheel or
+"pressed" in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and
+sub-translucent pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual
+metallic oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and
+black. The ware resembled "biscuit" porcelain in that it needed no glaze
+to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the culmination of
+those "dry" or unglazed wares that had been so largely made in China,
+Japan and Europe, where the quality resides in the fired clay material
+without any adventitious aid from a glaze. The general practice was to
+make the body of the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this
+with applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in "white" of the same kind,
+"pressed" from intaglio moulds and then applied by wetting the surface
+and squeezing--leaving the fire to unite the vessel and its applied
+ornament into one piece. Sometimes the ornament was in a coloured clay
+applied on a white body, and we get in the same way black on red, buff
+on red or black, and red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety
+of bodies produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is
+exceedingly great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of their
+application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases, plates, dishes,
+jardinieres, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers, inkstands,
+scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every kind of thing
+that could be made in clay. Many of the applied designs, whether of
+figures or ornament, were very beautiful in a way, being copied or
+adapted from Greek and Roman gems, vases, &c. At their best they are
+marvellous for the precision and delicacy of their execution, and it is
+impossible to imagine that anything better could have been done in this
+style. So perfectly did they represent the taste of their period that
+attempts were made at Sevres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce
+something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can be
+compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great contemporary Turner
+(see Plate X.), in beauty of colour or perfection of workmanship.
+
+It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired by mistaken
+motives; that it was founded on an imperfect view of ancient art; and
+that it was marred by its mechanical ideals; but it must be remembered
+that it was in perfect harmony with the spirit of the times, and that
+while it emphasizes for us the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th
+century, it marks an advance in the technical skill of the potter, which
+is simply astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone
+further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally
+supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances were
+introduced for the performance of many portions of the potter's work
+that had hitherto been indifferently performed by rude and exhausting
+manual toil; and while the application of mechanism was pushed too
+far--so that in the first half of the 19th century we find the most
+inartistic pottery the world has ever seen--we must regard this even
+more as a cyclic movement of human feeling than as the work of any
+individual, or group of men. The late 18th century marks the period when
+pottery was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux
+ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen, Moustiers,
+Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the wealthy, but when it
+was largely in demand by the poorer classes, anxious in their turn to
+have a useful ware which should imitate the more costly porcelain used
+by the great. France, Germany, Sweden, Russia, and later the United
+States, all followed in the wake of the English potters, and the
+printing-press was applied in all countries to produce elaborate
+engraved patterns in blue, brown, green, &c., in order to get an
+effective-looking ware in harmony with the spirit of the times, and at
+the same time cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the
+vanquished tin-enamel.
+
+  _Collections._--The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums
+  naturally contain the most representative collections of English
+  pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and
+  Nottingham, also have good collections, while Birmingham, Manchester
+  and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall Museum, London,
+  is rich in early wares found or made in London and its vicinity.
+  Continental collections of English pottery are meagre in the extreme
+  and badly described, even in the ceramic museums at Sevres and
+  Limoges. The collection at Dresden is interesting, as it was purchased
+  from the collection made by Enoch Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In
+  America, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of
+  New York, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia,
+  contain interesting examples of wares exported to America in the late
+  18th and early 19th centuries.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt's _Ceramic Art
+  in Great Britain_ (1878), and _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_ (1865);
+  Chaffers, _Marks and Monograms_ (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900);
+  Meteyard's _Life of Wedgwood_ (1865-1866), and Shaw's _History of the
+  Staffordshire Potteries_ (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always be
+  of interest as original sources of information; but the later works,
+  such as Church, _English Earthenware_ (1884; new edition, 1906);
+  _Josiah Wedgwood_ (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907); Solon, _Art of the
+  Old English Potter_ (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, _Catalogue of
+  English Pottery in the British Museum_ (1903); Burton, _English
+  Earthenware and Stoneware_ (1904), are the best authorities.
+       (W. B.*)
+
+
+CHINESE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN[26]
+
+In China, as in every other country where pottery-making has been
+practised for centuries, we find a natural progression from primitive
+pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture to the pottery of
+other primitive races the world over. We find too the early use of
+bricks, tiles, &c., as in Egypt and Assyria; and then the usual
+succession of domestic utensils, funeral vases, and vessels for
+religious ceremonials. There is nothing to show that the potter's wheel
+made its appearance in China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese
+potters have used the simple methods of carving and "pressing" from
+moulds which preceded the use of the potter's wheel, even more than
+other nations. In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 B.C.) the
+difference between the processes of "throwing" and of "pressing" from
+moulds is clearly described,[27] and it is instructive to note that many
+early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery are remarkably like their
+works in bronze. In the same way there is no definite date to which we
+can refer the introduction of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of
+glazed ware known are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han
+dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), a date much later than that of the
+earliest glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the intercourse
+between China and the West, at times historically remote, it is not
+impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with a glaze was
+carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any case the Chinese
+developed the potter's art on their own lines, for we have ample
+evidence that from very early times they fired their pottery to a much
+higher temperature than was common in the west of Asia, and so
+discovered types of glaze and of pottery that remained for centuries a
+mystery elsewhere. The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned
+are quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria, Egypt or
+Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can scarcely be
+scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze has become iridescent
+by age as though it contained oxide of lead. The easily-fired friable
+wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece seem to have had no attraction for
+the Chinese, and the glazes on their hard-fired wares were naturally
+different from those already described. The Chinese appear to have been
+the first potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high
+temperature pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed
+with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary refractory
+clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this technique lay the
+germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced form of pottery the world
+has yet seen. It is necessary to consider the pottery that preceded
+porcelain, for not only was it the matrix out of which porcelain grew,
+but in certain districts of China, where the necessary materials for
+porcelain are not found, similar wares have been manufactured without
+intermission to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the
+technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by
+developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the shaping
+and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured enamels or
+glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great authority on the
+Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on two outstanding types of
+Chinese pottery other than porcelain which have exercised considerable
+influence on the doings of European potters.
+
+  1: _Yi-Hsing-Yao_.[28]--This is the pottery, generally of unglazed
+  fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the province
+  of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these fine-coloured
+  clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished pieces,
+  such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-bottles and
+  wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under the Ming dynasty
+  (A.D. 1368-1643) and later.[29] It was imported into Europe by the
+  Portuguese, who applied to it the name _boccaro_, formerly given only
+  to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico and Peru.[30] This
+  pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder as the poles in nature
+  as well as origin, but the potters of northern Europe regarded every
+  kind of pottery coming from the Far East as a species of porcelain,
+  and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs, bowls, cups, &c., in
+  imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread during the late 17th and
+  early 18th centuries under the name of red porcelain. Dwight, Elers
+  and Bottger are notable names in this connexion.
+
+  2. _Kuang-Yao_.--The name given by the Chinese to the pottery made in
+  the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of manufacture
+  in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this article it is
+  sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are dense,
+  hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured grey,
+  red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with thick, variegated
+  or opalescent glazes, grey, blue, green, yellow or red, but flecked,
+  veined and streaked with other tints. The wares are so like the
+  productions of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) that modern pieces are
+  often confounded with the more precious productions of that epoch. One
+  of the first lessons to be learnt by the student of Chinese pottery is
+  that, with great reverence for their own antiquities, the Chinese of
+  every period have endeavoured to reproduce the famous wares of their
+  ancestors, and often with such skill as to deceive the most expert.
+  Even when the manufacture of porcelain was at its highest in
+  King-te-chen, the potters in other parts of China carried on the
+  production of glazed or unglazed pottery in coloured clays, and,
+  further, the directors of the imperial factory from time to time
+  strove to reproduce the most archaic wares that could be found in the
+  Empire.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII
+
+  Chinese. Sang de Boeuf.
+
+  Chinese. Flambe.
+
+  Chinese. Turquoise glaze "crackled."
+
+  Purple Souffle.
+
+  Coral red.
+
+  Peach blow. Pigeon's blood.
+
+  Lemon yellow.
+
+  Apple green.]
+
+_Porcelain._--By this word we distinguish broadly all those pieces of
+pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and translucent, and
+also, broadly speaking, in which the material is white throughout,
+unless minute quantities of metallic oxides have been definitely added
+to colour it. It is impossible to draw any hard and fast line between
+porcelain and stoneware, for both may be thoroughly vitrified and
+translucent in thin pieces--but generally the stonewares are drab, red
+or brown in the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the
+precious quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is
+not even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or
+earthenware. The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to fire
+their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified stonewares
+before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed these stonewares with
+fusible mineral substances, and from that stage the natural refinements
+of methods must necessarily have produced porcelain. In regions where
+beds of primary clay were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter
+than elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic
+rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance and one that
+was more readily fusible and Would spread better over the whole piece.
+How many centuries were needed before a ware white enough and
+translucent enough to be now classed as porcelain was produced we cannot
+know; but the process was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some
+Chinese writers in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote
+periods the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens
+are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution, and
+literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle such a
+difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present time is that
+something worthy of the name of porcelain was made during the Tang
+dynasty (A.D. 618-907), but we have no pieces earlier than the Sung
+dynasty (A.D. 960-1259), and the majority of these are perhaps more
+fitly described as stoneware than as porcelain.
+
+Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, and all
+the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery of distinguished merit was
+made in many districts, and much of it has been classified as porcelain
+because the body is whitish and vitrified, though it is much inferior in
+finish and in translucence to the perfect white porcelain of later
+times. It is necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any
+pottery with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th
+century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs incised
+or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration is to be found in
+the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, whether stoneware or
+porcelain, were covered. The glaze is never clear and white as at later
+times; it is generally uneven, imperfectly fused and presents all the
+marks of an imperfect technique. The nearest approach to white is found
+in an opalescent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The
+glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the _celadons_, a
+family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth and
+softness. Besides the _celadons_ which are the most uniform in tints of
+the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender, brownish yellow
+and brownish black, but these are all subtly or boldly mottled,
+splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones of red, blue, purple,
+opalescent grey and black. The most famous of these now very rare Sung
+wares were the stonewares of Chunchow, remarkable for their rich and
+varied glazes, the black variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province,
+"hare's fur cups" and "partridge cups" of collectors, and the four
+principal wares that may be called porcelain, viz.--the _Ju-Yao_, made
+at Ju-chow in Honan; the _Kuan-Yao_ (Kuan = "official" or "imperial"),
+made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; the _Ko-Yao_, made
+at Liu-t'ien; and the _Ting-Yao_, made at Tung-chow in Chih-li.
+
+This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known beyond its
+native country, for the first mention of porcelain outside China appears
+in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller, Sulaiman, who visited China
+in the 9th century and wrote: "They have in China a very fine clay with
+which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen
+through them";[31] and its first appearance in the west is always given
+as A.D. 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty pieces to
+the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an export trade was
+developed, particularly in the _celadon_ wares of Lung-chuan, a city in
+the south-west of the province of Chehkiang. This famous ware, the
+"green porcelain" of the Chinese, probably made as an imitation of jade,
+exists mostly in the form of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing
+incised or fluted patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green
+glaze of indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is
+white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the glaze have
+a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste, and when the ware was
+reproduced in later times this reddish-brown tint had to be imitated
+artificially. The ware was highly prized both in China and Japan, in the
+islands of the East Indies, and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia
+it was largely used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the
+last century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco.
+"Archbishop Warham's cup" at New College, Oxford, which is the first
+specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that we can now produce,
+is a _celadon_ bowl with a silver-gilt mount of the time of Henry
+VIII.[32]
+
+The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai Khan
+(grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in Tatar hands until
+1368, when the great native dynasty of the Mings was established. During
+this period (Yuan dynasty), roughly a century, one can say little of
+ceramic progress, for the wares of the period are singularly like those
+of Sung times. But two important changes took place which had a marked
+influence on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain--(1) the
+concentration of the industry at King-te-chen, which was consummated in
+the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the introduction of painted
+decoration under a white transparent glaze, the idea of which (and
+perhaps the necessary cobalt mineral) was brought from Persia.
