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diff --git a/33295-8.txt b/33295-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e62534c --- /dev/null +++ b/33295-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15786 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6 + "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 30, 2010 [EBook #33295] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 6 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME V, SLICE VI + + Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CELTES, KONRAD CENTO (town of Italy) + CELTIBERIA CENTO (composition) + CEMENT CENTRAL AMERICA + CEMETERY CENTRAL FALLS + CENCI, BEATRICE CENTRALIA + CENOBITES CENTRAL INDIA + CENOMANI CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR + CENOTAPH CENTUMVIRI + CENSOR CENTURION + CENSORINUS CENTURIPE + CENSUS CENTURY + CENTAUREA CEOS + CENTAURS CEPHALIC INDEX + CENTAURUS CEPHALONIA + CENTAURY CEPHALOPODA + CENTENARY CEPHEUS + CENTERVILLE CEPHISODOTUS + CENTIPEDE CERAM + CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA CERAMICS + + + + +CELTES, KONRAD (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin poet, the son of a +vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the Greek translation), was +born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He early ran away from home to avoid +being set to his father's trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to +find a generous patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola. +After the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of a +scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of the +continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere establishing +learned societies on the model of the academy of Pomponius Laetus at +Rome. Among these was the _Sodalitas litteraria Rhenana_ or _Celtica_ at +Mainz (1491). In 1486 he published his first book, _Ars versificandi et +carminum_, which created an immense sensation and gained him the honour +of being crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony +being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of Nuremberg +in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor Maximilian I. professor +of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in 1502 was made head of the new +Collegium Poetarum et Mathematicorum, with the right of conferring the +laureateship. He did much to introduce system into the methods of +teaching, to purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the +study of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a mere +classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in history and +topography, especially in that of his native country. It was he who +first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at Regensburg) the +remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim, of which he +published an edition (Nuremberg, 1501), the historical poem _Ligurinus +sive de rebus gestis Frederici primi imperatoris libri x._ (Augsburg, +1507), and the celebrated map of the Roman empire known as the _Tabula +Peutingeriana_ (after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He +projected a great work on Germany; but of this only the _Germania +generalis_ and an historical work in prose, _De origine, situ, moribus +et institutis Nurimbergae libettus_, saw the light. As a writer of Latin +verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He composed odes, +elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an unfinished epic, the +_Theodoriceis_. His epigrams, edited by Hartfelder, were published at +Berlin in 1881. His editions of the classics are now, of course, out of +date. He died at Vienna on the 4th of February 1508. + + For a full list of Celtes's works see Engelbert Klüpfel, _De vita et + scriptis Conradi Celtis_ (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann + Aschbach, _Die früheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes_ (Vienna, 1869); + Hartmann, _Konrad Celtes in Nürnberg _(Nuremberg, 1889). + + + + +CELTIBERIA, a term used by Greek and Roman writers to denote, sometimes +the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes the north-east part of the +central plateau of the peninsula. The latter was probably the correct +use. The Celtiberi, in this narrower sense, were not so much one tribe +as a group of cantons--Arevaci, Pelendones, Berones and four or five +others. They were the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time +offered a stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian +mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar +capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the first +mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however, keep faith, and +several campaigns were undertaken against them. In 179 B.C. the whole +country was subdued by T. Sempronius Gracchus, who by his generous +treatment of the vanquished gained their esteem and affection. In 153 +they again revolted, and were not finally overcome until the capture of +Numantia (133). The twenty years' war waged round this city, and its +siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 B.C.) form only the +most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its mark in +entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1906-1907 by German +archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still more after the +death of Sertorius (72 B.C.), the Celtiberians became gradually +romanized, and town life grew up among their valleys; Clunia, for +instance, became a Roman municipality, and ruins of its walls, gates and +theatre testify to its civilization; while Bilbilis (Bambola), another +municipality, was the birthplace of the eminently Roman poet Martial. +The Celtiberians may have been so called because they were thought to +be the descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain), +or because they were regarded (cf. Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race of Celts +and Spaniards (Iberians); in either case the name represents a +geographer's theory rather than an ascertained fact. That a strong +Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by numerous traditions +and by the more trustworthy evidence of place-names. The Celtic +place-names of Spain, however, are not confined to Celtiberia or even to +the north and east; they occur even in the south and west. + + A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi is + given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough and + unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being chiefly + used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a nomadic + life or occupied small villages; large towns were few. Their infantry + and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they adopted the + wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried double-edged swords + and short daggers for use hand to hand, the steel of which was + hardened by being buried underground; their defensive armour was a + light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler, and greaves of felt + round their legs. They wore brazen helmets with purple crests, and + rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept on the bare ground. + Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with urine instead of water. + They were said to offer sacrifice to a nameless god (Strabo iii. p. + 164) at the time of the full moon when all the household danced + together before the doors of the houses. Although cruel to their + enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate meat of all + kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hübner's article in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. (1886-1893), collects all the + ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strabo's notice (bk. + iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest. (F. J. H.) + + + + +CEMENT (from Lat. _caementum_, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form +of _caedimentum_, from _caedere_, to cut), apparently first used of a +mixture of broken stone, tiles, &c., with some binding material, and +hence of any material capable of adhering to, and uniting into a +coherent mass, fragments of a substance not in itself adhesive. The term +is often applied to adhesive mixtures employed to unite objects or parts +of objects (see below), but in engineering, when used without +qualification, it means Portland cement, its modifications and +congeners; these are all hydraulic cements, i.e. when set they resist +the action of water, and can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to +set under water. + +_Hydraulic Cements_.--It was well known to builders in the earliest +historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist the action of +water, i.e. were hydraulic; it was also known that this property could +be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture of silicious materials such +as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here the two classes into which hydraulic +cements are divided. + + + Pozzuolanic cement. + +When pure chalk or limestone is "burned," i.e. heated in a kiln until +its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime. This slakes +violently with water, giving slaked lime, which can be made into a +smooth paste with water and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The +setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime (a purely +physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring between the lime and +the sand). The function of the sand is simply that of a diluent to +prevent undue shrinkage and cracking in drying. Subsequent hardening of +the mortar is caused by the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the +air by the lime, a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the +action is superficial. Mortar made from pure or "fat" lime cannot +withstand the action of water, and is only used for work done above +water-level. If, however, such "fat" lime is mixed in the presence of +water, not with sand but with silica in an active form, i.e. amorphous +and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate containing silica in an +active condition, it will unite with the silica and form a silicate of +lime capable of resisting the action of water. The mixture of the lime +and active silica or silicate is a pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of +all pozzuolanic cements would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated +silica, but though the latter is prepared artificially for various +purposes, it is too expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar +obstacle lies in the way of using a certain native form of active +silica, viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of +nitroglycerine, for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available for +making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious +substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be used. They +are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice, tufa, santorin earth, +trass and pozzuolana itself. The following analyses show their general +composition:-- + + +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | |Neapolitan | Roman | | + | | Pozzuo- | Pozzuo- | Trass | + | | lana | lana |(per cent) | + | |(per cent) |(per cent) | | + +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------| + | Soluble silica (SiO2) | 27.80 | 32.64 | 19.32 | + | Insoluble silicious residue | 35.38 | 25.94 | 50.40 | + | Alumina (Al2O3) | / 19.80 | / 22.74 | 13.86 | + | Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) | \ | \ | 3.10 | + | Lime (CaO) | 5.68 | 4.06 | · · | + | Magnesia (MgO) | 0.35 | 1.37 | 0.13 | + | Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) | Trace | Trace | · · | + | Combined water (H2O) | / 4.27 | / 8.92 | 7.57 | + | Carbonic anhydride (CO2) | \ | \ | · · | + | Moisture | · · | · · | 5.04 | + | Alkalis and loss | 6.72 | 4.33 | 0.58 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.0 | + +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is +granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a high +percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused into +abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the same slag +allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy which it +possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified. It bears to +ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that borne by plastic +sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This potential energy becomes +kinetic when the slag is brought into contact with lime in the presence +of water, and causes the formation of a true hydraulic silicate of lime. +The following analysis shows the composition of a typical slag:-- + + Per Cent. + Insoluble residue 1.04 + Silica (SiO2) 31.50 + Alumina (Al2O3) 18.56 + Manganous oxide (MnO) 0.44 + Lime (CaO) 42.22 + Magnesia (MgO) 3.18 + Soda (Na2O) 0.70 + Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 0.45 + Sulphur (S) 2.21 + ------ + 100.30 + Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur 1.10 + ------ + 99.20 + +Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime until both +materials are in a state of fine division and intimately mixed. The +usual proportions are three of slag to one of slaked lime by weight. The +product termed slag cement sets slowly, but ultimately attains a +strength scarcely inferior to that of Portland cement. Although it is +cheap and suitable for many purposes, its use is not large and tends to +decrease. Pozzuolanic cements are little used in England. Generally +speaking, they are only of local importance, their cheapness depending +largely on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit +of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured by the +careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime, but are mixed +roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being employed. This excess does +no harm, for that part which fails to unite with the lime serves as a +diluent, much as does sand in mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic +cement made on the spot where it is to be used may be regarded as a +better kind of common mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic +mortars may be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as +the pozzuolanic constituent. + + + Portland Cement + +Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the +pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and active +silica ready to unite under suitable conditions, but consist of definite +chemical compounds of lime and silica and lime and alumina, which, when +mixed with water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of +great mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert +material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a high +temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance and an +argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances in England are +chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand it, limestone, marl, +shale, slag or any similar material may be used, provided that the +correct proportions of lime, silica and alumina are maintained. The +earliest forms of cements of the Portland class were the hydraulic +limes. These are still largely used, and are prepared by burning +limestones containing clayey matter. Some of these naturally possess a +composition differing but little from that of the mixture of raw +materials artificially prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement +itself. Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient +times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to water +have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity to hydraulic lime +is Roman cement, prepared by heating an indurated marl occurring +naturally in nodules. Its name must not be taken to imply that it was +used by the ancients; in point of fact the manufacture of this substance +dates back only to 1796. + +With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th century +arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply of materials +containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium carbonate and clay +being limited, attempts were made to produce artificial mixtures which +would serve a similar end. Among those who experimented in this +direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, who added clay to finely ground +limestone, calcined the mixture, and ground the product, which he called +Portland cement. The only connexion between Portland cement and the +place Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles Portland +stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture Portland cement +from Portland stone (after adding a suitable quantity of clay), but this +is merely because Portland stone is substantially carbonate of lime; any +other limestone would serve equally well. Although Portland cement is +later in date than either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account +of its greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an +artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition and +properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The greater part of +the Portland cement made in England is manufactured on the Thames and +Medway. The materials are chalk and Medway mud; in a few works the +latter is replaced by gault. + + The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in the + following analyses:-- + + +-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Chalk. | Clay. | + +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+ + | |Per cent.| |Per cent.| | | | + |Silica (SiO2) | 0.92 | Insoluble silicious matter | 26.67 |Consisting of | | | + |Alumina+ferric oxide | | Silica (SiO2) | 31.24 | Quartz (SiO2) | 19.33 | | + | (Al2O2 + Fe2O3) | 0.24 | Alumina (Al2O3) | 16.60 | Silica (SiO2) | 5.19 |\ | + |Lime (CaO) | 55.00 | Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) | 8.66 | Alumina (Al2O3) | 1.47 | >Feldspar| + |Magnesia (MgO) | 0.36 | Lime (CaO) | 0.25 | Magnesia (MgO) | 0.03 | | 7.34% | + |Carbonic anhydride (CO2) | 43.40 | Magnesia (MgO) | 1.91 | Soda (Na20) | 0.65 |/ | + | | ----- | Soda (Na2O) | 1.00 | | ----- | | + | | 99.92 | Potash (K2O) | 0.45 | | 26.67 | | + | | | Sodium Chloride (NaCl) | 1.86 | | | | + | | | Combined water, organic | | | | | + | | | matter, and loss | 11.36 | | | | + | | | | ------ | | | | + | | | | 100.00 | | | | + +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+ + + + Mixing. + + Loading the kiln. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1] + + These materials are mixed in the proportion of about 3:1 by weight so + that the dried mixture contains approximately 75% of calcium + carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may be effected in + several ways. The method once exclusively used consists in mixing the + raw materials with a large quantity of water in a wash mill, a machine + having radial horizontal arms driven from a central vertical spindle + and carrying harrows which stir up and intermix any soft material + placed in the pit in which the apparatus revolves. The raw materials + in the correct proportion are fed into this mill together with a large + quantity of water. The thin watery "slip" or slurry flows into large + settling tanks ("backs") where the solids in suspension are deposited; + the water is drawn off, leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk + and clay in the form of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being + dried on floors heated by flues is ready for burning. This process is + now almost obsolete. According to present practice the raw materials + are mixed in a wash mill with so much water that the resulting slurry + contains 40 to 50% of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow, + is ground between millstones so as to complete the process of + comminution begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are + of the utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced + will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is + generally effected by the waste heat of the kilns, so that while one + charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the + kilns. The kilns commonly employed are "chamber kilns," circular + structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but having the + top closed and connected at the side with a wide flue in which the + slurry is exposed to the hot products of combustion from the kiln. The + farther ends of the flues of several such kilns are connected with a + chimney shaft. The slurry, in drying on the floor of the flue, forms a + fairly tough cake which cracks spontaneously in the process of drying + into rough blocks suitable for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of + the kiln is a grate of iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled + to start the fire. A layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a + layer of coke, then a layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is + filled with coke and slurry evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on + to the drying floors, and the kiln is started. The construction of an + ordinary chamber kiln may be gathered from the accompanying diagram + (fig. l). The operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln, + which will contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will + take two days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three + days in burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and + unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run. + The output will be about 30 tons of "clinker" ready to be ground into + cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker is + effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills, + tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the + manufacture, because the finished cement should be as fine and + "floury" as possible. The foregoing description represents the + procedure in use in many English factories. There are various + modifications in practice according to local conditions: a few of + these may be described. In all cases, however, the main operations are + the same, viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the + mixture, if necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature + (about 1500° C. =2732° F.). Thus when hard limestone is the form of + calcium carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and mixed with + the correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The mixture is + slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and burned. A + possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix the + resulting lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By this + method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an extra + expenditure of fuel in the double burning. + + + Other kilns. + + Many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland cement. + Besides the chamber kilns which have been described, there are the + old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar to the chamber kilns, + but are bottle-shaped and open at the top; they do not dry the slurry + for their next charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also + stage kilns of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical + shafts, one above the other, but not in the same vertical line, + connected by a horizontal channel. At this middle portion and in the + upper part of the lower shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper + shaft is full of unburnt raw material which is heated by the hot gases + coming from the burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker + already burned and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies + that necessary for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of + Dietzsch kilns, built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are + other forms of shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a + burning zone, a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no + horizontal stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane. + Another form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of + compartments arranged in a ring and connected with a central chimney; + in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw materials + are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled. At a given + moment one of these compartments is burning and at its full + temperature; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or more + compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and is + thereby strongly heated; the products of combustion pass away through + one or more compartments in front of it and heat their contents before + they are subjected to actual combustion. It will be seen that the + principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage kiln. In + each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully hot + serves to heat the air-supply to the compartment where combustion is + actually proceeding; in like manner the raw materials about to be + burned are well heated by the waste gases from the compartment in full + activity before they themselves are burned. (It may be noted that here + and generally in this article "burn" is used in the technical sense; + it is technically correct to speak of cement clinker being "burned", + although it is not a fuel; in accurate terms it is the fuel which is + burned, and it is the heat it generates which raises the clinker to a + high temperature, i.e. technically "burns" it.) By this device a great + part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is effected. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + + Rotatory kilns. + + The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent. They + are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because the + cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in fixed kilns. + These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in length, an ordinary length + in modern practice being 100 to 120 ft.; their diameter + correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft. 6 in. The cylinders are + made of steel plate, lined with refractory bricks, are carried on + rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal, and are rotated by + power. At the upper end the raw material is fed in either as a dry + powder or as a slurry; at the lower end is a powerful burner. In the + early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was used as a fuel, but with + little success; about 1895 petroleum was used in the United States + with complete success, but at a relatively heavy cost. At the present + time, finely powdered coal injected by a blast of air is almost + universally employed, petroleum being used only where it is actually + cheaper than coal. In the working of this type of kiln the rotation + and slight inclination of the cylinder cause the raw material to + descend towards the lower end. At the upper end the raw material is + dried and heated moderately. As it descends it reaches a part of the + kiln where the temperature is higher; here the carbonic acid of the + carbonate of lime, and the combined water of the clay are driven off, + and the resulting lime begins to act chemically on the dehydrated + clay. The material is then in a partially burnt and slightly sintered + state, but it is not fully clinkered and would not make Portland + cement. The material continues to descend by the rotation of the kiln + and reaches the lower end nearest the burner where the temperature is + highest, and is there heated so highly that the union of the lime, + silica and alumina is complete, and fully burnt clinker falls out of + the kiln. It is extremely hot, and is cooled usually by being passed + down one or more rotating cylinders, similar to the first, but + smaller, and acting as coolers instead of kilns. On its way down the + cylinders the clinker meets a current of cold air and is cooled, the + air being correspondingly warmed and passing on to aid in the + combustion of the fuel used in heating the kiln. This regenerative + heating is similar in principle and effect to that obtained by means + of the shaft and ring kilns described above. The output of these kilns + varies from 200 to 400 tons per kiln per week according to their size + and the nature of the raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per + week for an ordinary chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also + secured. The rotatory system presents many advantages and is rapidly + replacing the older methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents + diagrammatically a rotatory cement plant on the Hurry & Seaman system, + which was one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process + successfully on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory + kilns of various other makes are now in use, but the same principles + are embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder + for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and a + blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling + tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly + heated on its way to the burner. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + Another method of making Portland cement which has been proposed and + tried with some success consists in fusing the raw materials together + in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace. The high temperature + necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this process difficult to + accomplish commercially, but it has many inherent merits and may be + the process of the future, displacing the rotatory method. + + + Cement clinker. + + Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like + substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The + product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt and properly + vitrified; that from an ordinary fixed kiln of whatever type is apt to + contain a certain amount (5 to 15%) of underburnt material, which is + yellowish and friable and is not properly clinkered. This material + must be picked out, as such underburnt stuff contains free lime or + unsaturated lime compounds. These may slake slowly in the finished + cement and cause such expansion as may destroy the work of which it + forms part. Well-burnt, well-picked clinker when ground yields good + Portland cement. Nothing is added during or after grinding save a + small amount (1 to 2%) of calcium sulphate in the form either of + gypsum or of plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the + cement slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water + (up to 2%) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by blowing + steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This small + addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate, but + the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone and + blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights, is + adulteration and therefore fraudulent. + + + Composition. + + The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively narrow + limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending to + become smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture increase. The + following analysis may be taken as typical of cements made from chalk + and clay on the Thames and Medway:-- + + Per cent. + Silica (SiO2) 22.0 + Insoluble residue 1.0 + Alumina (Al2O3) 7.5 + Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.5 + Lime (CaO) 62.0 + Magnesia (MgO) 1.0 + Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 1.5 + Carbonic anhydride (CO2) 0.5 + Water (H2O) 0.5 + Alkalis 0.5 + ----- + 100.0 + + There may be variations from this composition according to the nature + of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range from 19 to + 27%, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7 to 14%, the lime from + 60 to 67%. All such variations are permissible provided that the + quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient to saturate the whole of + the lime and to leave none of it in a "free" condition, likely to + cause the cement to expand after setting. Other things being equal, + the higher the percentage of lime within the limits indicated above + the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed cement is less easy + to burn than cement containing about 62% of lime; and unless the + burning is thorough and the raw materials are intimately mixed, the + cement is apt to be unsound. Although the ultimate composition of + cement, that is, the percentage of each base and acid present, can be + accurately determined by analysis, its proximate composition, i.e. the + nature and amount of the compounds formed from these acids and bases, + can only be ascertained indirectly and with difficulty. The + foundations of our knowledge on this subject were laid by H. le + Chatelier, whose work has since been supplemented by that of Spenser + B. Newberry, W.B. Newberry and Clifford Richardson. As the outcome of + these inquiries it has been established that tricalcium silicate + 3CaO·SiO2 is the essential constituent of Portland cement. The + constituent of next importance is an aluminate, but whether this is + dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO·Al2O3, or tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO·Al2O3, + is still in doubt. In the following description it is assumed to be + the tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and aluminates + present, and ferric oxide and magnesia, if existing in the moderate + quantities which are usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of + minor importance and may be regarded as little more than impurities. + The silicates and aluminates of which Portland cement is composed are + believed to exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of + each other, these solid solutions taking the form of minerals + recognizable as individuals. The two principal minerals are termed + alite and celite; according to the best opinion, alite consists of a + solid solution of tricalcium aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and + celite of a solid solution of dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium + silicate. Celite is little affected by water, and has but small + influence on the setting; alite is decomposed and hydrated, this + action constituting the main part of the setting of Portland cement. + Both the components of alite react, and for simplicity their reactions + may be stated in separate equations, thus:-- + + (1) 2(3CaO·SiO2) + 9H2O = 2(CaO·SiO2)·5H2O + 4Ca(OH)2 + Tricalcium silicate. Hydrated mono- Calcium + calcium silicate. hydroxide. + + (2) 3CaO·Al2O3 + 12H2O = 3CaO·Al2O3·12H2O + Tricalcium aluminate. Hydrated tricalcium + aluminate. + + Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral, + is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to + tricalcium aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary; but, + whatever the proportions, each of these substances will react in its + characteristic manner according to the equations given above. + + The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland cement is + not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous to that of the + setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution of the + compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more soluble form, + their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent + supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus of + the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a + coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a small + quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition of a + substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less soluble + form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an indefinitely + large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there should be + present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the reacting + substance at any one time; it is sufficient if there is enough for + hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive + stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the aluminate + is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that its + ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the + tricalcium silicate. + + As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium + silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of + minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in ordinary + cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of silica, + alumina and lime in the clinker; its role in the setting of the cement + is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement can be + prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free also from + manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed for + exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement in + quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is evidence + that in larger proportion, e.g. 10-15%, it may hydrate and set after + the general setting of the cement, and may give rise to disruptive + strains causing the cement to "blow" and fail. In so-called natural + cement which is comparatively lightly burnt, the magnesia appears to + be inert, and as much as 20 to 30% may be present. Another constituent + of Portland cement which influences its setting time is calcium + sulphate, naturally formed from the sulphur in the raw materials or + fuel, or intentionally added to the finished cement as gypsum or + plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable retarding effect on the + hydration of the calcium aluminate, and consequently on the setting of + the cement; thus it is that a little gypsum is often added to convert + a naturally quick-setting cement into one which sets slowly. It will + be observed that in the hydration of tricalcium silicate, the main + constituent of Portland cement, a large portion of the lime appears as + calcium hydroxide, i.e. slaked lime. It is evident that this will form + a pozzuolanic cement if a suitable silicious material such as trass is + added to the cement. The ultimate product when set may be regarded as + a mixed Portland and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this + manner as an adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W. + Michaelis, and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but + it has not become general. + + + Testing. + + The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis and by + determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength and + soundness. A good sample will usually have a composition within the + limits cited above and approximating to the typical figures given + above. It will be ground so finely that not more than 3% will be left + on a sieve of 76 × 76 meshes per sq. in., the wires of the sieve being + 0.005 in. in diameter. It will have, when freshly burned, a specific + gravity not lower than 3.15, and briquettes made from it and kept in + water will possess a tensile strength of 400-500 lb. per sq. in. seven + days after they are made, while briquettes made from a mixture of 3 + parts by weight of sand and 1 of cement will give about 225 lb. per sq. + in. at twenty-eight days. Formerly the soundness of cement was + determined by keeping thin pats of the cement in cold water for + twenty-eight days, or in warm water (110°-120° F.) for twenty-four + hours, and examining for cracks or other signs of expansion. Modern + practice is to measure the expansion of a test piece of cement kept in + water at a temperature of 212° F. The simplest and most generally used + method is due to H.L. le Châtelier, and consists in measuring the + increase in circumference of a cylinder of cement 30 mm. in diameter + by means of a split ring encircling the cylinder, the motion of which + is magnified by two light rods extending radially. Another + quantitative test for soundness is that formulated by L. Deval, who + has shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of cement kept in water + for two days at 80° C. = 176° F. attain approximately the same + strength as similar briquettes attain at seven days in water at the + ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes kept at 176° F. for + seven days are approximately equal in strength to those kept at the + ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A cement not perfectly + sound will give low results in the hot test, and a cement of + indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The test is + admittedly severe, but can be passed without difficulty by cement made + with proper care and skill. There are many modifications and + elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement for + all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing and + analysis before it is accepted and used. + +_Hydraulic Lime_ is a cement of the Portland as distinct from the +pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is that known as +Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at Ardèche in France. This +limestone consists of calcium carbonate most intimately intermixed with +very finely divided silica. It contains but little alumina and oxide of +iron, which are the constituents generally necessary to bring about the +union of silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the +silica is so finely divided and so well distributed that it unites +readily with the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently +high temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class; they +contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in composition +resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement. + + Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows:-- + + Chaux de Theil. Blue Lias. + Per cent. Per cent. + + Insoluble silicious matter 0.3 2.39 + Silica (SiO2) 21.7 14.17 + Alumina (Al2O3) 1.8 6.79 + Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 0.6 2.34 + Lime (CaO) 74.0 63.43 + Magnesia (MgO) 0.7 1.54 + Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 0.3 1.63 + Carbonic anhydride (CO2) \ 0.6 / 3.64 + Water (H20) / \ 2.69 + Alkalis and loss · · 1.38 + ----- ------ + 100.0 100.00 + + Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has to be + slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking is + conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime being + sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking proceeds + slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncombined lime + is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious compounds, + notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In English practice + hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that regular and perfect + slaking is more easily attained when working systematically on a large + scale and by storing the material for a long period, the French method + is the better and more rational. The product may then be regarded as a + cement of the Portland class mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with + water and made into a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes + almost as strong as Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage + for some purposes, e.g. for foundations and abutments where + settlements may occur. The structure is free to take its permanent + position before the lime sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in + point is the employment of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement + as grouting outside the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made + by the shield system. + +_Roman Cement_ is another cement of the Portland class which came into +use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Portland cement was +attempted. It is still in use, though only for special purposes where a +quick-setting material is required. It is made from septaria nodules +which are dredged up on the Kent and Essex coasts and consist of about +60% of calcium carbonate mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently +indurated to remain coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared +in any way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat. + + The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but approximates + to the following figures:-- + + Per cent. + Insoluble silicious matter 5.86 + Silica (SiO2) 19.62 + Alumina (Al203) 10.30 + Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 7.44 + Manganese dioxide (MnO2) 1.57 + Lime (CaO) 44.54 + Magnesia (MgO) 2.92 + Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) 2.61 + Carbonic anhydride (CO2) 3.43 + Water (H2O) 0.25 + Alkalis and loss 1.46 + ------ + 100.00 + + The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives + the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also + differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains + appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of alumina + causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard in about + five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh, very + well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is likely + to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place. + +The term _Natural Cements_ is applied to cements made by burning +mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occurring in +approximately suitable proportions. They may be regarded as badly-mixed +Portland cements, and need no special description. American "natural" +cements are of a somewhat different class. They are usually made from a +silicious limestone containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly +burned. + + The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind:-- + + Per cent. + Silica (SiO2) 24.30 + Alumina (Al203) 7.22 + Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 5.06 + Lime (CaO) 33.70 + Magnesia (MgO) 20.94 + Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss 8.78 + ------ + 100.00 + + These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building + materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good + artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings. + +_Passow Cement _is a recent product which is in a class by itself. It is +made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable composition and +finely grinding the product, either alone or with an admixture of about +10% of Portland cement clinker. It differs from ordinary slag cement +(see above) in that it is not a pozzuolanic cement depending on the +interaction of granulated slag and lime. The particular method of +granulating slag for Passow cement produces a material which sets _per +se_ and attains a strength comparable with that of Portland cement. +Passow cement has been successfully made from slag of different +compositions in Germany, England and America. + + + Uses of hydraulic cements. + +The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic or +Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which is to be +exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote antiquity it was found +that the jointing of masonry which was to be immersed required the use +of a cement indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar failed +in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from limestones or +chalks containing a little clay was found to stand; mortar made from +lime mixed with trass or similar active silicious material was also +found to stand. On this observation rests the whole of the present +enormous employment of hydraulic cements. It was a natural transition to +utilize these cements not merely for jointing masonry but also for +making concrete, and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct +from cements which are not hydraulic (e.g. ordinary mortar), are used +for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their use in +above-water work is checked by the low price of common brick. Even in +such work, where it would be thought that masses of burnt clay would be +the cheapest conceivable material, concrete is at least on level terms +with its rival. It must be remembered that one of the great advantages +of concrete is that five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from +local sand and gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement, +on which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose +incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that the +largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock and harbour +work, and for the making of foundations. It is also employed for the +building of light bridges, floors, and pipes constructed of cement +mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron rods. Such composite structures +take advantage at once of the high tensile strength of iron and of the +high compressive strength of cement mortar. (See also CONCRETE.) + +Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials provided certain +conditions be observed. It might be supposed that hydraulic cements from +their nature would be indifferent to the action of water, but this is +only true if the structures of which they form part are sufficiently +compact. In this case the action of the water is checked by the film of +carbonate of lime which eventually forms oh the surface of calcareous +cement. This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the +ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and ultimate +destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or mortar is not well +made and is porous, the continual passage of water through it will +gradually break up and dissolve away the calcareous constituents of the +cement until its strength is utterly destroyed. This destructive action +is increased if the water contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of +which act chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As +sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is especially +necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every care to produce an +impervious structure. There are various minor external causes for the +failure and ultimate destruction of cement mortar and concrete, but +their discussion is a matter for the specialist. Failure from inherent +vice in the cement has been already touched on; it can always be traced +to want of skill and care in manufacture. + +_Calcium Sulphate Cements._--Under this term are comprehended all +cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the hydration of +calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris, Keene's cement and many +variants of these two types. The raw material is gypsum (q.v.). This may +be almost chemically pure, when it is generally used for Keene's cement; +or it may contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which +case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster of +Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum at +temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be produced. If +plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is carried out at about 204° +C. (=400° F.); at this temperature, gypsum, CaS04.2H20, loses +three-quarters of its combined water and becomes 2CaSO4.H20. If a cement +of the Keene's cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is +higher, e.g. 500° C. (=932° F.), and the whole of the combined water of +the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaSO4 being obtained. + + + Plaster of Paris; Keene's cement. + + To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking the + mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both + processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory kilns, a + process which may be regarded as the method of the present and the + immediate future. Keene's cement and its congeners are made in fixed + kilns so constructed that only the gaseous products of combustion come + into contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid + contamination with the ash of the fuel. + + The setting of plaster of Paris depends on the fact that when + 2CaSO4·H2O is treated with water it dissolves, forming a + supersaturated solution of CaSO4·2H2O. The excess held temporarily in + solution is then deposited in crystals of CaSO4·2H2O. In the light of + this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes clear. + The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to make it + into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite insufficient to + dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part, and gives a + supersaturated solution of CaSO4.2H2O. In a few minutes the surplus + hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution, and the + water is capable again of dissolving 2CaSO4·H2O, which in turn is + fully hydrated and deposited as CaSO4·2H2O. The process goes on until + a relatively small quantity of water has by instalments dissolved and + hydrated the 2CaSO4·H2O, and has deposited CaSO4·2H2O in felted + crystals forming a solid mass well cemented together. The setting is + rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and is accompanied by a + considerable expansion of the mass. There is reason to suppose that + the change described takes place in two stages, the gypsum first + forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystallizing in the + monosymmetric system. Gypsum thus crystallized is in its normal + monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary conditions than the + orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process of dehydration to form + plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum is converted into the + orthorhombic form before it begins to be dehydrated. + + The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the other + class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene + class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of + knowledge on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential + difference between the setting of Keene's cement and that of plaster + of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying + hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion + which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less + marked. + + It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low + temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO4·H2O, to soak + the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to + recalcine them at about 500° C. On grinding they give Keene's cement. + Instead of alum various other salts, e.g. borax, may be used. The + quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of Keene's + cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium sulphate, and make + it difficult to explain what, if any, influence these minute amounts + of alum and the like can exert on the setting of the cement. It seems + probable that the effect of the salts is inconsiderable, and that the + governing condition is the temperature at which the cement has been + burnt. The setting of Keene's cement takes place by the same sort of + process which has been described for the setting of plaster of Paris, + the chief differences being that the substance dissolved is anhydrous + calcium sulphate and that the operation takes a longer time. + + All cements having calcium sulphate as their base are suitable only + for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They form + excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white colour + and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter quantity + being due to their expansion when setting. + + See D.B. Butler, _Portland Cement_ (London, 1905); E.C. Eckel, + _Cements, Limes and Plasters_ (New York, 1905); G.R. Redgrave and + Charles Spackman, _Calcareous Cements_ (London, 1905); F.H. Lewis, + "Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States," _The Mineral + Industry_ (New York, 1898); W.H. Stanger and Bertram Blount, "Cement + Manufacture in Great Britain," _The Mineral Industry_, New York, 1897 + and 1905; _Id_. "The Testing of Hydraulic Cements," _Journ. Soc. Chem. + Ind.,_ 1894, 13, p. 455; _Id., Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._, 1901; B. + Blount, "Recent Progress in the Cement Industry," _Journ. Soc. Chem. + Ind.,_ 1906, 25, p. 1020; H.L. le Chatelier, _Recherrhes + experimenlales sur la constitution des mortiers hydrauliques;_ Desch, + _Concrete_, No. 2, pp. 101-102; Davis, _Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,_ 1905, + 26, p. 727. (B. Bl.) + + _Adhesive Cements._--Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral + substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making + joints, mending broken china and other objects, &c. A strong cement + for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared by + mixing 12 parts of Portland cement, 8 of fine sand and 1 of infusorial + earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of soda; the + object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone, marble, and + earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be made as + follows:--skimmed-milk cheese is boiled in water till of a gluey + consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated + with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar cement + is a mixture of dried fresh curd with 1/10th of its weight of + quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with water + when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china, &c., is + composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster of + Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to be + united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement, + the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg, + hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also + useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before their + application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of wine + is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are solutions + of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha. For use + with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of wooden + cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed oil boiled with + litharge, and 8 parts of melted glue; other strong cements for the + same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine in cold water and + dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or by mixing glue with + one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little bichromate of + potash. _Mahogany cement_, for filling up cracks in wood, consists of + 4 parts of beeswax, 1 of Indian red and yellow-ochre to give colour. + _Cutler's cement_, used for fixing knife-blades in their hafts, is + made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin, or of 4 parts of + rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For covering bottle-corks + a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is employed. A cheap cement, + sometimes employed to fix iron rails in stone-work, is melted + brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust. For pipe-joints, a mixture of + iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac, moistened with water, is + employed. _Japanese cement_, for uniting surfaces of paper, is made by + mixing rice-flour with water and boiling it. _Jewellers'_ or _Armenian + cement_ consists of isinglass with mastic and gum ammoniac dissolved + in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep their work firm by means of a + cement of pitch and rosin, a little tallow, and brick-dust to thicken. + _Temporary cement_ for lathe-work, such as the polishing and grinding + of jewelry and optical glasses, is compounded thus:--rosin, 4 oz.; + whitening previously made red-hot, 4 oz.; wax, ¼ oz. + + + + +CEMETERY (Gr. [Greek: koimêtêrion], from [Greek: koiman], to sleep), +literally a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to +the places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally +extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of interment in +churches or churchyards being unknown in the first centuries of the +Christian era. The term cemetery has, therefore, been appropriately +applied in modern times to the burial-grounds, generally extra-mural, +which have been substituted for the overcrowded churchyards (q.v.) of +populous parishes both urban and rural. + +From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the condition of +the London churchyards by correspondence in the press and by the reports +of parliamentary committees, the first of which, that of Mr Chadwick, +appeared in 1843. The vaults under the pavement of the churches, and the +small spaces of open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins. +In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products of +corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease and death to +those who frequented them. In the churchyards coffins were placed tier +above tier in the graves until they were within a few feet (or sometimes +even a few inches) of the surface, and the level of the ground was often +raised to that of the lower windows of the church. To make room for +fresh interments the sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal +of bones and partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents +of the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the +site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles and +nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the churchyards +was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the gaseous emanations +from the graves, and the water, wherever it was obtained from wells, +containing organic matter, the source of which could not be mistaken. In +all the large towns the evil prevailed in a greater or less degree, but +in London, on account of the immense population and the consequent +mortality, it forced itself more readily upon public attention, and +after more than one partial measure of relief had been passed the +churchyards were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of +1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of ground to +the north, south, east and west became henceforth the burial-places of +the metropolis. Several of them had been already established by private +enterprise before the passing of the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green +cemetery dates from 1832), but that enactment forms the epoch from +which the general development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland +began. Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost +everywhere abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by +such safeguards as make it practically innocuous. This tendency has been +conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the United States. The +increasing practice of cremation (q.v.) has assisted in the movement for +disposing of the dead in more sanitary conditions; and the proposals of +Sir Seymour Haden and others for burying the dead in more open coffins, +and abandoning the old system of family graves, have had considerable +effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving the sanitary +aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the cemeteries themselves +as fit as possible for this purpose, and beautiful in arrangement and +decoration. + +The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery on the Harrow +Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of Highgate Hill; the cemetery at +Abney Park (once the residence of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead +cemeteries to the south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton; +the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria cemetery +and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London; and at a greater +distance, accessible by railway, the great cemetery at Brookwood near +Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery at New Southgate. The general plan of +all these cemeteries is the same, a park with broad paths either laid +out in curved lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each +other at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery. The +ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave spaces, and +trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between them. The +buildings consist of a curator's residence and one or more chapels, and +usually there is also a range of family graves with imposing tombs, +massive structures containing in their corridors recesses for the +reception of coffins, generally closed only by an iron grating. The +provincial cemeteries in the main features of their arrangements +resemble those of the metropolis. One of the most remarkable is St +James's cemetery at Liverpool, which occupies a deserted quarry. The +face of the eastern side of the quarry is traversed by ascending +gradients off which open catacombs formed in the living rock,--a soft +sandstone; the ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand +hundreds of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through +a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery chapel, +built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle porticos. + +Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries. One of the +largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn near Boston. +Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery (1836) at +Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at Brooklyn (New York); the +Lake View cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio; while the cemeteries at New +Orleans (q.v.) are famous for their beauty. + +The chief cemetery of Paris is that of Père la Chaise, the prototype of +the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes its name from the +celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom as rector of the Jesuits of +Paris it once belonged. It was laid out as a cemetery in 1804. It has an +area of about 200 acres, and contains about 20,000 monuments, including +those of all the great men of France of the 19th century--marshals, +generals, ministers, poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors +and musicians. Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the +scene of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian +column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 1871 the +Communists made their last stand among the tombs of Père la Chaise; 900 +of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were shot there after its +capture, and 200 of them were buried in quicklime in one huge grave and +700 in another. There are other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and +Montmartre, besides the minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles, +Passy, La Villette, &c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being +more or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the +plateau of Méry sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which it is +connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit fully 2 sq. +m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs in many respects from +the English. Every city and town is required by law to provide a +burial-ground beyond its barriers, properly laid out and planted, and +situated if possible on a rising ground. Each interment must take place +in a separate grave. This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the +dead are buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the _fosses communes_, the +poor being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being made +in all other cases. The _fosse_ is filled and left undisturbed for five +years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed, the level of +the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and interments begin +again. For a fee of 50 francs a _concession temporaire_ for ten years +can be obtained, but where it is desired to erect a permanent monument +the ground must be bought by the executors of the deceased. In Paris the +undertakers' trade is the monopoly of a company, the _Société des pompes +funèbres_, which in return for its privileges is required to give a free +burial to the poor. + +The _Leichenhäuser_, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich form a +remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The object of +their founders was twofold--(1) to obviate even the remotest danger of +premature interment, and (2) to offer a respectable place for the +reception of the dead, in order to remove the corpse from the confined +dwellings of the survivors. At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of +the wings of the propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the +cemetery. It consists of the warder's room, where an attendant is always +on duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated, +kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on which a +corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a ring connected by +a light cord with a bell which hangs outside in the warder's room. The +use of the dead-house is voluntary. The bodies deposited there are +inspected at regular intervals by a medical officer, and the warder is +always on the watch for the ringing of the warning bell. One revival, +that of a child, has been known to take place at Frankfort. The +Leichenhaus of Munich is situated in the southern cemetery outside the +Sendling Gate. At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular +building with an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which +contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At both +Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the attendants receive the +dead confided to them with respect, and no interment is permitted until +the first signs of decomposition appear; the relatives then assemble in +one of the halls adjoining the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place. +In any case there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature +interment, but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of +great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which result +from the prolonged retention of the dead among the living. Mortuaries +for this purpose have also been established in many places in England. + +In Italy the _Campo Santo_ (Holy Field) is best illustrated by the +famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to other Italian +burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use in southern Europe the +catacombs (q.v.) of Sicily are the most curious. There is one of these +under the old Capuchin monastery of Ziza near Palermo, where in four +large airy subterranean corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in +the wall, many of them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or +hanging with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation +for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then +dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end of +the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely ornamented +with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones. + +Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations from time +immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton and Macao are crowded +with tombs, many of them being in the form of small tumuli, with a low +encircling wall, forcibly recalling the ringed barrows of western +Europe. But the most picturesque cemeteries in the world are those of +the Turks. From them it was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern +cemetery, with its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around +Constantinople the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under +whose branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never reopened; +a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so the dead now occupy +a wider territory than that which is covered by the homes of the living. +The Turks believe that till the body is buried the soul is in a state of +discomfort, and the funeral, therefore, takes place as soon as possible +after death. No coffin is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few +boards are arranged round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care +being taken to leave a small opening extending from the head of the +corpse to the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently +enlarged by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone +of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban in the +case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low relief if the +grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying form indicates not +only the rank of the sleeper below but also the period of his death, for +the fashion of the Turkish head-dress is always changing. A cypress is +usually planted beside the grave, its odour being supposed to neutralize +any noxious exhalations from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a +forest, where by day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or +perching on the trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at +night. Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite +resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside the narrow +openings that lead down into a parent's, a husband's, or a brother's +grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constantinople contrast rather +unfavourably with the simple dignity of those which belong to the Turks. +That of the Armenians abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of +the death of whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones +there are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging +on the gallows. + + See also the articles BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CREMATION; FUNERAL + RITES; CHURCHYARD. + + + + +CENCI, BEATRICE (1577-1599), a Roman woman, famous for her tragic story; +poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance about her, which modern +historic research has to a large extent destroyed. Born at Rome, she was +the daughter of Francesco Cenci (1549-1598), the bastard son of a +priest, and a man of great wealth but dissolute habits and violent +temper. He seems to have been guilty of various offences and to have got +off with short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous +cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely +legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve +children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia Petroni, a +widow with three daughters, by whom he had no offspring. He was very +quarrelsome and lived on the worst possible terms with his children, +who, however, were all of them more or less disreputable. He kept +various mistresses and was even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his +sons were equally dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter +Beatrice was probably due to his discovery that she had had an +illegitimate child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards +(A. Bertolotti, in his _Francesco Cenci_, publishes Beatrice's will in +which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that he +tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The eldest son +Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel, who cheated his own +father and even attempted to murder him (1595). Two other sons, Rocco +and Cristoforo, both of them notorious rakes, were killed in brawls. +Finally Francesco's wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and +Beatrice, assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him. +Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according to +Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice's lover), and Francesco was +assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom of +Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos murdered, but +the other was arrested by the Neapolitan authorities and confessed +everything. Information having been communicated to Rome, the whole of +the Cenci family were arrested early in 1599; but the story of the +hardships they underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra +escaped; Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and +Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture, also ended +by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain mercy for the accused, +but the crime was considered too heinous, and the pope (Clement VIII.) +refused to grant a pardon; on the 11th of September 1599, Beatrice and +Lucrezia were beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with +red-hot pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered. Bernardo's +penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to perpetual +imprisonment, and after a year's confinement he was pardoned. The +property of the family was confiscated. + + The romantic character of the history of this family has been the + subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley's tragedy is well known + as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts a purely + fictitious version of the story. Nor is F.D. Guerrazzi's novel, + _Beatrice Cenci_ (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first attempt to + deal with the subject on documentary evidence is A. Bertolotti's + _Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1879), + containing a number of interesting documents which place the events in + their true light; cf. Labruzzi's article in the _Nuova Antologia_, + 1879, vol. xiv., and another in the _Edinburgh Review_, January 1879. + + + + +CENOBITES (from Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek: bios], life), +monks who lived together in a convent or community under a rule and a +superior,--in contrast to hermits or anchorets who live in isolation. +The Basilians (q.v.) in the East and the Benedictines (q.v.) in the West +are the chief cenobitical orders (see MONASTICISM). + + + + +CENOMANI, a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose territory +corresponded generally to Maine in the modern department of Sarthe. +Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum (corrupted into Subdinnum), +afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum (whence Le Mans), the original name of +the town, as usual in the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that +of the people. According to Caesar (_Bell. Gall._ vii. 75. 3), they +assisted Vercingetorix in the great rising (52 B.C.) with a force of +5000 men. Under Augustus they formed a _civitas stipendiaria_ of Gallia +Lugdunensis, and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii. +About 400 B.C., under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large +number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans +southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of Cato (in +Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 130), that some of them settled near Massilia +in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route taken by them. +The limits of their territory are not clearly defined, but were probably +the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps +the Addua) on the west, and the Padus on the south. Livy gives their +chief towns as Brixia (Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona. +The Cenomani nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies +of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 B.C.), when the +Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and during the war against +Hannibal. They certainly joined in the revolt of the Gauls under +Hamilcar (200), but after they had been defeated by the consul Gaius +Cornelius (197) they finally submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia +Transpadana, they acquired the rights of citizenship. + +The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel of Cenomani +have given rise to discussion. According to Arbois de Jubainville, the +Cenom[)a]ni of Italy are not identical with the Cenom[=a]ni (or +Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the latter, the survival of the +syllable "man" in Le Mans is due to the stress laid on the vowel; had +the vowel been short and unaccented, it would have disappeared. In +Italy, Cenomani is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of +the Aulerci. + + See A. Voisin, _Les Cénomans anciens et modernes_ (Le Mans, 1862); A. + Desjardins, _Géographic historique de la Gaule romaine,_ ii. + (1876-1893); Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Premiers Habitants de + l'Europe_ (1889-1894); article and authorities in _La Grande + Encyclopédie_; C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. + pt. 2 (1899); full ancient authorities in A. Holder, _Alt-celtischer + Sprachschatz_, i. (1896). + + + + +CENOTAPH (Gr. [Greek: kenos], empty, [Greek: taphos], tomb), a monument +or tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere. The +custom arose from the erection of monuments to those whose bodies could +not be recovered, as in the case of drowning. + + + + +CENSOR (from Lat. _censere_, assess, estimate; in Gr. [Greek: +timaetaes]). I. _In ancient Rome_, the title of the two Roman officials +who presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens +for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to the +community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea of the arbitrary +assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines _census_ as _arbitrium_, +and derives the name _censores_ from the position of these magistrates +as _arbitri populi_ (Varro, _de Ling. Lat._ v. 81; _ap._ Non. p. 519). +This original idea of "discretionary power" was never entirely lost; +although ultimately it came to be more intimately associated with the +appreciation of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the +point of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman +manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not unusual +feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome possessed sumptuary +laws, and laws dealing with moral offences, which it was the duty of +other magistrates to enforce; but the organization for the control of +conduct was mainly exhibited in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited, +was at once simple and comprehensive. + +The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 B.C. to +relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the periods of +registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous office; but its +tenure does not seem to have been fixed until 434 B.C., when a _lex +Aemilia_ provided that the censors should hold office for eighteen +months. This magistracy was at first confined to patricians; a plebeian +censor is first mentioned in 351 B.C. A _lex Publilia_ of 339 B.C. is +said to have enacted that one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian +censors were for the first time elected in 131 B.C. The election always +took place in the Comitia Centuriata (see COMITIA). The censorship, +although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the right of +summoning the senate and the people, was not only one of the higher +magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a political career. It +was an irresponsible office; and the only limitations on its powers were +created by the restriction of tenure to a year and a half, the fact that +re-election was forbidden, and the restraint imposed on each censor by +the fact that no act of his was valid without the assent of his +colleague. + +The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration of +citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries; (2) the +taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their property; (3) +the right of exclusion from public functions on moral grounds, known as +the _regimen morum_; (4) the solemn act of purification (_lustrum_) +which closed the census. Two other functions were subsequently +added:--(5) the selection of the senate (_lectio senatus_, see SENATE), +and (6) certain financial duties such as the leasing of the contracts +for tax-collecting and for the repair of public buildings. The first +four of these functions were those of the census, which was a detailed +examination of the citizen body as represented by heads of families +(_patres familiarum_) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select +portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights took +place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see EQUITES). It was in +connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and the knights, as +well as with the choice of senators, that the censors published their +edicts stating the moral rules which they intended to enforce. The +offences which they punished were sometimes concerned with family life +and private relations, sometimes with breaches of political duty. +Certain professions, such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked +their stigma, and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were +the consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. _Infamia_ was the +general name given to the disabilities pronounced by the censor. These +varied in degree from the deprivation of a senator of his seat, or a +knight's loss of his horse, to exclusion from the tribes or centuries, +an exclusion which entailed the loss of voting power. All the +disabilities pronounced by one pair of censors might be removed by their +successors. + +The censorship, although its control over the senate came to be +weakened (see SENATE), lasted as long as the republic; and it was only +suspended, not abolished, during the principate. Although the princeps +exercised censorial functions, he was seldom censor. Yet the office +itself was held by Claudius I. and Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title +of life censor (_censor perpetuus_), but the precedent was not followed. +A fruitless attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was +made in A.D. 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius. + + AUTHORITIES.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, ii. 331 foll. (3rd + ed., Leipzig, 1887); Daremberg-Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités + grecques et romaines_, i. 990 foll. (1875, &c.); Lange, _Romische + Alterthumer_, i. 572 foll. (Berlin, 1856, &c.); de Boor, _Fasti + Censorii_ (Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, _Die romische Censur in ihrem + Verhaltnisse zur Verfassung_ (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, "Über die Census" + in _Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil._ lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt, "Die + Lustra der Römer" in _Rhein. Museum_, xxv. 465, xxvi. i. + (A. H. J. G.) + +II. In modern times the word "censor" is used generally for one who +exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of other persons. +In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it is the title of the +official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate students (i.e. those +who are not attached to a college, hall or hostel). In Oxford the censor +is nominated by the vice-chancellor and the proctors, and holds office +for five years; in Cambridge he is similarly appointed, and holds office +for life. The censors of the Royal College of Physicians are the +officials who grant licences. + +_Council of Censors_, in American constitutional history, is the name +given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsylvania from +1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont from 1777 to 1870. +Under both constitutions the council of censors was elected once in +seven years, for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the +governmental departments, the conduct of the state officers, and the +working of the laws, and as to whether the constitution had been +violated in any particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in +number to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required +amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose. A +convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the constitution by +abolishing the censors. + + For the censorship of the press, see PRESS LAWS; for the censorship of + plays, THEATRE: _Law_, and LORD CHAMBERLAIN. + + + + +CENSORINUS, Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer, flourished during +the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of a lost work _De Accentibus_, +and of an extant treatise _De Die Natali_, written in 238, and dedicated +to his patron Quintus Caerellius as a birthday gift. The contents are of +a varied character: the natural history of man, the influence of the +stars and genii, music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the +Greek philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and +mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining the +principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is full of curious and +interesting information. The style is clear and concise, although +somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity, for the period, good. The chief +authorities used were Varro and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold +that the entire work is practically an adaptation of the lost _Pratum_ +of Suetonius. The fragments of a work _De Natali Institutione_, dealing +with astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually printed +with the _De Die Natali_ of Censorinus, are not by him. Part of the +original MS., containing the end of the genuine work, and the title and +name of the author of the fragment are lost. + + The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Lindenbrog + (1614); the most recent critical editions are by O. Jahn (1845), F. + Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English + translation of the _De Die Natali_ (the first eleven chapters being + omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900). + + + + +CENSUS (from Lat. _censere_, to estimate or assess; connected by some +with _centum, i.e._ a count by hundreds), a term used to denote a +periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times, to population, and +occasionally to industries and agricultural resources, but formerly +extending to property of all kinds, for the purpose of assessment. + +Operations of this character have been conducted with different objects +from very ancient times. The fighting strength of the children of Israel +at the Exodus was ascertained by a count of all males of twenty years +old and upwards, made by enumerators appointed for each clan. The +Levites, who were exempted from military duties, were separately +enumerated from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was +ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute amongst them +the functions assigned to the priestly body in connexion with the +temple. The census unwillingly carried out by Joab at the behest of +David related exclusively to the fighting men of the community, and the +dire consequences ascribed to it were quoted in reprobation of such +inquiries as late as the middle of the 18th century. It appears, too, +that a register of the population of each clan was kept during the +Babylonian captivity and its totals were published on their return to +Jerusalem. In the Persian empire there was apparently some method in +force by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the +purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumeration of +somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in connexion with +the provincial revenues and military liabilities. In Egypt, Amasis had +the occupation of each individual annually registered, nominally to aid +the official supervision of morals by discouraging disreputable means of +subsistence; and this ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced +by Solon into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed +later into an electoral record. + +It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the name of the +inquiry is derived was first established upon a regular footing. The +original census was ascribed to Servius Tullius, and in the constitution +which goes by his name it was decreed that every fifth year the +population should be enumerated along with the property of each +family--land, live-stock, slaves and freedmen. The main object was to +ensure the accurate division of the people into the six main classes and +their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations of +combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the city the operation +grew in importance, and was followed by an official _lustrum_, or +purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the people by the censors +or functionaries in charge of the classification. Hence the name of +lustrum came to denote the intercensal term, or a period of five years. +The word census, too, came to mean the property qualification of the +class, as well as the process of registering the resources of the +individual. Later, it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in +which it has survived in the contracted form of _cess_. Unfortunately +the statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the +fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed down +relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood. In the +time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole empire. In the +words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered "the whole world to be +_taxed_," or, according to the revised version, to be _enrolled_. The +compilation of the results of this the most comprehensive enumeration +till then attempted was engaging the attention of the emperor, it is +said, just before his death, but was never completed. The various +inquiries instituted during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book +and the Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that +they took little or no account of the population, the feudal system +probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary for the purposes +of taxation or military service. + +The foundations of the census on the modern system were laid in Europe +towards the middle or end of the 17th century. Sweden led the way, by +making compulsory the parish record of births, deaths and marriages, +kept by the clergy, and extending it to include the whole of the +domiciled population of the parish. In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered +the extension to the rural communes of the system which had for many +years been in force in Paris of registering and periodically publishing +the domestic occurrences of the locality. Five years before this, +however, a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been +established in the colony of New France, and was continued in Quebec +from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered to be the +earliest of modern censuses. + +Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by statistical +experts in periodical conference to bring about a general understanding, +first, as to the subjects which may be considered most likely to be +ascertained with approximate accuracy at a census, and secondly--a point +of scarcely less importance--as to the form in which the results of the +inquiry should be compiled in order to render comparison possible +between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard to the +scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practicable in a +country where the agency of trained officials is employed throughout the +operation which cannot be expected to be adequately recorded where the +responsibility for the correctness of the replies is thrown upon the +householder. The standard set up by eminent statisticians, therefore, +may be taken to represent an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere +under present conditions, but towards which each successive census may +be expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance is +attached from the international standpoint are age, sex, civil +condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities. Occupation, +too, should be included, but the record of so detailed a subject is +usually considered to be better obtained by a special inquiry, rather +than by the rough and ready methods of a synchronous enumeration. This +course has been adopted in Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach +to it is made in the decennial census of Canada and the United States. +Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested, is of +considerably more importance in some countries than in others, and the +same may be said of nationality, which is often usefully supplemented by +the return of mother-tongue. Nor should it be forgotten that the +internal classification and the combinations of the above subjects are +also matters to be treated upon some uniform plan, if the full value of +the statistics is to be extracted from the raw material. On the whole, +the progress towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of +the questions here mentioned which has been made in the present +generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long laboured in +the cause of efficient enumeration. + + +THE BRITISH EMPIRE + +_England and Wales._--Up to the beginning of the 19th century the number +of the population was a matter of estimate and conjecture. In 1753 a +bill was introduced by a private member of the House of Commons, backed +by official support, to provide for the annual enumeration of the people +and of the persons in receipt of parochial relief. It was violently +opposed as "subversive of the last remains of English liberty" and as +likely to result in "some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper." +After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by the House +of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of England the weakness +of the country in fighting-material was one of the main objections +offered to the proposal. By the end of the century, however, owing to a +great extent to the publication of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum +had swung far in the opposite direction, it was thought desirable to +possess the means of judging from time to time the relations between an +increasing population and the means of subsistence. A census bill, +accordingly, again brought in by a private member, became law without +opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under it took +place in March of the following year, the operations being confined to +Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England to the overseers, +acting under the justices of the peace and the high constables, and in +Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under the sheriffs. A supplementary +statement of births, deaths and marriages for each parish was required +from the clergy, who transmitted it to parliament through the bishops +and primates successively. There was no central office or control. The +schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise, the +population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under one of the +three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or industry, or (c) +other than these two. The results, which were not satisfactory, were +published without comment. Ten years later, the chief alteration in the +inquiry was the substitution of the main occupation of the family for +that of the individual. The report on this census contained a very +valuable exposition of the difficulties involved in such operations and +the numerous sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of +questions. In 1821 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it +was not repeated in 1831, when the attention of the enumerators was +concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record. Their efforts +were successful in getting a better, but still far from complete result. +The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and the establishment, in +1836, of civil registration districts, as a rule coterminous with them, +provided a new basis for the taking of a census, and the operations in +1841 were made over accordingly to the supervision of the +registrar-general and his staff. The inquiry was extended to the sex, +age and occupation of every individual; those born in the district were +distinguished from others, foreigners being also separately returned. +The number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction +respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of births, +deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the last time. The +most important innovation, however, was the transfer of the +responsibility for filling up the schedule from the overseers to the +householders, thereby rendering possible a synchronous record. + +With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated has been +since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head of the family, +civil condition, and the blind and deaf-mute were included in the +inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing for the census was +interpreted to authorize the collection of details regarding +accommodation in places of public worship and the attendance thereat, as +well as corresponding information about educational establishments. A +separate report was published on the former subject which proved +something of a storm centre. The census of 1871 obtained for the first +time a return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums. During +the next ten years, the separate areas for which population returns had +to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the creation of sanitary +districts, to the number of 966. The necessity, for administrative or +other purposes, of tabulating separately the returns for so many +cross-divisions of the country constitutes one of the main difficulties +of the English census operations, more particularly as the boundaries of +these areas are frequently altered. In anticipation of the census of +1891, a treasury committee was appointed to consider the various +suggestions made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its +proposals were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation column +into employer, employed and independent worker, and as to the record +upon the schedule of the number of rooms occupied by the family, where +not more than five. Separate entry was also made of the persons living +upon property or resources, but not following any occupation. No action +was taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that midway +between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and age should be +effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for Wales, of those who +could speak only Welsh, only English, and both languages, but, owing to +the inclusion of infants, the results were of little value. In 1901 the +same information was called for, excluding all under three years of age. +The term tenement, too, was substituted for that of storey, as the +subdivision of a house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited +houses, those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately +recorded. The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be +returned only for British subjects, was called for from all not born +within the kingdom. + +_Scotland._--In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to 1851, +provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with that for England +and Wales, allowance being made for the differences in procedure, which +mainly concerned the agency to be employed. In 1855, however, civil +registration of births and deaths was established in Scotland, and the +conduct of the census of 1861 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the +registrar-general of that country. The same course was followed at the +three succeeding enumerations, but in 1901 the former practice was +resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though far less than in +England, was simplified, and the census compilation proportionately +facilitated, by the passing of the Local Government Act for Scotland, in +1889. In 1881, the definition of a house in Scotland was made identical +with that in England, since previously what was called a house in the +northern portion of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south, +and vice versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of +the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of children of +school-age under instruction is also included in the inquiry. The number +of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded for the first time in 1881. The +question was somewhat expanded at the next census, and in 1901 was +brought into harmony with the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx. + +_Ireland_.--An estimate of the population of Ireland was made as early +as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 1712, in connexion with the +hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a regular census was made in +1811, through the Grand Juries. It was not successful, and in 1821 +again, the inquiry was considered to be but little more satisfactory. +The census of 1831 was better, but the results were considered +exaggerated, owing to the system of paying enumerators according to the +numbers they returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a +revisional inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good basis +for the newly introduced system of public instruction. The completion of +the ordnance survey and the establishment of an educated constabulary +force brought the operations of 1841 up to the level of those of the +sister kingdom. The main difference in procedure between the two +inquiries is that in Ireland the schedule is filled in by the +enumerator, a member of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the +metropolitan police, instead of being left to the householder. The +tabulation of the returns, again, is carried out at the central office +from the original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into +which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency. The inquiry +in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great Britain. It includes, +for instance, a considerable amount of information regarding holdings +and stock. The details of house accommodation are fuller. A column is +provided for the degree of education, and another for religious +denomination, an addition which has always been successfully resisted in +England. This last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the +following enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the +record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to those +_temporarily_ incapacitated from work, whether at home or in a hospital. +There is also a column for the entry of persons speaking the Irish +language only or able to speak both that and English. In the report of +1901 for England and Wales (p. 170) a table is given showing, for the +three divisions of the United Kingdom, the relative number of persons +speaking the ancient languages either exclusively or in addition to +English. + +_British Colonies and Dependencies._--A simultaneous and uniform census +of the British empire is an ideal which appeals to many, but its +practical advantages are by no means commensurate with the difficulties +to be surmounted. Scattered as are the colonies and dependencies over +the world, the date found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother +country and the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the +tropics and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope +of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information is +thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the inquiry, +too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the locality allow, and +the population dealt with is likely to be able and willing to answer. By +prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity may be obtained in regard to most +of the main statistical facts ascertainable at a census, at all events +in the more advanced units of the empire, and proposals to this effect +were made by the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report +upon the figures for 1901. Previous to that date, the only step towards +compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare +statement of area and population, appended without analysis; comparison +or comment, to the reports for England and Wales, from the year 1861 +onwards. In 1905, however, the returns published in the colonial reports +were combined with those of the United Kingdom, and the subjects of +house-room, sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and, +where available, instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as +fully as the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command +paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states, colonies +and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of their population are +set forth below. + +_Canada_.--The first enumeration of what was afterwards called Lower +Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and dealt with the legal, +or domiciled, population, not with that actually present at the time of +the census, a practice still maintained, in contrast to that prevailing +in the rest of the empire. The record was by families, and included the +sex, age and civil condition of each individual, with a partial return +of profession or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour +of a fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has +remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British occupation, +a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually from 1824 to 1842, the +information asked for differing from time to time. Enumerations were +conducted independently by the different states until 1871, when the +first federal census was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since +then, the enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more +recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North-West, where an +intermediate census was found necessary in 1885-1886. The census of +Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the United States rather than +in accordance with British practice, and includes much which is the +subject of annual returns in the latter country, or is not officially +collected at all. The details of deaths in the year preceding the +census, for instance, are called for, there being no registration of +such occurrences in the rural tracts. In consideration of the large +immigrant population again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded, +with details as to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration. +Occupation is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary +unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other particulars. No +less than eleven schedules are employed, most of them relating to +details of industries and production. The duty of filling up so +comprehensive a return, involving an answer to 561 questions, is not +left to the householder, but entrusted to enumerators specially engaged, +working under the supervision of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to +the sparse population and difficulties of communication in a great part +of the dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not +completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator for the +collection of his returns and their revision and transmission to the +central office. A special feature in the operations is the provision, +necessitated by the record of the _legal_ population, for the inclusion +in the local return of the persons temporarily absent on the date of the +census, and their adjustment in the general aggregates, a matter to +which considerable attention is paid. The very large mass of detail +collected at these inquiries entails an unusually long time spent in +compilation; the statistics of population, accordingly, are available +considerably in advance of those relating to production and industries. + +_Australasia_.