+
+King-te-chen was already a pottery centre when its factories were
+rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who made it
+the imperial factory, so that the best porcelain workers were attracted
+thither, and in the other old centres the industry was abandoned or some
+earlier manufacture was continued, as in the southern province of
+Kiang-su. In the province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain
+manufacture has also continued. We have already mentioned the black
+glazed cups, "hare's fur," &c., made in this province in Sung times,
+and, while King-te-chen was to be the scene of the developments of the
+coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien perfected the
+manufacture of the famous and beautiful white porcelain in bowls,
+dishes, cups and statuettes, best known under its French title of _blanc
+de Chine_.
+
+The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to the
+beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be older, speak
+strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. The pieces are massive
+both in form and substance, and the ornament, consisting of figures
+mounted or on foot, animals, bands of diaper or foliage, or pendant
+necklaces, is strongly silhouetted by a raised outline recalling the
+decorative methods of the Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also
+recall the methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was
+glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes, similar in
+nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and quite unlike the
+Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined spaces and melted at
+a lower temperature. The Grandidier collection in the Louvre, the
+Franks collection at the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum,
+as well as all the great private collections of Chinese porcelain,
+contain samples of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.
+
+The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to take an
+entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with its brilliant
+painted decorations in blue, green and purple on a pure white ground,
+exercised its natural fascination over men as keen in colour-sense as
+the Chinese potters. With the concentration of the industry at
+King-te-chen, and the rapid improvement in technical skill and knowledge
+that followed, the production of a fine porcelain with a transparent
+white glaze was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian
+pot-painter the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the
+Chinese porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and
+with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from copper, the
+foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. It would be idle to
+try and fix any specific date for this important development, which took
+more than a generation to perfect, but it is reasonably accurate to say
+that the blue and white painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th
+century and were fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century.
+Chinese collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of
+Suen-te (A.D. 1426-1435), of Cheng-hwa (1465-1487), and next of Yung-lo
+(1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour used during these
+reigns is spoken of as "Mahommedan" blue, so that it was evidently
+brought from some country to the west. This 15th-century blue and white
+porcelain is admittedly the finest of its class, and though the Chinese
+never abandon an old method and have continued to make blue and white
+porcelain, often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may
+be, rarely equal these.
+
+The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already been
+mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours was largely
+used during the same period. At first it appears as a general ground
+colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then vessels were made in
+special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to display its qualities, finally
+it was used either alone or in conjunction with blue in painted designs
+under a white glaze of exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the
+15th century describes one of his pieces as being decorated with "three
+red fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly
+outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as to
+dazzle the eye."
+
+Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in Ming times are
+the marvellous "eggshell" porcelains, called by the Chinese "bodyless"
+from their extreme thinness. As early as the reign of Yung-lo
+(1403-1424) these delicate wares were in high repute, and their
+manufacture has been continued ever since with varying skill and
+success. In spite of their extreme thinness the specimens have designs
+of dragons in the midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c., engraved
+in the paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is so
+delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with
+liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured glaze
+which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized of these are
+the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi (1488-1505) and
+Cheng-te (1506-1521).
+
+Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made its
+appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, commonly
+spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as "grain of rice"
+porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited consummate skill in the
+manufacture of perforated pieces of all kinds. Sometimes the
+perforations are left clear, but in the rice-grain pattern the incisions
+are generally filled up with the melted glaze so that they become like
+so many windows in the walls of the piece. We have already seen that the
+Persian potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century,
+but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated in
+China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional
+proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.
+
+It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find the first
+examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired over the glaze. It
+seems probable that the practice grew out of the use of enamels on
+metal, which had spread from Byzantium to China, and which the Chinese
+developed with remarkable skill. It is important to remember that the
+very nature of the glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high
+temperature to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to
+cobalt-blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the
+rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some other means
+must be found, and so the device was adopted of taking a finished piece
+of blue and white and decorating it further by very fusible colours
+painted over the fired glaze and then attached to it by refiring at a
+lower temperature equal only to that used by the enameller on metals. At
+first the on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in
+the Ming (_San ts' ai_) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and
+yellow. Then we get the Ming (_Wan-li Wu ts' ai_) five-colour scheme, in
+which the same three colours are combined with an over-glaze red and all
+are painted over a skeleton pattern in under-glaze blue. This
+development, as its name implies, only took place in the reign of Wan-li
+(1573-1620).
+
+At this time King-te-chen must have produced a very large quantity of
+porcelain. The requirements of the court were enormous, for in 1583 one
+of the supervising censors, remonstrating with the emperor, declared
+that one year's demands comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell
+writes: "The colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the
+abundance of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present
+day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection of
+bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may be seen with
+sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter, or ladling syrup out of
+large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's shop without a cracked
+Wan-li jar standing on the counter to hold scraps of meat."
+
+Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the wares of
+this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship to the wares of
+the preceding and also of later periods, but the influence of the
+growing export trade doubtless told in the same direction. For several
+centuries the native Chinese porcelain had been exported to all the
+neighbouring countries, and through Persia and Cairo to the West. No
+long time elapsed before the Chinese adopted forms, colours and
+decorations for these export wares, not in accordance with Chinese
+usage, but presumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence
+the Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the 15th
+and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries. Now, for the
+first time, there came a direct European demand, and cargoes of ware
+were brought to Europe by the Portuguese and afterwards by the Dutch,
+which were increasingly decorated in fashions foreign to Chinese taste.
+The production of these export wares slowly modified the taste of the
+Chinese themselves and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th
+and early 18th centuries.
+
+The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty
+definitely separated the first great period of Chinese porcelain from
+its second and culminating period. The works at King-te-chen were
+destroyed more than once in the 17th century, but in spite of these
+difficulties the potters must have remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi
+(1662-1722), Yung-cheng (1722-1735), and K'ien-lung (1736-1795) covered
+a century and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic
+production was reached and passed. It is only possible here to sketch in
+broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which has formed the
+subject of many learned works.
+
+It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, when a
+spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions of their ancient
+kilns should receive no less attention than the new methods of
+decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the same time many of the
+discoveries of the later Ming days were carried on to perfection. The
+first remarkable productions of the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green
+and blood-red _Lang-yao_ glazes, were made in the attempt to produce
+glazes like those of old times. With the more carefully prepared body
+and glaze the results are strikingly different and, as we think,
+superior, for it is difficult to believe that any example of the
+"sacrificial" red of the reign of Suen-te can have been as glorious as
+the red _Lang-Yao_, the crown of all that group of glazes known from
+their general colour as _sang de boeuf_ (see example, Plate VII.). In
+the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming period was
+continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue pigment be not so
+pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative effect of the blue and
+white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example, Plate VIII.) has never been
+equalled in Europe. The subjects of the blue and white pieces of this
+period are very varied, including religious, ceremonial, battle and
+hunting subjects, homely scenes such as ladies and children amusing
+themselves in gardens, or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous
+monsters disporting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called
+"hawthorn ginger jars" form a class by themselves in the opinion of
+modern collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen
+being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for L5900. The fertility of the
+painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and white of this
+reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the harmonious relation
+between the tones of the white and the blue, especially when it is seen
+_en masse_, as in the famous Dresden collection.[33]
+
+The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that the
+pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened by the use of
+slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of powder-blue appear to
+have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment was not applied by a
+brush, but was blown on through a tube, one end of which was covered
+with fine muslin, in a rain of minute drops. This ground was either
+carried over the whole piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating
+blue glaze--in which case it was generally covered with conventional
+designs pencilled in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze--or panels were
+reserved in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in
+on-glaze colours.
+
+In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived or
+re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as of so
+many others in our great European collections, date only from the
+beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and pierced or reticulated
+pieces were made to great perfection, and the coloured glazes in light
+green, turquoise, purple and black (see Plate VII.) reached their
+height. The early glazes of this type appeared in Sung times (see
+above), but on the finely prepared K'ang-hi wares much more striking and
+brilliant colour effects were obtained. As in old times, for the
+production of some of these glazes a departure was made from the general
+Chinese methods. The vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
+and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese were
+fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give the
+"peacock-blue," "kingfisher-green" and "aubergine-purple" glazes. Many
+varieties of single-coloured glazes were made by covering a white glazed
+piece with on-glaze colour, and in this way new shades of coloured
+glaze, such as the coral-reds (Plate VII.), were obtained. The various
+brown or bronze-coloured grounds, so well known in the so-called
+"Batavian" porcelain, were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of
+some ochreous clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do
+not exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for
+they carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze
+colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance of a
+vivid green enamel (_famille verte_; see Plate VIII.), and finally, in
+the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and purple colours
+predominate (_famille rose_; see Plate VIII.). It is probable that these
+latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, were introduced into China
+from Europe, but the Chinese employed them whole-heartedly, until in
+fact they largely ousted all the earlier types of colour decoration.
+
+During the reign of Yung-Cheng (1723-1735) the diverse styles seem to
+have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng was an ardent
+collector of ancient Chinese porcelains, and he sent to King-te-chen
+specimens of the most ancient wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to
+be reproduced, while at the same time he and his court patronized the
+wares in foreign styles and colours (Japanese and European.)
+
+The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th century, but
+in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the "iron-rust" and
+"tea-dust" glazes of the reign of K'ien-lung in harmony with old Chinese
+effects, what we must regard as the inferior decorative style triumphed,
+and we see the gradual disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of
+(1) wares of a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze
+colours, principally those of the _famille rose_, and (2) a very large
+production of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated with
+on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste of the 18th
+century.
+
+This "armorial" china, so much of which was once foolishly ascribed to
+Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material is seldom of the best
+quality, and the Chinese rendering of European arms and crests, or stiff
+copies of European engravings surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of
+diaper, &c., does nothing to recommend it. A great deal of this ware,
+though manufactured at King-te-chen, was decorated at Canton, and the
+school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this export
+trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure Chinese taste,
+especially some of the ruby-backed plates and dishes and the small cups
+and saucers decorated with deftly-painted designs of cocks, peonies, &c.
+
+It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the replacement
+of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by those painted in colours
+over the glaze profoundly influenced the style of painting. In the
+earlier wares the treatment is bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery
+colour, and the softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the
+artistic charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting
+on glass--fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or
+cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are impossible
+or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering takes the place of
+conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate minuteness of finish
+supplants the broad freedom of direct brushwork. During the 18th century
+the same leaven was at work on the porcelains of China and of Europe,
+the East influenced the West, and the West in its turn bore down the
+East. If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European
+counterfeits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter
+and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.
+
+There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th century.
+The European demand was practically killed by the growth of porcelain
+works at home, and the imperial patronage, so great a factor in the
+production of artistic wares, was fitful and uncertain. Tao-Kwang
+(1821-1850) gave some attention to porcelain, and the pieces made for
+him and marked "_Shen-te-t'ang_" are valued by collectors. The so-called
+Peking bowls of his reign (made of course at King-te-chen) are also of
+repute. But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for
+the cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and England
+served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past (see the Musee
+Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign of the next emperor
+Hien-feng (1851-1861) the T'aipings overran the province of Kiang-si and
+destroyed King-te-chen and its factories. Since then the town has been
+rebuilt and is once again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless
+by the high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the
+Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the
+single-coloured, _sang de boeuf_, _flambe_ and other glazes are being
+made, while the highly prized "hawthorn" jars and black-ground vases are
+receiving the same undesirable attention.
+
+  _Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain._--For many centuries
+  after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from every other
+  known species of pottery both in its material and its manufacture.
+  While the pottery of all other countries was generally made of
+  coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken "shards" and fired at a
+  comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain was compounded from
+  the purest white clays, sand and fusible rock; it was glazed with
+  fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that the entire mass became
+  vitrified and translucent. The germ of the manufacture lay in the
+  discovery of large masses of primary clay (kaolin) mixed with
+  finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of which were carefully
+  washed, levigated and purified. The body of Chinese porcelain varied
+  from time to time within wide limits, but, broadly speaking, it always
+  consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and quartz (sand), mixed in
+  various proportions, sometimes with additional ingredients, according
+  to the quality of ware desired. For the glaze the purest and cleanest
+  portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse) were selected and mixed
+  with lime--all being ground to fine powder. The lime causes the glaze
+  to melt at a lower temperature than would be necessary for petuntse
+  alone. The lime also gives the Chinese glazes their luscious softness
+  of aspect and the faint greenish or bluish tone, while it enabled them
+  to receive the later decorations in piled-up enamels, impossible on
+  the harder European porcelain glazes of the 18th century. The
+  finely-prepared glaze was applied to the clay vessels, before they had
+  been fired, either by dipping, by painting, or by insufflation; and
+  then glaze and body were fired together at a very high temperature.
+  For certain glazes--turquoise, purple, &c.--which were not of the
+  felspathic type, the vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
+  and the glazes were then applied and fired at a much lower
+  temperature--the usual practice of the potters of other countries.
+  When painted wares in blue and red were first introduced, the
+  necessary pigments were painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze
+  was applied over them, and then all was finished at one and the same
+  firing. With the later enamel colours the piece was first fired as
+  above described, and the fusible colours were then painted on the
+  glaze, which was of course like glass. A second firing at a lower
+  temperature fused these on-glaze colours to the ware. For information
+  on Chinese materials and methods the reader is referred to the letters
+  of Pere d'Entrecolles in the collection of Jesuit letters known as
+  _Lettres edifiantes et curieuses_. The English reader will find
+  reliable translations of the essential parts in Bushell's _Oriental
+  Ceramic Art_, Dillon's _Porcelain_, and Burton's _History of
+  Porcelain_. Later information will be found in Brongniart's _Traite
+  des arts ceramiques_, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and in an
+  article by G. Vogt, _Bulletin de la Societe d'encouragement pour
+  l'industrie nationale_, April 1900, pp. 530-612.
+
+  _Collections._--The Franks collection in the British Museum; the
+  Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr George
+  Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections
+  belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at the
+  Louvre; the collection at the Musee Guimet; the Sevres Museum.
+  Fontainebleau, the Musee Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain
+  Collection--the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of Fine Arts. New
+  York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the Garland and other
+  collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection; as well as
+  magnificent private collections, at the head of which is that of the
+  late W.T. Walters of Baltimore.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The older European works on Chinese porcelain have been
+  superseded by the later books. The following list contains the best
+  recent books:--S.W. Bushell, _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (New York, 1897;
+  text separately 1899); _Chinese Porcelain before the present Dynasty_
+  (Pekin, 1886); _Chinese Art_, vol. ii., Victoria and Albert Museum
+  Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, _Traite des arts ceramiques_ (3rd
+  edition, with valuable supplements by Salvetat, 1877); Dillon,
+  _Porcelain_ (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, _Catalogue of Oriental Pottery
+  and Porcelain_ (1878); Grandidier, _La Ceramique chinoise_ (1894);
+  Griggs, _Examples of Armorial China_ (1887); Hippisley, _Ceramic Arts
+  in China_ (Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1890); Hirth, _Ancient
+  Chinese Porcelain_ (Leipzig, 1888); Julien, _Histoire et fabrication
+  de la porcelaine chinoise_ (Paris, 1856); Meyer, _Lung-chuan Yao, oder
+  alter Seladon Porzellan_ (Berlin, 1889); Monkhouse, _History of
+  Chinese Porcelain_ (1901); O. du Sartel, _La Porcelaine de Chine_
+  (Paris, 1881); Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); Bushell and Laffan, _The
+  Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York_ (1907).
+       (W. B.*)
+
+
+EUROPEAN PORCELAIN TO THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY
+
+Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the white and
+translucent pottery _par excellence_, for when the first specimens of
+Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps as early as the 11th
+or 12th century, they excited the greatest wonder and admiration. Cairo
+was at this time the great mart for the exchange of the products of East
+and West, and from this centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i
+Khosrau, the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in A.D. 1035-1042,
+was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also speaks of a
+translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which may well have been the
+progenitor of the glassy porcelains of Persia, as well as of those made
+in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries. In A.D. 1171 the famous
+Saladin sent from Cairo a present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain
+to the sultan of Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent
+records of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the
+treasuries of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the
+potter's art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural that
+efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious and
+beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods was _nil_, and
+for a further two centuries all that Europe manufactured in the shape of
+translucent pottery was the artificial porcelain made with glass, which
+can only be looked upon as a substitute for true porcelain. In Italy
+during the 16th century, and in France during the century from 1670 to
+1770 roughly, this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At
+Meissen in Saxony the famous Bottger made a true porcelain from
+materials analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture
+was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe (even in France,
+the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after 1770), so that by the
+end of the 18th century, when Chinese porcelain had reached and passed
+its zenith, the manufacture of a similar material was well established
+in Europe, and the glassy porcelains had been generally abandoned. The
+only country which offered any departure from this general rule was
+England. The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French,
+and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts
+were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758-1781) to introduce the
+manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German counterparts,
+but these failed and the English potters finally invented a third kind
+of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones were added to the clay and
+ground rock to give a white translucent porcelain capable of receiving
+any form of decoration. This distinctively English porcelain, perfected
+about 1800, is not only the principal kind made in England in our own
+times, but its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France,
+Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States.
+
+It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European potters
+without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the 18th century all
+the three kinds of European porcelain were struggling for supremacy. It
+is advisable, therefore, to keep clearly in mind which kind of porcelain
+is in question, for many problems of manufacture and decoration are
+absolutely determined by the nature of the materials.
+
+If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest European
+porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again in 1519; while we also
+read of its manufacture at Ferrara in 1561.[34] Unfortunately,
+documentary evidence alone is not conclusive, and the first European
+porcelain, known from actual specimens as well as by documentary
+evidence, was that made at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de'
+Medici, between 1575 and 1585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to
+be found only in great museums and private collections, where they rank
+among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the Florentine
+potters never fully mastered their difficult material, for the ware is
+always imperfect and compares indifferently in whiteness and
+translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze is neither smoothly
+melted nor free from defects. Obviously the effect of Chinese blue and
+white porcelain was aimed at, the decorations, reminiscent of the style
+of the Persian pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone. These
+rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive marks; for at their period
+the use of painters' marks or monograms had become fairly general on
+artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best known marks is the "palle"
+or balls of the arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters "F M M E
+D II." for "Franciscus Medici Magnus Etruriae Dux II."; while other
+pieces have a rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence and the
+letter "F."
+
+[Illustration: Florentine Potter's mark.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VIII.
+
+  Chinese. K'ang-hsi period.
+
+  Chinese. Black ground. K'ang-hsi period.
+
+  Chinese (_Famille Verte_). K'ang-hsi period.
+
+  Chinese (_Famille Rose_). Ch'ien-lung period.
+
+  Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K'ang-hsi period.]
+
+Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine porcelain that
+have survived to our day a manuscript has been found in the
+Magliabechian Library at Florence which states that the paste was
+composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass (powdered rock crystal 10
+and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth of Faenza. To 12 parts of this
+mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic clay of Vicenza were to be added, and
+the pieces glazed with a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of
+the Italian faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a
+material unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine
+porcelain being the first of a long line of European porcelains the
+artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large quantity of
+glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they may almost be regarded
+as a species of glazed and painted glass. The technical methods used in
+their manufacture and decoration, however, were those of the potter and
+not of the glass maker.
+
+With the death of Francesco de' Medici in 1587 it seems probable that
+this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end, and we hear no more
+of porcelain in Italy for more than a century. During this century
+(1587-1687) there can be no doubt that efforts were made all over Europe
+to discover the secret of porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable
+date we can point to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of
+Rouen, obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture of
+porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased with the
+death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are extant in the shape of
+salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few vases, the latter of
+considerable size. The pieces are usually decorated in blue with
+patterns in the Rouen style and were evidently painted by an expert
+faience painter. In composition, the porcelain of Rouen, like that of
+Florence, was of the artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a
+similar ware made its appearance at the faience works of St Cloud near
+Paris, and at various works in the city of Paris. Well-known pieces,
+bearing the marks here shown, formerly supposed to be the earliest
+specimens of French porcelain and the work of Poterat at Rouen, are
+probably experimental pieces made in Paris after the date of Poterat's
+discovery, as they differ in important particulars from his ware.
+
+[Illustration: Paris Potters' marks.]
+
+[Illustration: St Cloud Potters' marks.]
+
+Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under the patronage
+of the French court or of some great French noble, rapidly assumed a
+position of importance. The works at St Cloud received letters-patent
+from Louis XIV. in 1696, and the manufacture was continued there down to
+1773. The appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic,
+for though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine quality with a
+clear and brilliant glaze. The first efforts appear to have consisted in
+frank imitations of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces
+decorated only with branches of flowering plum in relief, or pieces
+modelled with imbricated or scale pattern or with delicate flutings,
+were made. The earliest colour decoration was naturally in under-glaze
+blue, and while quasi-oriental designs were largely used, the commonest
+feature is the prevalence of painted borders like those used on the
+faience of Rouen and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze
+colours and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never reached
+to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory at
+Sevres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most distinctive French
+porcelains of the 18th century.
+
+_German Porcelains._--While the glassy porcelains of France were being
+developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent order was reached in
+Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed
+an extensive collection of Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be
+seen in the Dresden Museum, and he had established experimental pottery
+works, bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief
+investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Bottger, both
+alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first European
+to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the nature of its
+materials, and in the appearance of its paste and glaze. It may be
+surmised that Bottger was guided toward this momentous discovery by
+information brought from China, though such an idea is always stoutly
+denied by German authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that
+Bottger at the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European
+experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the problems
+offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production was an
+extremely hard redstone-ware--often erroneously called "Bottger's red
+porcelain"--resembling the Chinese "boccaros" or red teapots of the
+Yi-hsing potteries. He had been anticipated in this direction by Dwight
+of Fulham, but the red pottery of Bottger was so intensely fired that it
+became dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were
+a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the
+Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity, as
+well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At the same time
+(1710) Bottger exhibited a few crude specimens of greyish-white
+porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in 1713, and by 1716 its
+manufacture was definitely established, though the pieces were still far
+from perfect. Bottger died in 1719, having had the rare fortune, in his
+short and eventful life, to establish in Europe the manufacture of true
+porcelain.