--As the sphere of the census operations in Canada has +been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the east coast to +the immense territories of the north-west, so, in the island continent, +colonization, first concentrated in the south-east, has extended along +the coasts and thence into the interior, except in the northern region. +The first act of effective occupation of the country having been the +establishment of a penal settlement, the only population to be dealt +with in the earlier years of British administration was that under +restraint, with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the +immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated from 1788 +onwards by official "musters," at first weekly, and afterwards at +lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate that it had no +statistical value until 1820, when the muster was taken after due +preparation and with greater care, approximating to the system of a +regular census. The first operation, however, called by the latter name, +was the enumeration of 1828, when an act was passed providing for the +enumeration of the whole population, the occupied area and the +live-stock. The details of population included sex, children and adults +respectively, religion and _status_, that is whether free (immigrants or +liberated convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar +inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate census +was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively. The scope of the +inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat extended and made to include +occupations other than agriculture and stock-breeding. Five years later, +the increase of the population justified the further addition of +particulars regarding birthplace and education. The record of _status_, +too, was made optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In +that year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony, took +its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated in 1846, ten years +after its foundation as a colony. From 1861 the census has been taken +decennially by all the states except Queensland, where, as in New +Zealand, it has been quinquennial since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up +to and including the census of 1901 each state conducted separately its +own inquiries. The scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great +Britain, modified to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered +population. The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under +district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the whole +number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the population in the +rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In more than one state the +police are employed as enumerators, but elsewhere, a staff has to be +specially recruited for the purpose. The operations were improved and +facilitated by means of an interstatal conference held before the census +of 1891, at which a standard schedule was adopted and a series of +general tables agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail +according to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in +addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, +occupation and house-room, includes education and sickness as well as +infirmities, and leaves the return of religious denomination optional +with the householder. Under the head of occupation, the bread-winner is +distinguished from his dependants and is returned as employer, employed, +or working on his own account, as is now the usual practice in +census-taking. Each state issues its own report, in which the returns +are worked up in the detail required for both local administrative +purposes, and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the +neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and Victoria are +especially valuable in their statistical aspect from the analysis they +contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively young community under +modern conditions of progress. + +_South Africa._--Almost from the date of their taking possession of the +Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East Indian Company +instituted annual returns of population, live-stock and agricultural +produce. The results from 1687 for nearly a century were recorded, but +do not appear to have been more accurate than those subsequently +obtained on the same method by the British government, by whom they were +discontinued in 1856. The information was collected by district +officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or procedure. +The first synchronous census of the colony, as it was then constituted, +took place in 1865, on a fairly comprehensive schedule. Ten years later +the inquiry was extended to religion and civil condition, and for the +census of 1891, again, a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The +next census was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the +disorganization produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same +lines as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries +and religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration of +the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with special +attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more ignorant +classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy was enlisted. In +some tracts it was found advisable to substitute a less elaborate +schedule for that generally prescribed. In Natal, indeed, where the +first independent census was taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was +not on that occasion enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were +counted on a very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to +40 years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair +indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable extent +and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from the white +population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable difference +between the European and the Oriental in the matter of age distribution +and civil condition. The Transvaal and the Orange River colonies were +enumerated in 1904. In the latter, a census had been taken in 1890, in +considerable detail, but that of the Transvaal, in 1896, seems to have +been far from complete or accurate even in regard to the white +population. In Southern Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in +1891, but it was not until 1904 that the whole population was included +in the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring a +sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large and +illiterate native population has to be taken into account. For this +reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up to 1906 of Northern +Rhodesia, the British possessions and protectorates of eastern Africa, +or, again, of Nigeria and the protectorates attached to the West African +colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone and Lagos. + +_The West Indies._--Each of the small administrative groups here +included takes its census independently of the rest, though since 1871 +all take it about the date fixed for that of the United Kingdom. The +information required differs in each group, but the schedule is, as a +rule, of a simple character, and the results of the inquiry are usually +set forth with comparatively little comment or analysis. In some of the +groups distinctions of colour are returned in general terms; in others, +not at all. On the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding +the indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class +who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad. No +census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados, in 1901. + +_Ceylon_.--Here the census is taken decennially, on the same date as in +India, in consideration of the constant stream of migration between the +two countries. The schedule is much the same as in India with the +substitution of race for caste. Until 1901, however, it was not filled +in by the enumerator, as in India, but was distributed before and +collected after the appointed date as in Great Britain. + +_India_.--The population of India is the largest aggregate yet brought +within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumeration. It amounts to +three-fourths of that of the British Empire, and but little less than a +fifth of the estimated population of the world. Between 1853 and 1881 +each province conducted its own census operations independently, with +little or no attempt at uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In +the latter year the operations were placed for the first time under +central administration, and the like procedure was adopted in 1891 and +1901, with such modification of detail as was suggested by the +experience of the preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be +brought within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the +use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than the +standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to the inquiry, +and the efficiency of the administrative agency increased. Not more than +5% of the householders in India can read and write, and the proportion +capable of fully understanding the schedule and of making the entries in +it correctly is still lower. From the literate minority, therefore, +agency has to be drawn in sufficient strength to take down every +particle of the information dictated by the heads of families. As it +would be impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the +course of the census night for more than a comparatively small number of +houses, the operation is divided into two processes. First a preliminary +record is made a short time before the night in question, of the persons +ordinarily residing in each house. Then, on that night, the enumerator, +reinforced if necessary by aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat, +and brings the record up to date by striking out the absent and entering +the new arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include +about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men were +required for enumeration alone. To this army must be added the +controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above number, charged +with the instruction of their subordinates, the inspection and +correction of the preliminary record, and the transmission of the +schedule books to the local centre after the census has been taken. The +supply of agency for these duties is, fortunately, not deficient. +Irrespective of the large number of clerks, village scribes and state +and municipal employés which can be drawn upon with but slight +interruption of official routine, there is a fair supply of casual +literary labour up to the moderate standard required. The services, too, +of the educated public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of +the local authorities for the census night, with no desire for +remuneration beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps, +of a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district. +By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the +preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in 1901 +were given to the public within a fortnight of the census, and differed +from the final results by no more than 94,000, or .03%. The schedule +adopted contains in addition to the standard subjects of sex, age, civil +condition, birthplace, occupation and infirmities, columns for +mother-tongue, religion and sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed +in about 20 languages. The results for each province or large state are +tabulated locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final +compilation is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own +report upon the operations and results. This work has usually an +interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the prominent +place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical variety of the +population. + + +FOREIGN COUNTRIES + +Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of taxation, +such as the hearth-tax in France, were instituted in continental Europe +as early as the 14th century; but as the basis of an estimate of +population they were intrinsically untrustworthy. Going outside Europe, +an extreme instance of the results of combining a census with more +definite administrative objects may be found in the census of China in +1711, when the population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and +liability to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty +years later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief +of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103 millions! +The notion of obtaining a periodical record of population and its +movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities, originated, as +stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth and death registers, +till then kept voluntarily by the parish clergy, were made compulsory +and general, the results for each year being communicated to a central +office. A census, as a special undertaking, was not, however, carried +out in that country until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in +the next year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the +parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring +state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the 18th +century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate. Amongst +them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census was not obtained until +1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small states of Italy, too, recorded +their population in the middle of the above century, but the first +general census of that country took place in 1861, after its +unification. In Austria, a census was taken in 1754 by the parish +clergy, concurrently with the civil authorities and the military +commandants. Hungary was in part enumerated thirty years later. The +starting-point of the modern census, however, in either part of the dual +monarchy, was not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal +countries began the current series of their censuses between 1825 and +1860. The German empire has taken its census quinquennially since its +foundation, but long before 1871 a census at short intervals used to be +taken in all the states of the Zollverein, for the purpose of +ascertaining the contribution to the federal revenue, the amount of +which was revisable every three years. The last great country to enter +the census field was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of +the population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and +police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials without +central direction or systematic organization. In 1897 a general census +was taken as synchronously throughout the empire as was found possible. +It embraced a population second to that of India alone, as China, +probably the most populous country in the world, has not yet been +subjected to this test. The inquiry was made in great detail, under +central control, and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the +requirements of so varied a country and population. As in India, the +schedules had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were +dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The principal +regions of which the population is still a matter of mere conjecture are +the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese +peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of Africa, and a considerable +portion of South America. (J. A. B.) + + +UNITED STATES + +Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United States. +Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative work, "It was +no European state, but the United States of America that made a +beginning of census-taking in the large and true sense of that word," +and Professor H. Wagner, writing of the censuses of Sweden, said to have +been taken in the 18th century, uses these words, "Since 1749 careful +parish registers have been kept by the clergy and have in general the +value of censuses." The same authority, although mentioning a reported +census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first real +census of that country was in 1815. Sweden, Norway and the United States +are the only countries with any claim to have taken the first modern +census, as distinguished from a register of tax-payers, &c., the lineal +descendant of the old Roman census, and the innovation seems to be due +to the United States. If so, the first modern census was the American +census of 1790. At the present date more than three-fifths of the +estimated population of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is +of interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated. + +The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken every ten +years since under a mandate contained in the Constitution of the United +States, was the outgrowth of a controversy in the convention which +prepared the document. Representatives of the smaller states as a rule +claimed that the vote, and so the influence, of the states in the +proposed government should be equal. Representatives of the larger +states as a rule claimed that their greater population and wealth were +entitled to recognition. The controversy ended in the creation of a +bicameral legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the +larger states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each +state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were to be +distributed in proportion to the population, and the convention, +foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an enumeration of the +inhabitants and a redistribution or reapportionment of seats in the +House of Representatives every ten years. + +The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as +follows:--"Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among +the several states which may be included within this Union according to +their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the +whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a +term of years and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other +persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after +the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every +subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law +direct." + +In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and free, the free +classed as white and others, the free whites as males and females, and +the free white males as under or above sixteen years of age. In 1800 +and 1810 the same classification was preserved, except that five +age-groups instead of two were given for free white males and the same +five were applied also to free white females. In connexion with the +census of 1810 an attempt, perhaps the earliest in any country, was made +to gather certain industrial statistics showing "the number, nature, +extent, situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United +States." In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white males, +an age classification of four periods was applied to the free coloured +and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens and of persons +engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in commerce was called for. +The inquiry into industrial statistics begun in 1810 was also repeated +and extended. + +In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of each sex, +and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex. The number of +aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were also gathered. + +The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained a novel +provision for the preparation in connexion with the census of +statistical tables giving "such information in relation to mines, +agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as will exhibit a full +view of the pursuits, industry, education and resources of the country." +This was about the first indication of a tendency, which grew in +strength for half a century, to load the Federal census with inquiries +having no essential or necessary connexion with its main purpose, which +was to secure an accurate enumeration of the population as a basis for a +reapportionment of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency +was largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under the +Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical +inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the +_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent +member of the party whose contention he states:-- + + "The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the + general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether purely + statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of + apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other authority + than that of the states themselves. That large party which advocates a + strict and jealous construction of the constitution would certainly + oppose any independent legislation by the national Congress for + providing a registration of births, marriages and deaths, or for + obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the + satisfaction of the publicist or for the guidance of the legislature. + Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to be + within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust and + opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of the + people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought." + +The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now mainly of +historic importance, exerted great influence upon the development of the +American census prior to 1900. + +The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educational +statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes and of +causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects. Public +discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifications of scope +and method at the census of 1850. Before the census law was passed, a +census board, consisting of three members of the president's cabinet, +was appointed to draft plans for the inquiry, and the essential features +of its report prepared after consultation with a number of leading +statisticians were embodied in the law. + +The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free inhabitants, +one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding year, one for +agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social statistics. The +last asked for returns regarding valuation, taxation, educational and +religious statistics, pauperism, crime and the prevailing rates of wages +in each municipal division. It was also the first American census to +give a line of the schedule to each person, death or establishment +enumerated, and thus to make the returns in the individual form +indispensable for a detailed classification and compilation. The results +of this census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary +analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them with +European figures. + +The census of 1860 followed the model of its predecessor with slight +changes. When the time for the next census approached it was felt that +new legislation was needed, and a committee of the House of +Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards president of the +United States, at its head, made a careful and thorough study of the +situation and reported an excellent bill, which passed the House, but +was defeated by untoward influences in the Senate. In consequence the +census of 1870 was taken with the outgrown machinery established twenty +years earlier, a law characterized by Francis A. Walker, the +superintendent of the census, who administered it, as "clumsy, +antiquated and barbarous." It suffered also from the fact that large +parts of the country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four +years of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb of +American census work. Tie accuracy of the results is generally denied by +competent experts. The serious errors were errors of omission, were +probably confined in the main to the Southern states, and were +especially frequent among the negroes. + +Since 1870 the development of census work in the United States has been +steady and rapid. The law, which had been prepared for the census of +1870 by the House committee, furnished a basis for greatly improved +legislation in 1879, under which the tenth census was taken. By this law +the census office for the first time was allowed to call into existence +and to control an adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators. +The scope of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto +volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of the +population, but also of the products and resources of the United States. +Probably no other census in the world has ever covered so wide a range +of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India and the eleventh +American census has extended through so many volumes. The topics usually +contained in a census suffered from the great addition of other and less +pertinent matter, and the reputation of the work was unfavourably +affected by the length of time required to prepare and publish the +volumes (the last ones not appearing until near the end of the decade), +the original underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent +supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the +superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability and death +of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh census was taken under +a law almost identical with that of the tenth, and extended through +twenty-five large volumes, presenting a work almost as encyclopaedic, +but much more distinctively statistical. + +The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States, depends +largely upon the degree to which its figures for the population of the +country, of states, and especially of cities, meet or fail to meet the +expectations of the interested public. Judged by this standard, the +census of 1890 was less favourably received than that of 1880. The +enumerated population of the country in 1880 was larger than had been +anticipated; and in the face of these figures it was difficult for local +complaints, even where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance. +But according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth of +population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had shown +between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade of the century, +except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%, in spite of an +immigration nearly double that of any preceding decade. For this change +no adequate explanation was offered by the census office. Hence the +protests of those who believed that the figures for population were too +small swelled into a general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census +was probably more correct than the critics. Most of the motives +influencing popular estimates of population in the United States tend to +exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution of the +United States attempted to secure a balance of interests by apportioning +both representatives in Congress and direct taxes according to +population. A passage in _The Federalist_ suggests the motives of the +convention as follows:-- + + "As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will + necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if not + co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the states + should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the amount + of their numbers. Were their share of representation alone to be + governed by this rule, they would have an interest in exaggerating + their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their share of taxation + alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By extending the rule to + both objects the states will have opposite interests, which will + control and balance each other, and produce a requisite impartiality." + +With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal +revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population +disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many representatives in +Congress has been reinforced by the more influential feelings of local +pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat similar size. Hence a +complaint that the population is overstated is seldom heard, and hence, +also, popular charges of an under-count afford little evidence that the +population was really larger than stated by the census. + +After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown that the +number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was surprisingly small, +and that this deficiency in children was a leading cause of the slow +growth in population. Before the tabulation had been made Francis A. +Walker wrote:--"If the birth-rate among the previously existing +population did not suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot +be vindicated. To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of +the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of the +inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years of age." +These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the count of 1890. Efforts +to invalidate the census returns by comparison with the registration +records of Massachusetts cannot be deemed conclusive, since in the +United States, as in Great Britain, the census must be deemed more +accurate and less subject to error than registration records. A strong +argument in favour of the eleventh census, apart from its +self-consistency, is that its results as a whole fit in with the +subsequent state enumerations. In eleven cases such enumerations have +been taken; and on computing from them and the results of the federal +census of 1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census +should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform, it +appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon, was the +difference between the enumerations and these estimates over 4%. In +Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in 1890 than the estimate +would lead one to expect; in New York city, about 100,000 less. It seems +not improbable that in the latter, where the difficulties incident to a +count during the summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions +occurred. Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh +census as a whole. + +The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the argument +that would maintain the eleventh census to be inaccurate because it +showed a smaller rate of increase in population during the preceding +decade than had been recorded by other censuses during earlier decades. +The rate of increase during the decade ending in 1900 was even less than +that for the preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off +so marked could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer +inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating from the +computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian Territory and +Indian reservations, was 20.7; the rate of increase if these places are +included--in which case the figures of the population of Hawaii in 1890 +must be taken from the census of the Hawaiian government in that +year--was 21%. + + The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with those of + 1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws relative to + census work. By this law the census office was far more independent + than ever before. Appointments and removals were made by the director + of the census rather than by the secretary of the interior, and in all + plans for the execution of the law the head of the office was + responsible for success. The law divided the subjects of census + inquiry into two parts--first, those of primary importance, requiring + the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly, those of subsidiary + importance, capable of production without the aid of the enumerator. + The former had to be finished and published by 1st July 1902; the + latter were not to be undertaken until the former were well advanced + towards completion. By this means the attention of the office could be + concentrated on a small number of subjects rather than distributed + over the long list treated in the volumes of the tenth and eleventh + censuses. + + Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all + residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no + system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is no + such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a + national system of registration, and the country depends upon the + crude method of enumerators' returns for its information on vital + statistics, except in the states and cities which have established a + trustworthy registration system of their own. These are the New + England states and a few others in their vicinity or influenced by + their example. Enumerators' returns in this field are so incomplete + that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred in any + community during the preceding year are obtained by an enumerator + visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the computation of + death-rates is afforded, and the returns have comparatively little + scientific value. In the regions where census tables and + interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the + several states or cities they are often made more complete than those + in the state or municipal documents. The census of agriculture is also + liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm accounts + and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or the value + even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to the calendar + year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless answers about + the preceding year's crop are almost sure to have been given by many + farmers in the midst of the summer's work. + + The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different + character. A large proportion of the industries of the country keep + satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some + correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects of + the census, and to fear that the information given will be open to the + public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manufacturing + schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of accounting among + different companies or lines of business, and this is often lacking. + Another source of error in the manufacturing census of the United + States is that the words of the census law are construed as requiring + an enumeration of the various trades and handicrafts, such as + carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns are gross and + notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek for them and to + report what it finds, however incomplete or incorrect the results may + be. Even on the population returns certain answers, such as the number + of the divorced or the number unable to read and write, may be open to + question. + + The wide range of the American census, and the publication of + uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the + development of accurate census work requires a long educational + process in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough + approximations must always precede accurate measurements; and these + returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably + improve with each decade. + + Besides, the breadth of its scope, in which the American census stands + unrivalled, the most important American contribution to census work + has been the application of electricity to the tabulation of the + results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties which this + method reduced were two. The production of tables for so enormous a + population as that of the United States through the method of tallying + by hand requires a great number of clerks and a long period of time, + and when complete cannot be verified except by a repetition of the + process. The new method abbreviates the time, since an electric + current can tally almost simultaneously the data, the tallying of + which by hand would be separated by appreciable intervals. The method + also renders comparatively easy the verification of the results of + certain selected parts. + + Judged by European standards the cost of the American census is very + great. The following table gives the total and the per capita cost of + each enumeration. + + +------+---------------------+------+-----------------------+ + | | Cost. | | Cost. | + | +----------+----------+ +------------+----------+ + | Date.| Total in |Per Capita| Date.| Total in |Per Capita| + | | dollars. |in cents. | | dollars. |in cents. | + +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+ + | 1790 | 44,377 | 1.12 | 1850 | 1,423,351 | 6.13 | + | 1800 | 66,109 | 1.24 | 1860 | 1,969,377 | 6.26 | + | 1810 | 178,445 | 2.46 | 1870 | 3,421,198 | 8.87 | + | 1820 | 208,526 | 2.16 | 1880 | 5,790,678 | 11.48 | + | 1830 | 378,545 | 2.94 | 1890 | 11,547,127 | 18.33 | + | 1840 | 833,371 | 4.88 | 1900 | 16,116,930 | 21.16 | + +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+ + + For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita cost + of the English census of 1901 was 2.24 cents, or little more than + one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in part + to the greater scope and complexity of the American census, and in + part to the fact that in the United States the field work is done by + well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most cases by + the heads of families, who are not paid. + + The course of events has clearly established the fact that the + authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than the + strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented by + General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be. + Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled + practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to + supplement the state governments in the gathering of statistics that + may furnish a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has + allowed the Federal census office in its discretion to compile and + publish the birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately + kept; one Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces + throughout the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in + 1889, and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published + in 1908-1909; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for + about half the population of the country, including all the states and + cities which have approximately complete records of deaths; Federal + agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of corporations have + been created for the purpose of gathering certain social and + industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has been made a + permanent statistical office. + + The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation and + publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important lines of + work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton ginning + season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental census reports + upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on further + interpretation of various population tables, reports on street and + electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light and power + plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900-1904, on benevolent + institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses, on the social + statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures in 1905. + Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties, and it + has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal + government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial + Statistical Office in Berlin. (W. F. W.) + + + + +CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae, +containing between four and five hundred species, and of wide +distribution, but with its principal centre in the Mediterranean region. +The plants are herbs with entire or cut often spiny-toothed leaves, and +ovoid or globose involucres surrounding a number of tubular, oblique or +two-lipped florets, the outer of which are usually larger and neuter, +the inner bisexual. Four species are native in Britain. _C. nigra_ is +knapweed, common in meadows and pastureland; _C. Cyanus_ is the +bluebottle or cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; _C. Calcitrapa_ +is star-thistle, a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of +England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads enveloped by +involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine. Besides cornflower, +a few other species are worth growing as garden plants; they are readily +grown in ordinary soil:--_C. Cineraria_, a half-hardy perennial, native +of Italy, is remarkable for its white downy foliage; _C. babylonica_ +(Levant) has large downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow +flowers; _C. dealbata_ (Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger +rose-coloured heads; _C. macrocephala_ (Caucasus) has large yellow +heads; _C. montana_ (Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and _C. +ragusina_ (S.E. Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow +flowers. + + + + +CENTAURS, in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse part man, +dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. The name has been +derived (1) from [Greek: kentein] (goad) and [Greek: tauros] (bull), +implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from [Greek: kentein] +and the common termination [Greek: -auros] or [Greek: -aura] ("air") +i.e. "spearmen." The former is unsatisfactory partly from the +philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is +preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele (the +rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some Magnesian +mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known for their fight with +the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to carry off Deidameia on the day +of her marriage to Peirithous, king of the Lapithae, himself the son of +Ixion. Theseus, who happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the +Centaurs were driven off (Plutarch, _Theseus_, 30; Ovid, _Metam._ xii. +210; Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented +drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in allusion to +their drunken and amorous habits. Their general character is that of +wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the slaves of their animal +passions, with the exception of Pholus and Chiron. They are variously +explained by a fancied resemblance to the shapes of clouds, or as +spirits of the rushing mountain torrents or winds. As children of +Apollo, they are taken to signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested +as the origin of the legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom +riding was unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as +one and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur as +half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus, the +contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between civilization +and barbarism. + + In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with the + body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they were + men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, and the + adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5; Diod. Sic. iv. + II) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney Colvin, _Journal + of Hellenic Studies_, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article in Roscher's + _Lexikon der Mythologie_). Fig. 34 in article GREEK ART (the west + pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the attempt of + the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous. + + + + +CENTAURUS ("THE CENTAUR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern +hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued thirty-seven stars in it. +_[alpha]-Centauri_ is a splendid binary star. Its components are of the +1st magnitude, and revolve in a period of eighty-one years; and since +its parallax is 0.75", it is the nearest star to the earth; +_[omega]-Centauri_, the finest globular star-cluster in the heavens, +consists of about 6000 stars in a space of about 20' diameter, of which +about 125 variables have been examined. _Nova Centauri_, a "new" star, +was discovered in 1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard. + + + + +CENTAURY (_Erythraea Centaurium_, natural order Gentianaceae), an annual +herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched above, and a terminal +inflorescence with numerous small red or pink regular flowers with a +funnel-shaped corolla. The plant occurs in dry pastures and on sandy +coasts in Britain, and presents many varieties, differing in length of +stem, degree of branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or +closeness of the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are +grown as rock-plants. + + + + +CENTENARY (from Lat. _centenarius_, of or belonging to a hundred, from +_centeni_, distributive of _centum_, hundred), a space of a hundred +years, and particularly the celebration of an event on the lapse of a +hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The word "centennial" (from +Lat. _centennis_, from _centum_, and _annus_, a year), though usually an +adjective as in "the Centennial State," the name given to Colorado on +its admission to statehood in 1876, is also used as a synonym of +centenary. + + + + +CENTERVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Appanoose county, Iowa, +U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about 90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop. +(1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905, state census) 5967 (487 being +foreign-born); (1910) 6936. Centerville is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Iowa +Central railways. Among the principal buildings are the county +court-house and the Federal building, and the city has a public library +and a hospital. It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the +state; it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works, +and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products, woollen +goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted in 1846, was +called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name was adopted, was +incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870 was chartered as a city of +the second class. The city limits were extended in 1906-1907. + + + + +CENTIPEDE, the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda, a class of +the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda (Millipedes), the +Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute the now abandoned group +Myriapoda. The resemblance between the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is +principally superficial and due to the elongation and vermiform shape of +the body, which in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar +somites not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida +and most Crustacea, into series or "tagmata" of varying function. Until +1893 no one doubted the correctness of the assumption that the Chilopoda +and Diplopoda were orders of a class Myriapoda of the same systematic +status as the Arachnida or Hexapoda. But in that year, R.I. Pocock and +J.S. Kingsley independently pointed out that they differ as much from +each other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore, +rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely +associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the +Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the Progoneata +(Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. As the +basis for this classification was taken the position of the generative +orifices which open in the Opisthogonea at the posterior end and in the +Prosogonea near the anterior end of the body. As a matter of fact, in +the Chilopoda they are situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic +somite; in the Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a +little farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of +Heymons into the embryology of _Scolopendra_, one of the Chilopods, has +shown a close correspondence in the number of cephalic metameres between +the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a correspondence which has not yet been +established in the case of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last +discovery bears out the view of relationship between the centipedes and +insects, to the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda. But +even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups can be +brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the head, the +position of the generative orifices will remain as a fundamental and +constant character, distinguishing the Chilopoda from the other groups +of so-called "Myriapods" and the Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in +many particulars they resemble. + + _Structure of the Chilopoda._--The exoskeletal elements of a typical + somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or + sternum, a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with + chitinous sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior + extremity there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when + present, and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the + _Scutigeridae_, the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply + reflexed, ventrally forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior + edge of this bears the labrum, which is usually represented by a small + median, and two large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a + single pair of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable + number of walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or + gonopods. The antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and + preoral in position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or + more segments. The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and + bi-segmented, with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair or + maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They are + foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera + (_Scutigera_, _Lithobius_) the inner branch consists of two distinct + segments meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The + outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four + segments. Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches + are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments of + the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The above + described condition seen in _Scutigera_ suggests that two pairs of + jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the + Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second pair + of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five or six + segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its fellow. + The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-jaws, are long + and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of six segments, + whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its fellow to form a + large coxal plate, the second is small and generally suppressed by + fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also small, while the + sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at the tip of which + opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within the appendage. + + The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, mandibles and + maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield or cephalite. The + tergal element of the somite bearing the palpognath is usually + suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes of large size as in + some Geophilomorpha (_Himantarium_), sometimes small as in + _Scutigera_, _Lithobius_, _Craterostigmus_, sometimes suppressed + probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite as + in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-bearing + somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite of the + toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the somites + bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements are preserved + without fusion with the corresponding plates of the preceding or + succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body is retained. + The only exception to this is presented by _Scutigera_, where the + terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen pairs of legs + are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The walking legs are + articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural or lateral area of + the somites close to the external margins of the sterna, which widely + separate those of the left from those of the right side. Generally + speaking the legs resemble each other, although as a rule they + progressively increase in length towards the posterior end of the + body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the basal is + termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is armed with a + single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilomorpha and a few + genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial transverse joint into + two segments, as is the case in _Scolopendra_ and _Lithobius_ for + example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-footed centipedes of + the order Lithobiomorpha (e.g. _Henicops_, _Cermalobius_) the tarsi + are further subdivided. The multiplication of sub-segments reaches its + maximum in _Scutigera_, where the tarsi are extremely long, slender, + flexible and annulated. The legs of the last pair are directed + backwards in a line parallel with the long axis of the body, so that + their coxae, fused in some cases with the pleural sclerites + (_Scolopendra_, _Geophilus_), or free and of large size (_Scutigera_, + _Lithobius_), serve to protect the small genital and anal somites. + They are often greatly modified. In the males of some species of + _Lithobius_ one or more of the segments is inflated or furnished with + tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilomorpha the whole + limb is thickened in the male sex. In most Scolopendromorpha the basal + segment is armed beneath with spines or spikes (_Dacetum_, + _Scolopocryptops_); sometimes the whole appendage is thickened and + terminated by a sharp and serrate claw (_Theatops_, _Plutonium_). In + these cases the legs act as weapons of defence and offence. In other + cases (_Newportia_) the tarsi lose the claw, become many-jointed and + act as feelers, while in _Alipes_ the terminal segments are flattened, + leaf-like and furnished with a peculiar stridulating organ. The + genital somite is always small and sometimes retractile within the + somite bearing the last pair of legs. Its tergal plate is usually + retained, but its sternal plate is generally suppressed. In females of + the Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this + somite--the gonopods--are jointed, forcipate and relatively well + developed although small. In the females of the other orders they are + greatly reduced or absent. In the males their development varies + considerably. They are well developed in _Scutigera_, where they form + two pairs of digitiform sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they + are reduced to a pair of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal + somite is always small and limbless. In _Craterostigmus_ the genital + and anal somites are represented by a pair of elongate valves + projecting between the legs of the last pair. The structure of the + gonopods is unknown, and the homology between the two valves and the + skeletal elements of the somites in question not clearly understood. + + A study of the development of _Scolopendra_ has shown that the + antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral + metamere and the mandibles those of the fourth, the first postoral + metamere, which has a pair of transient preantennal appendages, and + the third, which has no appendages, being excalated at an early stage + of embryonic growth. Furthermore, behind the legs of the last pair two + pairs of appendages are present. The second of these persists as the + gonopods of the adult, but the first is suppressed. Possibly, however, + it is represented in the male of _Scutigera_ by the anterior branches + of the gonopods. The cerebral or cephalic portion of the nervous + system consists of a quadrilobate mass. From the two upper lobes, + which are set transversely, arise the ocular nerves; from the two + lower lobes, which are united by a transverse commissure, spring the + antennal nerves in front and the chords which form the oesophageal + collar behind. These chords unite below the oesophagus to form the + compound suboesophageal ganglion, whence the nerves for the four pairs + of jaws arise. The ventral system consists of a double chord uniting + in each of the leg-bearing segments in a ganglionic swelling which + gives off four pairs of nerves to the limbs and tissues of the somite. + There is a single ganglion in the genital segment. + + [Illustration: Modified from Heymons, _Bib. Zool._, 1901, by + permission of E. Nagele. + + FIG. 1. + + A, Diagram of anterior extremity of an early embryo of + _Scolopendra_, ventral view; cl, clypeus; lb, labrum; m, mouth; p.a, + preantennal appendage; a, antenna; int, premandibular rudiment; mdl, + mandible; mx, maxilla; p.g, palpognath; t.g, toxicognath; lg. 1, + first pair of walking legs. + + B, Posterior end of a later embryo of _Scolopendra_, ventral view, + showing the anal segment or telson (t); the legs of the last pair in + the adult (lg. 21) and the two rudimentary pairs of legs (lg. 22, + lg. 23).] + + Eyes are frequently absent. When present they may be either simple or + compound, i.e. consisting externally of a single lens (monomeniscous) + of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous). Simple eyes vary in + number on each side of the head from one, as in _Henicops_, to many as + forty, as in some species of _Lithobius_. In _Scolopendra_, where + there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thickening of the + cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath the lens + consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer + continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area. Thus the + eye is monostichous. The arrangement of the cells, however, is + peculiar. They are invaginated to form what may be described as a very + deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly narrow + median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed by the inner + or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by their outer or + distal ends. It results from this arrangement that the cells forming + all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizontally, i.e. at right + angles to the vertical axis of the eye. From the distal ends of the + cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming a rhabdom which + occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup beneath the + middle of the corneal lens. The outer ends of the cells are nucleated + and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve, which passes + from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the brain. Compound + eyes are found only in the _Scutigeridae_. Externally the eye consists + of one hundred or more little lenses or lenticles. The retinal portion + is composed of a corresponding number of ocular units or ommatidia. + Each ommatidium is an elongated cone with its broad extremity abutting + against the corneal lenticle. It consists of a non-nucleated + crystalline cone developed from embryonic cells, and is enveloped in + three tiers of large nucleated cells. The cells of the outermost tier + are heavily pigmented; those of the middle and innermost (proximal) + tiers, the retinal cells, are at their inner extremities produced into + threads continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve. In the space + between these cells and the crystalline cone which they surround, + there is a layer of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by the cells. + + [Illustration: A and B after Heymons, _Bibl Zool_, 1901, by permission + of E. Nagele. + + C after Adensamer, _Verh. z. b. Verein_, Vienna, 1893, pl. vii. + + FIG. 2. + + A, Brain of _Scolopendra_. n.ant, Antennal nerves; n.opt, ocular + nerves; n.pr.ant, preantennal nerves; oes. comm, oesophageal + commissure. + + B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra. len, Corneal lens; ret, retinal or + visual cells; n.opt, optic nerve. + + C, Ocular unit or ommatidium of compound Eye of _Scutigera_. len, + corneal lenticle; c.c, crystalline cone; 1, pigmented cells of + outermost tier; 2, 3, retinular cells of middle and innermost tiers; + rbd, rhabdomeres; n.opt, optic nerve; pg, pigment cells.] + + The alimentary canal is a simple tube running without convolutions + from the mouth to the anus. Its anterior portion or pharynx, which + arises from the stomodaeal invagination in the embryo, is short; a + pair of large, so-called salivary glands open into it. The mesenteric + part of the canal is relatively wide and receives at its junction with + the hind-gut the excretory products of a pair of very long and slender + malpighian tubes of proctodaeal origin. The posterior end of the + canal, arising from the proctodaeum, is relatively short and narrow. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of Alimentary Canal of _Lithobius_. + + a, Anus. + + mg, Mid-Gut. + + hg, Hind-Gut. + + mt, Malphighian tubule. + + s.gl, Salivary gland. + + lg. 1, lg. 15, Legs of first and fifteenth pairs.] + + The generative organs vary in structural details in different + centipedes. In the male of _Lithobius_ the testes consist of a single + coiled tube lying above the alimentary canal. The slender vas deferens + which proceeds from its hinder end divides posteriorly into a right + and left branch, embracing the gut and uniting beneath it to form a + common chamber or atrium within the genital orifice. The atrium + receives the secretion of two pairs of large accessory glands; and a + pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales, open, one on each side, into + the divided sperm ducts close to their point of origin above the + intestine. The organs of the female are very similar. There is a large + median ovary followed by a short oviduct forming a circum-intestinal + collar and a common atrium. Into the latter open a pair of short + receptacula seminis and the slender duct of two pairs of large + accessory glands. There is nothing in the female corresponding to the + supra-intestinal vesiculae seminales of the male. In the male of + _Scolopendra_, on the contrary, there are as many as twelve pairs of + somewhat sausage-shaped testes, approximated two by two. From each + pair proceed two slender ducts which open into a median duct coiled in + the posterior third of the body and much expanded in the last three of + the leg-bearing segments. The right and left portions of the + intestinal ring of the genital duct are unequally developed, and there + are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of accessory glands + communicate with the genital atrium as in _Lithobius_. In the female + _Scolopendra_ the right and left portions of the intestinal collar are + also unequally developed, and only a single pair of accessory glands + besides the receptacula seminis open into the atrium. + + [Illustration: After Heymons, _Bibl. Zool_, 1901, by permission of E. + Nagele. + + FIG. 4.--Posterior portion of generative organs of male of + _Scolopendra_ (A), of female (B). t, Testes; v.d, vas deferens; ov, + ovary; _r.s_, receptaculum seminis; gl. acc, accessory glands; g.o, + generative orifice.] + + The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately + beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers + corresponding roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a + blood-sinus formed by a pericardial membrane whence large alary + muscles extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in + _Scolopendra_ a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its + posterior extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood + re-enters the organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior + chamber, which lies in the first or second leg-bearing segment, + proceed three arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to + supply the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow + of the opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the + sides of the latter arise vessels to the gnathites, and from its + inferior portion an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and + another backwards above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the + body, supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral + branch. In _Scolopendra_ the chambers of the heart, excepting the + first and last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms + like _Scutigera_ where the terga are very unequal in size a + corresponding inequality in the size of the chambers is manifested. + + [Illustration: A after Newport, _Phil. Trans._, 1843. B after Haase, + _Zool. Beitrage_, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J.N. Kern. C after + Haase, loc. cit. + + FIG. 5. + + A, Anterior extremity of _Scolopendra_, showing two chambers of the + heart (h), the aortic ring (a), the alae cordis (a.m) and a cardiac + orifice (o). + + B, Two segments of _Scolopendra_, showing the branching and + anastomosing tracheae and a spiracle (sp). + + C, A pair of tufted tracheae of _Scutigera_. d, Dorsal plate; t.s, + tracheal sac; tr, tracheal tubes.] + + In all centipedes, except _Scutigera_, respiration is effected by + chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications + throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of spiracles + perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or fewer of the + somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never present upon + the anal, genital and last leg-bearing somites, and only rarely, as in + _Henicops_, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first pair. In the + majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid or slit-like + orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like integumental + infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal tubes which soon + anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks. In _Dacetum_, one of the + _Scolopendridae_, there is no pocket-like infolding, the small + tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on a large subcircular + plate where their apertures fuse to form a complicated network. The + apertures, as in the case of other genera, are protected by fine + hairs; and the tracheae themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral + filament. In the _Lithobiidae_ the tracheae do not anastomose; but in + _Scolopendra_ and _Geophilus_ the main trunks in each segment fuse + transversely with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally + with those of the preceding and succeeding segments. + + In _Scutigera_ the tracheae differ both in structure and position from + those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and seven in + number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into a short sac + from which five tracheal tubes depend into the pericardial + blood-sinus. + + Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders + referable to two subclasses-- + + Subclass I. Pleurostigma. + Order 1 Geophilomorpha. + Order 2 Scolopendromorpha. + Order 3 Craterostigmomorpha. + Order 4 Lithobiomorpha. + + Subclass II. Notostigma. + Order 5 Scutigeromorpha. + +SUBCLASS I, PLEUROSTIGMA.--Chilopods furnished with a rich system of +branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are paired and open +upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the somites. Each leg-bearing +somite contains a distinct tergum and sternum, the number of sterna +never exceeding that of the terga. Eyes are either preserved or lost; +when preserved they are represented either by a single one-lensed +ocellus or by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head. +The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent sharply +downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior portion lying +behind the antennae, so that these appendages, approximated in the +middle line, project directly forwards from the margin of the head +formed by this retroversion of the labral area. The maxillae are short +and have no sensory organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and +the toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single coxal +plate. + + _Order 1. Geophilomorpha_.--Chilopods with a large and indefinite + number of somites, most of which are partially or completely divided + into a smaller anterior segment, represented by a pretergal and two + presternal sclerites, and a larger posterior segment bearing the + spiracles and legs. Spiracles are present upon all the leg-bearing + somites except the first and last; and the legs which are short and + subequal in length consist of six segments, the basal of which remains + small. There are no eyes, and the antennae consist invariably of + fourteen segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the + toxicognaths always remains distinct and separates the head-shield + from the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and + antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the + preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial + integumental folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the + distal segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In + the last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the + coxa of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this + appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal + somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and the + gonopods typically persist in the male as small two-jointed appendages + and in the female as jointed or unjointed sclerites. The young are + hatched with the full number of segments. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6. (After Latzel, _Die Myr. öst.-ung. Mon._ vol. + i. "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.) + + A, Upper view of anterior extremity in _Geophilus_. + + a, Basal segments of antennae. + + c, Cephalic plate. + + t.palp, Tergal plate of somite, bearing palpognaths. + + t.tox, Tergal plate of somite, bearing toxicognaths (_tox_). + + t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite, bearing legs of first pair. + + B, Toxicognaths of _Scolopendra_, showing the large coxal plate and + the reduced penultimate and antepenultimate segments. + + C, Terminal segment or fang of the same, showing the orifice of the + poison gland.] + + _Remarks._--The Geophilomorpha are universally distributed in suitable + localities. The number of families into which the order should be + divided is as yet unsettled, some authors admitting several groups of + this rank, others referring all the genera to a single family, + _Geophilidae_. In habits the _Geophilidae_ are mostly subterranean, + living in the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms. + Occasionally they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the + sake of moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive + to light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to + the nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They + can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using + the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority + of the family in habits are the two species _Linotaenia maritima_ and + _Schendyla submarina_, which live under stones or seaweed between + tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the + species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and + secrete a fluid which in some forms (_Himantarium_) is blood-red, + while in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form _Orphnaeus + phosphoreus_ the fluid is known to possess this property; and its + luminosity has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in + the case of _Linotaenia acuminata_ and _L. crassipes_. + + The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between + thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding + discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being + less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example + recorded, a specimen of _Notiphilides_ from Venezuela, was 11 in. long + and 1/3 of an inch wide. + + When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking up a + spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for that + purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered spot, + sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them with her + body, keeps guard until the young disperse and shift for themselves. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ (after Buffon). + + A, a, Cephalic plate. + + b, Tergum of segment, bearing first pair of legs (d). + + c, Tip of palpognath. + + e, Antenna. + + f, Toxicognath. + + g, Last pair of appendages, enlarged and directed backwards.] + + _Order 2. Scolopendromorpha._--Chilopods differing principally from + the Geophilomorpha in that the number of leg-bearing somites is + definitely fixed at twenty-three or twenty-one. These are + differentiated into larger and smaller, which alternate with nearly + complete regularity. The anterior portion of each somite is only + partially cut off as a subsegment. The tergal plate of the somite + bearing the toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by fusion with the + tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The antennae consist of a + number of segments varying from seventeen to about thirty, and usually + differing in the individuals of a species. The second segment + (trochanter) of the legs of the last pair is coalesced with the third + (femur). In only one genus, namely _Plutonium_, which occurs in Italy, + is there a pair of spiracles for each leg-bearing segment, except the + first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha. In most genera there are + only nine pairs of spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, + 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-bearing segments, as in + _Scolopendra_, _Cormocephalus_, _Cryptops_, &c. In genera with + twenty-three pairs of legs, like _Scolopocryptops_, there is an + additional pair of spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous segment; + and a few genera such as _Rhysida, Edentistoma_, possess a pair upon + the 7th segment. Eyes, when present, are always four in number on each + side. The newly hatched young has the full complement of appendages. + + This order is divided into four families:--_Scolopendridae_ + (_Scolopendra_, _Rhysida_), _Cryptopidae_ (_Cryptops_, _Theatops_), + _Scolopocryptopidae_ (_Scolopocryptops_, _Otocryptops_) and + _Newportudae_ (_Newportia_). Apart from the frigid zones it is + cosmopolitan in distribution, though only one genus (_Cryptops_) + extends into north temperate latitudes. In the tropics and warmer + countries of the southern hemisphere the genera and species are + particularly abundant, and individuals reach the greatest dimensions, + some specimens of the tropical American species _Scolopendra gigantea_ + exceeding 12 in. in length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet + consisting of any animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to + be overcome. They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or + stones, and are nocturnal, shunning, like the _Geophilidae_, exposure + to light; and as in the _Geophilidae_, the females guard their eggs + and young until the latter disperse to lead an independent life. + + _Order 3. Craterostigmomorpha_.--Chilopods with twenty-one tergal + plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with only + fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some members of + the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side of the head, + the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are + complete on the postaxial side of the appendage, and spiracles are + present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing + somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxicognaths, of + the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing somite, + great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (e.g. + _Mecistocephalus_) is presented; but in the structure of the posterior + end of the body this order differs from all the other orders of + Chilopoda. The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are + welded together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and + anal somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of + opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products. + + [Illustration: After Pocock. Q.J.M.S. vol. 45, pl. 23, 1902. + + FIG. 8. + + A, Anterior end of _Craterostigmus_ from above. + + a, Basal segments of antennae. + + c, Cephalic plate with eyes (o). + + t.tox, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxicognaths (tox). + + t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of the first pair. + + B, Maxillae. + + C, Palpognath. + + D, Toxicognath. + + E, Last segment with genital capsule (g.c), and basal segments of + legs of 14th and 15th pairs (lg. 14, lg. 15).] + + This order, containing the family _Craterostigmidae_, is based upon a + remarkable genus and species _Craterostigmus tasmanianus_, of which + only two specimens are known. These were collected under stones upon + the summit of Mount Rumney in Tasmania. They are about 1½ in. in + length; but nothing has been recorded of their habits. The chief + morphological interest attaching to _Craterostigmus_ is that, apart + from certain structural peculiarities of its own, it presents features + previously believed to be found exclusively either in the + Scolopendromorpha, or the Geophilomorpha, or the Lithobiomorpha; and + it shows how the Lithobiomorpha may be derived from a + Scolopendromorphous type most nearly resembling _Plutonium_ by the + excalation of the third, sixth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth and + seventeenth leg-bearing somites. + + _Order 4. Lithobiomorpha._ Chilopoda with fifteen pairs of leg-bearing + somites differentiated into larger and smaller, the 1st, 3rd, 5th, + 7th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th being large, the others small. Spiracles + present upon all the larger with the exception sometimes of the 1st. + The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders hitherto + considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused mesially. + In correlation with their weaker muscularity the first leg-bearing + segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present and usually jointed + in both sexes, are especially well developed and forcipate in the + female, and arise from a large ventral plate resulting from the fusion + of their coxae with the sternum of the genital somite. The antennae + are many-jointed, and there is a single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli + on each side of the head. The coxae of the legs are large, and those + of the last four or five pairs usually contain glands opening by large + orifices. The newly-hatched young has only seven pairs of legs, the + remaining pairs being successively added as growth proceeds. + + The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the + _Lithobiidae_ (_Lithobius, Bothropolys_), _Henicopidae_ (_Henicops, + Haasiella_), the _Cermatobiidae_ (_Cermatobius_). _Cermatobius_, based + upon a single species, _martensii_, from the isl. of Adenara, is of + peculiar interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length + and multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it + approaches more nearly to _Scutigera_ than does any other + pleurostigmous Chilopod. It is also stated that the spiracles have + assumed a more dorsal position, thus foreshadowing the completely + dorsal situation they have taken up in the Notostigma. The + _Henicopidae_, containing centipedes of small size, attains its + maximum of development in the southern continents and islands, more + particularly Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America. + One genus (_Lamyctes_) however, occurs in Europe. The _Lithobiidae_, + on the contrary, are almost exclusively northern in range, being + particularly abundant and of large size individually in Europe, + extra-tropical Asia, and North and Central America. In habits the + _Lithobiidae_ closely resemble the _Scolopendridae_. They are, + however, comparatively far more agile with their shorter, more compact + bodies and stronger legs. They are mostly of small size, the largest + species, _Lithobius fusciatus_, of south Europe measuring only 2 in. + in length of body. The females do not guard their eggs, but coat them + with soil and leave them to their fate. + +SUBCLASS 2, NOTOSTIGMA.--Chilopods with a series of median dorsal +tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the pericardial blood +space, and opening each by an unpaired spiracle upon the 1st, 3rd, 5th, +8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing somites. This characteristic is +accompanied by the complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th, +either by fusion with that of the 8th or by excalation, and by the +evanescence of the terga of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and 13th +pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not strongly +reflexed inferiorly, and the eyes are large and compound. The maxillae +are long and have a sensory organ, the palpognaths are long, spiny and +composed of five segments, like the primitive Chilopod leg, and the +toxicognaths have their basal segments disunited and independently +movable. Gonopods duplicated in the male. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Scutigera rubrolineata_ (after Buffon). B, +Tergum and part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of +the stigmata o, o; p, hinder margin of tergum.] + + This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the family + _Scutigeridae_. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs of + legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young is + hatched with only seven pairs of legs. The legs and antennae in the + adult are extremely long and many jointed. In habits as well as in + structure the _Scutigeridae_, of which _Scutigera_ is the best-known + genus, differ greatly from other centipedes. Although they hide under + stones and logs of wood like _Lithobius_, they are not lucifugous but + diurnal, and may be seen chasing their foes in the blazing sun. They + run with astonishing speed and have the power of dropping their legs + when seized. South of about the 40th parallel of north latitude they + are universally distributed in suitable localities. In most species + the body only reaches a length of about 1 in.; but twice that size or + more is reached by examples of the Indian species _Scutigera + longicornis_. + + [Illustration: After Latzel, _Die Myr öst-ung. Mon._ vol. i. + "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880. + + FIG. 10.--Gnathites of _Scutigera_. + + I. Mandibles. + II. Maxillae. + III. Palpognaths. + IV. Toxicognaths.] + + Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda by + Scudder, who refers them to two families, _Gerascutigeridae_ and + _Eoscolopendridae_. But until the specimens have been examined by + zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken + seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to + existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds. (R. I. P.) + + + + +CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA (c. 1667-1723), English dramatic writer and actress, +was born about 1667, probably in Ireland, whither her father, a +Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman, had been forced to flee at the +Restoration on account of his political sympathies. When sixteen she +married the nephew of Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year +she married an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in +poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and some +of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she married Joseph +Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who survived her. Her first play +was a tragedy, _The Perjured Husband_ (1700), and she herself appeared +for the first time at Bath in her comedy _Love at a Venture_ (1706). +Among her most successful comedies are--_The Gamester_ (1705); _The Busy +Body_ (1709); _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1718); _The Basset-table_ +(1706); and _The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret_ (1714), in which, as +the jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots, +verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing, though +coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue fluent. She never +seems to have acted in London, but she was a friend of Rowe, Farquhar +and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on the 1st of December 1723. Her dramatic +works were published, with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872). + + + + +CENTO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 18 m. S.E. +direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-level; it is reached +by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m. +S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a steam tramway (18 m. N.) from +Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901) +4307 (town), 19,078 (commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with +Ferrara. It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco +Barbieri (Guercino). The communal picture-gallery and several churches +contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A statue of him +stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Governativo. The town was +surrounded by walls, the gates of which are preserved. The origin of the +name is uncertain. + + + + +CENTO (Gr. _[Greek: kentrôn]_, Lat. _cento_, patchwork), a composition +made up by collecting passages from various works. The Byzantine Greeks +manufactured several out of the poems of Homer, among which may be +mentioned the life of Christ by the famous empress Eudoxia, and a +version of the Biblical history of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the +later empire and the monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing +poems out of the verse of Virgil. Such were the _Cento Nuptialis_ of +Ausonius, the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th +century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the hymns in +honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace by Metellus, a monk +of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the 12th century. Specimens may be +found in the work of Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1504; Frankfort, 1541, +1544). In 1535 Laelius Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the +dissolute lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a +_Petrarca Spirituale_; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one +of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a _Virgilius Evangelizans, seu +Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et versibus +descripta_. + + + + +CENTRAL AMERICA, that portion of the American continent which lies +between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British crown colony of +British Honduras, and the six independent republics of Guatemala, +Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. These seven +divisions are described in separate articles. Central America is bounded +towards the N. by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific +Ocean, and extends between 7° 12' and 18° 3' N. and between 77° 12' and +92° 17' W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and stretches for +some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of three serpentine +curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m., between the Peninsula of +Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras, and diminishing to 35 m. in the +Isthmus of Panama. The eastern boundary of Central America was usually +regarded as identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903, when the +republic of Panama was formed out of the northern territories of +Colombia; and the more modern definition given above does not command +the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include the +whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west, i.e. the +Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however, the support of +political and historical considerations, as well as of common usage; and +it may therefore be regarded as adequate, although, in respect of +climate and natural products, it would be more accurate to define +Central America as lying between Tehuantepec and Darien. + + _Physical Features._--The _Cordilleras_, or mountain chains of Central + America do not form a complete link between the western ranges in the + north and south of the continent, for their continuity is interrupted + by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine basin of + Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central America from + end to end, their main axis trending from north-west to south-east. + They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges or series of + volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras are + disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser chains + radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude of 12,000 + and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general character of + the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active. Large tracts + of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning of the 20th + century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical climate, and the + dense underwoods which impede exploration. In the northern part of + Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same country, in British + Honduras, along the Segovia river, on the Mosquito Coast, and in the + basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river, there are broad + stretches of comparatively flat country. The main line of watershed is + everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, except in + southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is almost equidistant from + the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers of the Pacific seaboard are + mostly short and swift,--mere mountain torrents, in many instances, + until they reach the sands and swamps which border the sea. The rivers + of the Atlantic littoral descend more gradually, and by longer + channels. The largest of them is the Segovia, in Nicaragua and + Honduras, which has a course of 450 m. Lake Nicaragua, the largest + inland sheet of water, has an area exceeding 3500 sq. m. There are + also several mountain lakes of exceptional interest and beauty, such + as Atitlán and Amatitlán, in Guatemala, besides two great land-locked + salt-water lakes--the Pearl Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the + Carataska Lagoon in Honduras. + + [Illustration: Geologic Map of Central America.] + + _Geology._--The neck of land which unites the continents of North and + South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of either, + but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were, between + the other two. The folds in the earth's crust which form the Andes and + the Western ranges of North America, are not continued along the + connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the strata are folded from + west to east, obliquely across the trend of the continent. It should, + however, be noticed that the Andes, as they approach the Caribbean + sea, bend round towards the east; and it is probable that the folds of + the North American Cordillera similarly bend eastward beneath the + volcanic rocks of Mexico. The folds of Central America are tangential + to the two arcs thus formed. + + By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered by + Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic; but + the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From the + Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau the + existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet unproved, + but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico. South of the + plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges composed of + granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age, begin to + appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front of the + series of east and west folds which stand _en échelon_ across the + Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels of + latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala, + there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists + with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear, for + the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be + Pre-Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at + least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British + Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also in Costa + Rica and perhaps in Panama; and wherever the strike has been observed, + it is approximately from west to east. The presence of Palaeozoic + rocks has been proved in Guatemala and the adjacent state of Chiapas, + where limestones have been found containing many unmistakable + Carboniferous fossils, and below these is a considerable thickness of + beds supposed to be Silurian. Nowhere else in the Central American + region is there any palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks. + + The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow clays + containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but the + occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated + outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in Central + America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower series of clays, + sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably by an upper series + of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas, Guatemala and + Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The upper series contains + hippurites. The greater part of the eastern half of the Mexican + plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds. + + The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two divisions. + The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally of sand and + clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line. The upper + division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene (which have not + yet been clearly distinguished from each other), is usually of shallow + water origin; but in the northern part of Yucatan it includes beds of + chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles, which may have been + deposited in a deeper sea. + + It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological + epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved in + the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undisturbed, + and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the Miocene + period, which appears to have been a period of great earth movement + throughout the Caribbean region. From the southern extremity of the + Mexican plateau to the Colombian border, the strike of the folds--of + the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits, as well as of the older + rocks--is in general from east to west; but there is one considerable + exception. On both sides of the deep depression which crosses Honduras + from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of Fonseca, the strike is commonly from + north to south. The depression is probably a "Graben" or trough formed + by faulting. + + The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon the + Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land contracts + to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the Caribbean + shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great, and over a + wide area they entirely conceal the original structural features of + the country. The eruptions began towards the close of the Cretaceous + period and continue to the present day. The rocks are lavas and ashes, + chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition, but rhyolites and + trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met with in one or two + places. + + According to R.T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence of any + Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific, + excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene period. It + should, however, be stated that all authorities are not agreed upon + this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones which he believes + to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally at a height of + about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Unfortunately the + fossils obtained from these beds were lost. + + _Climate_.--The climate of Central America is subject to the most + marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the + proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which + render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands of + British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike the alpine + regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may, however, be + roughly divided into a tropical zone (_tierra caliente_), from + sea-level to about 1500 ft.; a temperate zone (_tierra templada_), + from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (_tierra fria_), above 5000 ft. + These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it often + happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater on the + Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on the Pacific + slope varies in duration from four to six months, between April and + December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On the coast, it + corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, the + tempestuous _Cordonazo de San Francisco_, or "Flagellation of St + Francis," as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted by an + interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known as the + _Veranillo de San Juan_, or "Little summer of St John." In the rainy + season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two or three + o'clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great cumulus + masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain crashes down; + and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North winds are most usual + during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast the trade-winds may bring + rain in any month, and, owing to the moist atmosphere, the heat is + more oppressive. The rainfall may vary in successive years from less + than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to the occurrence of + cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft., but snow seldom + falls. + + _Fauna_.--The fauna of Central America is more closely connected with + the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the region is + comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are + comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own. It + is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous to man. + Of felines it possesses the jaguar (_Felis onza_), popularly called + the tiger; the cuguar (_Felis concolor_), popularly called the lion; + the tigrillo (_Felis tigrina_), which is sometimes kept tame; and + other species. Several species of monkeys (_Mycetes_ and _Ateles_) are + numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (_Cervus + mexicanus_) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands. + Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as the + marrano de monte (_Sus torquatus_) and the jabali or javali (_Sus + labiatus javali_). The _Edentata_ are represented by a species of + armadillo, the honey-bear (_Myrmecophaga tomandua_), and the + _Myrmecophaga didactyla;_ and among the rodents may be mentioned, + besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit-eating cotorra and + tepes-cuinte (_Dasyprocta aguti_ and _Coelogenys paca_), and the + troublesome _Geomys mexicana._ The manatee is common in all the larger + streams. Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little + marsupial called the tacuacine, or the _Didelphys carcinora,_ its + allied species. The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes + had to be left to their undisputed occupancy. In the south-east of + Costa Rica the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with + all their live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires + which in a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most + of the domestic animals--the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit, + common fowl, peacock and pigeon--are of European origin, and are + popularly grouped together as _animales de Castilla._ For the bird + collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National + Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica alone possesses more than + twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among birds of + prey it is sufficient to mention _Corogyps atratus,_ the commonest of + the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger, the _Cathartes + aura,_ the beautiful _Polyborus vulgaris,_ and the king of the + vultures (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Neither the condor of the southern + continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known. The parrot, + macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow, blackbird, Mexican + jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker, humming-bird and trogon + are also widely distributed. A bird of the last-named genus, the + quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon resplendens_) is of special note, + not only from the fact that its yellow tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long, + were formerly worn as insignia by the Indian princes, but because it + has been adopted as the emblematical figure on the national arms of + Guatemala. The gallinaceous order is well represented, and comprises + several peculiar species, as the pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey + (_Meleagris ocellata_), which has a bronze sheen on its plumage; and + aquatic birds, it is almost needless to add, are unusually numerous in + a region so richly furnished with lagoons, rivers and lakes. + + Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost endless + varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless boba or + chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous corali, taboba, + culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great size, scorpions, + edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous. In the rivers + and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound; turtles and + tortoises are exported; and there are valuable pearl and oyster + fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the + _Coleoptera_, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and + the Chrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the + _Lepidoptera_ the prevalent genera are--_Ageronia, Papilio, Heliconia, + Sphinx_ and _Bombyx_. There are five species of bees, and the European + honey-bee, known as _aveja de Castilla_ or "bee of Castile," has been + naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen marching in a + column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and locust are + unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but their + distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown in + parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the _Timetes + Chiron,_ which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests of + Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return. + + _Flora_.--The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine to the + tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another. + Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to + those of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is + unsurpassed for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic + districts, the soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated + and irrigated, magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, + coffee, cocoa and maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar + yields two or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal + supplying a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes, + yams, arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical + fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests + abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum copal, + vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods, medicinal + plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst the forest trees are + the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and the splendid Coyal palm + (_Cocos butyracea,_ L.), with feathery leaves 15 to 20 ft. long, + golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fermented produces the + intoxicating _chicha_ or _vino de Coyol._ In Guatemala occurs the + remarkable _Herrania purpurea,_ a "Chocolate tree," whose seeds yield + a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself. The same country is + famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arborescent thistles, and a + remarkable plant called by the Spaniards _Flor de la Calentura_, + "fever flower," from the heat which it is said to emit at the moment + of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance of medicinal plants, + notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (_Myrospermum salvatorense_); in + Honduras there are immense forests of conifers, resembling those of + the Landes in France; in Nicaragua a characteristic tree is the cortes + (_Tecoma sideroxylori_) yielding timber as hard as ebony, and + noteworthy for the golden blossom with which it is entirely covered + after the leaves have fallen. + +_Inhabitants_--In 1905 the population of Central America numbered about +4,750,000, and this total tends to increase, despite the unhealthy +climate of many districts, the terribly high average of infant +mortality, and the slow progress of immigration. Some authorities +estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of the inhabitants are of +mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the Indian element predominates +everywhere except in Costa Rica, where the whites are exceptionally +numerous. The Indian races have not shown the same power to adapt +themselves to modern civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there +are tribes remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the +Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture (see +below under _Archaeology_). The density of population throughout Central +America is little more than 25 per sq. m.; and it is clear that several +large areas now thinly peopled once maintained a far greater number of +inhabitants. Such are parts of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the +flora consists in great measure of plants that were formerly cultivated +by the Indians. The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by +tribal wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the +German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere, the foreign +population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other centres of +commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United States being largely +represented among the wealthier classes of residents; while the foreign +labourers are mostly Italians or negroes, with a few Chinese on the +Pacific coast. + +_History_.--Central America was discovered by Columbus in August 1502; +and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica was conquered by the +Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after 1513. Between 1522 and 1525, +the authority of Avila was superseded, and his work of conquest +completed by Hernando Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama +formed part of a distinct Spanish government, "New Granada"; British +Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed, in the 18th +century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British government exercised a +nominal protectorate after 1665. Otherwise the rest of Central America +remained a Spanish dependency bearing the general name of "Guatemala," +until 1821. It ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a +military governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding +in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, +Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it was administered by +Spanish officials, who almost invariably devoted their whole energy to +enriching themselves and the home authorities. The old Indian +civilization was swept away; the native races were enslaved, maltreated +and, for a time, demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to +that of the West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced +by hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not only +survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro population, but +quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of their masters, +with whom they intermarried. By the close of the 18th century, the +majority had attained something like uniformity of life and thought. +Racial distinctions had been obscured by intermarriage; even the term +_Ladino_, or "Latin," came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish +or Indian blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured race +more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers; but so +gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost unnoticed. Its +result, the successful revolt of the Spanish colonies--colonies mainly +peopled by Indians or half-castes--was no more a conflict of rival races +or civilizations than the rebellion of the British colonies in North +America. + +"New Granada" attained its independence in 1819; and in 1821 "Guatemala" +declared itself free. That the subsequent history of the Central +American republics has been largely a record of civil war, +maladministration and financial dishonesty, is perhaps due in part to +racial inferiority. In part, however, it may be explained by the absence +of any tradition of good government; perhaps also by the brevity and +artificiality of the evolution which converted a debased +slave-population into the citizens of modern democratic states. The five +divisions of "Guatemala" were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican +empire during 1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras, +Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a Mexican +republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the Republic of the United +States of Central America. The Liberal or Federalist party, which was +supreme in Honduras, found itself opposed by the Conservatives, +including the clergy and former Spanish officials, who were very +influential in Guatemala. A bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In +1837-1839 a Conservative rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of +Guatemala, resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General +Francisco Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to +restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A fresh +union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in 1842, and +dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the conclusion, on +the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (q.v.) between Great +Britain and the United States, which was designed to facilitate the +construction of an interoceanic canal. The history of this project is +given in detail under PANAMA CANAL. One important result of the treaty +was the abandonment, in 1860, of the British protectorate over the +Mosquito Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political +disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had combined to +restore federal unity; but their allied armies were defeated by the +Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the American adventurer, William +Walker, endeavoured to usurp the government of Nicaragua; in 1860 he +invaded Honduras and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the +slave-holders of the United States by adding new slave-states to the +Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885, and +its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala, lost his +life. In 1895 the Greater Republic of Central America was formed by the +union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras; and a constitution was framed +providing for the admission of Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December +1898 it was dissolved, as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of +November 1903 Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia, +declared itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immediately +recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards by the European +powers. The United States also forbade the landing of any Colombian +force on the territories of Panama, and thus guaranteed the security of +the new state. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of Central America, and + especially of its physical features, the following monographs by K. + Sapper are of prime importance:--_In den Vulcangebieten Mittelamerikas + und Westindiens_ (Stuttgart, 1905); _Mittelamerikanische Reisen und + Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bis 1900_ (Brunswick, 1902), and _Das + nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dem Hochland von + Anahuac_ (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many useful + illustrations and maps. See also _Central America and the West + Indies_, by A.H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London, 1901, 2 + vols., with maps and illustrations); _Central and South America_, by + H.W. Bates (London, 1882); _The Spanish American Republics_, by T. + Child (London, 1892); and _Expedition nach Zentral und Sudamerika_, by + P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see "The Geological History of + the Isthmus of Panama and Portions of Costa Rica," by R.T. Hill, in + _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the + following by K. Sapper:--"Grundzüge der physikalischen Geographic von + Guatemala," in _Petermann's Mitt._ Ergänzungsheft, No. 113 (1894), + "Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des nördlichen Mittelamerika," ibid., No. + 127 (1899), and "Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des südlichen + Mittelamerika," _ibid_., No. 151 (1905). _The States of Central + America_, by E.G. Squier (New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are + others of the numerous essays, pamphlets, &c., on Central American + affairs left by this author; see the bibliography of his writings + published in New York in 1876. The _Bulletins of the Bureau of + American Republics_ (Washington, from 1893) give ample information on + commerce and industry. See also _History of Central America_, by H. + Bancroft (San Francisco, 1881-1887. 3 vols.). + + +ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL AMERICA + +Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th century have +thrown much light on the splendid past of Central America. The still +extant ruins of great buildings, unlike anything which is known in the +old world, testify to the high culture attained in pre-Columbian days by +several native peoples differing greatly from one another in speech and +racial affinities. As a science the archaeology of Central America has +scarcely yet emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly +uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await solution must +still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscriptions, which hitherto +has not progressed beyond the discovery of calendar systems and the +relative datings involved in such systems. + +For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it has +been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central America, +properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican territories +south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The peoples inhabiting +Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas and Oaxaca present at the first +view striking ethnical differences. On a linguistic basis, however, they +may be united into several large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater +part of Guatamala are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included +the still savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically +are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels in +Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam, Pokoman, +Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these there are patches of +country in which dialects of the Mexican are spoken. In Oaxaca there is +an extraordinary mixture of languages, some of which, like that of the +Huave of Tehuantepec, are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the +population, however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the +Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects also occur in +isolated parts of Oaxaca. + +_Mayan Culture._--The civilization of the Mayas may well have been +reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of which the +ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than 500 years. The date +of its extinction is unknown, but in certain places, notably Mayapan and +Chichenitza, the highest development seems to be synchronous with the +appearance of foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below). This +quite distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question +played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which the scanty +documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other hand the Mayan +culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate heterogeneous +elements, obliterating racial distinctions and imposing its own dominant +character over a wide area. Oaxaca, the country of the Mixtecs and +Zapotecs, became, as was natural from its geographical position midway +between Yucatan and Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological +traditions which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united. + + + Architecture + +Central American architecture is characterized by a fine feeling for +construction, and the execution is at once bold and aesthetically +effective. Amongst the various ruins, some of which represent the +remains of entire cities, while others are no more than groups of +buildings or single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The +commonest of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are +occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with a +covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top from one +or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps. Usually the platform on +the top of a pyramid is occupied by buildings, the typical distribution +of which is into two parts, viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion +with the pyramid there are various subsidiary structures, such as +altars, pillars, and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of +ritual and worship, besides habitations for officials and +"tennis-courts" for the famous ball-game like that played by the +Mexicans. The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the +buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation to +particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids constitute +one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure, within which are +contained other pyramids, altars or other buildings of various +dimensions. + +The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which the front +facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors. These divide it +into a series of rooms, behind which again there may be a second series. +Occasionally the rooms are distributed round a central apartment, but +this is ordinarily done only when a second storey has to be placed above +them. The gallery-buildings may rise to as much as three storeys, the +height, size and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies +of vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the +vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls +being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so narrow a +space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At Mitla, where the +material used in the construction of the buildings was timber instead of +stone, the larger rooms were furnished with stone pillars on which the +beams could rest. The same principle recurs in certain ruins at +Chichenitza. The tops and sides of the doors are often decorated with +carved reliefs and hieroglyphs, and the entrances are sometimes +supported by plain or carved columns and pilasters, of which style the +serpent columns of Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its +external front one of these galleries may have a cornice and +half-pillars. Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze +which generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole +building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic, serpents' +heads and human masks. The corners of the wall terminate in +three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the frieze frequently +show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated into trunks. The roof of the +gallery is flat and occasionally gabled. + +_Principal Sites._--Such are the general characteristics of Central +American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every site +exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the ruined +settlements even as at present known is very large. The most +considerable are enumerated below. + +_Yucatan_.--Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed over +Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still await +exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted to one or two +sites in the centre of the peninsula which have already become famous. +At Uxmal the buildings consist of five considerable groups, viz.--the +Casa del Adivino, which is a step-pyramid 240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide +and 80 ft. high, crowned by a temple 75 ft. long by 12 ft. wide; the +Casa de Monjas, a striking erection of four oblong buildings on an +extensive terrace; the Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa +de Palomas, the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a +court. At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite +insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate +importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist of +eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The Casa de +Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to several distinct +periods; the Caracol, a round structure with dome in imitation of a +snail-shell, showing evident traces of Mexican influence; El Castillo, a +large temple standing on a base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached +by staircases on all four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a +kind unknown anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an +unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of caryatid +figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple, which contains +marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures of warriors and +place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively Mexican style. Yet +another evidence of Mexican influence at Chichenitza is to be noted in +five figures of the so-called Chac-mol type, that is to say, horizontal +figures in which the arms are extended to the navel which is indicated +by a cup-like depression. This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such +sites as Tlascala and Cempoallan. + +Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine +wall-paintings; Tantah, with remarkable pillared facades; the ruins of +Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and Xlabpak de Santa Rosa, +where there is a three-storeyed temple palace. Two sculptured reliefs +are of great interest; they represent a person holding a staff on which +is a figure of the god Ah-bolon-tzacab. + +_Guatemala_.--The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide area. The +most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta river. The most +important sites in that district are Piedras Negras, and Yaxchilan or +Menche Tinamit, where there are temples covered with sculptured reliefs +and hieroglyphic inscriptions, and stelae and slabs carved with human +figures placed in niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its +splendid sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near the +modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-Mixco. +Chacujál, which Cortes visited on his expedition of 1524-1525 is very +possibly to be identified with the modern Pueblo Viejo on the river +Tinaja. Chaculá and Quen-Santo between the headwaters of the Rio de +Chiapas and the Rio Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local +character. Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two +settlements, as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms. +Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character, which proves +that Mayan science had penetrated into what was probably the home of an +old Lacantun culture. + +Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras, is a +very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settlement which had +already been deserted before Alvarado's expedition of 1522. The +sculptures of gods, goddesses and other figures, executed on enormous +blocks of stone, show a distinctively Mexican character, with which, +however, various Mayan features are blended. They may perhaps be +attributed to some offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil +Indians, which developed on lines of its own in this remote corner. + +Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of Quirigua, +which rival Copan in importance and have suffered less from the ravages +of the climate. The ruins of temples and palaces contain gigantic stone +stelae of very fine workmanship, on which are sculptured human and +animal figures representing hieroglyphs of the calendar dates. + +_Honduras_.--Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan +civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins comprise +great buildings, temples, pyramids, &c. and contain sculptures of the +highest interest. Especially noteworthy are altars in the form of a +turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs. The hieroglyphs are of the +kind usually found in such ruins, the meaning of which is so far clear +that it is known that the commencement of an inscription records certain +dates in the complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of +these dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated +from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries. From this +it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization, whether or not it was +preceded by anything older, flourished for only a comparatively short +period, the beginning of which cannot be placed many centuries before +A.D. 1000. + +According to Squier (_Honduras_, London, 1870, p. 75) the other +principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the department +of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and in the ruined town of +Cururu. They are "large, pyramidal, terraced structures, often faced +with stones, conical mounds of earth and walls of stone." Further ruins, +such as those of Calamulla, Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca +and Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in the side +valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting and most +extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo), about 20 m. +south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence works, terraced stone +mounds and numerous large pyramids are to be found. Squier found further +ruins in the west of Honduras, which have also been described in part by +Stephens, and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de +Palacio (_Carta dirigida al Rei de España_, published by Squier, New +York, 1860). + +[Illustration: (Map of Central America)] + +At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a large +population in past days. Possibly they may be identified with a site +of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by Bernal Diaz (_Histoire +véridique de la conquête de la Nouvelle Espagne_, translated by D. +Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877, ch. 178, p. 690). + +_Chiapas_ (Mexico).--The principal site is Palenque, the ruins of which +were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention. The style of +architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular comb-shaped gables, +distinguishes Palenque from Copan and Quirigua, which it surpasses also +in the unequalled magnificence of its sculptures. Five out of the +remarkably uniform series of buildings may be specially mentioned. They +are the Great Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts +commanded by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the Cross, which are +galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known reliefs, +the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the Temple of the Relief. +The sculptured figures of Palenque are familiar from many reproductions. +The most characteristic groups represent a deity standing between +worshippers who hold a staff surmounted by the water-god +Ah-bolon-tzacab, the "god of the nine medicines." The inscriptions on +the famous Cross and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which +are remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and +hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere. + +A whole series of sites is included within the geographical limits of +Chiapas, which from the archaeologist's standpoint must be considered as +belonging properly to Guatemala. The country has been quite +insufficiently explored. + +_Oaxaca_ (Mexico).--The bulk of the population of the province of Oaxaca +is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented by the +Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time the intermediaries +between the Nahua civilization of Mexico on the west and the Mayan on +the east. The influence of the two separate currents may be detected in +the bastard calendar system no less than in the still undeciphered +inscriptions. The principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of +the priests and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite +distinct character, though presenting certain analogies with the +Mexican. One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three +steps to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides +these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented +necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and of +the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the "palaces" +are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that the deities +represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon. + +Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character of its +sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with extensive ruins +including a fine tennis court. + +_British Honduras_.--The antiquities of British Honduras have been but +little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to them a few +accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style these buildings +closely resemble those of the neighbouring Yucatan. The ruins in the +colony New Boston, mentioned by Froebel (_Central America_, p. 167), are +of this kind. F. de P. Castells (see _American Antiquarian_, Chicago, +1904, vol. xxvi. pp. 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the +colony, of "Ixim chech," supposed to be the Indian form of the English +name "Indian Church." They are on the road to the Lake of Yaxha (green +water), where further ruins are to be found. Thomas Gann gives detailed +accounts of numerous mounds also in the northern part of British +Honduras (see _19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, +Washington, 1900, part i. pp. 661-692, with plates). The most +interesting ruins are those which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at +the mouth of the New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful +wall paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann could +only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by Indians. It should be +remarked that a number of the mounds in Santa Rita were erected over +ruins of buildings which must therefore be of older date than the +mounds. + +_Salvador_.--Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls this +whole district _Cuscatan_ (Mex. _Cozcatlan_), that is, "Land of precious +stones, of treasures, of abundance." A further description of the land +is given by Palacio (l.c.) in 1576. Although there are numerous relics +of Mayan civilization buried in the earth; few ruins are to be seen on +the surface. Karl Sapper has described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near +the capital, Tehuacan near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Güija +in the extreme north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct +affinity in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they +are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and western +districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the same race of +Mayas, and these tracts of country were later settled by the +Mexican-speaking Pipiles. + +A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is that the +pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which are higher than +they are broad, and this peculiarity may be attributed to the influence +of the Maya tribes, who are related to the Mams of Guatemala. + +_Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs._--The key to the decipherment, +so far as this has progressed at present, was furnished by the _Historia +de las Cosas de Yucatan_, a work written by Diego de Landa, the first +bishop of the country. This professed to give, with much other more or +less doubtful information, the full account of a calendar system +analogous to that of the Mexicans, which was said to have been used by +the Mayas (see MEXICO). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18 +weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to compare +these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the few Mayan +picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus, Peresianus, Dresden +Codex) which have survived the destructive fanaticism of the Spanish +missionaries. Förstemann's acute analysis detected that the bars and +dots which occur along the margin and in the body of the pictorial +scenes represented numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five, +while for five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in +which these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are +never more than five in a group. It was established that the first sign +in such a group is that for the numeral 1 (_Kin_), the next that for 20 +(_Uinal_), the third for 18×20 (_Tun_), the fourth for 18×20×20 +(_Katun_), and the fifth for 18×20×20×20, that is to say, a cycle. + +Had the available material for study been confined to the manuscripts, +little more progress would have been made beyond establishing subsidiary +details in the actual calendar. But when a similar analysis was applied +to the numerous monuments discovered and figured by Maudslay and others, +some important results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found +that many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were also +of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that they all +referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-point or zero is +no doubt the mythological date at which, according to Mayan cosmology, +the world was created. It is placed at nine or ten cycles before the +time when Copan and Quirigua were erected and the picture manuscripts +made. And it is by reference to it in the inscriptions that such +students as Seler, Goodman and others have been enabled, as already +stated, to obtain a record of the relative chronology of the most famous +monuments, to confine the period of their erection within the space of a +few centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity. +Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial results which +have already been won from the study of the hieroglyphs. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Antiquités mexicaines_ of Dupaix (Paris, 1834), + the _Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan_ + of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the _Monuments anciens du Mexique_ + of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are quite out of + date and superseded. Stephen's _Incidents of Travel in Central + America, Chiapas and Yucatan_ (New York, 1841 and 1867), and B.M. + Norman's _Rambles in Yucatan_ (New York, 1843), are still of value, + the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by Catherwood. Among + the earlier writers may also be mentioned Charnay, _Les Anciennes + Villes du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1885) and _Cités et ruines + américaines_ (Paris, 1863), the latter written in collaboration with + Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily bibliophiles + will be content to study the following:--Maudslay (in Godman and + Salvin's _Biologia Centrali-Americana_, sect. _Archaeology_, London, + 1889, &c.), a pioneer work containing the admirably presented results + of scientific exploration. Maler, in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, + vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and 1903); Holmes, + _Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans_ (Field Columbian + Museum, Chicago, 1895); E. Seler, _Die alten Ansiedelungen von + Chacula_ (Berlin, 1901), _Wandmalereien von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1895), + _Ges. Abhandlungen_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904), + _Fuhrer von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1906). E. Förstemann has contributed many + valuable essays to _Globus_ and the _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_ + (Berlin); especially important are his commentaries to the _Dresden + Codex_ (Dresden, 1901), to the _Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis_ + (Danzig, 1902), and to the _Codex Peresianus_ (Danzig, 1903). See also + "The Archaic Maya Inscriptions," by F.T. Goodman (in _Biologia + Centrali-Americana_, section _Archaeology_, viii., 1897), and _Report + of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881_, by A.F. Bandelier + (Boston, 1884). Valuable bibliographies have been made by Bandelier + (_Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America_, + Worcester, U.S.A., 1881) and by K. Häbler ("Die Maya Literatur und der + Maya Apparat zu Dresden," in the _Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekwesen_, + xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published in facsimile + as follows:--the _Dresden Codex_ by Förstemann (Leipzig, 1880, and + Dresden, 1892), and the _Codex Tro_ by Brasseur de + Bourbourg--_Manuscrit Troano, étude sur le système graphique et la + langue des Mayas_ (Paris, 1869-1870), the _Codex Cortesianus_ by Léon + de Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and F.L. + de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the _Codex Peresianus_ by Duruy + and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de Rosny (Paris, + 1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in Salvador:--_La + Universidad_, by D. Gonzalez, vol. ii. ser. 3, No. 6, p. 283 (San + Salvador, 1892-1893); _Le Salvador pré-Colombien, études + archéologiques_, by F. de Montcasus de Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25 + plates; Karl Sapper in _Arch. fur Ethnologie_, 9, p. 3 ff. (1896). + (W. L.*) + + + + +CENTRAL FALLS, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the +Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence. Pop. (1900) 18,167; +(1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792 were foreign-born, 4164 being +French-Canadian, 1587 being English, and 1292 being Irish; (1910) +22,754. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The +Blackstone furnishes good water-power, and the chief industry of the +city is the manufacture of cotton goods; other important industries are +the refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and +hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$5,090,984, being 12.9% more than in 1900. A settlement was established +here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield, and then, after +1871, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill was erected, and from then +until 1827 the settlement was known as Chocolateville. It was +incorporated as the Central Falls Fire District of Smithfield in 1847, +and in 1895 was chartered as a city. + + + + +CENTRALIA, a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of +the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4763; (1900) 6721 +(571 foreign-born); (1910) 9680. The city is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois Central, the Illinois Southern, and +the Southern railways; the first two have repair shops here. Centralia +is situated in the central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as +"Egypt." Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars, +concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and +apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city is a +shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled in 1853, +and was first chartered as a city in 1859. + + + + +CENTRAL INDIA, a collection of native states in India forming a separate +agency, which must not be confounded with the Central Provinces. The +Central India agency was formed in 1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was +appointed agent to the governor-general. It lies between 21° 24' and 26° +52' N. and between 74° 0' and 83° 0' E., and may be said to consist of +two large detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as a pivot, +spread outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching northward to +within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of the Nerbudda +and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area is 78,772 sq. m. It +is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United Provinces, on the W. and +S.W. by Rajputana, some native states of the Bombay presidency, and +Khandesh. The Central Provinces and the Bengal district of Chota Nagpur +enclose it on the S. and E., while the Jhansi district of the United +Provinces separates the two tracts. + +Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions: the +highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of some 1500 ft. +above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft. above sea-level, +comprising the greater part of the eastern section of the agency; and +the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south. The Malwa plateau +consists of great undulating plains, separated by flat-topped hills, +whose sides are boldly terraced, with here and there a scarp rising +above the general level; it is covered with long grass, stunted trees +and scrub, which owing to the presence of deciduous plants is of a +uniform straw colour, except in the rains. The foundation of this +plateau is a bed of sandstone and shales belonging to the Vindhyan +series. This bed, which stretches east and west from Sasseram to +Neemuch, and north and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the +whole of the agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the +plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan trap, a +blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high level +tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows, the valleys +of Central India being merely "denudation hollows" carved out by the +action of rain and rivers. It is apparently the northern limit of what +was once a vast basaltic plain stretching from Goona to Belgaum, "one of +the most gigantic outpourings of volcanic matter in the world." The +sandstone bed on which it rests is visible at a point just north of +Goona, and in a small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those +places freed from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly +that part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and +comprises the greater part of the political divisions of Bundelkhand and +Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior. The formation save in north +Bundelkhand is sandstone of the Vindhyan series, free as a rule from +"trap." In the north of Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and +quartz. The quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in +many places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears here +and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly to the south +of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and Kaimur ranges are met +with. The country is rough forest and jungle land little used for +cultivation. The greater part of Central India is covered with the +well-known "black cotton soil," produced by the disintegration of the +trap rock. It is a very rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and +an unusual power of retaining moisture, which makes artificial +irrigation little needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown +upon it. The ordinary "red soil" covers a large part of northern +Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a special +feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as climatically the +differences between the plateau and the eastern part of the agency are +distinct and the languages markedly so. The plateau is inhabited by +pure-blooded Rajput races, whose ancestry can be traced back for +centuries, with all their numerous offshoots. The inhabitants of the +low-lying country are also Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a +rule the families of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with +them. The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often +flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but little +affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of the climate of +the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the _Ain-i-Akbari_, says: "The +climate is so temperate that in the winter there is no occasion for warm +clothing, nor is it necessary in summer to cool the water with +saltpetre. But in the four rainy months the night here is cold enough to +render a quilt necessary." The rains of the south-east monsoon reach +Central India as a rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end +of September. + +_Administrative Divisions._--The Central India agency is divided for +administrative purposes into eight units, two classed as residencies and +six as agencies. These are the residencies of Gwalior and Indore, and +the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal, Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and +Malwa. But these divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the +purposes of the British government, the original native divisions +consisting of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 15 large +states are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia, Orchha, +Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch), Dewas (junior +branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the Pindari War in 1818 the +whole country that is now under the Central India agency was in great +confusion and disorder, having suffered heavily from the extortions of +the Mahratta armies and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of +the great Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into +complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands they +seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of money. Many of +these minor chiefs had been expelled from their possessions, had taken +refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated upon the Mahratta +usurpers by wasting the lands which they had lost, until the Mahrattas +compounded for peace by payment of blackmail. In this state of affairs +all parties agreed to accept the interposition of the British government +for the restoration of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of +pacification was effected. The policy pursued was to declare the +permanency of the rights existing at the time of the British +interposition, conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust +and guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to their +superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or encroachments; and to +settle the claims of the ousted landholders, who had resorted to pillage +or blackmail, by fixing grants of land to be made to them, or settling +the money allowances to be paid to them. The general result was to place +all the privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs +under the guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all +disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred, and +whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to hereditary +rights or rulership. The states have no general ethnological affinity, +such as exists in Rajputana. Their territories are in many cases neither +compact nor continuous, consisting of a number of villages here and +there, with a nucleus of more or less importance round the chief town. +Their relations to the government of India and to each other present +many variations. Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government +of India; others are held under _sanads_ and deeds of fealty and +obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states, are held +under agreements mediated by the British government between them and +their superior chiefs. + +_Population._--The total population of the Central India agency in 1901 +was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of 16.4%. +Considerable losses were caused by the famines of 1897-1898 and +1899-1900, which were severely felt, especially in Bhopal and Malwa. The +greater part of the population of Central India is of the Hindu +religion, but a few Mahommedan groups still exist, either traces of the +days when the Mogul emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the +Deccan, or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired +out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first Bhopal +is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable instance of the +other. Roughly there are four great sections of the population: the +Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling circles; the Rajputs, who are +also hereditary noblemen; the trading classes, consisting chiefly of +Marwaris and Gujaratis; and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian +stock. The Mahrattas are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater +part of Central India, have no true connexion with the soil and are +little met with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and +administrative centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications +form a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have +so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost part of +the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically all the trade +of Central India, with the exception of the Bora class of Mahommedans. +They are either Vaishnavite Hindus or else Jains. Their advent into +Central India dates, except in the case of one or two families, from the +time of the Mahratta invasion only. The Jain portion of this community +is very wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly +of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being the +modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants of this +country. + +The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore, and there +are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and Nowgong. The whole country +is fairly provided with railways, largely at the expense of Sindhia. + + + + +CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, a province of British India, which was +formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation of the Central Provinces and +the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The total area of the provinces is +113,281 sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325. +As is shown by its name the province is situated in the centre of the +Indian peninsula, comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of +hill and plateau country which separates the plains of Hindustan from +the Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India +states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the United +Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the Khandesh district of +Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the large _zamindari_ estates of the +Madras presidency; and on the E. by these latter estates and the +tributary states of Bengal. In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five +Oriya-speaking hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces +to Bengal, while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were +transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province, +therefore, now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore, +Nerbudda, Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into the +twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni, +Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, Wardha, Nagpur, +Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur, Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur, +Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen tributary states of Makrai, Bastar, +Kanker, Nandgaon, Kairagarh, Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh, +Sarangarh, Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur. + + + Central Provinces. + + The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura range + of hills (q.v.), which runs south of the Nerbudda river from east to + west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of districts north of + the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura plateau, and districts south of + the Satpuras. North of the Satpuras is the rich valley of the + Nerbudda, which may be said to begin towards the north of the + Jubbulpore district and to extend westward through the district of + Narsinghpur as far as the western limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of + nearly 300 m. The elevation of the valley above the sea varies from + 1400 ft. at Jubbulpore to 1120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about + 30 m., extending between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the + Vindhyas. This great plain, 10,613 sq. m. in extent, contains for the + most part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley + west of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of + Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district of the + Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts, this tract + of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the base of the + hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land which is + highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great plain of + Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft.; it has an + area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the Mahanadi. + Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the great plain + of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general surface inclines + towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at Nagpur to 750 ft. at + Chanda. To the south the province is shut in by the wide mountainous + tract which stretches from the Bay of Bengal through Bastar to the + Godavari, and west of that river is continued onward to the rocky + ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by a succession of ranges that enclose + the plain of Berar along its southern border. + + + Berar. + + Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura range of + mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south. The + Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura mountains, form the + northern border. On the east the frontier is marked by the Wardha + river down to its confluence with the Penganga, and on the south by + the Penganga for about two-thirds of the frontier's length. The tract + is half surrounded on the east, north and north-west by the Central + Provinces, with which it is amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat + mountain tract which walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into + two sections, the Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north + by the Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the + Ajanta range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta + ridge, sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead + up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward between + this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from 40 to 50 + m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It contains all the + best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black alluvial soil, of + almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates sufficiently to + maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is nothing + picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country. The upland + tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying plains, high + plateaus, fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is rendered + picturesque by rivers and groves. + + _Natural Features_.--The provinces may be divided into two tracts of + upland and three of plain, consisting of the Vindhya and Satpura + plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the north + the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary of the + Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks are generally + overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decaying trap, which is + principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring crops, wheat and + grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the lighter and more + sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of the Nerbudda from + Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep alluvial deposits of + extreme richness and excellently suited to the growth of wheat. To the + south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range stretches across the province, + containing the greater part of five districts, its crystalline and + sandstone rocks rising in places through the superficial stratum of + trap, and with large areas of shallow stony land still covered to a + great extent with forest interspersed by black-soil valleys of great + fertility. In the latter are grown wheat and other spring crops, while + the lighter kinds of rice and the hill millets are all that the poorer + land can bear. To the south of the Satpuras and extending along its + base from west to east lie successively the Berar, Nagpur and + Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of Berar is to a great extent a + rich black vegetable mould; and where this surface soil does not + exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow upper crust of inferior + light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by the Wardha and Wainganga + rivers, contains towards the west the shallow black soil in which + autumn crops like cotton and the large millet, _juar_, which do not + require excessive moisture, can be successfully cultivated. The + eastern part of the Nagpur country and the Chhattisgarh plain, + comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great rice tract of the + province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil rendering it + excellently adapted for the growth of this crop. + + _Climate_.---As regards climate the districts of the Central Provinces + are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division + are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh, + Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Satpura + districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy, owing + to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average temperature + than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is from 3 to 4 + degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in a cooler district + being about 105° as against 108° in the hotter ones for the month of + May, and 79° as against 83° for the month of December. In the cold + weather the temperature in Nagpur and the other hot districts is about + the same as in Calcutta and substantially higher than that of northern + India. The climate of Berar differs very little from that of the + Deccan generally, except that in the Payanghat valley the hot weather + may be exceptionally severe. The rainfall of the province is + considerably heavier than in northern India, and the result of this is + a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere during the monsoon season. The + average rainfall, before it was affected by the abnormal seasons which + followed 1892, was 51 in., varying from 33 in. in Nimar to 65 in + Balaghat. In the autumn months malarial fever is prevalent in all + thickly forested tracts and also in the rice country; but on the whole + the province is considered to be healthy, and as the rains break + fairly regularly in June and produce an immediate fall in the + temperature, severe heat is only experienced for a period of from two + to three months. + + _Agriculture_.--Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the + province produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and + grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the + decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan and + Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in all the + Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur. Cotton and + juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur, Wardha and the + southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter also in Chanda. In the + Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is principally devoted to + hill millets. Rice is an important crop in Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, + Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and + the two eastern districts of Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of + Berar are cotton and juar. The succession of bad seasons which marked + the end of the decade affected the distribution of the principal + crops, but with the advent of more prosperous seasons things tend to + return to their old level. + + _Industries_.--The only important industries are connected with cotton + and coal. In 1904 the total number of factories was 391, almost + entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received an + immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a brewery was + established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are worked in the Central + Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each of which there is a branch + line of railway. In 1903-1904 there was a total yield of 160,000 tons, + valued at about £45,000. In connexion with the Warora colliery there + is a fire-clay business. The Mopani colliery, which dates back to + 1860, is worked by a joint-stock company. + + _Trade_.--The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly by + rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are cotton piece + goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway materials, raw + cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil. The chief + exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and lac. The + exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations, especially during + famine periods. + + _Railways_.--Until recently, the only railway in the Central Provinces + was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one terminating at + Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was continued by the East + Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-Nagpur line has now opened up + the eastern portion of the country, bringing it into direct connexion + with Calcutta; and a new branch of the Indian Midland, from Saugor + through Damoh, has been partly constructed as a famine work. Large + portions, however, in the hilly centre and in the south-east, are + still remote from railways. + + _Administration_.--The administration of the province is conducted by + a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India in + council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial + civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant + superintendents of police, and officers specially recruited for + various departments. The form of the administration of Berar was in + 1903 entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by + the treaties of 1853 and 1860 the revenues of the province were + assigned primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent, + such surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the + nizam, while the province itself was administered in trust by the + government of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November + 1902 a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in + perpetuity to the British government in return for an annual rental of + 25 lakhs. It remained under the administration of the resident until + the 1st of October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the + Central Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result + of this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except + the judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were + amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central + Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that + province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional + commissioner as its immediate head. + + _Population_.--The population of the Central Provinces and Berar as + now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and is of + very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by + immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There are + six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who formerly + held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the north and + north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley and the open + country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking immigrants from + Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur + and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking immigrants from Bombay into Berar, + the Mahratta districts and the southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu + castes in the Sironcha and Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of + Bastar; and the Hindu immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed + to have arrived many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of + Ratanpur rose into power. + + _Language_.--Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of language + is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six dialects are + found in the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight languages and + sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these languages are + Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Oriya, Telugu and + Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief dialects are Gondi, Oraon + or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of which Gondi is by far the most + important. There are also the Munda languages, of which the chief are + Korku, Kharia and Munda or Kol. The chief languages of Berar are + Marathi, Urdu, Gondi, Banjari, Hindi, Marwari, Telugu, Korku and + Gujarati. + +_History_.--The authentic history of the greater part of the country +embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till the 16th century +A.D. By the people of northern India the country was known as Gondwana, +after the savage tribes of Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman +invaders of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain +fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscriptions show +that parts of it had fallen from time to time under the dominion of one +or other of the great kingdoms of the north, e.g. of Asoka, of the +Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar); +and inscriptions and numerous discoveries of coins prove that, during +the middle ages, the open spaces were occupied by a series of Rajput +dynasties. Of these the most important was that of the Haihayas of +Ratanpur, a family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda +valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the Pandava +dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled, though from the 16th +century onwards over greatly diminished territories, until its overthrow +by the Mahrattas in 1745. The second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja, +was the founder of Ratanpur. + +The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century, and no +more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond dynasties from +the 14th to the 16th centuries. The first of these is mentioned in 1398, +when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said by Ferishta to have ruled all +the hills of Gondwana. He was finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang +Shah, king of Malwa. The 16th century saw the establishment of a +powerful Gond kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th +of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his dominions so +as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan plateau, Jubbulpore and +Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley, and Seoni on the Satpura highlands. +Sangram Sah died in 1530; and the break up of his dominion began with +the enforced cession to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of +Saugor and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which afterwards +formed the state of Bhopal. + +About 200 years after Sangram Sah's time, Bakht Buland, the Gond +chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhindwara, having +visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization he had there +admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which his successor made his +capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its widest extent, embraced the modern +districts of Betul, Chhindwara, Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara +and Balaghat. In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of +another Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th +century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deogarh and +Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul emperors. In addition to the +acquisitions made in the north at the expense of Garha-Mandla, the +Moguls, after the annexation of Berar, established governors at Paunar +in Wardha and Kherla in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states, +however, they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over +them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical +independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful rule their +territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul empire and the +rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta powers, with the organized +forces of which their semi-barbarous feudal levies were unable to cope, +brought misfortune upon them. + +In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived the +Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the Nerbudda +valley. In 1733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundelkhand; and in 1735 the +Mahrattas had established their power in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa +advanced to Mandla and exacted the payment of _chauth_ (tributary +blackmail), and from this time until 1781, when the successors of +Sangram Sah were finally overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a +Mahratta dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities of +Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla of Berar +established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had conquered the territories +of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh. In 1741 Ratanpur had surrendered to +the Mahratta leader Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput +dynasty came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were +suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a shadowy +existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse for avoiding the +claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though actually decisions in +important matters were sought at Poona. Raghoji died in 1755, and in +1769 his son and successor, Janoji, was forced to acknowledge the +peshwa's effective supremacy. The Nagpur state, however, continued to +grow. In 1785 Mudhoji (d. 1788), Janoji's successor, bought from the +Poona court the cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and +between 1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of +Hoshangabad and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II. (d. +1816). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered practically the +whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar, as well as Orissa and +some of the Chota Nagpur states. + +In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the result was the +defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the treaty of Deogaon, by +which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack, Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to +this time the rule of the Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant +extraction, had been on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat, +Raghoji now set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless +exploitation of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of +the British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of +oppression. After Raghoji II.'s death in 1816 his imbecile son Parsaji +was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa Sahib. In spite of a +treaty signed with the British in this year, Mudhoji in 1817 joined the +peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi and forced to cede the rest of +Berar to the nizam, and parts of Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul, +Seoni and the Nerbudda valley, to the British. After a temporary +restoration to the throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild +of Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority, which +lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a British +resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without heirs, Nagpur +lapsed to the British paramount power. Until the formation of the +Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province, which consists of the +present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and Chhatisgarh, was administered by +a commissioner under the central government. + +The territories in the north ceded in 1817 by the peshwa (parts of +Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820 formed into the +Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent to the governor-general, +and in 1835 were included in the newly formed North-West Provinces. In +1842, in consequence of a rising, they were again placed under the +jurisdiction of an agent to the governor-general. Restored to the +North-West Provinces in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur +province to constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of +October 1903 Berar also was placed under the administration of the +commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see BERAR). In 1905 +the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory states of +Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were transferred to +Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang Bhakar, Korea, Surguja, +Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred from Bengal to the Central +Provinces. + +During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered from famine +more severely than any other part of India. The complete failure of the +rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity to develop suddenly into +famine, which lasted until the end of 1897. The total number of persons +in receipt of relief reached its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897. +The expenditure on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the +total cost of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly +twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole province +rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average, while the +birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The Central Provinces were +stricken by another famine, yet more severe and widespread, caused by +the complete failure of the rains in 1899. The maximum of persons +relieved for the whole province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition, +about 68,000 persons were in receipt of relief in the native states. +During the three years 1899-1902 the total expenditure on famine relief +amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered from the +famines of 1897 and 1900. + + See _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list + of authorities. + + + + +CENTUMVIRI (_centum_, hundred; _vir_, man), an ancient court of civil +jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius Tullius.[1] Its +antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula used in its procedure, +the lance (_hasta_) as the sign of true ownership, the oath or wager +(_sacramentum_), the ancient formula for recovery of property or +assertion of liberty. It is probably alluded to in Livy's account of the +Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C. (Livy iii. 55, _Consules ... fecerunt +sanciendo ut qui tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris +nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset_). If the _judices_ here +mentioned are the _centumviri_, it is clear that they formed a tribunal +which represented the interests of the _plebs_. This is in accordance +with Cicero's account (_de Orat._ i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their +jurisdiction. He says this was mainly concerned with the property of +which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in their power +to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided questions concerning +debt. Hence the _plebs_ had an interest in securing their decisions +against undue influence. They were never regarded as magistrates, but +merely as _judices_, and as such would be appointed for a fixed term of +service by the magistrate, probably by the _praetor urbanus_. But in +Cicero's time they were elected by the _Comitia Tributa_. They then +numbered 105. Their original number is uncertain. It was probably +increased by Augustus and in Pliny's time had reached 180. The office +was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and plebeians. +The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to the municipal +senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members. + + AUTHORITIES.--Tigerström, _De Judicibus apud Romanos_ (Berlin, 1826); + Greenidge, _Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff., 182 + ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, _Der romische + Civilprozess_, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak). (A. M. Cl.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, i³. 275, n. 4, ii³. 231, n. 1, 590 f.) + believed that the _Centumviri_ were instituted about 150 B.C. + + + + +CENTURION (Lat. _centurio_), in the ancient Roman army, an officer in +command of a _centuria_, originally a body of a hundred infantry, later +the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There were therefore in the +legion sixty centurions, who, though theoretically subordinate to the +six military tribunes, were the actual working officers of the legion. +For the most part the centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were +arranged in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of +the legion (_primus pilus_) was an officer of very high importance. +Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were +"seconded" for various kinds of special service, e.g. for staff +employment, the command of auxiliaries. See further ROMAN ARMY. + + + + +CENTURIPE (formerly CENTORBI, anc. [Greek: Kentoripa] or _Centuripae_), +a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated 2380 ft. above +sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of the railway station of +Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m. W. from Catania. Pop. (1901) +11,311. Thucydides mentions it as a city of the Sicels. It became an +ally of the Athenians at the time of their expedition against Syracuse, +and maintained its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell +under the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero +describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the largest +and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of 10,000, +engaged in the cultivation of an extensive territory. It was granted +Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears to have suffered much +in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and not to have regained its former +prosperity under the empire. Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in +1233, but it was soon rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city +walls and of buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and +numerous antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic _terra-cottas_, +have been discovered in casual excavations. + + See F. Ansaldi, _I Monumenti dell' antica Centuripi_ (Catania, 1851); + P. Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche_ + (Rome, 1904), v. 177. (T. As.) + + + + +CENTURY (from Lat. _centuria_, a division of a hundred men), the name +for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting to one hundred men, +and for one of the divisions into which the Roman people was separated +for voting purposes (see COMITIA). The word is applied to any group of +one hundred, and more particularly to a period of a hundred years, and +to the successive periods of a hundred years, dating before or after the +birth of Christ. The "Century-plant" is a name given to the Agave +(q.v.), or American aloe, from the supposition that it flowered once +only in every hundred years. + + + + +CEOS (Gr. [Greek: Keôs], mod. _Zea_ or _Tzia_), an island in the Aegean +Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of Syra, 14 +m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about 15 m. and its +breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the centre, where it +culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among its natural productions +are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and honey; it also exports a +considerable quantity of valonia. There were formerly four towns of some +importance in the island:--Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore; +Coressia, the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the +neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of Apollo; +and Poieëssa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is represented by the +town of Zea, and Carthaea by the village of 'S tais Polais; traces of +the other two can still be made out. Iulis was the birthplace of the +lyric poets Simonides and Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and +Ariston, and the physician Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was +so generally recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a +proverb. One of them forbade a citizen to protract his life beyond sixty +years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at Artemisium and +Salamis; they joined the Delian League and also the later Athenian +alliance in 377 B.C. They revolted in 363-362, but were reduced again, +and the Athenians established a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth, +which was one of the most valuable products of the island. In A.D. 1207 +it was divided between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of +the duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566. Silver +coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating from the 6th +century B.C. (see NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, "Cyclades and Sporades"). The +present population of the island is about 4000, of which the capital has +about 2000. + + See Pridik, _De Cei Insulae rebus_ (1892). (E. Gr.) + + + + +CEPHALIC INDEX, the term in use by anthropologists to express the +percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The principle employed by +Retzius is to take the longer diameter of a skull, the antero-posterior +diameter, as 100; if the shorter or transverse diameter falls below 80 +the skull may be classed as long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds +80 the skull is broad (brachycephalic) (see CRANIOMETRY). + + + + +CEPHALONIA (Ital. _Cefalonia_, ancient and modern official Greek +_Cephallenia_, [Greek: Kephallênia]), an island belonging to the kingdom +of Greece, and the largest of those known as the Ionian Islands, +situated on the west side of the mainland, almost directly opposite the +Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally derived from Cephalus, the +Attic hero who was regarded as having colonized the island. The +tradition, which is repeated by Aristotle, is probably due solely to the +similarity of the names (see J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias_, i. 37, 6 note). +Pop. (1907) 71,235. Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies +from about 20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the +projecting part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a +distance of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The +whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with rocky +hills of varying elevation, the main range running from north-west to +south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato, Monte Negro, or the +Black Mountain (5315 ft.), frequently retains the snow for several +months. It is not only the loftiest part of the sierra, but also the +highest land in the whole Ionian group. The name "Black" was given from +the darkness of the pine woods which still constitute the most striking +feature in Cephalonian scenery, although their extent has been greatly +curtailed by fire. The summit is called Megálo Sorós. The island is ill +supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams except the +Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers. In the western part +of the island a gulf runs up from the south, a distance of about 7 m.; +on its east side stands the chief town Argostoli, with about 10,000 +inhabitants, and on its west side the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000. +About a mile west of the town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea +water running down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels. +About 5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of +Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island. On an +eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the ancient +Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale; while on the +other side of the island are the remains of Samos on the bay of the same +name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south above the vale of Rakli and its +blossoming oleanders, and of an unknown city near the village of Scala. +The ruins of this city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple, +rock-cut tombs, and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos +are remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly of +the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost unimpaired +the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants of Cephalonia +have all along been extremely active; and no slight amount of toil has +been expended in the construction of terraces on the steep sides of the +hills. Owing to the thinness of the population, however, but a small +proportion of the soil is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain +grown in the island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant, +in the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit is +smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it finds a +market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The grape vine also is +grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising industry. The olive crop +is of considerable importance, and the culture of cotton in the low +grounds has been successfully attempted. Manufactures are few and +undeveloped, but lace from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and +basket-work are produced by the villagers, and boats are built at both +the principal towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and +Zante are most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental +activity. + +In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to be mentioned +under the name of Same, and its inhabitants, among the subjects of +Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes (see, however, under ITHACA). In +the Persian War they took but little part; in the Peloponnesian they +sided with the Athenians. The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip +of Macedon in 218 B.C., because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In +189 B.C. all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards +revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months. The island +was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears again at a later date +as "free and autonomous." After the division of the Roman empire, it +continued attached to Byzantium till 1082, when it was captured by +Robert Guiscard, who died, however, before he could repress the revolt +of 1085. In 1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who +accepted the protection of Venice in 1215; and after 1225 it was held +along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of five counts of the +Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice in 1350 by the +prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured by the Turks in 1479; but +the Hispanico-Venetian fleet under Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of +Cordova effected their expulsion in 1500, and the island continued in +Venetian possession till the fall of the republic. For some time it was +administered for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the +British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in the hands +of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who displayed an +industry and energy in the repression of injustice and development of +civilization only outdone by the despotic vigour of Sir Charles Napier, +who held the same office for the nine years from 1818 to 1827. During +the British protectorate the island made undoubted advances in material +prosperity, but was several times the scene of political disturbances. +It retained longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence +exerted by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming more +democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight districts, and +an elaborate system of police was in force; since its annexation to +Greece it has been broken up into twenty demarchies, each with its +separate jurisdiction and revenues, and the police system has been +abolished. + + AUTHORITIES.--A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia was + written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland's _Travels_ (1815); Ansted's + _Ionian Islands_ (1863); Viscount Kirkwall's _Four Years in Ionian + Islands_ (1864); Wiebel's _Die Insel Kephalonia_; parliamentary + papers. Riemann, _Recherches archéologiques sur les Iles Ioniennes_ + (Paris, 1879-1880); Partsch, _Kephallenia und Ithaka_ (1890); see also + CORFU; IONIAN ISLANDS. (E. Gr.) + + + + +CEPHALOPODA, the fifth of the classes into which the zoological phylum +Mollusca is divided (see MOLLUSCA). The Cephalopoda are mainly +characterized by the concrescence of the foot and head. The foot grows +forward on each side so as to surround the mouth, the two upgrowths +meeting on the dorsal side of the head--whence the name Cephalopoda. The +perioral portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like +processes; these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or +hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of muscular lobes +right and left, which are bent round towards one another so that their +free margins meet and constitute a short tube--the siphon or funnel. The +hind-foot is either very small or absent. A distinctive feature of the +Cephalopoda is their bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like +the torsion of the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda. + + The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median line, + is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is deeply + produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber around the + anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or paired + apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only in + _Nautilus_, in female Octopoda, female _Ommatostrephes_ and male + _Eledone_), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is + elevated, and may be very much elongated in a direction almost at + right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot. + + A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral + hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or + lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming habits + of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is, enclosed + in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented sacs, capable + of expansion and contraction, and known as chromatophores, are usually + present in the integument. The sexes are separate. + + The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as the + efficient branchial organs (figs. 4, 24), + + The vascular system is very highly developed; the heart consists of a + pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts are + formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known to + what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or whether + there is a true capillary system. + + The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing + among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary or + testis--the viscero-pericardial sac--which opens to the exterior + either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion with + the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs, the + walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29). + They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in + _Nautilus_. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla. Jaws + (fig. 6, e) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws have + the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (_Nautilus_), + and are capable of inflicting severe wounds. + + Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives + are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic + region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are + developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits a very + special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a remarkable + archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in all. The typical + osphradium is not present, except in _Nautilus_, but other organs are + present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory function is + ascribed both in _Nautilus_ and in the other Cephalopoda. + + Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female individuals + always being differentiated. The genital aperture and duct is + sometimes single, when it is the left; sometimes the typical pair is + developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all + Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar + modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot, + connected with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization is + applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate + spermatophores or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very + usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nidamental + glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fig. 4, g.n.). The egg is + large, and the development is much modified by the presence of an + excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm of the + egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development are + consequently not recognizable. + +The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata and +Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen) describe the +number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are several characters, +of as great importance as those derived from the gills, by which the +members of these two orders are separated from one another. + +ORDER 1. TETRABRANCHIATA (= Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera). + +_Characters_.--The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are not +fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circumoral lobes of +the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles, not suckers (fig. 6). +There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence Tetrabranchiata), and two +pairs of renal organs, consequently four renal apertures (fig. 4). The +viscero-pericardial chamber opens by two independent apertures to the +exterior, and not into the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and +left) in the female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in +both sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or +straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the +mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the +last-formed of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the hinder +ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. 1). The pair of +cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14. A), opening to the exterior +by minute orifices (pin-hole camera), and devoid of refractive +structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base of the gills +(fig. 4, _olf_). Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac is _not_ +present. Branchial hearts are _not_ developed on the branchial afferent +vessels. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus, +contracted by spirit and lying in its shell, the right half of which is +cut away (from Gegenbaur, after Owen). + + a, Visceral hump. + + b, Portion of the free edge of the mantle-skirt reflected on to the + shell,--the edge of the mantle-skirt can be traced downwards and + forwards around the base of the mid-foot or siphon i. + + l, l, Superficial origin of the retractor muscle of the mid-foot + (siphon), more or less firmly attached to the shell, of which a small + piece (s) is seen between the letters l, l. + + s, (farther back) points to the siphuncular pedicle, which is broken + off short and not continued, as in the perfect state, through the + whole length of the siphuncle of the shell, also marked s and s'. + + o, points to the right eye. + + t, is placed near the extremities of the contracted tentacles of the + outer or annular lobe of the fore-foot--the jointed tentacles are seen + protruding a little from their long cylindrical sheaths. + + v, The dorsal "hood" formed by an enlargement in this region of the + annular lobe of the fore-foot (m in figs. 2, 3). + + V, A swelling of the mantle-skirt, indicating the position on its + inner face of the nidamental gland (see fig. 4, g.n.).] + +_Visceral Hump and Shell._--The visceral hump of _Nautilus_ (if we +exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which it trails, +as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the coiled +form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always slips +forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber which is +practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted chambers thrown off +instead of being accumulated behind the inhabited chamber as a coiled +series of air-chambers, we should have a more correct indication in the +shell of the extent and form of the animal's body. Amongst Gastropods it +is not very unusual to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as +growth advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the +shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied cavity by a +transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be formed, but in no +Gastropod are these apical chambers known to contain a gas during the +life of the animal in whose shell they occur. A further peculiarity of +the nautilus shell and of that of the allied extinct _Ammonites_, +_Scaphites_, _Orthoceras_, &c., and of the living _Spirula_, is that the +series of deserted air-chambers is traversed by a cord-like pedicle +extending from the centro-dorsal area of the visceral hump to the +smallest and first-formed chamber of the series. No structure comparable +to this siphuncular pedicle is known in any other Mollusca. The +siphuncle does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple +vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous sinus, +and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial artery. There +appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers of the nautilus shell +contain in the healthy living animal a gas which serves to lessen the +specific gravity of the whole organism. This gas is said to be of the +same composition as the atmosphere, with a larger proportion of +nitrogen. With regard to its origin we have only conjectures. Each +septum shutting off an air-containing chamber is formed during a period +of quiescence, probably after the reproductive act, when the visceral +mass of the nautilus may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from +the dorsal integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by +the animal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal when +no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the loosening of the +animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward when a new septum is +formed, as well as the mode in which the air-chambers may be used as a +hydrostatic apparatus, and the relation to this use, if any, of the +siphuncular pedicle, is involved in obscurity, and is the subject of +much ingenious speculation. In connexion with the secretion of gas by +the animal, besides the parallel cases ranging from the protozoon +_Arcella_ to the physoclistic fishes, from the hydroid _Siphonophora_ to +the insect-larva _Corethra_, we have the identical phenomenon observed +in the closely allied _Sepia_ when recently hatched. Here, in the pores +of the internal rudimentary shell, gas is observable, which has +necessarily been liberated by the tissues which secrete the shell, and +not derived from any external source (Huxley). + +The coiled shell of _Nautilus_, and of the majority of extinct +Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the body of the animal, +inasmuch as the curvature of the coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal +area is towards the head or forwards, instead of away from the head and +backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as _Planorbis_; the +coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the two cases. Such a shell is +said to be exogastric. But in some extinct forms, e.g. _Phragmoceras_, +_Cyrtoceras_, _Ptenoceras_, the shell is coiled towards the ventral +side, when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct allies of the +nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of a variety of shapes, open +coils such as _Scaphites_, leading on to perfectly cylindrical shells +with chamber succeeding chamber in a straight line (_Orthoceras_), +whence again we may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell of +_Turrilites_. In some extinct genera, e.g. _Gomphoceras_, among the +Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is contracted and the edge of the +aperture is lobed. In these cases the animal was probably able only to +protrude its appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part of the +aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated from the dorsal part +by a constriction. Hence it is possible to distinguish the ventral and +dorsal sides of the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or +endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be determined +by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses the septa centrally, +ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell apertures occur also in +Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching an extreme in _Morphoceras_, where +the original aperture is subdivided by the ingrowth of the sides, so +that only five small separate apertures remain. Of these the central +probably corresponded to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the +remaining two to the pedal appendages. + + _Head, Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-pallial Chamber._--In the pearly + nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free + flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, d, e). In the + antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a + little over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the + postero-ventral region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive + sub-pallial chamber, at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A + view of the interior of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the + mantle-skirt is retroverted and the observer faces in the direction + indicated by the reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in + fig. 4. With this should be compared the similar view of the + sub-pallial chamber of the Dibranchiate _Sepia_. It should be noted as + a difference between _Nautilus_ and the Dibranchiates that in the + former the nidamental gland (in the female) lies on that surface of + the pallial chamber formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, g.n.; + fig. 1, V), whilst in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the + body-wall; in fact in the former the base of the fold forming the + mantle-skirt comprises in its area a part of what is unreflected + visceral hump in the latter. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus, + removed from its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn + from nature by A.G. Bourne). + + m, The dorsal "hood" formed by the enlargement of the outer or + annular lobe of the fore-foot, and corresponding to the sheaths of + two tentacles (g, g in fig. 6). + + n, Tentacular sheaths of lateral portion of the annular lobe. + + u, The left eye. + + b, The nuchal plate, continuous at its right and left posterior + angles with the root of the mid-foot, and corresponding to the + nuchal cartilage of Sepia. + + c, Visceral hump. + + d, The free margin of the mantle-skirt, the middle letter d points + to that portion of the mantle-skirt which is reflected over a part + of the shell as seen in fig. 1, b; the cup-like fossa to which b and + d point in the present figure is occupied by the coil of the shell. + + g.a. points to the lateral continuation of the nuchal plate b to + join the root of the mid-foot or siphon.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lateral view of the same specimen as that + drawn in fig. 2. Letters as in that figure with the following + additions-- + + e, points to the concave margin of the mantle-skirt leading into the + sub-pallial chamber. + + g, The mid-foot or siphon. + + k, The superficial origin of its retractor muscles closely applied + to the shell and serving to hold the animal in its place. + + l, The siphuncular pedicle of the visceral hump broken off short. + + v, v, The superior and inferior ophthalmic tentacles.] + + The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the + viscero-pericardial sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are + shown in position on the body-wall of the pallial chamber of + _Nautilus_ in figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median + (the anus) and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice _two_ + pairs of gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a + short papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior + gill-plume (see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in + a Dibranchiate, we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median + anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal + apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side) + except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts + and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are + present on the surface of the pallial chamber, since in the + Dibranchiata the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each + nephridium instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of + ctenidia (gill-plumes) is present instead of the two pairs in + _Nautilus_. The existence of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of + renal sacs in _Nautilus_, placed one behind the other, is highly + remarkable. The interest of this arrangement is in relation to the + general morphology of the Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this + repetition of organs in a linear series as anything else than an + instance of metameric segmentation, comparable to the segmentation of + the ringed worms and Arthropods. The only other example which we have + of this metamerism in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There + we find not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some + species more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal + integument, which carries eight shells. In _Chiton_ the renal organs + are not affected by the metamerism as they are in _Nautilus_. It is + impossible on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their + importance demands the significance of these two instances among + Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be wrong to + pass them by without insisting upon the great importance which the + occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric segmentation in a + group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses, and the light + which they may be made to throw upon the nature of metameric + segmentation in general. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a + female Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely + reflected so as to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber + (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne). + + a, Muscular band passing from the mid-foot to the integument. + + b, The valve on the surface of the funnel, partially concealed by + the inrolled lateral margin of the latter. + + c, The mantle-skirt retroverted. + + an, The median anus. + + x, Post-anal papilla of unknown significance. + + g.n., Nidamental gland. + + r.ov, Aperture of the right oviduct. + + l.ov, Aperture of the rudimentary left oviduct (pyriform sac of + Owen). + + neph.a, Aperture of the left anterior renal sac. + + neph.p, Aperture of the left posterior renal sac. + + viscper, Left aperture of the viscero-pericardial sac. + + olf, The left osphradium placed near the base of the anterior + gill-plume. + + The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.] + + The foot and head of _Nautilus_ are in the adult inextricably grown + together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the head + which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot or front + portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying + tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The + epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an + incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and + rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The + epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in which + this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the mantle + and the foot. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male + Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely reflected so as + to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the four + ctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne). + pe, Penis, being the enlarged termination of the right spermatic duct; + l.sp, aperture of the rudimentary left spermatic duct (pyriform sac + of Owen). Other letters as in fig. 4.] + + The lobes of the fore-foot of _Nautilus_ and of the other Cephalopoda + require further description. It has been doubted whether these lobes + were rightly referred (by T.H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and it has + been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenadier, H. von Jhering) + that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to be impossible + to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion of the foot, + when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further, when the + fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal ganglion. The + fore-foot of _Nautilus_ completely surrounds the buccal cone (fig. 6, + e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded tentacles similar + to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (_Actinia_). A.G. Bourne, of + University College, prepared from actual specimens the drawings of + this part in the male and female _Nautilus_ reproduced in fig. 6, and + restored the parts to their natural form when expanded. The drawings + show very strikingly the difference between male and female. In the + females (lower figure), we observe in the centre of the disk the + buccal cone e carrying the beak-like pair of jaws which project from + the finely papillate buccal membrane. Three tentaculiferous lobes of + the fore-foot are in immediate contact with this buccal cone; they are + the right and left (c, c) inner lobes, and the inferior inner lobe + (d)--called inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth. + This inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right + and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated organ on its + surface, known as Owen's organ, probably olfactory in function (n), + marks the separation of the constituent halves of this double lobe. + Each half carries a group of fourteen tentacles. The right and the + left inner lobes (c, c) each carry twelve tentacles. External to these + three lobes the muscular substance of the mouth-embracing foot is + raised into a wide ring, which becomes especially thick and large in + the dorsal region where it is notably modified in form, offering a + concavity into which the coil of the shell is received, and furnishing + a protective roof to the retracted mass of tentacles. This part of the + external annular lobe of the fore-foot is called the "hood" (figs. 2, + 3, m). The median antero-posterior line traversing this hood exactly + corresponds to the line of concrescence of the two halves of the + fore-foot, which primitively grew forward one on each side of the + head, and finally fused together along this line in front of the + mouth. The tentacles carried by the great annular lobe are nineteen on + each side, thirty-eight in all. They are called "digital," and are + somewhat larger than the "labial" tentacles carried on the three inner + lobes. The dorsalmost pair of tentacles (marked g in fig. 6) are the + only ones which actually belong to that part of the disk which forms + the great dorsal hood m. The hood is, in fact, to a large extent + formed by the enlarged sheaths of these two tentacles. All the + tentacles of the circumoral disk are set in remarkable tubular + sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The sheaths of some of those + belonging to the external or annular lobe are seen in fig. 3, marked + n. The sheaths are muscular as well as the tentacles, and are simply + tubes from the base of which the solid tentacle grows. The functional + significance of this sheathing arrangement is as obscure as its + morphological origin. With reference to the latter, it appears highly + probable that the tubular sheath represents the cup of a sucker such + as is found on the fore-foot of the Dibranchiata. In any case, it + seems to the writer impossible to doubt that each tentacle, and its + sheath on a lobe of the circumoral disk of Nautilus, corresponds to a + sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate. W. Keferstein follows Sir R. + Owen in strongly opposing this identification, and in regarding such + tentacle as the equivalent of a whole lobe or arm of a Decapod or + Octopod Dibranch. The details of these structures, especially in the + facts concerning the hectocotylus and spadix, afford the most + conclusive reasons for dissenting from Owen's view. On the ventral + side an extensive part of the internal surface of the muscular ring is + laminated, forming the so-called "organ of Valenciennes," peculiar to + the female and serving for the attachment of the spermatophores. We + have so far enumerated in the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four + more remain which have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to + the suggestion that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These + remaining tentacles are placed one above (before) and one below + (behind) each eye, and bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. 3 v, + v). + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of + _Nautilus pompilius_ as seen in the expanded condition, the observer + looking down on to the buccal cone e; one-third the natural size + linear. The drawings have been made from actual specimens by A.G. + Bourne, B. Sc., University College, London. + + a, The shell. + + b, The _outer_ ring-like expansion (annular lobe) of the circumoral + muscular mass of the fore-foot, carrying nineteen tentacles on each + side--posteriorly this is enlarged to form the "hood" (marked v in + fig. 1 and m in figs. 2 and 3). giving off the pair of tentacles + marked g in the present figure. + + c, The right and left inner lobes of the fore-foot, each carrying + twelve tentacles in the female, in the male subdivided into p, the + "spadix" or hectocotylus on the left side, and q, the "anti-spadix," + a group of four tentacles on the right side--it is thus seen that + the subdivided right and left inner lobes of the male correspond to + the undivided right and left inner lobes of the female. + + d, The inner inferior lobe of the fore-foot, a bilateral structure + in the female carrying two groups, each of fourteen tentacles, + separated from one another by a lamellated organ n, supposed to be + olfactory in function--in the male the inner inferior lobe of the + fore-foot is very much reduced, and has the form of a paired group + of lamellae (d in the upper figure). + + e, The buccal cone, rising from the centre of the three inner lobes, + and fringing the protruded calcareous beaks or jaws with a series of + minute papillae. + + f, The tentacles of the outer circumoral lobe or annular lobe of the + fore-foot projecting from their sheaths. + + g, The two most posterior tentacles of this series belonging to that + part of the annular lobe which forms the hood (m in figs. 2 and 3). + + i, Superior ophthalmic tentacle. + + k, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle. + + l, Eye. + + m, Paired laminated organ on each side of the base of the inner + inferior lobe (d) of the female. + + n, Olfactory lamellae upon the inner inferior lobe (in the female). + + o, The siphon (mid-foot). + + p, The spadix (in the male), the hectocotylized portion of the left + inner lobe of the fore-foot representing four modified tentacles, + eight being left unmodified. + + q, The anti-spadix (in the male), being four of the twelve tentacles + of the right inner lobe of the fore-foot isolated from the remaining + eight, and representing on the right side the differentiated spadix + of the left side. The four tentacles of the anti-spadix are set, + three on one base and one on a separate base.] + + In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differences + in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see upper + drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary, and + carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae + (d), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left + inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows a + larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached groups + (q) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united whilst + one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the + "anti-spadix." The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion + carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it + corresponding to the anti-spadix. This is the "spadix." It carries no + tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae + appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right + internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that + modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate + Siphonopods to which the name "hectocotylus" is applied. The spadix is + in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the male + nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata is + connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus the + spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible + to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe + that the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with + the female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix. + The anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also + male peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not + differ from that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each + side. The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male + nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two + additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelliform + structures. + + _Musculature, Fins and, Cartilaginous Skeleton._--Without entering + into a detailed account of the musculature of _Nautilus_, we may point + out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the + mid-foot (siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass + of muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the + integument on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the + free flap of the mantle-skirt (fig. 1, l, l, and fig. 3, k). These + muscular areae have a certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to + hold the animal in its shell and as the fixed supports for the various + movements of the tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be + identified with the ring-like area of adhesion by which the + foot-muscle of the limpet is attached to the shell of that animal. In + the Dibranchs a similar origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot + and mid-foot from the sides of the shell--modified, as this is, in + position and relations--can be traced. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Minute structure of the cartilage of _Loligo_ + (from Gegenbaur, after Furbringer) + + a, Simple cells. + + b, Dividing cells. + + c, Canaliculi. + + d, An empty cartilage capsule with its pores. + + e, Canaliculi in section.] + + In _Nautilus_ there are no fin-like expansions of the integument, + whereas such occur in the Decapod Dibranchs along the sides of the + visceral hump (figs. 15, 16). As an exception among Octopoda lateral + fins occur in _Pinnoctopus_ (fig. 38, A), and in _Cirrhoteuthis_ (fig. + 38, D). + + In _Nautilus_ there is a curious plate-like expansion of integument in + the mid-dorsal region just behind the hood, lying between that + structure and the portion of mantle-skirt which is reflected over the + shell. This is shown in fig. 2, b. If we trace out the margin of this + plate we find that it becomes continuous on each side with the sides + of the funnel. In _Sepia_ and other Decapods (not in Octopods) a + closely similar plate exists in an exactly corresponding position (see + b in figs. 10, 26). In _Sepia_ a cartilaginous development occurs here + immediately below the integument forming the so-called "nuchal plate," + drawn in fig. 8, D. The morphological significance of this nuchal + lamella, as seen both in _Nautilus_ and in _Sepia_, is not obvious. + Cartilage having the structure shown in fig. 7 occurs in various + regions of the body of Cephalopoda. In all Glossophorous Mollusca the + lingual apparatus is supported by internal skeletal pieces, having the + character of cartilage; but in the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a + wider range. + + In _Nautilus_ a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming + the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into + the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (a), whilst its + two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In _Sepia_, and + Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as shown in + fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identified in any + way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus_. The lower + larger portion of this cartilage in _Sepia_ is called the cephalic + cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it + completely invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the + nerves from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage. + The outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to + form a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing + right and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8, + C) are the "pre-orbital cartilages"; in front of these, again, there + is seen a piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base + of the "arms" of the fore-foot, and is the "basi-brachial" cartilage. + The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the "nuchal cartilage" already + mentioned, and in _Sepia_, a thin plate-like "sub-ostracal" or + (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and + fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no nuchal + cartilage, but two band-like "dorsal cartilages." In Decapods there + are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the + funnel--"siphon-hinge cartilages"--into which fleshy knobs of the + mantle-skirt are loosely fitted. In _Sepia_, along the whole base-line + of each lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a "basi-pterygial + cartilage." It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in + Dibranch Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton + than is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other + instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the + Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage forms + a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids + (_Mygale_, _Scorpio_) and in _Limulus_ a large internal cartilaginous + plate--the ento-sternite--is developed as a support for a large series + of muscles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after + Keferstein.) + + A, Capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus pompilius._ + + a points to the ridge which supports the pedal portion of the + nerve-centre. + + B, Lateral view of the same--the large anterior processes are sunk + in the muscular substance of the siphon. + + C, Cephalic cartilages of _Sepia officinalis_. + + D, Nuchal cartilage of _Sepia officinalis_.] + + _Alimentary Tract._--The buccal cone of _Nautilus_ is terminated by a + villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-like + jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are very + strong and dense in _Nautilus_, being calcified. Fossilized beaks of + Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In Dibranchs + the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of _Nautilus_. They + resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower beak being the larger + and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak. The lingual ribbon and + odontophoral apparatus have the structure which is typical for + Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is represented a single row of + teeth from the lingual ribbon of _Nautilus_, and in fig. 9, B, C, of + other Cephalopoda. + + In _Nautilus_ a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, cr) + passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral + hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard of + a bird (fig 10, gizz). A nearly straight intestine passes from the + muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small caecum. + In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower and the + muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important feature in + the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all but _Nautilus_ + the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very capacious--much + larger than the stomach in _Loligo vulgaris_--or elongated into a + spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the alimentary tract, as + seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which it exhibits in the + Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of _Nautilus_ are compacted + into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm membrane, as also is the + case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has four paired lobes in + _Nautilus_, which open by two bile-ducts into the alimentary canal at + the commencement of the intestine. The bile-ducts unite before + entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two large lobes of the + liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell in Decapoda), and + the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the bile-ducts in + Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diverticula, which are + known as "pancreas," though neither physiologically nor + morphologically is there any ground for considering either the + so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly equivalent to + the glands so denominated in the Vertebrata. In _Nautilus_ the + equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the Dibranchs can be + traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single + row of lingual teeth of _Nautilus pompilius_ (after Keferstein). B, + Two rows of lingual teeth of _Sepia officinalis_ (after Troschel). C, + Lingual teeth of _Eledone cirrhosa_ (after Loven).