+
+The life of Bottger reads like a page of romance, and the story of the
+subsequent development of porcelain manufacture throughout the German
+empire is hardly less romantic. When the importance of Bottger's
+discovery was recognized, he and his workmen were removed from Dresden
+to the Albrechtsburg, a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so
+that the manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All
+concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme rigour
+doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped from time to
+time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a knowledge of the
+manufacture, found patrons among the German princes all eager to gain
+reputation as experimenters in the new art of porcelain. Some of these
+wandering "Arcanists," like Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt
+from them, travelled all over the empire, and the following list of
+dates will show how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent
+factory at Meissen:--
+
+  Meissen        1710    |    St Petersburg  1744
+  Vienna         1718    |    Berlin         1750
+  Ansbach        1718    |    Nymphenburg    1758
+  Bayreuth       1720    |    Ludwigsburg    1758
+
+_Meissen._--Although the factory which was founded at Meissen as a
+result of Bottger's discovery remained on its old site until 1863, the
+porcelain made there has been commonly known as Dresden porcelain;
+probably because Dresden was the seat of the Saxon court, and the
+enterprise was conducted at the expense of the electors of Saxony. So
+jealously were the secrets of this factory guarded that when Napoleon,
+the master of Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use
+at Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer, the
+director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain the
+processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best example by
+which we may follow the changes of fashion and taste that governed the
+styles of porcelain decoration in Europe during the 18th century. The
+early Meissen porcelain was made from the kaolin found at Aue, near
+Schneeberg, and while there is no mention of any other material, we may
+be sure that clay and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese _kaolin_
+and _petuntse_, were obtained from the same quarries, and were used
+together. Until after the death of Bottger in 1719 it cannot be said
+that the venture was more than a _succes d'estime_. The specimens
+preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the pieces were generally
+thick in substance and clumsy in shape, being often made from the moulds
+that had been designed for Bottger's red-stoneware. Naturally enough
+these early examples were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and
+decoration. As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were
+common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains, the
+decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the blue colour
+being much run and blistered; and when attempts were made at decoration
+in enamel colours (i.e. colours fired on the finished glaze) the result
+was unsatisfactory, as, owing to the refractory nature of the hard
+felspathic material, these colours frequently scaled off. The later
+success of the Meissen factory must be attributed to Herold or Horoldt
+(who joined the staff in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to
+Kandler, a sculptor, who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of
+these two men the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese
+and Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while the
+composition of the body and the glaze, and the application of colours
+and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was appointed director of
+the works a few years after 1720, and retained that post until 1765,
+while Kandler was chief modeller from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730
+(when the work definitely emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775
+(when Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen
+porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen porcelain of
+this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples of _Alt-Meissen_
+command high prices in the sale rooms, especially in Germany. This
+appreciation was quite as apparent in the 18th century, for by 1740
+Meissen porcelain had won the greatest renown in Europe, and was
+actually exported by way of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries
+of the Nearer East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers
+as being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was its
+vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen--a large number
+for those days--were employed, and the industry brought large profits as
+well as great reputation to the Saxon court. Each year saw some fresh
+departure from the original inspiration of the work, some fresh
+innovation of European style in design. After 1730 the rude
+reproductions of Chinese forms and decorations in white or blue and
+white were replaced by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially
+those decorated in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a
+race with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations in
+red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain
+factories of Europe. Gradually European _motifs_ became predominant. The
+simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively European shapes
+with architectural mouldings, handles and feet. Instead of the dainty
+Japanese patterns, we perceive the gradual introduction of "Rococo"
+scroll-work (as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or
+border for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins,
+figure-subjects, hunting scenes, &c., executed in the limited palette of
+on-glaze colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from
+oriental influence is to be found in the numerous "armorial" services
+produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same period we find the first
+appearance of a style of decoration that has persisted to our own times,
+as a means of passing off pieces with small flaws in body or glaze, by
+hiding them among sprays of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly
+or some other winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the
+surface of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used
+at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general, and a
+device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture was elevated
+into a distinct style of decoration by later European factories (e.g.
+Strassburg, Niederviller, &c.).
+
+The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory
+attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve apostles, an
+equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic proportions, and many
+models of animals intended for the decoration of the Japanese palace at
+Dresden. Many of these latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and
+create an unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame
+of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the little
+statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed in a steady
+stream from his facile hand; for though these figures have prettiness
+rather than grace, and _flair_ rather than style, they are instinct with
+the spirit of the middle 18th century, and were eagerly imitated or
+boldly copied at every factory in Europe. Only in the _biscuit_
+porcelain figures of Sevres, and in some few of the portrait figures of
+Derby, do we find anything artistically superior. These Meissen
+statuettes look their best when they are simply in white; many are
+grotesque and ugly, and the colour decorations are usually in very poor
+taste, the harsh, shining colours contrasting unpleasantly with the
+pronounced white of the porcelain.
+
+Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at Meissen.
+Originating in the simple application of modelled branches of prunus,
+&c. in imitation of the white porcelains of Fu-kien, the method
+developed until we get not only the characteristic "May-flower"
+decoration (see example, Plate IX.), but also independent sprays and
+bouquets modelled in porcelain and coloured with the utmost mechanical
+precision. It is not quite clear whether this production of porcelain
+flowers was first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,[35] but it was
+largely practised at both places.
+
+Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames and
+clock cases were modelled in the most _outre_ rococo forms with applied
+scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their modelled details
+picked out in gold and colours, while the success of the French styles
+of decoration is still further shown by the copies of Watteau figures
+and groups on the more important vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the
+Great made sad havoc with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven
+Years' War. He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on
+the latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models, working
+moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks the end of the most
+distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this time Sevres became the
+most important porcelain factory in Europe, and the later productions of
+Meissen were, for the most part, German versions of the styles initiated
+at the French royal factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was
+at the head of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler.
+They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like a
+blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under the
+directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen, fallen from
+its high estate, was content to follow the lead of Sevres.
+
+After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of Meissen. The
+old productions of the factory had become valuable, and the custom of
+reproducing them, marks included, was adopted. Such a practice was not
+likely to lead to further progress, and, though the factory was removed
+from its old site in the Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to
+have added anything to the progress of European porcelain during the
+19th century.
+
+[Illustration: "Dresden" Potter's mark.]
+
+  During the initiatory period the "Dresden" pieces bore the monogram
+  "A.R." interlaced (Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716 pieces
+  intended for sale and not for the use of the court were marked with
+  the sign of Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff). From about
+  1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze, with or
+  without accompanying stars, crosses, &c., formed the general mark, but
+  the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that, in itself,
+  it is of slight value as a means of identification.
+
+_Vienna._--The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in Vienna
+occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier, was granted a
+patent. He had secured two runaways from Meissen, Stolzel and Hunger,
+yet little progress was made until after 1744, when the factory was
+bought by the empress Maria Theresa. At first the traditional styles of
+Meissen were continued, but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was
+produced after 1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours
+and elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner.
+Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period, succeeded in
+producing a more extensive and brilliant palette of colours than was in
+use at any other European porcelain factory in the last quarter of the
+18th century; and the gilding was rich and elaborate. Apart from its
+technical merits the ware has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of
+decoration showed pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the
+saving merits of the French work in the same style. The works was closed
+in 1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should be
+reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small Viennese
+factories, are to be found on the market.
+
+[Illustration: Wegeli's mark.]
+
+_Berlin._--The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper Wegeli,
+aided by workmen from other German factories, as early as 1750. This
+business was unsuccessful and came to an end in 1757, but its
+productions are highly prized on account of their rarity. Success only
+came when Frederick the Great brought workmen, moulds and materials from
+Meissen in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works in 1763, founded
+the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory. Though Meissen workmen and
+methods had been imported, and the Meissen style governed the earliest
+productions, Frederick's well-known _penchant_ for French art was
+doubtless responsible for the fact that the rococo style of decoration
+was more determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The
+colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being seldom
+decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured enamel, a
+favourite colour with the great Frederick, is quite characteristic. The
+Royal Berlin Factory passed under a cloud in the troubled condition of
+the Prussian monarchy during the early years of the 19th century, and
+down to 1870 it was content to follow in the wake of Sevres like most of
+the other European factories. Since about the year 1880, however, it has
+developed into the most scientific of European porcelain works, and it
+was here that Seger manufactured his special porcelain, made to
+reproduce the qualities of the finest Japanese wares. In spite of this
+scientific success it must be remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is
+artistically disappointing, being too exuberant for our taste and
+recalling anything rather than porcelain in its treatment.
+
+  _Minor German Factories._--It is unnecessary to describe the
+  productions of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for
+  not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at
+  producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin.
+  In every case the industry was established under the patronage or at
+  the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate the
+  success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and generally
+  the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron or from his
+  unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his purse.
+
+  The factory at Hochst was started about 1720 by wanderers from
+  Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the
+  patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The general
+  style of Hochst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary wares of
+  Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures and
+  groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780). He
+  modelled, at Hochst, more than three hundred figures, as well as many
+  portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end during the
+  French invasion of 1794.
+
+  Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs of
+  Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector palatine
+  from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end to its
+  activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Hochst after 1780,
+  and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sevres and Dresden were
+  made.
+
+  Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal factory
+  in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of fine quality,
+  but without special distinction. Melchior came on here about 1800,
+  remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg figures are as
+  highly esteemed as those he modelled at Hochst and Frankenthal. In the
+  early years of the 19th century elaborate painting became the rule
+  here, as at the other royal factories, and copies were made on
+  porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the Munich galleries. The
+  works is still in existence, in the hands of a private company, who
+  unfortunately sell many reproductions of the 18th-century wares.
+
+  Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory from
+  1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Wurttemberg.
+  Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because the
+  ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been
+  called "Kronenberg" porcelain.
+
+  Furstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick.
+  Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced
+  before 1770. Furstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known
+  styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its
+  "biscuit" statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in operation
+  until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction, imitations of
+  the old pieces are now common.
+
+  Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth,
+  Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.
+
+  Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous decorators,
+  like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both German and
+  oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim, produced
+  effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a diamond and
+  rubbing black colour into the lines.
+
+While France and Germany were each developing their own particular type
+of porcelain, it was only natural that the kings and princes of other
+countries should strive to emulate them in the manufacture of this still
+rare and highly esteemed form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the
+countries to the north and east seem to have been influenced most by
+German methods, whilst those to the south and west followed the French
+example.
+
+  _Holland._--The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as
+  1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude
+  Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L.
+  After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the "Amstel"
+  porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The ware resembled
+  the German both in material and decoration. The best porcelain made in
+  Holland was produced at a factory at the Hague, founded some time
+  after 1775. There is a choice collection of this ware in the Gemeente
+  Museum at the Hague. No porcelain appears to have been made in Holland
+  after about 1810 until 1890 or later.
+
+  _Denmark._--It has been stated that porcelain of the German type was
+  made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite record
+  of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when potters,
+  modellers and painters from some of the German works founded the
+  enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII. in 1779 and
+  converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king's patronage, fine
+  porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely made down to the
+  end of the 18th century. The collection in the castle of Rosenburg
+  contains many examples of the work of this period. In the early years
+  of the 19th century the Empire style of decoration was adopted, and
+  the artistic influence of Sevres became paramount. Large sums of money
+  were continually required from the crown to maintain the establishment
+  until, in 1867, it was sold into private hands to get rid of an
+  encumbrance. The subsequent new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen
+  porcelain works must be noted in the next section.
+
+  _Sweden._--The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is
+  connected with the factories at Rorstrand and Marieberg, both in the
+  environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both these
+  places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the 18th
+  century, though the Rorstrand works was reopened some fifty years ago
+  and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains were of
+  two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the German, and the
+  other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at Mennecy in France. It
+  is interesting to note that the decorative styles in both cases are
+  distinctly French in character.
+
+  _Russia._--Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain
+  factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony,
+  but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the
+  empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal
+  fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian
+  porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype.
+  In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian factory
+  followed the example of Sevres in producing costly dinner services and
+  extravagant vases of large dimensions.
+
+  Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of
+  Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and another by
+  A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these Moscow
+  factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes, the most
+  interesting being those representing Russian peasant types.
+
+  _Hungary._--The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at
+  Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this
+  factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived many
+  collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the word
+  "Herend" in the paste.
+
+  _Switzerland._--Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland, and
+  considering the geographical position of the country it seems natural
+  that porcelain of the German type should have been made at Zurich and
+  of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but these
+  productions are of no particular importance.
+
+_French Porcelains._--The beginnings of French porcelain at Rouen and St
+Cloud have already been mentioned, as they preceded Bottger's discovery
+of true porcelain; but as nothing was known in France of the methods and
+materials used by the German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy
+porcelain held sway in France through the greater part of the 18th
+century. The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded at
+Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince de Conde, an
+enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese porcelains. One
+distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain is its imitation of the
+Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century, especially those bearing
+delicate patterns in the Kakiemon style. This imitation was not confined
+to the decoration alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the
+delicious tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the body of
+the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel used by the French
+faience makers. Similar imitation of the Kakiemon style of decoration
+became the rage all over Europe, and was largely followed at Meissen and
+in England as well as in France; but no European imitations equalled
+those of the famous Chantilly ware.
+
+[Illustration: Lille and Chantilly Potters' marks.]
+
+Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy and at Lille,
+but the most important French factory was that founded at Vincennes
+about 1740, not only because of the many beautiful pieces produced
+there, but also because the works was taken under the direct patronage
+of the king in 1753 and was transferred to Sevres in 1756, becoming
+ultimately the most important porcelain factory in Europe.
+
+  Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition
+  of the artificial porcelain (_pate tendre_) of Sevres, and a brief
+  account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the glassy
+  porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by preparing a
+  glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt, gypsum,
+  soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered and
+  washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded by
+  adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or marl
+  and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in water
+  until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled to a
+  thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap or
+  parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for the
+  workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were made from
+  this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of considerable
+  thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and were then either
+  turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper to reduce them to
+  sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other ornaments in
+  relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary with every
+  other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then fired into
+  what is known as the "biscuit" condition; the most difficult part of
+  the whole process. During this firing the pieces frequently went out
+  of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of the material and its
+  tendency to soften as it approached the melting point of the frit.