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately + median antero-posterior section of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from a + drawing by A.G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut + muscular surfaces of the foot and buccal mass. + + a, The shell. + + b, The nuchal plate, identical with the nuchal cartilage of _Sepia_ + (see fig. 2, b). + + c, The integument covering the visceral hump. + + d, The mantle flap or skirt in the dorsal region where it rests + against the coil of the shell. + + e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt resting on the lip of the + shell represented by the dotted line. + + f, The pallial chamber with two of the four gills. + + g, The vertically cut median portion of the mid-foot (siphon). + + h, The capito-pedal cartilage (see fig. 8). + + i, The valve of the siphon. + + l, The siphuncular pedicle (cut short). + + m, The hood or dorsal enlargement of the annular lobe of the + fore-foot. + + n, Tentacles of the annular lobe. + + p, Tentacles of inner inferior lobe. + + q, Buccal membrane. + + r, Upper jaw or beak. + + s, Lower jaw or beak. + + t, Lingual ribbon. + + x, The viscero-pericardial sac. + + n.c, Nerve-collar. + + oe, Oesophagus. + + cr, Crop. + + gizz, Gizzard. + + int, Intestine. + + an, Anus. + + nept, Aperture of a nephridial sac. + + r.e, Renal glandular masses on the walls of the afferent branchial + veins (see fig. 11). + + a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel. + + e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel. + + vt, Ventricle of the heart.] + + Posterior salivary glands are not developed in _Nautilus_, but on each + side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding to the + anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is present in + _Nautilus_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram to show the relations of the four + nephridial sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large + vessels in _Nautilus_ (drawn by A.G. Bourne). + + neph, neph, on the right side point to the two nephridia of that + side (the two of the opposite side are not lettered)--each is seen + to have an independent aperture. + + x is the viscero-pericardial sac, the dotted line indicating its + backward extension. + + visc. per. apert, marks an arrow introduced into the right aperture + of the viscero-pericardial sac. + + r.e, r.e, point to the glandular enlarged walls of the afferent + branchial vessels--two small glandular bodies of the kind are seen + to project into each nephridial sac, whilst a larger body of the + same kind depends from each of the four branchial afferent vessels + into the viscero-pericardial sac. + + v.c, Vena-cava. + + vent, Ventricle of the heart. + + ao, Cephalic aorta (the small abdominal aorta not drawn). + + a.b.v, Branchial vessel. + + e.v.b, Efferent branchial vessel.] + + _Coelom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs._--_Nautilus_ and + the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters in + regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a + lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with the + trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the original + coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan pericardium is + shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and communicates, + directly in _Nautilus_, in the rest through the renal sacs, with the + exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized pericardial cavity is + particularly large, and has been recognized as distinct from the + blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who have not considered the + pericardial space of other Mollusca to be thus isolated. The enlarged + pericardium, which may even take the form of a pair of sacs, has been + variously named, but is best known as the viscero-pericardial sac or + chamber. In _Nautilus_ this sac occupies the whole of the + postero-dorsal surface and a part of the antero-dorsal (see fig. 10, + x), investing the genital and other viscera which lie below it, and + having the ventricle of the heart suspended in it. Certain membranes + forming incomplete septa, and a curious muscular band--the + pallio-cardiac band--traverse the sac. The four branchial afferent + veins, which in traversing the walls of the four renal sacs give off, + as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs, also give off at + the same points four much larger glandular masses, which hang freely + into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, r.e). In _Nautilus_ the + viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior directly by a pair of + apertures, one placed close to the right and one close to the left + posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, visc.per). This direct opening of + the pericardial sac to the exterior is an exception to what occurs in + all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial sac opens + into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal organ to the + exterior. In _Nautilus_ there is no opening from the + viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external + pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a + shifting of the reno-pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the + renal sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of + such shifting are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the + ink-bag in Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of + Mollusca, which in some few cases (e.g. _Spondylus_) open into the + renal organs, whilst in other cases they open close by the side of the + renal organs on the surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac + of the Dibranchs is very large also, and extends into the dorsal + region. It varies in shape--that is to say, in the extensions of its + area right and left between the various viscera--in different genera, + but in the Decapods is largest. In an extension of this chamber is + placed the ovary of _Sepia_, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the + branchial hearts and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable + that water is drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since + sand and other foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into + the pair of renal sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from + the external orifice (fig. 29, y, y'). There does not seem any room + for doubting that each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial + orifice which we have seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in + the Lamellibranchia. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram to show the relations of the heart in + the Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.) + + A, Part of the dorsal vascular trunk and transverse trunks of a + worm. + + B, Ventricle and auricles of _Nautilus_. + + C, Of a Lamellibranch, of _Chiton_, or of _Loligo_. + + D, Of _Octopus_. + + E, Of a Gastropod. + + a, Auricle. + + v, Ventricle. + + ac, Arteria=cephalica=(aorta). + + ai, Arteria abdominalis. The arrows show the direction of the + blood-current.] + + The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of _Nautilus_ do not + differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the heart is + a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent vessel + (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta + anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram, + fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to + the dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple + flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one + auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain + the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda + (excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart is + seen in _Octopus_, and is to some extent approached by _Nautilus_, the + median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is shown + in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented by the heart + of _Nautilus_ is the possession of four instead of two auricles, a + feature which is simply related to the metamerism of the branchiae. By + the left side of the heart of _Nautilus_, attached to it by a + membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial chamber, is + the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be the rudimentary + left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be (E.R. Lankester and + A.G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and its duct being attached + by a membrane to the opposite side of the heart. + + The cephalic and abdominal aortae of _Nautilus_ appear, after running + to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal respectively, to + open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera, muscular masses, + &c. These spaces are not large, but confined and shallow. Capillaries + are stated to occur in the integument. In the Dibranchs the arterial + system is very much more complete; it appears in some cases to end in + irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other cases in true capillaries which + lead on into veins. An investigation of these capillaries in the light + of modern histological knowledge is much needed. From the sinuses and + capillaries the veins take origin, collecting into a large median + trunk (the vena cava), which in the Dibranchs as well as in _Nautilus_ + has a ventral (postero-ventral) position, and runs parallel to the + long axis of the animal. In _Nautilus_ this vena cava gives off at the + level of the gills four branchial afferent veins (fig. 11, v.c.), + which pass into the four gills without dilating. In the Dibranchs at a + similar position the vena cava gives off a right and a left branchial + afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall of the corresponding + renal sac and receiving additional factors, dilates at the base of the + corresponding branchial plume, forming there a pulsating sac--the + branchial heart. Attached to each branchial heart is a curious + glandular body, which may possibly be related to the larger masses + (fig. 11, r.e) which depend into the viscero-pericardial cavity from + the branchial afferent veins of _Nautilus_. From the dilated branchial + heart the branchial afferent vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial + face of the gill-plume. From each gill-plume the blood passes by the + branchial efferent vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed + by the dilatation of these vessels. + + The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused + colouring matter--the haemocyanin of Fredericque--which has been found + also in the blood of _Helix_, and in that of the Arthropods _Homarus_ + and _Limulus_. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the + deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent. + + The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected with + the branchial advehent vessels in _Nautilus_ and in the other + Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical + relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance + with the metamerism of _Nautilus_ already noticed, there are two pairs + of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a pore to + the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a + non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac; these portions, + however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other + cases, but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The + glandular renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending + along that part of the sac's wall which immediately invests the great + branchial afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly + from its wall a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and + anastomose with one another, and are clothed by the glandular + epithelium of the renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac + and passed by its aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous + excretory product is very rapidly discharged; in _Nautilus_ a + pink-coloured powder is found accumulated in the renal sacs, + consisting of calcium phosphate. The presence of this phosphatic + calculus by no means proves that such was the sole excretion of the + renal glandular tissue. In _Nautilus_ a glandular growth like that + rising from the wall of the branchial vessel into its corresponding + renal sac, but larger in size, depends from each branchial afferent + vessel into the viscero-pericardial sac and forms the pericardial + gland--probably identical with the "appendage" of the branchial hearts + of Dibranchs. + + The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal + organs of the Dibranchs and those of _Nautilus_, is the absence of the + accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just + mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of a + pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac (y, + y' in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also + more prominent in Dibranchs than in _Nautilus_, being raised on + papillae (np in fig. 29; r in fig. 25). In _Sepia_ the two renal sacs + give off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow + and forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral + portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber. In + _Loligo_ the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still + more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In _Octopus_ the + renal sacs are quite separate. + + _Gonads and Genital Ducts._--In _Nautilus_it has been shown by E. Ray + Lankester and A.G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both sexes are + paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and forming the + "pyriform appendage," described by Sir R. Owen as adhering by + membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart, and shown by W. + Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the exterior. The ovary + (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies in _Nautilus_, as in + the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from the other viscera, + near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is formed by the coelomic + or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is originally part of the + coelom, and in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ is, in the adult, part of the + viscero-pericardial chamber. In _Octopus_ it is this genital chamber + which communicates by a right and a left canal with the renal sac, and + is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary or testis is + itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which it only + partly fills. In _Nautilus_ the right genital duct, which is + functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal + surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary + or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to + represent a single median or bilateral organ. + + The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and the + coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the gonad, + so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the coelom by + a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium, migrate below + it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian cavity, pushing + the epithelium before them. Each ovum is surrounded by a follicular + epithelium which is nourished by numerous blood-vessels, and which + penetrates into the surface of the ovum in numerous folds. When + mature, the ovum is contained in a membrane or chorion with a + micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the follicle into the genital + coelom and duct. In its passage to the exterior the ovum passes a + glandular structure on the wall of the genital capsule, which probably + secretes the gelatinous substance enclosing the eggs. In addition to + this internal gland there are other accessory glands, which are not + related to the genital duct or sac but are differentiations of the + wall of the pallial cavity, and occur on the inner wall of the pallium + in _Nautilus_, on the somatic wall in Dibranchiata. In _Nautilus_ they + form a continuous mass. These produce the external envelopes of the + eggs. + + In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the + genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary. + The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis + to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermiduct + is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal + reservoir known as Needham's sac or the spermatophore sac. The + function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an + elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into + itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part is + called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally + coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the + connective is extended and evaginated, and the sac containing the + sperms bursts. In _Nautilus_ the spermatophore when uncoiled is a + little over 30 mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat + similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods. + + The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In _Nautilus_ they are + laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two + thick shells, the outer of which is partly open. + + [Illustration: Fig 13.--Nervous system of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from + Genebaur, after Owen). + + t, t, Ganglion-like enlargements on nerves passing from the pedal + ganglion to the inner series of tentacles. + + t', Nerves to the tentacles of the outer or annular lobe. + + b, Pedal ganglion-pair + + a, Cerebral ganglion-pair. + + c, Pleuro-visceral ganglionic band (fused pleural and visceral + ganglion-pairs). + + d, Genital ganglion placed on the course of the large visceral + nerve, just before it gives off its branchial and its osphradial + branches. + + m, Nerves from the pleural ganglion to the mantle-skirt.] + + _Nervous System._--_Nautilus_, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits a + great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown in fig. + 13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little + differentiated from their commissures and connectives--an archaic + condition reminding us of _Chiton_. The special optic outgrowth of the + cerebral ganglion, the optical ganglion (fig. 13, o), is + characteristic. The cerebral ganglion-pair (a) lying above the + oesophagus is connected with two suboesophageal ganglion-pairs, of + band-like form. The anterior of these is the pedal _b, b_, and + supplies the circumoral lobes and tentacles, and the funnel, a fact + which proves the pedal origin of these organs. The hinder band is the + visceral and pleural pair fused; from its pleural portion nerves pass + to the mantle, from its visceral portion nerves to the branchiae and + genital ganglion (fig. 13, d), and in immediate connexion with the + latter is a nerve to the osphradium or olfactory papilla. A labial + commissure arises by a double root from the cerebral ganglia and gives + off a stomatogastric commissure, which passes under the pharynx + immediately behind the radula and bears a buccal ganglion on either + side. + + _Special Sense-Organs._--_Nautilus_ possesses a pair of osphradial + papillae (fig. 4, olf) corresponding in position and innervation to + Spengel's organ placed at the base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all + classes of Mollusca. This organ has not been detected in other + Cephalopoda. _Nautilus_ possesses other olfactory organs in the region + of the head. Just below the eye is a small triangular process (not + seen in our figures), having the structure of a shortened and + highly-modified tentacle and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is + followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded as an olfactory organ. The + large nerve which runs to this organ originates from the point of + juncture of the pedal with the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ + upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe of _Nautilus_ is possibly also + olfactory in function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is a pit or open + canal supplied by a nerve corresponding in origin to the olfactory + nerve of _Nautilus_ above mentioned. Possibly the sense of taste + resides in certain processes within the mouth of _Nautilus_ and other + Cephalopoda. + + The otocysts of _Nautilus_ were discovered by J.D. Macdonald. Each + lies at the side of the head, ventral to the eye, resting on the + capito-pedal cartilage, and supported by the large auditory nerve + which apparently arises from the pedal ganglion but originates in the + cerebral. It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and + contains whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the + otoliths of other Mollusca. + + The eye of _Nautilus_ is among the most interesting structures of that + remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk and general + elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that of + _Nautilus_. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no + transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly + projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in + diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument, + whilst in the middle of the drum-membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3, + u). Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered + this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by + him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that the + hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which is + accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric + apparatus in _Nautilus_, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we + have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the + principle of "the pin-hole camera." There is no other eye known in the + whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall of the + eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked + retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives the + fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other + Cephalopods (e.g. fig. 33, Ri, Re, p), the retina consists of two + layers of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most + interesting consideration connected with this eye of _Nautilus_ is + found when the further facts are noted--(1) that the elaborate + lens-bearing eyes of Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development + in which they have the same structure as the eye of + _Nautilus_--namely, are open sacs (fig. 34); and (2) that amongst + other Mollusca examples of cephalic eyes can be found which in the + adult condition are, like the eye of _Nautilus_ and the developing eye + of Dibranchs, simple pits of the integument, the cells of which are + surrounded by pigment and connected with the filaments of an optic + nerve. Such is the structure of the eye of the limpet (_Patella_), and + in such a simple eye we obtain the clearest demonstration of the fact + that the retina of the Molluscan cephalic eye, like that of the + Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that of the vertebrate myelonic eye, + is essentially a modified area of the general epiderm, and that the + sensitiveness of its cells to the action of light and their relation + to nerve-filaments is only a specialization and intensifying of a + property common to the whole epiderm of the surface of the body. What, + however, strikes us as especially remarkable is that the simple form + of a pit, which in _Patella_ serves to accumulate a secretion which + acts as a refractive body, should in _Nautilus_ be glorified and + raised to the dignity of an efficient optical apparatus. In all other + Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from the follicular or pit-like + condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire the form of a _closed_ + sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then filled partially or + completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by its walls (fig. 14, + B). This is the condition attained in most Gastropoda. It presents a + striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye, where, in consequence + of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the eye does not form a + vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca. + + A, _Nautilus_ (and _Patella_). + + B, Gastropod (_Limax_ or _Helix_). + + C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod (Oigopsid). + + Pal, Eyelid (outermost fold). + + Co, Cornea (second fold). + + Ir, Iris (third fold). + + Int 1,2,3,4, Different parts of the integument. + + l, Deep portion of the lens. + + l^1, Outer portion of the lens + + Co.ep, Ciliary body. + + R, Retina. + + N.op, Optic nerve. + + G.op, Optic ganglion. + + x, Inner layer of the retina. + + N.S., Nervous stratum of the retina. (From Balfour, after + Grenacher.)] + + The development of _Nautilus_ is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur + Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts to + obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native + fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in + captivity, but without success. + + _Phylogeny and Classification._--As _Nautilus_ is the only living + genus of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based + upon the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of + shell similar in structure to that of _Nautilus_ are known, chiefly + from Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two + sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial + chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse + cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated + dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle, + which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter + its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial chamber + is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape, with no + cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a constriction. + The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation which deeply indents + the front wall of the initial chamber, called the protoconch, but does + not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-Chalmas has shown that the + cavity of the protoconch is traversed by a tubular organ, the + "prosiphon," which does not communicate with the true siphuncle, the + place of which it is supposed to take in the early life of the animal. + It is generally held, as suggested by Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial + chamber of the Nautiloidea corresponds not to the protoconch of the + Ammonoids, but to the second chamber of the latter, and that there + existed in the young Nautiloids a true initial chamber, a protoconch + which was either uncalcified or deciduous. The shell of the living + nautilus does not decide this question, as its early stages are + unknown, and there is a little vacuity in the centre of the spirally + coiled shell which may have been originally occupied by the true + protoconch. + + The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the + aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards + (fig. 1); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is + usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed + forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united to + the shell are known as "sutures," and these in the Nautiloidea are + simply curved or slightly lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea they are + folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections of the suture + towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those in the + opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the _Nautilus_ pierces the + centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually central + or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that case may be + external, i.e. ventral, or internal, i.e. dorsal. In Ammonoids the + siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its walls in the + living _Nautilus_ are strengthened by the deposit of calcareous + granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely calcified. + But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from calcareous tubes + surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from the septa. In the + pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged backwards at the point where + it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming a shelly tube somewhat like + the neck of a bottle. In many fossil forms these septal necks are + continued from the septum from which they arise to the next, so that + the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete secondary calcareous tube. In + the majority of Nautiloids the septal necks are directed backwards, + and they are said to be retrosiphonate. In the majority of the + Ammonoids the septal necks are continued forwards from the septa to + which they belong, and such forms are termed prosiphonate. + + The Tetrabranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic + periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing first in the + Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the Palaeozoic + period, and comparatively few surviving into the Secondary. On the + other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic formations, being + represented in deposits earlier than the Carboniferous only by + comparatively simple types, such as _Clymenia_ and _Goniatites_. In + the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abundant, both in genera and + species and in individuals, and with few local exceptions none are + known to have survived even to the commencement of the Tertiary. In + the widest sense the genus _Nautilus_ has existed since the Ordovician + (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not properly to be placed + in the same genus as the existing form. Even with this qualification + the genus is very ancient, shells very similar to those of the living + _Nautilus_ being found in the Upper Cretaceous. + + It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea were + Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the shell was, + therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed with the + Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the possession of + an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be little doubt that + they gave rise to the Dibranchiata. + + About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only a + few species of the genus _Nautilus_ survive. Some of the fossil forms + are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6 + in. Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described, and + some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in + diameter. + + Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been found + peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within the + body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The most typical + form of these structures has been named _aptychus._ It consists of two + bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semicircular shape, and + attached to one another by their straight inner margins, like a pair + of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and horny, but more often + it is thick and calcified, in which case the principal layer has a + peculiar cellular structure. The surface may be smooth or sculptured, + and one side is usually marked by concentric lines of growth. Another + type is similar, except that the two halves are united in the middle + line; bodies of this character are called _synaptychus_; they occur in + the body-chamber of species of _Scaphites_. Another form called + _anaptychus_ consists of a thin horny undivided plate which is + concentrically striated. This is associated with species of + _Ammonites_ and _Goniatites_. + + Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these structures. + According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an operculum developed + in a part of the body corresponding to the hood of _Nautilus_. E. Ray + Lankester suggested that the double plate was borne on the surface of + the nidamental gland, with the form and sculpturing of which in + _Nautilus_ it closely agrees. On this view the aptychus would occur + only in females. The most recent view is that these structures could + not have been opercula because of their constant position inside the + body-chamber, and that they were not external secretions at all, but a + calcified internal cartilage situated at the base of the funnel. + + _Classification of Tetrabranchiata._--Cephalopoda in which the mantle + is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell, which may + or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the shell occupied + by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles around the mouth, + which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of the funnel not united. + Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of renal tubes without + reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens directly to exterior. + Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic vesicles with apertures, + without crystalline lens. + + _Sub-order 1. Nautiloidea_.--Initial chamber not inflated, with + dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity. + + Fam. 1. _Orthoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a + simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical siphuncle. + _Orthoceras_, Silurian to Trias. _Baltoceras_, Silurian. + + Fam. 2. _Actinoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with + wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. _Actinoceras_, Silurian + to Carboniferous. _Discosorus_, Silurian. _Huronia_, Silurian. + _Loxoceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous. + + Fam. 3. _Endoceratidae_. Shell straight, with wide margina + siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another. + _Endoceras_, Silurian. + + Fam. 4. _Gomphoceratidae_. Shell globular, straight or arcuate, + aperture contracted. _Gomphoceras_, Silurian. _Phragmoceras_, + Silurian. + + Fam. 5. _Ascoceratidae_. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit + truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of shell + ventrally. _Ascoceras_, Silurian. _Glossoceras_, Silurian. + + Fam. 6. _Poterioceratidae_. Shell straight or curved, fusiform, + aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. _Poterioceras_, + Silurian to Carboniferous. _Streptoceras_, Silurian. + + Fam. 7. _Cyrtoceratidae_. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple, + siphuncle wide, septa approximated. _Cyrtoceras_, Devonian. + + Fam. 8. _Lituitidae_. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal + part uncoiled, aperture contracted. _Lituites_, Silurian. + _Ophidioceras_, Silurian. + + Fam. 9. _Trochoceratidae_. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or + sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. _Trochoceras_, + Devonian. _Adelphoceras_, Devonian. + + Fam. 10. _Nautilidae_. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide and + simple, siphuncle central. _Nautilus_, recent. _Trocholites_, + Silurian. _Gyroceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous. _Hercoceras_, + Silurian. _Ptenoceras_, Devonian. _Discites_, Carboniferous. + + Fam. 11. _Bactritidae_. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow + and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating. + _Bactrites_, Silurian and Devonian. + + _Sub-order 2. Ammonitoidea_,--Initial chamber spheroidal; siphuncle + narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture; sutures complex. + + _Tribe 1. Retrosiphonata_.--Siphuncular necks projecting behind the + septa as in Nautiloidea. Sutures form simple undulations. Occur + exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards. + + Fam. 1. _Goniatitidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and + ventral siphuncle. _Goniatites_, Devonian and Carboniferous. + _Anarcestes_, Devonian. + + Fam. 2. _Clymeniidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures, + siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. _Clymenia_, Upper Devonian. + + _Tribe 2. Prosiphonata._--Siphuncular necks projecting in front of the + septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles. + + Fam. 1. _Arcestidae_. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth, with + reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an aptychus present. + _Popanoceras_, Permian. _Cyclolobus_, Permian, _Arcestes_, Trias. + _Lobites_, Trias. + + Fam. 2. _Tropitidae_. Shells globular, but having radiating and + tuberculated costae. _Thalassoceras_, Permian. _Tropites_, Trias. + _Sibirites_, Trias. + + Fam. 3. _Ceratitidae_. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus, + terminal chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. _Trachyceras_, + Upper Trias. _Ceratites_, Trias. _Dinarites_, Trias. + + Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled forms, + viz. _Cochloceras_, Trias; also some straight forms, e.g. + _Rhab-doccras_, Trias. + + Fam. 4. _Pinacoceratidae_. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal + chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. _Pinacoceras_, + Trias. + + Fam. 5. _Phylloceratidae_. Shell coiled, the whorls overlapping each + other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles. _Phytloceras_, + Jurassic. + + Fam. 6. _Lytoceratidae_. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or + uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles and + lobes. _Lytoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous. _Macroscaphites_, + Cretaceous. _Reunites_, Cretaceous. _Ptychoeeras_, Cretaceous. + _Turrilites_, Cretaceous. _Baculites_, Cretaceous. + + Fam. 7. _Ammonitidae_. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which do not + embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anaptychus present. + _Ammonites_, Jurassic. _Arietites_, Jurassic. _Aegoceras_, Lias. + + Fam. 8. _Harpoceratidae_. Shell discord and flattened, with a + carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections, a + calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. _Harpoceras_, Jurassic. + _Oppelia_, Jurassic. _Lissoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous. + + Fam. 9. _Amaltheidae_. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina + continued anteriorly into a rostrum. _Amaltheus_, Lias. + _Cardioceras_, Jurassic. _Schloenbachia_, Cretaceous. + + Fam. 10. _Stephanoceratidae_. Shell not carinated, but with + radiating costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with + lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two + pieces. _Stephanoceras, Morphoceras, Pensphinctes, Peltoceras_, + Jurassic. _Hoplites_, Cretaceous. _Acanthoceras_, Cretaceous. + _Cosmoceras_, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are + related to this family, viz. _Scaphites, Crioceras_, Cretaceous. + +ORDER 2. DIBRANCHIATA (= Holosiphona, Acetabulifera) + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Sepia officinalis_, L., about ½ natural size, +as seen when dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the +pouches at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life +when not actually in use. a. Neck; b, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; c, +the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; d, the two long prehensile +arms; e, the eyes.] + +_Characters_.--Cephalopoda in which the inflected margins of the +epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon (fig. 24, i). +The circumoral lobes of the fore-foot carry suckers disposed upon them +in rows, _not_ tentacles (see figs. 15, 24). There is a single pair of +typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills (hence Dibranchiata), and a +single pair of renal organs, opening by apertures right and left of the +median anus (fig. 25, r) and by similar internal pores into the +pericardial chamber, which consequently does not open directly to the +surface as in _Nautilus_. The oviducts are sometimes paired right and +left (Octopoda, Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed +(Myopsida). The sperm-duct is always single except, according to W. +Keferstein, in _Eledone moschata._ + +A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the mantle +(figs 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none, and in _Spirula_ +(fig. 17, D) and the extinct _Belemnitidae_, &c., which have a small +chambered shell resembling that of _Nautilus_ with or without the +addition of plate-like and cylindrical accessory developments (fig. 17, +A, C, fig. 19). + +The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a +refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds,--the vesicle being in +the embryo, an open sac like that of _Nautilus_ (fig. 34). Osphradia are +not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recognized. One or two +pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are present. An ink-sac +formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and opening near the anus is +present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, t), and has been detected even in +the fossil _Belemnitidae._ Branchial hearts are developed on the two +branchial afferent blood-vessels (fig. 28, _vc'_, _vi_). + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Decapodous Cephalopods. + + A, _Cheiroteuthis Veranyi_, d'Orb. (from the Mediterranean). + + B, _Thysanoteuthis rhombus_, Troschel (from Messina). + + C, _Loligopsis cyclura_, Fér. and d'Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Internal Shells of Cephalopoda. + + A, _Conoteutliis dupiniana_, d'Orb. (from the Neocomian of France). + + B, Shell _Sepia orbigniana_. Fér. (Mediterranean). + + C, Shell of _Spirulirostra Bellardii_, d'Orb. (from the Miocene of + Turin). The specimen is cut so as to show in section the chambered + shell and the laminated "guard" deposited upon its surface. + + D, Shell of _Splrula laevis_, Gray (New Zealand).] + +In the Dibranchiata the shell shows various stages of degeneration, +culminating in its complete disappearance in _Octopus_. As in other +Mollusca, there is a tendency in Cephalopods for the mantle to extend +over the outside of the shell from its edges, and when these secondary +mantle-folds entirely cover the shell and meet or fuse together the +shell is surrounded by the mantle both externally and internally, and is +said to be internal, though it remains always a cuticular structure +external to the epidermis. This procebs is generally accompanied by a +reduction of the size of the shell in comparison with that of the body, +so that the relations of the two are gradually reversed, the body +outgrows its house and instead of the mantle being enclosed by the +shell, the shell is enclosed by the mantle. The earliest stage of this +process is shown in the recent _Spirula,_ though it is perhaps not +impossible that in some of the later fossil Ammonoids the shell was +becoming more and more internal. The shell of _Spirula_ (fig. 18) is +coiled somewhat like that of _Nautilus_, but the coils are not in +contact, the direction of the coil is endogastric or ventral instead of +exogastric, and the shell is very much smaller than the body. Like that +of _Nautilus_ it is divided by septa and traversed by a siphuncle. The +relation of the animal to the terminal chamber is as in _Nautilus,_ but +the body extends far beyond the aperture, and folds of the mantle grow +up over the shell and cover it everywhere except part of the dorsal and +ventral surfaces. + +[Illustration: After Chun, from Lankester's _Treatise an Zoology_ + + FIG. 18.--_Spirula._ + + A, Dorsal aspect. + + B, Ventral aspect. + + a, Arms. + + e, Eyes. + + fi, Fins. + + fu, Funnel. + + pa, Mantle. + + po, Posterior fossa. + + sh, Shell. + + te, Tentacular arms. + + td, Terminal pallial disk] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Digram of shell Belemnite (after Phillips). r. +Horny pen or "proostracum": A, conical cavity or "alveolus," in which +the chambered "phragmacone" (p) is contained: g, "guard," or "rostrum."] + +The next modification in the enclosed shell is the addition to it of +secondary deposits of calcareous matter, by the inner surface of the +shell-sac. Successive layers are deposited on the posterior part of the +original shell, whether coiled or straight, and these layers form a +conical mass, which may attain great thickness. A somewhat coiled shell +with such a deposit is seen in _Spirulirostra_ (fig. 17, C) of the +Miocene. In the next stage of modification secondary secretion forms a +long and broad projection of the dorsal lip of the aperture; this is +well developed in the belemnites (fig. 19). Thus in these modified +shells three parts are to be distinguished: the original septate shell, +which has been called the phragmacone; the posterior conical deposit, +called the rostrum or guard; and the anterior somewhat flat projection, +called the proostracum. In the living Dibranchiata other than _Spirula_ +the phragmacone and rostrum have become very rudimentary. The shell of +_Sepia_ (fig. 20) consists almost entirely of the proostracum, the +little ventral hollow posteriorly representing the phragmacone, and the +posterior pointed projection, the rostrum. In the _Oigopsida_ the shell +is represented by a proostracum which is no longer calcified by forms a +chitinous plume or gladuius, and a similar rudiment occurs in +_Loliginidac_ (fig. 21) and _Sepiolidae_. Lastly, in the Octopoda the +shell is represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the +retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are paired +in _Octopus_, unpaired in other cases as in _Cirrhoteuthis_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 20.--The calcareous internal shell +of _Sepia officinalis, _the so-called cuttle-bone, a, Lateral expansion; +b, anterior cancellated region; c, laminated region, the laminae +enclosing air.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of +_Lohgo_.] + +The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which the shell is +enclosed has led to an erroneous identification of this sac with the +primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of the Molluscan embryo. The first +appearance of the shell-sac in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36. +Its formation as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and the +fact that it appears and disappears without closing in _Argonauta_ and +_Octopus_, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers) +Tr. Float: Br.a, anterior arms: Br p, posterior arms: V, the expanded +portion of them, once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En, +the Funnel.] + +In _Argonauta_ (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses a shell, +in which the body is contained; but this is not homologous with the +true shell in other cases; it is a structure _sui generis_ secreted by +the expanded arms of the dorsal pair which are closely applied to it on +either side (fig. 22). + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Head and circumoral processes of the + fore-foot of _Onychoteuthis_ (from Owen). + + a, Neck. + + b, Eye. + + c, The eight short arms. + + d, Long prehensile arms, the clavate extremities of which are + provided with suckers at e, and with a double row of hooks beyond at + f. The temporary conjunction of the arms by means of the suckers + enables them to act in combination.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Male of _Ocythoe catenulata_, Steenstrup + (_Octopus carena_, Ver.), showing the hectocotylized arm. (From + Gegenbaur.) + + t^1, t^2, t^3, t^4, The first, second, third and fourth arms or + processes of the fore-foot. + + h, The third arm of the right side hectocotylized. + + x, The apical sac of the hectocotylized arm. + + y, The filament which issues from the sac when development is + complete. + + i, The siphon.] + + _Head, Foot, Mantle and Mantle-cavity._--If we now compare the + fore-foot of the Dibranchiata with that of _Nautilus_, we find in the + first place a more simple arrangement of its lobes, which are either + four or five pairs of tapering processes (called "arms"), arranged in + a series around the buccal cone, and a substitution of suckers for + tentacles on the surface of these lobes (figs. 15 and 24). The most + dorsally placed pair of arms, corresponding to the two sides of the + hood of _Nautilus_, are in reality the most anterior, and are termed + the first pair. In the Octopoda there are four pairs of these arms + (fig. 38), in the Decapoda five pairs, of which the fourth is greatly + elongated (figs. 15, 16). In _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each of + these long arms is withdrawn into a pouch beside the head, and is only + ejected for the purpose of prehension. In _Loligo_ they are completely + retractile, very slightly so in the majority of the Oigopsida, and in + _Rhynchoteuthis_ they are united to form a beak-like appendage. A + gradual reduction of the tentacular arms can be seen in the Decapoda, + leading to their total absence in Octopoda; thus in _Leachia_, + _Chaunoteuthis_ and others these arms are reduced to mere stumps. In + some _Cheiroteuthidae_ and _Cranchiidae_ the ordinary or sessile arms, + especially the dorsal pairs, are reduced. In the Octopoda they are not + unfrequently connected by a web, and form an efficient swimming-bell, + e.g. in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and _Amphuretidae_. The suckers are placed + on the adoral surface of the arms, and may be in one, two or four + rows, and very numerous. In place of suckers in some genera, e.g. + _Veranya_, we find on certain arms or parts of the arms horny hooks; + in other cases a hook rises from the centre of each sucker. The hooks + on the long arms of _Onychoteuthis_ are drawn in fig. 23. In various + species of _Cheiroteuthis_ the suckers on the tentacular arms are very + feeble, but the bottom of the cup is covered by a number of + anastomosed epithelial filaments which are used as a fishing-net. The + fore-foot, with its apparatus of suckers and hooks, is in the + Dibranchiata essentially a prehensile apparatus, though the whole + series of arms in the Octopoda serve as swimming organs, and in many + (e.g. the common octopus or poulp) the sucker-bearing surface is used + as a crawling organ. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male + _Sepia_, obtained by cutting longitudinally the firm mantle-skirt and + drawing the divided halves apart. This figure is strictly comparable + with fig. 4. (From Gegenbaur.) + + C, The head. + + J, The mid-foot or siphon, which has been cut open so as to display + the valve i. + + R, The glandular tissue of the left nephridium or renal-sac, which + has been cut open (see fig. 29). + + P, P, The lateral fins of the mantle-skirt. + + Br, The single pair of branchiae (ctenidia). + + a, The anus--immediately below it is the opening of the ink-bag. + + c, Cartilaginous socket in the siphon to receive c', the + cartilaginous knob of the mantle-skirt--the two constituting the + "pallial hinge apparatus" characteristic of Decapoda, not found in + Octopoda. + + g, The azygos genital papilla and aperture. + + 'i, Valve of the siphon (possibly the rudimentary hind-foot) + + m, Muscular band connected with the fore-foot and mid-foot (siphon) + and identical with the muscular mass k in fig. 3. + + r, Renal papillae, carrying the apertures of the nephridia. + + v.br, Branchial efferent blood-vessel. + + v br', Bulbous enlargements of the branchial blood-vessels (see figs + 28, 29). + + t, Ink-bag] + + In the males of the Dibranchiata one of the arms is more or less + modified in connexion with the reproductive function, and is called + the "hectocotylized arm." This name is derived from the condition + assumed by the arm in those cases in which its modification is carried + out to the greatest extent. These cases are those of the Octopods + _Argonauta argo_ and _Ocythoe catenulata_ (fig. 24). In the males of + these the third arm (on the left side in _Argonauta_, on the right + side in _Ocythoe_) is found before the breeding season to be + represented by a globular sac of integument. This sac bursts, and from + it issues an arm larger than its neighbours, having a small sac at its + extremity in _Ocythoe_ (fig. 24. x), from which subsequently a long + filament issues. Before copulation the male charges this arm with the + spermatophores or packets of spermatozoa removed from its generative + orifice beneath the mantle-skirt, and during coitus the arm becomes + detached and is left adhering to the female by means of its suckers. A + new arm is formed at the cicatrix before the next breeding season. The + female, being much larger than the male, swims away with the detached + arm lodged beneath her mantle-skirt. There, in a way which is not + understood, the fertilization of the eggs is effected. Specimens of + the female _Ocythoë_ with the detached arm adherent were examined by + Cuvier, who mistook the arm for a parasitic worm and gave to it the + name _Hectocotylus_. Accordingly, the correspondingly modified arms of + other Cephalopoda are said to be hectocotylized. J.J.S. Steenstrup has + determined the hectocotylized condition of one or other of the arms in + a number of male Dibranchs as follows:--in all, excepting _Argonauta_ + and _Ocythoe_ and _Tremoctopus_, the modification of the arm is + slight, consisting in a small enlargement of part or the whole of the + arm, and the obliteration of some of its suckers; in _Octopus_ and + _Eledone_ the third right arm is hectocotylized; in _Rossia_ and + _Sepiola_ the fourth left arm is hectocotylized along its whole + length, and the fourth right arm also in the middle only; in _Sepia_ + the fourth left arm is modified at its base only; in _Sepioteuthis_, + the same at its apex; in _Loligo_, the same also at its apex; in + _Loliolus_, the same along its whole length; in _Ommatostrephes_, + _Onychoteuthis_ and _Loligopsis_ no hectocotylized arm has hitherto + been observed. Thus, speaking generally, it is one or both of the + fourth pair of short arms which are modified in the Decapoda, of the + third pair in the Octopoda. In the pallial cavity are situated one + pair of gills in the Dibranchiata (fig. 25), attached dorsally along + the whole of their afferent borders. On each side of the branchia is a + series of lamellae, least in number in the Octopoda. Each lamella is + transversely folded, and the folds are in turn folded, so that the + respiratory surface is increased. On the somatic wall of the pallial + cavity, between and ventral to the gills, are the following apertures: + the anus and opening of the ink-sac, close together in the median + line; a pair of apertures of the renal sacs, on either side of the + median line; external to the renal orifice, on the left side, the + genital aperture in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and Myopsida. In other Octopoda, + and in nearly all the Oigopsida among the Decapoda, the genital ducts + are paired in the female, but only the left is developed in the male. + The funnel forms a complete tube in the Dibranchiata, and in the + majority of the Decapoda, as in _Nautilus_, it is provided with an + internal valve projecting from its somatic surface, which allows water + to pass outwards but prevents it passing inwards. The mantle performs + rhythmical respiratory movements of expansion and contraction, the + water entering between funnel and mantle and passing out through the + funnel. In Decapoda the edge of the mantle bears internally on each + side a cartilaginous projection which fits into a corresponding + depression on the external surface of the funnel; this is called the + "resisting apparatus," and serves to make the union of mantle and + funnel firmer during expiration. More powerful expiratory movements + are used for sudden retrograde locomotion through the water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately + median antero-posterior section of _Sepia officinalis_ (from a drawing + by A.G. Bourne). The lettering corresponds with that of fig. 10, with + which this drawing is intended to be compared. + + a, Shell (here enclosed by a growth of the mantle). + + b, The nuchal plate (here a cartilage). + + c, (The reference line should be continued through the black area + representing the shell to the outline below it), the integument + covering the visceral hump. + + d, The reflected portion of the mantle-skirt forming the sac which + encloses the shell. + + e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt (mouth of the pallial + chamber). + + f, The pallial chamber. + + g, The vertically cut median portion of the siphon. + + i, The valve of the siphon. + + m, The two upper lobes of the fore-foot. + + n, The long prehensile arms of the same. + + o, The fifth or lowermost lobe of the fore-foot. + + p, The third lobe of the fore-foot. + + q, The buccal membrane. + + v, The upper beak or jaw. s, The lower beak or jaw. + + t, The lingual ribbon. + + x, The viscero-pericardial sac. + + n.c, The nerve-collar. + + cr, The crop. + + gizz, The gizzard. + + an, The anus. + + c.t, The left ctenidium or gill-plume. + + vent, Ventricle of the heart. + + a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel. + + e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel. + + re, Renal glandular mass. + + n.n.a, Left nephridial aperture. + + visc.per.apert, Viscero-pericardial aperture (see fig. 29). + + br.b, Branchial heart. + + app, Appendage of the same. + + i.s, Ink-bag.] + + _Luminous Organs._--In certain Oigopsida living in deep water, e.g. + _Histioteuthis, Calliteuthis, Histiopsis, Pterygioteuthis_, the + surface of the skin bears photogenous organs directed towards the oral + extremity. Anatomically these consist of a deeper photogenous layer + and a more superficial refracting layer. In some cases, e.g. + _Pterygioteuthis_, they occur even within the mantle-cavity. + + _Fins._--In the majority of the Decapoda and in the _Cirrhoteuthidae_, + the mantle is produced into lateral symmetrical expansions which have + the function of fins. They originate at the aboral extremity where + they remain in _Spirula_ (fig. 18). In most other Oigopsida they are + terminal, but more dorsal than ventral, e.g. _Loligopsis_ (fig. 16), + and there may be two on each side, as in _Grimalditeuthis_. In other + cases they extend laterally along a greater length of the body, as in + _Sepia_ (fig. 15). In _Ctenopteryx_ they have a superficial + resemblance to the fins of fishes, consisting of a thin membrane + supported by a series of muscular rods. + + _Chromatophores._--These are characteristic of the Dibranchiata, + apparently absent in _Nautilus_. They are originally single cells of + ectodermic origin which sink below the epidermis and become connected + with radiating muscular fibres. The cells are single but multinuclear. + Different cells contain pigments of different colours, yellow, brown, + red or blue. Each cell in life is in constant tremulous movement; + under the influence of nervous excitement the cells are suddenly + expanded or contracted, producing blushes of colour and pallor. By + reflex action of which the afferent stimulus acts upon the eyes as in + fishes, the chromatophores assume a condition which approximates the + colour of the animal to that of surrounding objects. In the Decapoda + there are also reflecting elements which produce iridescent hues. + + _Aquiferous Cavities._--In addition to the pockets into which the + tentacular arms of Decapoda are retracted, there are in several + Dibranchiata cavities in the integument which open to the exterior by + special pores but have no communication with the vascular system or + other internal cavities of the body. In _Ocythoe_ there are such pores + on the back of the head and at the base of the funnel; buccal pouches + on the ventral side of the mouth, internal to the arms, occur in some + genera, one in _Loligo_, two in _Sepia_. In some species of _Sepia_ + there are pouches in the mantle. + + _Alimentary Tube._--The principal differences from _Nautilus_ are the + following:--the mandibles are similar in shape, but are chitinous, not + calcified. In the radula there are three teeth on each side of the + median tooth in each row, except in _Gonatus_, in which there are only + two lateral teeth, and the _Cirrhoteuthidae_, in which the radula has + entirely disappeared. In front of the radula is the so-called tongue, + a fleshy projection corresponding to the sub-radular organ of other + Mollusca. + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Alimentary canal of _Loligo sagittata_ (from + Gegenbaur). The buccal mass is omitted. + + oe, Oesophagus. + + v, The stomach opened longitudinally. + + x, Probe passed through the pylorus. + + c, Commencement of the caecum. + + e, Its spiral portion. + + i, Intestine. + + a, Ink-bag. + + b, Its opening into the rectum.] + + In most of the Dibranchiata there are two pairs of salivary glands. In + the Decapoda the ducts of the posterior pair unite into a median duct + which opens on the surface of the sub-radular organ. The anterior pair + is but slightly developed except in the Oigopsida. In the Octopoda + there are also two pairs, but the posterior pair, except in + _Cirrhoteuthis_ where they are absent, are large and displaced + backwards, being situated near the oesophageal proventriculus. + Connected with the intestine immediately beyond the pylorus is a + thin-walled caecum, spherical in _Rossia_ and _Leachia_, elongated in + _Loligo_, but usually coiled into a spiral (fig. 27). The hepatic + ducts open into the caecum. The liver is developed as a paired gland, + more or less fused into one in the adult, but the ducts are always + paired. The ducts are covered by a number of glandular follicles + forming what is called the pancreas. + + The ink-sac, absent in _Nautilus_, is a rectal caecum developed from + its dorsal wall. It is present in all Dibranchiata except _Octopus + arcticus, O. piscatorum_ and _Cirrhoteuthis_. It consists of a deeper + part or gland proper and a reservoir. It extends to the posterior + extremity of the body in _Sepia_, but in _Octopoda_ is usually + embedded in the surface of the liver. The pigment of the secretion is + melanin, and its function is to produce a dense opacity in the water, + which conceals the animal. + + _Vascular System_ (fig. 28).