+  Consequently an elaborate system of "propping" the pieces had to be
+  resorted to, and even then a very large proportion became deformed.
+  When the porcelain was drawn from the oven after the first firing, the
+  supports were removed and the pieces were rubbed with sand to clean
+  the surface, and were then coated with glaze by sprinkling with a
+  brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very rich in lead. The glaze
+  coat was melted by refiring the piece at a lower temperature; and it
+  was frequently necessary to repeat this process several times in order
+  to get a perfectly even and brilliant result. The difficulties of such
+  a process were enormous, and it was only by the financial support of
+  wealthy patrons, or of the state, that such a method of manufacture
+  was ever carried on for any length of time. At its best the material
+  is an exceedingly beautiful one, lending itself especially to
+  decoration in on-glaze colours, and the pieces produced at Vincennes
+  and at Sevres, between 1745 and 1770 or thereabouts, form a distinct
+  class by themselves. Skilful chemists like Hellot and Macquer were
+  employed to direct the operations, and many beautiful ground colours,
+  such as the famous _gros-bleu, bleu de roi, rose Pompadour_, pea-green
+  and apple-green were invented.
+
+_Sevres Porcelains._--The forms of the Sevres porcelain are exceedingly
+varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by Duplessis, the king's
+silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are more proper to metal than
+to pottery; but the French glassy porcelain is such an artificial
+material in every respect that such a point should not be strained too
+far. Owing to the want of plasticity in the paste the pieces were always
+made in moulds of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were
+moulded in separate parts and these united together with metal screws or
+mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for actual use
+were usually painted on a plain white ground with the full palette of
+on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich gilding. The decorative
+pieces such as vases, candelabra, jardinieres, &c., were decorated in a
+much more sumptuous fashion by covering the greater part of the piece
+with a ground of one of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned,
+reserving only panels in white on which delicate miniature-like
+decorations of the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired
+(see fig. 52; and examples of Sevres, Plate IX.). Such collections as
+the Wallace at Hertford House, or the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and
+Albert Museum, show at once the variety and perfection to which the work
+attained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sevres vase, _pate tendre_; green body and gilt
+imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
+
+This Sevres porcelain is entirely devoid of the broad decorative
+treatment and rich full colour of any of the great kinds of fine pottery
+or porcelain. Artistically considered, it has no place beside the
+triumphs of the Chinese or Persian potters, or of the Italian majolists.
+Its shapes are too formal, and are not sufficiently imbued with a sense
+of the qualities of the material. The ground colours defy every natural
+tendency of pottery colour for they are even, flawless and mechanical,
+with none of the palpitating richness that comes so naturally from the
+potter's processes. The paintings, whether of flowers, birds or
+figure-subjects, are extraordinarily skilful regarded as miniatures, but
+as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to the swift,
+apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters of earlier times. So
+pronounced was the demand of the period for smooth even finish that such
+ground colours as _gros-bleu_ and _bleu de roi_, where the colour
+naturally came varied and uneven, were subsequently decorated with small
+diapers or lines of gold in the form of _[oe]il de perdrix_ or
+_vermicelle_, so as to produce a more regular and even effect. The most
+elaborate and costly of all the varieties of old Sevres is what is known
+as "jewelled Sevres," which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such
+as turquoises, pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones.
+These imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased
+mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found examples
+of the punches and other tools used in making these mounts. On account
+of the enormous expense involved in the production of such costly
+triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled Sevres are rare even in the best
+collections, but the English student is fortunate in the fact that the
+Wallace collection contains a considerable number of them.
+
+[Illustration: Sevres Potters' marks, 1753 and 1772.]
+
+Many reasons--the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory, the
+knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of cost, the
+mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and decoration, as well as
+the fact that the glassy porcelain was abandoned as too costly and risky
+after about 1780--have all conspired to raise the prices which modern
+collectors are prepared to pay for fine examples of _vieux Sevres_. It
+is doubtful whether even the prices paid for paintings by old masters
+have advanced so rapidly as those paid for Sevres porcelain of the best
+period. In the 'seventies of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of
+remark that a sum of L10,000 should have been paid at public auction for
+three old Sevres vases; thirty years later one such piece would probably
+fetch the same price. It should be added that the extravagant prices now
+paid for Sevres porcelain, which is much more a triumph of technical
+than of artistic skill, have led to an extensive system of "faking" and
+even forging specimens which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.
+
+Beautiful as the old Sevres porcelain was, those who were responsible
+for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that the porcelain made
+at Meissen and other German factories was both harder and whiter in
+substance, more truly resembling the oriental porcelain in every
+respect. It was also known that these German porcelains were not so
+difficult, and therefore so costly to manufacture as the French, and all
+these causes combined to make the directorate of Sevres unremitting in
+their efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to those
+used by the German and Chinese potters. Pere d'Entrecolles, the famous
+Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France long before an account of the
+methods used by the Chinese, as well as samples of the materials they
+employed; and after many years' research Millot and Macquer discovered
+the precious materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, _History
+of French Porcelain_, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of this
+French porcelain, similar in material to the German and Chinese, appear
+to have been made about 1769; but it was some years after this before
+the manufacture of the new product was firmly established, and then to
+the end of the 18th century more and more of the hard porcelain and less
+of the glassy porcelain was made at Sevres. Speaking broadly, we might
+say that after 1780 comparatively little of the original French
+porcelain was made in France; and from that time to this practically all
+French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain, viz.
+made with china clay and felspathic rock. This technical change in the
+nature of the materials had a profound influence on the artistic
+qualities of French porcelain, and the change was doubtless accentuated
+by the neo-classical rage which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii. The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern
+renderings of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague,
+and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter of the 18th
+and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a definite period in
+pottery design and decoration. The introduction of hard-paste porcelain
+rendered the manufacture of large vases and other pieces possible; and
+after 1780 we find the manufactory at Sevres engaged in the production
+of enormous vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been
+continued there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first
+production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies of
+well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The earliest of
+these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this material it was
+only possible to make them of quite modest dimensions; with the
+introduction of hard-paste porcelain very large slabs were manufactured,
+and a series of these are to be seen in the museum at Sevres.
+
+The most artistic of all the productions of Sevres are undoubtedly the
+"biscuit" figures and groups. These were modelled with great skill by
+many of the best French sculptors of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle,
+Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri, Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The
+best of these Sevres "biscuits" have a real artistic value which places
+them in a class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at
+Meissen, Frankenthal and Hochst.
+
+  _Paris_.--Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges and
+  prerogatives had been given to the Sevres manufactory, such as the
+  exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the
+  breakdown of the monarchical regime, which was rapidly accelerated
+  after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris
+  and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of
+  hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal
+  manufactory of Sevres. In order that the royal edicts might be more
+  easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the patronage
+  of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen Marie
+  Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of these
+  Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them, such as
+  those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king's eldest
+  brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette); Rue de
+  Bondy (patronized by the duc d'Angouleme), compare not unfavourably
+  with those of Sevres itself.
+
+  It is impossible to do more than mention the other important French
+  factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg,
+  Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years
+  of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these
+  factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal
+  factory at Sevres passing through a kind of lingering death between
+  1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the
+  glories of Sevres that modern French porcelain really came into being.
+
+Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into Holland,
+Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c., we find the manufacture of a glassy
+porcelain analogous to the early French arising in Belgium, Italy, Spain
+and England. The materials and methods were so like those used in France
+that it would be ridiculous to claim for them an independent origin,
+even were we unable to prove by documentary evidence that workmen
+trained in the French factories had migrated into those countries.
+
+  _Italy_.--In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano
+  (1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese
+  Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and
+  Capo-di-Monte near Naples (1736-1820); with minor factories like those
+  at Vinovo, Treviso, and the Volpato factory at Rome. The most
+  important of these were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte. The
+  porcelain made at Doccia was famous for its soft translucent texture,
+  so that it lent itself beautifully to the production of white glazed
+  porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of Fu-kien.
+
+  [Illustration: Capo-di-Monte Potters' marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.]
+
+  The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of Charles
+  III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions are in
+  pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces, though
+  modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and
+  seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides
+  groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have
+  the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers,
+  plates, &c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high
+  relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly
+  admired because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period
+  the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but after
+  about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and
+  decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.
+
+  [Illustration: Buen Retiro Potters' marks.]
+
+  _Spain_.--Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in 1759
+  and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the Capo-di-Monte
+  factory, as well as the best moulds and models. He established a new
+  china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a palace outside Madrid.
+  As long as Charles III. lived immense sums were lavished on this
+  factory, and the ware was not allowed to be sold, but was either used
+  for the decoration of the royal palaces or for presentation to other
+  European sovereigns. Enormous vases were made, following the example
+  of Sevres, and these were often filled with bouquets of flowers
+  modelled in porcelain. The most famous productions of this factory,
+  however, were the plaques and slabs of porcelain used for lining the
+  walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of these rooms still
+  remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish _rococo_ style. The
+  factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the French war, and
+  since that date no porcelain of any importance has been made in Spain.
+
+_English Porcelains of the 18th century._--There can be no doubt that
+whatever experimental work may have been conducted by our early English
+potters, such as the famous John Dwight of Fulham, nothing like an
+established manufacture of porcelain existed in this country prior to
+about 1740-1745. There are records of many tentative experiments before
+this date, but no real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important
+porcelain works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby,
+and when we examine the productions of these factories it is impossible
+to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been imported from
+France. The early English porcelains, like all the French porcelains of
+that date, were composed of artificial or glassy mixtures.
+
+We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as typical of the
+earliest English porcelain of which there is any definite record. The
+material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand from Alum Bay in the Isle of
+Wight, and glass, while the glaze was a fusible English flint-glass rich
+in lead. It is obvious, therefore, that we are dealing with substances
+very similar to those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above),
+and such mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to
+great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries
+the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on at the
+expense of some royal or princely patron; in England, however, the
+manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and it is probably for this
+reason that at a very early date we find the English porcelain-makers
+experimenting with other materials than glass and clay in order to make
+their processes more certain. In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas
+Frye of the Bow works we find mention of the use of bone-ash--the
+material that was to make English porcelain a distinct species by
+itself. From 1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large
+proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the English
+porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced into the paste in
+order to obtain a more refractory material; yet it was not until about
+1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent abandoned entirely the use of
+glass and composed his porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic
+rock for the body, glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the
+foundation of distinctively English porcelain. The material has many
+merits both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more
+easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better for
+ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it permits the
+fullest range of decoration.
+
+Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English
+factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the various
+influences that were at work in determining what the porcelain-maker
+should do, both in the way of shape and decoration. The eyes of all men
+were, of course, turned first to the porcelain brought from the far
+East; and in the early efforts of the English factories, as of those of
+France and Germany, we notice a predominance of white pieces or of
+pieces decorated with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously
+inspired by the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea
+produced large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early days
+of the Worcester factory little else was made there than white, or blue
+and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese. Another oriental
+influence was to be found in the Imari patterns of Japan, particularly
+those in the style of Kakiemon. It has been noted that Meissen,
+Chantilly and other continental factories had already created a vogue
+for these reproductions of Japanese decorations, and in our own country
+Bow, Chelsea and Worcester followed suit. The later Imari patterns,
+heavily decorated with blue and red and gold for the use of "the
+foreigner," furnished another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and
+the vogue of these English "Japan" patterns, in the last quarter of the
+18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great that
+they represent a large proportion of the output of our English porcelain
+works during that period. The productions of the German and French
+factories also exerted a profound influence on English potters; so that
+throughout the 18th century English porcelains largely consisted of
+imitations of the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.
+
+We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration which
+undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of transfer-printing,
+whereby patterns printed on paper from engraved copper plates are
+transferred to porcelain or pottery and subsequently fired, either under
+or on the glaze. At the best these printed patterns are in no way
+superior to the stencilled work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at
+the worst, European and American printed patterns have been perhaps the
+most inappropriate decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world. It
+has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it enables
+elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so brings decorated
+pottery within the reach of the humblest. The truer view is, that the
+simplest brushwork patterns, or even no pattern at all, would be
+preferable to the tawdry results that the cheapest forms of
+transfer-printing have rendered possible.
+
+_Chelsea._--Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was the most
+important of all the English porcelain works, and fine specimens of this
+period command high prices in the saleroom to-day. We know little of the
+origin of this important factory, though it is believed to have been in
+existence from some time after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally
+demolished and some of the workmen and part of the plant were removed
+to the then important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles
+Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750. Sprimont retained
+possession of the works until 1769, and died in 1771. It was during his
+management, from 1750 to 1770, that the finest and most characteristic
+pieces of Chelsea porcelain were made.
+
+Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely varied, little was
+produced there that was really English in character. The earliest pieces
+appear to have been either in pure white or in white decorated with
+paintings in under-glaze blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish
+salt cellars, the shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats,
+small cups and saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the
+decorations, mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed by
+reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain. Afterwards we
+find the appearance of table wares modelled in imitation of leaves,
+animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently adopted from current
+French and German practice.
+
+In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown by the
+production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.), and of the
+small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of which there is such a
+fine collection in the British Museum. In the latter days of the factory
+(say after 1758) we find Chelsea following in the wake of Sevres in the
+production of large and elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and
+covers, scroll-work bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen
+in the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of this
+elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine blue,
+turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour, while white
+panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and painted in enamel
+colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects in absolute rivalry with
+the pieces manufactured at Sevres.
+
+The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the ill-health
+of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury, the proprietor of
+the Derby works. He carried on the establishment from 1770 to 1784, but
+in this period a great change is noticeable in the product of the
+factory. The "rococo" forms and decorations of the true Chelsea
+porcelain were replaced by works in the neo-classical style already
+rendered popular by the success of Josiah Wedgwood, and the
+Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite a distinct production from the early
+works of Chelsea. The most distinctive mark of the Chelsea porcelain is
+an anchor--either embossed in the paste or painted in gold or colour.
+Often the anchors occur in pairs, and it is frequently associated with
+other marks such as a dagger or a cross. Some of the Derby-Chelsea
+pieces are marked with a conjoined D and an anchor.
+
+[Illustration: Chelsea Potters' marks.]
+
+_Bow._--The date of the establishment of the factory at
+Stratford-le-Bow, in what is now the East End of London, is quite
+uncertain, but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected
+with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture of porcelain.
+The materials mentioned in this patent are not such as would produce
+porcelain at all, and it appears likely that the specification was made
+purposely defective. In 1748 a further patent was applied for in which
+we get the first mention of bone-ash, so that from the technical point
+of view the wares made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance
+as indicating the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain in
+which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the works at Bow
+belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and was then known as "New
+Canton," and as 300 workpeople were employed, the operations must have
+been conducted on a large scale; but ultimately, from causes that can
+only be surmised, the partnership was dissolved and the business failed,
+so that in 1775 the works was bought for a very small sum by the William
+Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the plant and moulds
+to his more prosperous works at Derby. It would appear from what we know
+of the factory and its productions that the business was conducted on
+simpler lines than at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no
+elaborate vases in imitation of Sevres, and no important groups of
+figures which might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is
+common with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the
+production of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted
+with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then followed
+the well-known "Quail," or "Partridge," and "Wheat-sheaf" patterns in
+red and green and gold in imitation of the Japanese patterns; and the
+manufacture of table ware decorated with these simple yet bright and
+pleasant devices seems to have formed the greater part of the work at
+the factory. Many figures and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but
+they are fewer in number and less cleverly made and decorated than the
+contemporary productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise that
+there was considerable rivalry between these two works situated on the
+outskirts of the metropolis, for we find the "anchor" mark, which is the
+best recognized mark of Chelsea porcelain, often occurring on specimens
+that from internal evidence or from the piece itself we should rather
+attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are not very certain, but some of the
+likeliest are here given.
+
+[Illustration: Bow Potters' marks.]
+
+_Worcester._--The third of the early English factories, and ultimately
+the most important of all, was that founded at Worcester in 1751 by Dr
+Wall, a man of unusual attainments, and a number of his friends. How Dr
+Wall came to learn the secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown,
+but even assuming that he acquired some information from wandering
+workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon developed on
+original lines. The nature of the paste and the glaze of the early
+Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety of their decorations,
+stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen really developed a
+native porcelain. Between 1751 and 1770, the first period of Worcester
+porcelain, the prevalent influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white,
+and the pieces of that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for
+their artistic quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in
+England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied, and a
+collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory from
+the aesthetic point of view. The productions at this time were tea and
+coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and plates. The cups were usually
+made without handles in imitation of the oriental practice, but large,
+two-handled covered cups for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made
+during the early period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed
+pattern resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced
+at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets were also
+made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.
+
+The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was introduced
+at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock, an engraver, came
+from York House, Battersea, where the process was first employed for the
+decoration of the Battersea enamels. The early Worcester prints
+comprised portraits of celebrities of the time (the Frederick the Great
+mug), or adaptations of the works of great artists such as Gainsborough
+and Watteau, or copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The
+first printing was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the
+fired glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of
+printing in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to
+note that for many years this process of transfer printing was developed
+side by side with the older method of porcelain painting, and until the
+end of the 18th century the processes appear to have been used at
+Worcester quite independently. The closing of the Chelsea factory in
+1770 led to the migration of some of the Chelsea painters to Worcester,
+and from about that date a considerable amount of Worcester porcelain
+was decorated on the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the
+styles that had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only
+fair to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always
+distinguished by a certain English character both in the style and the
+workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and most artistic period
+of Worcester porcelain came to an end before 1783, when, after the death
+of Dr Wall, the works passed under the control of Thomas Flight and his
+two sons, who had been jewellers. The Flight influence was soon
+noticeable from the fact that the new shapes were more and more based on
+those of Sevres and Meissen, while the decoration became more mechanical
+and precise as befitted the work of jewellers rather than potters. King
+George III. and Queen Charlotte visited the works in 1788 and bestowed
+upon the firm the privilege of styling themselves "China Manufacturers
+to Their Majesties," since when the works has always been known as the
+Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793 Martin Barr was taken into
+partnership; the "Flight & Barr" period, so well known to collectors,
+lasted until 1807.
+
+[Illustration: Early Worcester Potters' marks.]
+
+Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after 1784, viz. the
+Chamberlain factory, which was working in rivalry with the original
+establishment; but its productions are of no particular artistic merit,
+and in 1840 the two firms became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the
+present Worcester Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the
+productions of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th century
+were the "Armorial" services made for various royal and noble families,
+and those adaptations of Imari patterns known as "Old Japan."
+
+_Derby._--Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear to have
+been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee, Andrew Planche;
+but the business, which was afterwards to attain such a great
+development, was only founded in 1756 with William Duesbury as its
+manager. Duesbury was originally a decorator of china figures in London,
+and his career proves that he was a man of great industry and energy,
+for within twenty-five years he not only built up a large business at
+Derby, but he absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in
+the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important china
+manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a commercial success
+like this implied the absence of any distinct artistic impulse. The
+porcelain produced at Derby is for the most part only an echo of the
+successes of Meissen, Sevres, or the earlier English factories. It is
+only fair to remark that a very deep and rich under-glaze blue was
+attained at the Derby works, and that this was associated with very
+mechanical painting of birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional
+quality. At this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with
+exceptional vigour, until "Crown-Derby Japan" became a standard trade
+name for this clobbered oriental style.
+
+[Illustration: Derby Potters' marks.]
+
+Mention has already been made of the "biscuit" porcelain figures made at
+Derby, which are superior in style to anything else made in-Europe in
+the 18th century except the "biscuit" porcelains of Sevres. The Derby
+"biscuits" of the best type range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest
+specimens have a "waxy" surface, though there is little or no sheen and
+every detail remains as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its
+maker. The most famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and
+statuettes of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an
+artist named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups
+adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a workman named
+Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic figures and animals.
+
+_Plymouth and Bristol._--The porcelain factories at Plymouth and
+Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only English
+factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous to the Chinese
+was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a Quaker druggist of
+Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting to discover in Cornwall
+and Devonshire minerals similar to those which were described in the
+letters of Pere d'Entrecolles as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain.
+After many years of travel and research he ascertained the nature of the
+Cornish stone and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at
+Plymouth for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from
+these native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise,
+from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only be
+referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the factory
+was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards transferred to
+Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant, who had already been dabbling in
+the fashionable pursuit of porcelain making. Champion's Bristol factory
+lasted from 1773 to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number
+of Staffordshire potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed.
+The Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true
+felspathic porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the china
+clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder and whiter
+than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh, glittering glaze
+marks it off at once from the wares of Bow, Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.
+
+The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much in its
+style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One can point to
+nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens now command very
+high prices in the salerooms it is on account of their rarity rather
+than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that they possess.
+
+Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the production of
+the Bristol works, but a considerable number of figures are known, in
+many cases obviously copied from those of Meissen, and a few large
+hexagonal vases similar in style to specimens produced at Chelsea and at
+Worcester. The most distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are
+certain small plaques or slabs in "biscuit" porcelain, usually bearing
+in the centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by a
+wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these choice
+productions are to be seen in the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and Swansea marks.]
+
+The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its general mark the
+alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was also used to a limited extent
+at the Bristol factory, though the general Bristol mark was a cross or a
+copy of the crossed swords of Meissen. The Staffordshire potters who
+bought the rights of the Bristol porcelain factory from Champion
+established a works at Shelton, near Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire,
+under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they never manufactured
+anything of artistic account.
+
+  _Minor English Factories._--A number of other porcelain factories were
+  founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but none of
+  these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain made at
+  Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy and ugly in
+  form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic of the
+  factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by William
+  Duesbury.
+
+  The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain
+  amount of porcelain, as well as "Delft" and other earthenwares, and
+  the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their productions.
+
+  A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th
+  century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because
+  certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of
+  "Armorial" porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China.
+  Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was
+  only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing cheap
+  wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the more
+  important English factories.
+
+  Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English
+  porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of
+  Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English
+  factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English
+  factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as
+  Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred to
+  the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.
+
+  _Collections._--The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum
+  contain the best general collections of English porcelain. The museums
+  at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local wares; while
+  the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works has an admirable
+  collection of the wares of that factory. Many noteworthy private
+  collections are in existence, of which we may mention those of Mr
+  Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Alex. Brongniart, _Traitie des arts ceramiques_ (1844);
+  Jacquemart, _Histoire de la ceramique_ (Eng. ed. 1873); Jannicke,
+  _Grundriss der Keramik_ (1879); Dr Brinkmann, _Handbook of European
+  Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum_; Marryat, _History of Pottery and
+  Porcelain_ (1857); Jewitt, _Ceramic Art of Great Britain_ (1878);
+  Auscher, _A History and Description of French Porcelain_ (1905);
+  Burton, _A History and Description of English Porcelain_ (1902);
+  Dillon, _Porcelain_ (1904); Solon, _Old English Porcelain_ (1903);
+  Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); R. Almstrom, _Lervarorna och deras
+  Tillverkning_ (1903).     (W. B.*)
+
+
+POTTERY AND PORCELAIN DURING THE 19TH CENTURY
+
+The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain in Europe
+and America throughout the 19th century need not be treated in such
+detail as the history of its growth up to that period, for modern means
+of communication and the general diffusion of knowledge have tended to
+destroy the individual character which was so marked a feature of the
+pottery of different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century
+was distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it
+witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those methods of
+handicraft which made the older pottery individual and interesting even
+in its simplest forms. Collectors are prepared to pay very large sums
+for choice examples of the potter's art of bygone centuries, but it is
+doubtful if much of the pottery of the 19th century will ever be
+collected for its intrinsic merits, though it may be preserved as an
+illustration of the spirit of the age.
+
+In preceding sections of this article the development of the brightly
+painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated porcelains of
+various European countries have been traced down to the end of the 18th
+century, because that date marks, quite distinctly, the period when the
+old handicraft of the potter was for various reasons displaced by
+organized manufacture. The disturbed economic condition of Europe in the
+last quarter of the 18th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early
+19th century proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain
+works where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional
+methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and
+cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood and his
+contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more perfectly finished
+and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled pottery of the
+continent. It vied in finish with the expensive continental porcelains,
+and for nearly half a century it carried all before it, not only in
+England, but throughout the world. An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de
+Saint Fond, writing in the beginning of the 19th century, remarks of
+English pottery that "Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the
+advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine
+glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and
+the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and
+so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg, from
+Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the
+extremity of the south of France one is served at every inn upon English
+ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are supplied with it; and vessels are
+loaded with it for the East Indies, the West Indies, and the continent
+of America."[36] It was calculated that at this time three-fourths of
+the pottery manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of
+things was not likely to continue, and in most of the European
+countries, after the settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as
+had survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose,
+adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases experienced
+Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these works, and so far as
+ordinary domestic pottery was concerned, the first half of the 19th
+century witnessed the establishment in every country of Europe and in
+the United States of America of pottery works managed by Englishmen,
+where earthenwares were made after the English fashion. We shall refer
+presently to the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and
+porcelain, but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one
+or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England itself
+witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture, which became
+more and more aggregated in that district of North Staffordshire
+designated emphatically "The Potteries," where, in spite of later
+developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters of all the pottery and
+porcelain made in the British Isles is still produced. This
+concentration of the industry in England has resulted in a race of
+pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere in the world, and while it
+was the supply of cheap coal and coarse clay which first gave
+Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-eminence is now retained as
+much by the traditional skill of the workmen of the district as by the
+enterprise of its manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IX.
+
+  Sevres. Pate-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin.
+
+  Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pate-dure.
+
+  Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pate-dure.
+
+  Sevres. Pate-tendre, c. 1756.]
+
+While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the methods of
+manufacture which have placed England in the first rank as a
+pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have brought within the
+reach of the humblest domestic utensils of high finish and great
+durability, it is impossible to say much for the taste or art associated
+with them. Neatness, serviceableness and durability, English domestic
+wares undoubtedly possess in a degree unknown to any earlier type of
+pottery, but the general use of transfer-printing as the principal
+method of decoration, and the absence of any distinctive style of
+ornament, must cause them to take a low rank in comparison with the
+wares of past centuries, when mechanical perfection was impossible and
+rich colour and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of
+the pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition of
+1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of art as
+applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as marking the period
+when many of the old handicrafts had been extinguished by the use of
+mechanical appliances and the growth of the factory system, and when the
+delight of men in these current developments was so great that they were
+regarded as triumphs in themselves, when they were only "means to an
+end."
+
+Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain has followed
+two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of manufacturers to
+produce the most artistic results possible with modern processes and
+methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable efforts of those
+individual potters in every country with whom art was the first
+consideration and commercial production was disregarded.
+
+Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount importance
+in the first half of the 19th century, it must be remembered that some
+of the oldest factories in Europe were still alive and active. The royal
+factories in Sevres, Meissen, Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and
+elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the Napoleonic Wars, continued at the
+expense of their respective states, to produce porcelains which were the
+legitimate development of their work during the 18th century.
+
+_Meissen and Berlin._--At Meissen, efforts were made to improve the
+technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen wares had
+already become valuable, and they were reproduced, marks included, until
+all initiative was destroyed, and the factory continued to live, mainly,
+on its old reputation.
+
+At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy throughout
+the early years of the 19th century were severely felt, so that a
+cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured. The only innovations that
+can be ascribed to the factory during this period, though highly
+esteemed at the time, form striking examples of the artistic decadence
+of the period. Such was the lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in
+porcelain slip so that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a
+porcelain facsimile; another was the production of slabs of porcelain
+modelled in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it
+appeared like a picture painted _en grisaille_.
+
+From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the
+majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in the world
+has greater attention been paid to the technical and scientific problems
+of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment has rendered the
+greatest service in the development of the important chemical and
+electrical industries of Germany by the splendid appliances it has
+invented for scientific use.
+
+Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been conducted
+with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger perfected his soft
+porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the best Japanese
+porcelains, and here also he developed the manufacture of copper-red
+glazes in imitation of the old _sang-de-boeuf_ and _flambe_, glazes of
+the Chinese, at the same time establishing some of the scientific
+principles underlying their production. At Berlin, too, all the modern
+methods of decoration, whether in coloured glazes, raised enamels, _pate
+sur pate_, the elaborate paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the
+use of crystalline glazes, have been followed with great success; but
+the factory has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to
+the decorative side of porcelain.
+
+_Vienna._--Few European factories were so little affected by the general
+trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have already
+referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding which became the
+distinguishing feature of its wares towards the end of the 18th century,
+and this style, once perfected, seems to have been continued with little
+change. It has been stated by a renowned German authority, that the
+Viennese porcelain was at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this
+period the plan of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was
+developed to its utmost, and this, in combination with the richest
+gilding, marks the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to
+an end in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap
+porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and therefore styled
+"Viennese porcelain," has during the last twenty years overwhelmed the
+English and American markets.
+
+_Sevres._--The important part played by the Royal French manufactory at
+Sevres has already been sketched. During the troublous years of the
+French Revolution the works practically came to a standstill, and under
+the Directory it was a question whether this manufactory, along with
+certain other state establishments in France, should be closed.
+Napoleon, however, decided that for the glory of France and as a means
+of encouraging its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the
+English potters, the establishment at Sevres should be conducted as a
+national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brongniart, a man
+of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was appointed director,
+and retained that post under the successive governments of France until
+his death in 1847. In the hands of Brongniart the establishment at
+Sevres became at once a school of research and a centre of practical
+accomplishment--the influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its
+products were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French
+monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose ideas of
+Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of his victories, and
+after every campaign a fresh table service or new suite of vases was
+produced to commemorate the emperor's successes. The most striking piece
+of this kind was the vase made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon
+and Marie Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled
+with figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than
+115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the
+acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures. This vase
+was three years in making, and is said to have cost something like
+L1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary example of the productions
+of Sevres, for under every successive government of the 19th century the
+factory has been called to produce enormous vases which are to be found
+in the rooms or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and
+while these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their
+manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered, very few of
+them possess either spontaneity or charm. They are correct, frigid,
+cold, and compare most unfavourably from the artistic point of view
+with the masterpieces of oriental pottery.
+
+Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again the
+influence of Sevres became paramount in Europe, and its styles of
+painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830 to 1870 by all
+those European potters who were attempting to make anything beyond
+useful domestic wares. As an instance of its aims in the period between
+1830 and 1850, large sums were spent in the production of great slabs of
+porcelain many feet in area; on which were painted copies of some of the
+famous portraits and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of
+the Louvre. A number of these are preserved in the museum at Sevres, and
+must always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical
+accomplishment.
+
+The most noticeable invention of Sevres in the middle part of the 19th
+century was the _pate sur pate_ decoration in which porcelain clays of
+various colours are used as the artist's medium. The idea appears to
+have been adopted from an old Chinese vase by Robert, the chief painter,
+and at the London International Exhibition of 1862 some small cups
+decorated in this method, by Gely, were first shown. The most successful
+work in this style was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked
+at Sevres until 1870. In that year he came to England and was employed
+at Minton's, where for about thirty-five years he continued this method
+of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of pottery
+decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M. Solon the _pate sur
+pate_ decoration took the form of paintings of figure subjects or dainty
+ornamental designs in white slip on a coloured porcelain ground of
+green, blue, dark-grey or black. On such grounds a thin wash of the slip
+gives a translucent film, so that by washing on or building up
+successive layers of slip, sharpening the drawing with modelling tools,
+or softening or rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate
+gradations of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip
+to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly adopted by all
+the principal European factories, though nowhere was it carried to such
+perfection as at Sevres and at Minton's. M. Taxile Doat has executed
+many extraordinary pieces in this style of decoration at Sevres, and in
+the British Museum there is a large vase of his, presented by the French
+government at the beginning of the present century. One great feature of
+French porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the development
+of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district of central
+France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain production in the period
+between 1780 and 1850, but after the latter date it rapidly developed
+into a pottery centre second only in importance to that of the Potteries
+district in England. We can do no more than mention this fact, because,
+for the most part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the
+production of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art.
+
+The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sevres, and all work came to
+a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory, which was almost
+completed before the outbreak of the war, was opened by Marshal MacMahon
+in 1876, but for many years the work was continued under great
+discouragement. Between 1879 and 1889 attention was paid to the study
+and imitation of old Chinese methods, and this resulted in the
+reproduction of many of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the
+despair of European potters.
+
+At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sevres was perhaps
+the most notable feature of the magnificent collection of ceramics
+gathered there. The collection included many varieties of porcelain,
+both hard and soft paste, decorated in all the current styles of the
+period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze painting, flambe glazes and
+crystalline glazes, but most beautiful of all were the magnificent
+groups of "biscuit" figures designed as table garnitures by some of the
+best French sculptors of the time.
+
+_English Progress._--The demand for elaborate specimens of painted
+porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between 1851 and 1880, and
+this demand was undoubtedly fostered by the series of international
+exhibitions held during that period, when every European pottery works
+of note produced large and costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware,
+smothered with painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced
+something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of European
+factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton at
+Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the Arnoux's of Apt,
+an old family of French potters, was at this time the technical and
+artistic director of Messrs Minton's works, and he was the only pottery
+director during the 19th century who could in any sense be compared with
+M. Brongniart of Sevres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree
+artistic with technical skill, and under his management the works of
+Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in Europe.
+Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse, and Protat, and
+pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill, E. Lessore and L.
+Solon were engaged at this factory and produced many of the most
+characteristic European decorations of the middle of the 19th century.
+
+To this period, too, we must refer another English invention, that of a
+special porcelain known as "Parian." This in its finest expression was a
+"biscuit" porcelain used for the production of statuettes and groups
+rivalling the finest 18th century "biscuit" figures of Sevres and Derby.
+It seems probable that this Parian was first made at the works of
+Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-upon-Trent; but it was immediately
+adopted at Minton's, Wedgwood's, and at Worcester; and each of these
+firms used it in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured
+at the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain
+works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by the
+Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of Longton, and other
+English manufacturers until it became an important branch of the English
+porcelain made in the period under review.
+
+_Japanese Influence._--At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great
+collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm, and there
+was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese art in Europe once
+more; not as in the 18th century, when the old Japanese patterns were
+copied or frankly imitated, but a European-Japanese style arose, based
+on the methods and ideas of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen,
+the workers in metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the
+Worcester Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and
+skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and minute
+execution must be ranked before all other European works of their kind.
+
+The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese art was,
+however, developed at the Royal Copenhagen works, the productions of
+which are not only famous all over the world, but have set a new style
+in porcelain decoration which is being followed at most of the
+continental factories. By the use of the pure Swedish felspar and quartz
+and the finest china clays from Germany or Cornwall a material of
+excellent quality is prepared, and on this naturalistic paintings of
+birds, fishes, animals and water or northern landscapes and figure
+subjects are painted in delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens.
+The Royal Copenhagen works has also produced a profusion of skilfully
+modelled animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately
+tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours.
+
+Not only have Berlin, Sevres and other European factories adopted the
+modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the Japanese are now
+imitating these skilful productions which were originally inspired by
+their own early work.
+
+_Stonewares._--Mention must be made of the revival of the manufacture of
+artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and Villeroy and Boch, the
+great German potters. Doultons, besides reviving the older forms of
+English stoneware, made some entirely new departures, and their pieces
+with designs etched in the clay are admirable examples of the right use
+of a refractory material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish
+stonewares, and many interesting new departures in addition, but mostly
+in German forms that have not commended the wares to other nations.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE X.
+
+  Chelsea porcelain; 1745-1770 Figure after Watteau.
+
+  Worcester Porcelain; c. 1760-1770.
+
+  Whieldon and Wedgwood, cauliflower ware; c. 1750-1760.
+
+  Wedgwood's jasper; c. 1780.
+
+  Turner's jasper; c. 1780.]
+
+_Artistic Results._--While the great potteries of Europe have been
+employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in consolidating
+their knowledge on the technical and scientific side, so that they are
+able to produce pottery more perfect in shape, with a higher degree of
+finish and greater certainty of result than was ever known before, it
+cannot be said that the artistic results have been commensurate with the
+labour expended. Fortunately, however, the success of these important
+industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited a
+considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists, to become
+artist-potters and producers of individual wares, often recalling the
+works of the great schools of bygone centuries. This movement, which
+to-day has its exponents in every European country as well as in the
+United States of America, originated in France between 1840 and 1850,
+when the formation of the earliest ceramic museums and the new-born
+interest in the old French faience led to various attempts at
+pottery-making by the old methods of handwork and rule of thumb.
+Avisseau of Tours (1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859)
+began to make pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863)
+revived painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand
+for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs, and in
+France and other countries artists began to dabble in the painting of
+pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom, painting pieces
+obtained from some pottery manufacturer, which he sold on his own
+account after they had been decorated and fired; or he became attached
+to a particular factory and his productions were sold by the potter; or
+the artist became an amateur potter, and either worked alone or
+encouraged other artists to co-operate with him.
+
+It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent men in
+each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their own day, but are
+also likely to be regarded always as among the distinguished productions
+of the 19th century. Emile Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who
+were attracted by the technique of the potter. For some time they bought
+specimens of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at
+Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial art
+for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours in a
+delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from old
+engravings. He worked for a short time at Sevres, and then, like so many
+other French pottery artists of this period, he came to Minton's in
+England, and finally entered into an engagement with the old firm of
+Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which continued almost to his death (1860-1876).
+On their fine cream-coloured earthenware he sketched many thousands of
+fanciful designs which had a great vogue in the 'seventies and 'eighties
+of the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His first
+innovation was a method known as "Barbotine" or slip-painting, in which
+coloured clays were used "impasto," often in considerable thickness, so
+that after the work had been fired and glazed it bore some resemblance
+to an oil painting. For a few years this style of decoration became the
+rage all over Europe, but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it
+had found favour, and is now only used for the decoration of common
+wares. Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the
+discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first European
+potter to produce flambe glazes after the manner of the Chinese, and a
+fine collection of these productions of his is preserved in the museum
+at Sevres.
+
+The greatest of all the French innovators was, however, Theodore Deck,
+who had been trained as a working potter and was led to forsake the
+management of an ordinary tile and pottery business in Paris to
+experiment on his own account. He started a little workshop in the
+Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and rapidly gathered round him a number
+of young painters all eager to experiment in the magnificent colours
+which Deck with his passionate love of Persian and other oriental
+pottery could place at their disposal. Within a few years this venture
+was so successful that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a
+great potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier,
+Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased by the
+lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of his career came in
+1887, when he was appointed director of the National Manufactory at
+Sevres, for he was the only practical potter who had ever occupied that
+position; but he died in 1890 before he had been able to impress his
+personality on the work of Sevres.
+
+The same movement that was active in France found its exponents in other
+countries as well. In Italy and the south of France the last quarter of
+the 19th century witnessed a revival of Italian majolica and of lustre
+decoration. Prominent in this direction were the productions of
+Cantegalli of Florence and of the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near Cannes;
+while in England William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his
+tiles and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours
+recalling those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages.
+This departure in England was, however, followed up by many
+manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of pottery
+colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw & Company of Jackfield,
+and Minton's of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced much excellent work, in tiles
+and vases inspired from the same oriental sources.
+
+Meantime, in America there had been growing up a manufacture of pottery
+after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey; East Liverpool,
+Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these centres English workmen
+had been attracted, and earthenware after the current English styles was
+manufactured; but, as was the case in Europe, individual efforts were
+made to produce artistic pottery. The first and best known of these
+artistic departures was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and
+again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an enterprise
+which has since produced some very original work. From 1880 to 1889 the
+work was mainly carried on at the expense of this lady, but since that
+date the enterprise has been self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery
+has become known throughout the world.
+
+The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development of
+new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes--and it is not
+too much to say that much of the improved sanitation of modern dwellings
+and towns has been rendered possible by the special appliances invented
+by potters for these purposes. In this direction the English potters
+undoubtedly led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated
+abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large works in
+Germany, France and the United States of America. Varieties, too, of
+hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares, stonewares and porcelains,
+have been invented for use in the chemical and electrical industries.
+But these belong to the great modern branch of pottery manufacture, not
+to pottery art. In the same way, the revived attention paid to the
+various forms of pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings
+belongs rather to the question of mural decoration than of pottery.
+
+At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and Germany the
+leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany excelling in the amount
+of its output, and England in the fineness and finish of its
+productions. France, in addition to the National Manufactory at Sevres,
+as much as ever divorced from commerce, has its porcelain industry at
+Limoges and large manufactories of tiles and earthenware in many
+departments; while there are also a number of artist potters like
+Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic
+pottery in hard-fired stonewares (_gres_) and porcelain, while the
+production of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been
+developed by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Muller. A great
+development has also taken place in the production of decorative pottery
+and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides producing
+quantities of painted blue and white earthenware (made in the English
+and not in the old Dutch fashion), has been experimenting largely in the
+development of crystalline and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while
+the Rozenburg factory at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near
+Amsterdam, have made some distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery
+and porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has already
+been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of Bing &
+Grondhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles of decoration
+initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there are two important
+factories at Rorstrand and Gustafsberg. Under the accomplished director
+of the Rorstrand factory, Mr Robert Almstrom, a great variety of
+products have been successfully manufactured, including hard-paste
+porcelain, English bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy,
+Spain and Belgium have also important modern pottery works.
+
+In the United States of America there are large establishments for the
+manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all after the English
+fashion, while in addition there are a number of experimental kilns at
+work producing artistic pottery. The Rookwood factory has already been
+mentioned, but the wares produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs
+Robineau and T. Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See "Report on
+American Art Pottery," pp. 922-935 of _Special Reports of the U.S.
+Census Office, Manufactures_, pt. iii., 1905.)
+
+  _Technical Pottery Works._--It is only possible to give a selection of
+  the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical side
+  of pottery production. Brongniart, _Traite des arts ceramiques_ (3rd
+  ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvetat; E. Bourry,
+  _Traite des industries ceramiques_ (Paris, 1897); Theodore Deck, _La
+  Faience_ (Paris, 1887); A. Granger, _La Ceramique industrielle_
+  (Paris, 1905); E.S. Auscher, _La Ceramique cuisant a haute
+  temperature_ (Paris, 1899); _Technologie de la Ceramique_ (Paris,
+  1901); _Les Industries ceramiques_ (Paris, 1901); Seger, _Gesammelte
+  Schriften_ (Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., Eastern, Pa., U.S.A., 1902);
+  Langenbeck, _The Chemistry of Pottery_ (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895);
+  William Burton, _Porcelain_ (London, 1906).     (W. B.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin
+    of some example of ancient pottery--was it made in the district where
+    it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre? When we
+    possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the use of
+    one general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will
+    frequently enable such a question to be answered, where now all is
+    doubt and speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto
+    are often not worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose,
+    the older methods of silicate analysis being only approximate.
+
+  [2] It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the
+    production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft
+    of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less
+    interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British
+    Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France,
+    Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant pottery
+    little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical skill
+    from the country work of the middle ages. In England the cheapness of
+    machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such village industries.
+
+  [3] _I tre libri dell' Arte del Vasajo_, by Cipriano Piccolpasso of
+    Castel Durante, A.D. 1548.
+
+  [4] The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once
+    dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called
+    pottery at all, though we have no other name for them. The material
+    is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass.
+
+  [5] Foreign pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early as
+    the XIIth Dynasty, e.g. the Cretan polychrome ware of the Middle
+    Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib ("Kahun") and
+    the Cypriote (?) "punctuated" black ware from the same site, and from
+    Khata'anah (17). The date between the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties is
+    certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom Egyptians do not seem to have
+    imitated these earlier foreign forms. British Museum, No. 17,046, is,
+    however, probably an instance of an Egyptian idea imitated by the
+    foreign potter (17).
+
+  [6] Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture of
+    sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy
+    porcelain--the earliest porcelain of which we have any record.
+
+  [7] On this subject see in particular Mazard, _De la connaissance par
+    les anciens des glacures plombiferes_, a scientific and valuable
+    monograph (1879); also Rayet and Collignon, _Hist. de la ceramique
+    grecque_, p. 365 (or _B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery_, Introduction).
+
+  [8] For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters,
+    _Ancient Pottery_, ii. 443-454.
+
+  [9] See examples in colour on Plate V.
+
+  [10] A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many
+    shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving
+    the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground of
+    the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance--probably
+    an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, manganese and
+    iron--and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it.
+
+  [11] See Drury Fortnum, _Archaeologia_, vol. xlii.
+
+  [12] Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with
+    elaborate English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these
+    were doubtless included under the name of "Damas Wares."
+
+  [13] See Riano, _Spanish Arts_, Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook,
+    pp. 149-151; and _Sobre la manera de fabricar la antigua loza dorado
+    de Manises_ (1878).
+
+  [14] See examples in colour, Plate VI.
+
+  [15] There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the
+    lustred pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th
+    century onwards; and it is important to note in this connexion that
+    almost all the fine examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern
+    collections have been obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian
+    families.
+
+  [16] Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, dated 1548. It
+    has been several times translated both into modern Italian and
+    French. The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this
+    interesting MS. in the volumes on _Majolica_ by Drury E. Fortnum.
+
+  [17] For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, _Comptes
+    rendus_ for December 1905, and W. Burton, _Society of Arts Journal_,
+    2846, vol. lv., 1907.
+
+  [18] See Magne, _Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers_ (Paris, 1904);
+    also Solon in _Burlington Magazine_ (November 1907).
+
+  [19] See B. Fillon, _Les Faiences d'Oiron_ (1862).
+
+  [20] See E. Bonaffe, _Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire_ (1898).
+
+  [21] See examples in colour, Plate X.
+
+  [22] An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval pottery
+   will be found in Hobson's "Medieval Pottery found in England,"
+   _Archaeological Journal_, vol. lix.
+
+  [23] Bottger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the
+   discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwight's death.
+
+  [24] For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved
+    the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A.H. Church's
+    _English Earthenware_, and W. Burton's _English Earthenware and
+    Stoneware_.
+
+  [25] It is amusing or annoying to find in European museums the wares
+    of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all lumped
+    together as "Wedgwood," and yet one can hardly wonder at it,
+    remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and how little of
+    the other English potters of the 18th century.
+
+  [26] See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII.
+
+  [27] S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_ (Victoria and Albert Museum
+    Handbooks, ii. 5-6).
+
+  [28] _Yao_ is the Chinese term equivalent of the English "pottery" or
+    "ware."
+
+  [29] See Brinkley, _Japan and China_, ix. 353-365.
+
+  [30] Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_ (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896).
+
+  [31] M. Reinand, _Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les
+    Persans dans l'Inde el a la Chine dans le IX^e siecle_ (Paris, 1845).
+
+  [32] The suggestion has been made that the _celadon_ wares found in
+    Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the Chinese,
+    but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point consult
+    Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik" in _Osterreichische
+    Monatsschrift fur den Orient_, vol. x., 1884; A.B. Meyer, "Uber die
+    Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane" under "Uber die Marta banis,"
+    ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, _Ancient Porcelain_ (1888), and Bushell,
+    _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (1899).
+
+  [33] It is of interest to note that the "Delft" of Holland, also a
+    product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest
+    approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese.
+
+  [34] See Drake, Sir W., _Venetian Ceramics_; and Davillier, Baron
+    Ch., _Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe_.
+
+  [35] A perfect _tour de force_ in this inartistic style of work,
+    preserved in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen,
+    has been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See _Gaz. des
+    beaux-arts_, September 1904.
+
+  [36] _Travels in England and Scotland_ (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33295.txt or 33295.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/2/9/33295/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33295.zip b/33295.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54c4b3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33295.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..141ed55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #33295 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33295)