--The ventricle lies in the pericardial + cavity, except in Octopoda where this cavity is much reduced. The + auricles, one pair, are contractile expansions of the efferent + branchial vessels. The heart gives off an anterior or cephalic and a + posterior or abdominal aorta. The vascular system is almost perfect, + arteries and veins being united by capillaries. The principal vein is + a vena cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and + dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a + pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial + vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered + externally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of + the "kidney" (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a + contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular + appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which are + attached to the afferent branchial veins in _Nautilus_, and to the + pericardial glands of other Molluscs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Circulatory and excretory organs of _Sepia_ + (from Gegenbaur, after John Hunter). + + br, Branchiae (ctenidia). + + c, Ventricle of the heart. + + a, Anterior artery (aorta). + + a', Posterior artery. + + v, The right and left auricles (enlargements of the efferent + branchial veins). + + v', Efferent branchial vein on the free face of the gill-plume. + + v.c, Vena cava. + + vi, vc', Afferent branchial vessels (branches of the vena cava, see + fig. 29). + + vc", Abdominal veins. + + x, Branchial hearts and appendages. + + re, e, Glandular substance of the nephridia developed on the wall of + the great veins on their way to the gills. The arrows indicate the + direction of the blood-current.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins + which run through them, in _Sepia officinalis_ (after Vigelius). The + nephridial sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed. + + v.c, Vena cava. + + r.d.v.c, Right descending branch of the same. + + r.s.v.c, Left descending branch of the same. + + v.b.a, Vein from the ink-bag. + + v.m, Mesenteric vein. + + v.g, Genital vein. + + v.a.d, Right abdominal vein. + + v.a.s, Left abdominal vein. + + v.p.d, Right pallial vein. + + v.p.s, Left pallial vein. + + c.b, Branchial heart. + + x, Appendage of the same. + + c.v, Capsule of the branchial heart. + + np, External aperture of the right nephridial sac. + + y, Reno-pericardial orifice placing the left renal sac or nephridium + in communication with the viscero-pericardial sac, the course of + which below the nephridial sac is indicated by dotted lines. + + y', The similar orifice of the right side. + + a.r, Glandular renal outgrowths. + + w.k, Viscero-pericardial sac (dotted outline).] + + _Coelom._--The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction between + the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or genital + division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which contain + the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial division is + suppressed and the genital division communicates by long ducts with + sacs containing the appendages of the branchial hearts. The renal sacs + communicate with the pericardium by pores near the external renal + apertures; in the Octopoda the reno-pericardial openings are in the + capsules of the branchial hearts. The genital ducts pass from the + genital coelom to the exterior. They are paired in female Oigopsida + and Octopoda except _Cirrhoteuthidae_, but only the left persists in + the males of all Dibranchiata, and in the female Myopsida. + + [Illustration: FIGS. 30, 31.--Nerve-centres of _Octopus_. Figure 30 + gives a view from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral + aspect. + + buc, The buccal mass. + + ped, Pedal ganglion. + + opt, Optic ganglion. + + cer, Cerebral ganglion. + + pl, Pleural ganglion. + + visc, Visceral ganglion. + + oes, Oesophagus. + + f, Foramen in the nerve-mass formed by pedal, pleural and visceral + ganglion-pairs, traversed by a blood-vessel.] + + In the oviduct is a glandular enlargement, and in addition to this the + females are provided with the so-called nidamental glands which are + developed on the somatic wall of the pallial cavity, one on each side + of the rectum, except in certain Oigopsida (_Enoploteuthis, Cranchia, + Leachia_) and in the Octopoda, in which these organs are absent. The + latter fact is related to the habit of the majority of the Octopoda of + guarding or "incubating" their eggs, which have little protective + covering. In the other cases the eggs are surrounded by a tough + gelatinous elastic material secreted by the nidamental glands. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Lateral view of the nervous centres and + nerves of the right side of _Octopus vulgaris_ (from a drawing by A.G. + Bourne). + + bg, Buccal ganglion. + + cer, Cerebral ganglion. + + ped, Pedal ganglion. + + pl, Pleural, and visc., visceral region of the pleuro-visceral + ganglion. + + gang. stell, The right stellate ganglion of the mantle connected by + a nerve to the pleural portion. + + n.visc, The right visceral nerve. + + n.olf, Its (probably) olfactory branches. + + n.br, Its branchial branches.] + + The vas deferens is at first narrow and convoluted, then dilates into + a vesicula seminalis at the end of which is a glandular diverticulum + called the prostate. By the vesicula and the prostate the + spermatophores are formed. These have a structure similar to those of + _Nautilus_, and in the Octopoda may be as much as 50 mm. in length. + Beyond the prostate the duct opens into a large terminal reservoir + which has been called Needham's sac, and in which the spermatophores + are stored. + + _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--The figures (30, 31, 32) + representing the nerve-centres of _Octopus_ serve to exhibit the + disposition of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more + distinctly swollen than in _Nautilus_. In _Octopus_ an infra-buccal + ganglion-pair are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair + of Gastropoda. In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with + these are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial + nerves of _Nautilus_, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right + and left) a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of + the pleuro-visceral ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form + the stellate ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to + supply the powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate + ganglia are connected, except in _Sepiola_, by a transverse + supra-oesophageal commissure, which represents the pallial cords + united by a commissure above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves + from the visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the + same course as in _Nautilus_, but no osphradial papilla is present. An + enteric nervous system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata, + connected with the somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia, + as in the Arthropoda through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and + anastomozing with deep branches of the visceral nerves of the + viscero-pleural ganglion-pair. It has been especially described by A. + Hancock in _Ommatostrephes_. Upon the stomach it forms a single large + and readily detected gastric ganglion. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Horizontal section of the eye of _Sepia_ + (Myopsid). (From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.) + + KK, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8). + + C, Cornea (closed). + + L, Lens. + + ci, Ciliary body. + + Ri, Internal layer of the retina. + + Re, External layer of the retina. + + p, Pigment between these. + + o, Optic nerve. + + go, Optic ganglion. + + k and k', Capsular cartilage. + + ik, Cartilage of the iris. + + w, White body. + + ae, Argentine integument.] + + In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest + elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that + we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development of + the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the + lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate's eye is shown in + section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34 + and 37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate + closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or + primitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, poc). The lens forms as a + structureless growth, secreted by both the internal and external + surfaces of the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, l). The + integument around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the + surface now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the + iridian folds (if in B, fig. 37; ik in fig. 33; Ir in fig. 14), and + then secondly an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and + completely closes over the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive + vesicle (fig. 33, C). This covering is transparent, and is the cornea. + In the oceanic Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but + leaves a central aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are + termed Oigopsidae by C. d'Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed + cornea are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and + there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding + the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over the + surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an + adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of + Vertebrates. _Sepia_ and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower + eyelid, that is to say, only one-half of the sphincter-like fold of + integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventrally between + the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed in the + cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small blind + process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of the vesicle + with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at the anterior + end of the vesicle forming a macula acustica, and in the cavity is a + single otolith, partly calcareous and partly organic except in + _Eledone_, in which it is entirely organic. The nerve arises from the + cerebral ganglion on each side and passes through the pedal ganglion. + + There is no branchial osphradium in the Dibranchiata corresponding to + that of _Nautilus_, but the olfactory organ or rhinophore near the eye + is present. In _Sepia_ and the majority of the Dibranchiata it is a + simple pit, in some of the Oigopsida it is a projection which may be + stalked. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagrams of sections showing the early stage + of development of the eye of _Loligo_ when it is, like the permanent + eye of _Nautilus_ and of _Patella_, an open sac. (From Lankester.) + + A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-like upgrowth. + + B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to form a sac, the primitive + optic vesicle of _Loligo_.] + + _Reproduction and Development._--The modification of one or a pair of + the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already been + described. In many genera the sexes differ from one another in other + characters also. As a rule the males are more slender or smaller than + the females. The maximum degree of sexual dimorphism occurs in + _Argonauta_ among the Octopods; in this genus the female may be + fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar modification of + the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs in the female + only, no shell being formed in the male. In most cases the females are + much more numerous than the males, but the opposite relation appears + to exist in those Octopoda in which the hectocotylus is autotomous, + for as many as four hectocotyli have been found in the pallial cavity + of a single female. When the hectocotylus is not detached it is + usually inserted into the pallial cavity of the female so as to + deposit the spermatophores in or near the aperture of the oviduct, but + in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ they are merely deposited on the ventral lobes + of the buccal membrane. + + The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and in + _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each egg has a separate envelope + continued into a long stalk by which it is attached with several + others in a cluster. In _Argonauta_ the eggs are carried by the female + in the cavity of the shell. In _Loligo_ the eggs are very numerous, + and are enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united + at one end into a cluster. + + The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which the egg + is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This is the + result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the latter + assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca the + segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal. In the egg + of _Loligo_, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the + protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation + is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From one + part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes + place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole + surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side + of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline + membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the first + stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast cells or + their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm forms + another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a continuous + sheet below the ectoderm. + + The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and + extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm. + After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon + and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle + ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and + the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomodaeal + invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short proctodaeal + invagination. + + The external changes of form are as follows:--The mantle is the middle + of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland, which, + however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other Molluscs. + Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form the + shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in _Argonauta_ and other + Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other + forms except _Spirula_ it closes completely and the shell develops + within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the + foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become + the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely + posterior to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms + gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it. Between + the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the funnel, and + their position shows them to be the epipodia. The otocysts and eyes + are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the former behind the eyes, + at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-centres, cerebral, visceral, + pedal and optic, are formed as proliferations of the ectoderm. At the + sides of the optic ganglia a pair of ectodermic invaginations are + formed, which in the adult become the white bodies of the eyes, + surrounding the optic ganglion. These are vestiges of lateral cerebral + lobes which degenerate in the course of development. + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Development of _Loligo_. + + 1. View of the cleavage of the egg during the first formation of + embryonic cells. + + 2. Lateral view of the egg at a little later stage. a, Limit to + which the layer of cleavage-cells has spread over the egg; b, + portion of the egg (shaded) as yet uncovered by cleavage-cells; ap, + the auto-plasts; kp, cleavage-pole where first cells were formed. + + 3. Later stage, the limit (a) now extended so as to leave but little + of the egg-surface (b) unenclosed. The eyes (d), mouth (e) and + mantle-sac (u) have appeared. + + 4. Later stage, anterior surface, the embryo is becoming nipped off + from the yolk-sac (g). + + 5. View of an embryo similar to (3) from the cleavage-pole or + centro-dorsal area. + + 6. Later stage, posterior surface. + + 7. Section in a median dorso-ventral and antero-posterior plane of + an embryo of the same age as (4). + + 8. View of the anterior face of an older embryo. + + 9. View of the posterior face of an embryo of the same age as (8). + + Letters in (3) to (9):--a, lateral fins of the mantle; b, + mantle-skirt; c, supra-ocular invagination to form the "white body"; + d, the eye; e, the mouth; f^1, f^2, f^3, f^4, f^5, the five paired + processes of the fore-foot; g, rhythmically contractile area of the + yolk-sac, which is itself a hernia-like protrusion of the median + portion of the fore-foot; h, dotted line showing internal area + occupied by yolk (food-material of the egg); k, first rudiment of + the epipodia (paired ridges which unite to form the siphon or + funnel); l, sac of the radula or lingual ribbon; m, stomach; n, + rudiments of the gills (paired ctenidia); o, the otocysts--a pair of + invaginations of the surface of the epipodia; p, the optic ganglion; + q, the distal portion of the ridges which form the siphon, k being + the basal portion of the same structure; r, the vesicle-like + rudiment of the intestine formed independently of the parts + connected with the mouth, s, k, m, and without invagination; s, + rudiment of the salivary glands; t in (7), the shell-sac at an + earlier stage open (see fig. 36), now closed up; u, the open + shell-sac formed by an uprising ring-like growth of the + centro-dorsal area; w in (5), the mantle-skirt commencing to be + raised up around the area of the shell-sac. In (7) mes points to the + middle cell-layer of the embryo, ep to the outer layer, and h to the + deep layer of fusiform cells which separates everywhere the embryo + from the yolk or food-material lying within it.] + + The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in the + mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out the + genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from the wall + of the coelom. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section through aboral end of embryo of + _Loligo_ showing shell-sac still open. ep, ectoderm; m, mesoderm; + m', endoderm; shs, shell-sac; y, yolk.] + + _Phylogeny and Classification._--The order is divided into two + sub-orders, Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the + tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming than the + Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In the former + also there is generally an internal shell of considerable size, often + calcined, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges of a shell + remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were derived from the + Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal structures fossil + remains of Octopods are almost entirely unknown. _Palaeoctopus_, + however, occurs in the Cretaceous, while shells of _Argonauta_ do not + appear before the Pliocene. The Decapoda are abundantly represented in + the Secondary formations by the _Belemnitidae_, whose shell (fig. 19) + consists of a straight conical phragmacone covered posteriorly by a + very thick rostrum, and produced anteriorly into a thin long + proöstracum which is only occasionally preserved. In certain cases + remains of the arms provided with hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been + recognized. The _Belemnitidae_ appear first in the Upper Trias, attain + their maximum development in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued + into the Tertiary period, though represented in the Eocene by a few + allied forms. + + There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda from + _Belemnitidae_, and many of the extinct forms may have been directly + ancestral. Chitinous "pens" like that of _Loligo_, however, begin to + appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this case as + in many others the parent form and the modified form existed + contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived. The oldest + shells of the _Sepia_ type are from the Eocene, and it is perhaps + possible that the _Sepiidae_ arose separately from the Belemnites. + + It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus _Spirula_ + have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only + in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of + _Spirula_ has lost a rostrum and a proöstracum; its characters must be + regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the + protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of + _Spirula_ agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position + is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric the + ventral side is the convex or external, while in _Spirula_ the shell + is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell is + not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character. + + With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is + difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as + well as a pair of genital ducts in _Nautilus_ with the view that the + original Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of + coelomoducts. Considering the great specialization, however, and high + degree of organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the + earliest Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long + evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may have + been developed in the course of its own history. In the other + direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with only + two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata. + + SUBORDER 1. DECAPODA.--Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile arms + which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular arms, + situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each side and + retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated and provided + with horny rings, on the tentacular arms confined usually to the + distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal shell, and + lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic cavity; + nidamentary glands usually present. + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Right and left sections through embryos of + _Loligo_. (After Lankester.) + + A, Same stage as fig. 35 (4). + + B, Same stage as fig. 35 (8); only the left side of the sections is + drawn, and the food-material which occupies the space internal to + the membrane ym is omitted. + + al, Rectum. + + is, Ink-sac. + + ep, Outer cell-layer. + + mes, Middle cell-layer. + + ym, Deep cell-layer of fusiform cells (yolk-membrane). + + ng, Optic nerve-ganglion. + + ot, Otocyst. + + wb, The "white body" of the adult ocular capsule forming as an + invagination of the outer cell-layer. + + mtf, Mantle-skirt. + + g, Gill. + + ps, Pen-sac or shell-sac, now closed. + + dg, Dorsal groove. + + poc. Primitive optic vesicle, now closed (see fig. 34). + + l, Lens. + + r, Retina. + + soc, Second or anterior optic chamber still open. + + if, Iridean folds. + + C, The primitive invagination to form one of the otocysts, as seen + in fig. 35 (5) and (6).] + + Tribe 1. _Oigopsida_.--A wide aperture in the cornea. Two oviducts in + the female. In fossil genera and _Spirula_, shell has a multilocular + phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular and larger than + the second chamber. The most ancient forms characterized by the small + size of the rostrum and proöstracum, and large size of the + phragmacone. In the living genera, except _Spirula_, the shell is a + chitinous gladius. + + Fam. 1. _Belemnoteuthidae_. Extinct; shell with well-developed + phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope; siphuncular + necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten equal arms provided + with hooks. _Phragmoteuthis_, Trias. _Belemnoteuthis_, Jurassic and + Cretaceous. _Acanthoteuthis_, Jurassic. + + Fam. 2. _Aulacoceratidae_. Extinct; phragmacone with widely + separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform. + _Aulacoceras_, Trias. _Atractites_, Trias and Jurassic. + _Xiphoteuthis_, Lias. + + Fam. 3. _Belemnitidae_. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral + siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proöstracum; rostrum large + and cylindrical. _Belemnites_, 350 species from Jurassic and + Cretaceous. _Diploconus_, Upper Jurassic. + + Fam. 4. _Belopteridae_. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone well + developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber small. + _Beloptera_, Eocene. _Bayanoteuthis_, Eocene. _Spirulirostra_, + Miocene. + + Fam. 5. _Spirulidae_. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior + extremity of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or proöstracum; + shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and sipnunculated; fins + posterior. _Spirula_, three living species known, abyssal. + + Fam. 6. _Ommatostrephidae_. Shell internal and chitinous, ending + aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short and thick; + suckers with denticulate rings. _Ommatostrephes_, fins aboral, + simple and rhomboidal, British. _Ctenopteryx_, fins pectinate, as + long as the body; _Bathyteuthis_, fins terminal, rudimentary; + tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. _Rhynchoteuthis_, tentacular + arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage. _Symplectoteuthis. + Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis_; this is the largest of + Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including arms. + + Fam. 7. _Thysanoteuthidae_. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows of + suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole length of + body. _Thysanoteuthis_, Mediterranean. + + Fam. 8. _Onychoteuthidae_. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long; + suckers with hooks. _Onychoteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on + tentacular arms only. _Enoploteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on all + the arms. _Veranya_, body very short, tentacular arms atrophied in + the adult, Mediterranean. _Chaunoteuthis_, body elongated, + tentacular arms atrophied. _Pterygioteuthis. Ancistroteuthis. + Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidoteuthis._ + + Fam. 9. _Gonatidae_. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula with only + two lateral teeth. _Gonatus_. + + Fam. 10. _Cheiroteuthidae_. Tentacular arms long, not retractile; + resisting apparatus well developed. _Cheiroteuthis_, suckers along + the whole length of the tentacular arms. _Doratopsis_, body very + long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very short. + _Histioteuthis_, six dorsal arms united by membrane, photogenous + organs present. _Histiopsis_, membrane of dorsal arms only half-way + up the arms, photogenous organs present. _Calliteuthis_, no brachial + membrane, photogenous organs present. _Grimalditeuthis_, two fins on + each bide, no tentacular arms. + + Fam. 11. _Cranchiidae_. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes + prominent; fins small and terminal. _Cranchia_, body short, + purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. _Loligopsis_, + body elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. _Leachia_, + tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. _Taonius_, body + elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Octopodous Cephalopods. + + A, _Pinnoctopus cordiformis_, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand). + + B, _Tremoctopus violaceus_, Ver. (from the Mediterranean). + + C, _Cranchia scabra_, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean; one of the + Decapoda). + + D, _Cirrhoteuthis Mulleri_, Esch. (from the Greenland coast).] + + Tribe 2. _Myopsida_.--No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct only + developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phragmacone, + calcified or simply chitinous. + + Fam. 1. _Sepiidae_. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending the + whole length of the body; shell calcareous and laminated. + _Belosepia_, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in shell, + Eocene. _Sepia_, shell with a rostrum, British. _Sepiella_, shell + without a rostrum. + + Fam. 2. _Sepiolidae_. Body short, rounded at the aboral end; fins + rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous, small + or absent. _Sepiola_, head united to mantle dorsally, British. + _Rossia_, head not united to mantle, British. _Stoloteuthis_ and + _Inioteuthis_, without shell. _Heteroteuthis. Euprymna._ + + Fam. 3. _Idiosepiidae_. Body elongated, with rudimentary terminal + fins; internal shell almost lost. _Idiosepius_, 1.5 cm. long, Indian + Ocean. + + Fam. 4. _Sepiadariidae_. Body short; mantle united to head dorsally; + no shell. _Sepiadarium_, Pacific Ocean. _Sepioloidea_, Australian. + + Fam. 5. _Loliginidae_. Body elongated and conical; fins extending + forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous, well + developed. _Loligo_, fins triangular, aboral, British. + _Sepioteuthis_, fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length. + _Loliolus. Loliguncula._ The following fossil genera, known only by + their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near + _Loligo_:--_Teuthopsis, Beloteuthis_ and _Geoteuthis_, Lias; + _Phylloteuthis_, Cretaceous; _Plesioteuthis_, Jurassic and + Cretaceous. + + SUBORDER 2. OCTOPODA.--Only four pairs of arms, all similar and longer + than the body. Body short and rounded aborally. Suckers sessile. Heart + not contained in coelom. No nidamentary glands. + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Palaeoctopus Newboldi_, the oldest Octopod + known. From the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)] + + Tribe I. _Leioglossa_.--No radula. Arms united by a complete membrane. + Fins on sides of body. + + Fam. _Cirrhoteuthidae_. Tentacular filaments on either side of the + suckers. _Cirrhoteuthis_, pallial sac prominent, fins large, + pelagic. _Opisthoteuthis_, body flattened, with small fins, + deep-sea. _Vampyroteuthis_, four fins. _Palaeoctopus_, fossil, + Cretaceous. + + Tribe 2. _Trachyglossa._--Radula present. No fins. + + Fam. 1. _Amphitretidae_. Arms united by membrane; funnel attached to + mantle, dividing the pallial aperture into two. _Amphitretus_, + pelagic. + + Fam. 2. _Alloposidae_. All arms united by membrane; mantle joined + to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures. _Alloposus_, + pelagic. + + Fam. 3. _Octopodidae_. Arms long and equal, without membrane; + hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores. + _Octopus_, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. _Eledone_, + single row of suckers on each arm. _Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus. + Cistopus. Japetella._ + + Fam. 4. _Philonexidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal in + size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. _Tremoctopus_, two dorsal + pairs of arms united by membrane. _Ocythoë_, without interbrachial + membrane. + + Fam. 5. _Argonautidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; no interbrachial + membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female expanded and + secreting a shell; males very small, without shell. _Argonauta_. + + LITERATURE.--Use has been freely made above of the article by E. Ray + Lankester, on _Mollusca_, in the 9th edition of this Encyclopedia. For + the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, "Notes on Living Nautilus," + _Amer. Nat._ xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey, "Contribution to the Natural + History of the Pearly Nautilus," A. Willey's _Zoological Results_, pt. + vi. (1902); Foord, _Cat. Fossil Cephalopoda in British Museum_; + Alpheus Hyatt, "Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comp. Zoology," + _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._ (Cambridge, U.S., 1868); Jalta, "I Cefalopodi + viventi nel golfo di Napoli," _Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel_, + xxiii. (1896); Joubin, "Céphalopodes de l'atlantique nord," "Céph. de + la Princesse Alice," _Camp. sci. Albert I^er de Monaco_, ix. (1895), + xxii. (1900); Paul Pelseneer, "Mollusca," in the _Treatise on + Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester. (J. T. C.) + + + + +CEPHEUS, in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda (q.v.); in +astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by +Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy +catalogued 13 stars in this constellation, Tycho n, and Hevelius 51. The +most interesting star in it is [delta] _Cephei_, a remarkable double +star, the brighter component of which is a short period variable (5.37 +days), with a range in magnitude of 3.7 to 4.9; it is also a +spectroscopic binary. + + + + +CEPHISODOTUS, the name of the father and of the son of Praxiteles, both +sculptors like himself. The former must have flourished about 400 B.C. A +noted work of his was Peace bearing the infant Wealth, of which a copy +exists at Munich. Peace is a Madonna-like figure of a somewhat +conservative type; the child Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus +also made, like his son, a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus, +unless indeed ancient critics have made two works of one. He made +certain statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 B.C. Of the +work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no remains; he +was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th century B.C., +especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the orator Lycurgus, and +others (see J. Overbeck, _Antike Schriftquellen_, p. 255). + + + + +CERAM (_Sirang_), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the Molucca +group, lying about 3° S., and between 127° 45' and 131° E. Its length is +a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about 50 m., and its area, +including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m. It consists of two parts, +Great Ceram and Little Ceram or Huvamohel, united by the isthmus of +Taruno; and, for administrative purposes, is assigned to the residency +of Amboyna, being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai and Amahai, +the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and Waru or Eastern +Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches west and east through the +island, but near the north coast hills, rising 2300 to 2600 ft., slope +steeply to the shore. Near the south coast, west of the Bay of +Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains forms a colossal pyramid, with +peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft. The isthmus connecting the two parts of +the island is very narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490 ft. The +chief rivers flow north and south into bays, but are navigable only for +a few miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very heavy, +amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the north +coast the bays of Savai and Waru are accessible for small vessels. The +geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive rocks and +crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern Amboyna. In the +eastern section the prevailing rock is crystalline chalk, similar to +that of Buru. Several hot springs occur, and earthquakes are not +infrequent. About 4000 persons perished in the earthquake of 1899. A +large part of the interior is covered with dense forests, and except +along the coast the population is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is +without much interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of +specimens. The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer; +there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are +mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the swallows +that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are to be found in the +various rivers; and as early as 1860 no fewer than 213 species were +described. The most valuable timber tree is the iron-wood. Rice, maize, +cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a variety of fruits are grown; and some +tobacco is exported to Europe; but by far the most important production +is the sago palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts, +especially of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not +only to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch have +established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points. The +coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay population, Buginese, +Macassars, Balinese and other races of the archipelago. The interior is +occupied by the aborigines, a people of Papuan stock. They are savages +and head-hunters. The introduction of Christianity was hampered by the +baneful influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which +pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached themselves; +and it has several times cost the Dutch authorities considerable efforts +to frustrate their machinations (see _Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind._, fifth +year). The total population is estimated at 100,000, including 12,000 +Christians and 16,000 Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at +the north and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno. There +was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little Ceram, as early +as 1646. + + + + +CERAMICS, or KERAMICS ([Greek: keramos], earthenware), a general term +for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this purpose both +in French (_céramique_) and in German (_Keramik_), and thus has its +convenience in English as representing an international form of +description for a study which owes much to the art experts of all +nations, though "ceramic" and "ceramics" do not appear in English as +technical terms till the middle of the 19th century. + +The word "pottery" (Fr. _poterie_) in its widest sense includes all +objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though there is a +growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner articles of this +great class and to apply the word "porcelain" to all the finer +varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is founded on a +misconception; the word "porcelain" should only be applied to certain +well-marked varieties of pottery. The very existence of pottery is +dependent on two important natural properties of that great and +widespread group of rocky or earthy substances known as clays, viz. the +property of plasticity (the power of being readily kneaded or moulded +while moist), and the property of being converted when fired into one of +the most indestructible of ordinary things. + +The clays form such an important group of mineral substances that the +reader must refer to the article CLAY for an account of their +occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we shall only +deal with the various clays as they have affected the problems of the +potter throughout the ages. The clays found on or close to the earth's +surface are so varied in composition and properties that we may see in +them one of the vital factors that has determined the nature of the +pottery of different countries and different peoples. They vary in +plasticity, and in the hardness, colour and texture of the fired +product, through an astonishingly wide range. To-day the fine, plastic, +white-burning clays of the south of England are carried all over Europe +and America for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of +affairs which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to the +18th century, the potters of every country could only use on an +extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and the +influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone centuries +has never yet received the attention it deserves.[1] + +_General Evolution of Pottery._--The primitive races of mankind, whether +of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as they found on +the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and with the +rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone slab if necessary +and picking out any rocky fragments of appreciable size, then beating it +with the hands, with stones or boards, or treading it with the feet to +render it fairly uniform in consistency, proceeded to fashion it into +such shapes as need or fancy dictated. Fired in an open fire, or in the +most rudimentary form of potter's kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab, +brown or red--and these from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or +black. How many generations of men, of any race, handed on their +painfully acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was +passed, we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances +were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can trace in +the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually advancing +skill based on increased technical knowledge. For ages tools and methods +remained of the simplest--the fingers for shaping or building up +vessels, a piece of mat or basket-work for giving initial support to a +more ambitious vase,--until some original genius of the tribe finds that +by starting to build up his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he +can turn his support so as to bring every part in succession under his +hand, and lo! the potter's wheel is invented--not brought down from +heaven by one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the +older civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian, +and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of man +struggling to fulfil his allotted task. + +Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to imagine that +the very rudest pottery must have been the invention of Egyptian, +Chinese or some other distinct race from which the knowledge radiated to +all the other races of the prehistoric world. No conception could be +more erroneous. Since the middle of the 19th century research has +established beyond doubt that wherever clay was found men became potters +of a sort, just as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &c., by +sheer force of need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded +view that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that +the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from such a +parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable evidence that +pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of what we now call Greece, +Italy, Spain and other countries, long before they were aware that any +other peoples lived on the earth than themselves. + +For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by drying in +the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried grain, &c., but +the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the amazing fact that a +baked clay vessel became as hard as stone. Then, too, came the knowledge +that even in one district all the clays did not fire to the same colour, +and colour decoration arose, in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay +or earth (a ruddle or bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright +red or buff colour on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay--most +precious of all were little deposits of white clay which kept their +purity unsullied through the fire,--and by these primitive means the +races of the dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery +of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all Egyptian, +Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive foundations. + +We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the great +nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each develop the +potter's art in an individual way. The Egyptians evolve schemes of +glowing colour--brilliant glazes fired on objects, shaped in sand held +together with a little clay, or actually carved from rocks or stones; +the Greeks produce their marvels of plastic form, and then, excited by +their growing skill in metal work, turn the plastic clay into imitations +of metal forms. These nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some +knowledge--only a tincture, it must be confessed--over all the lands +they hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt to +the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters' fires that have never +since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and over Europe its +pottery is forgotten along with its greater achievements; yet still +pottery-making goes on in a very simple way, to be slowly revived and +modified once more by the communities of monks, who, in later centuries, +replace the Roman legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe. +Meantime Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the +splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery was +still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine civilization +and the Persians played during this obscure time, we are only just +beginning to realize; but we now know that many interesting kinds of +decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at Alexandria, at Damascus, in +Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on which the later Moslem potters founded +their glorious works), at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple +red or drab clay, covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were +the sole evidence of the potter's skill. What the Arab conquests +destroyed, and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess; +but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan conquests there +came a time when the potter's art of the Occident reached its highest +expression, and when methods and knowledge hitherto confined to Egypt, +Syria and Persia were spread from Spain and the south of France to +India--even, it may be, into China. + +Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese--the greatest race of potters +the world has ever seen--were quietly gathering strength, until from +their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged the marvellous, white +translucent porcelain, one of the wonders of the medieval world. + +With the dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of affairs was +practically this:--In European countries proper we find rudely fashioned +and decorated wares in which we can trace the slow development of a +native craft from the superposition of Roman methods on the primitive +work of the peoples. The vessels were mostly intended for use and not +for show; were clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at +all then only with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no +case above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or +tile-maker. The finest expression of this native style is to be found in +the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England, where all the +colours are due to the clays and there is no approach to painting. In +the Moslem countries--including the greater part of Spain and Sicily, +Egypt and the nearer East, probably even to the very centre of +Asia--pottery was being made either of whitish clay and sand, or of a +light reddish clay coated with a white facing of fine clay or of +tin-enamel, on which splendid decorative patterns in vivid pigments or +brilliant iridescent lustres were painted. + +As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic pottery +of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of Europeans as +an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may well believe the +traditional accounts that Saracen potters were brought into Italy, +France and Burgundy to introduce the practice of their art, while +Italian potters certainly penetrated into the workshops of eastern Spain +and elsewhere, and gathered new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the +south of France probably, efforts were continuously in progress to +improve the native wares by coating the vessels with a white "slip" and +drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and purplish +black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war and peace, also +introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion of the famous +Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the 14th century a knowledge +of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy and paved the way to the glorious +painted majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. From Italy and Spain, +France and Holland, Germany, and finally, though much later, England +learnt this art, and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern +Europe, so largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the +direct offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance.[2] + +During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also began to find +its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its substance and its +marvellous translucence excited the attention of the Italian majolists +and alchemists. The first European imitation of this famous oriental +porcelain of which we have indubitable record was made at Florence +(1575-1585) by alchemists or potters working under the patronage, and, +it is said, with the active collaboration of Francesco de' Medici. This +Florentine porcelain was the first of those distinctively European +wares, made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connecting +link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered either as +pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered opaque by shaping and +firing a mixture containing a large percentage of glass with a very +little clay. After the cessation of the Florentine experiments we know +of no European porcelain for nearly a century, though the importation of +Chinese porcelain had largely increased owing to the activity of the +various "India" companies. The next European porcelain, made like the +Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St Cloud +(1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy porcelain was made +in France and England largely, and in other countries experimentally. +German experimenters worked in another direction, and the first +porcelain made in Europe from materials similar to the Chinese was +produced at Meissen by Böttger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not +only was there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese +porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain manufacture in +Europe; and in every country factories were established, generally under +royal or princely patronage, for the manufacture of artificial porcelain +like the French, or genuine porcelain like the German. The English made +a departure in the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either, +through adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this +English bone-porcelain--a well-marked species--is now largely made in +America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in England. + +By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant on the +manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its abandonment, +and a porcelain made from natural materials like the Chinese has since +been generally made on the continent of Europe. + +The older tin-enamelled wares--derived from the Hispano-Moresque and the +Italian majolica--so largely made in France, Holland, Germany and +elsewhere during the 17th and 18th centuries, met with a fate analogous +to that of the French porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a +brittle substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the +middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a +serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior durability +and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience gradually +disappeared between the upper millstone of European porcelain and the +nether millstone of English earthenware. + +The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the output of +porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the United States. +Mechanical methods were largely called in to supplement or replace what +had hitherto remained almost pure handicraft. The English methods of +preparing and mixing the materials of the body and glaze, and the +English device of replacing painted decoration by machine printing, to a +large extent carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical +aspects of the work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its +artistic spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely +affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the painting, +gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the first half of +the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and hackneyed. During the +latter half of the 19th century another influence was fortunately at +work. Side by side with the increasing mechanical perfection of the +great bulk of modern pottery there grew up a school of innovators and +experimentalists, who revived many of the older decorative methods that +had fallen into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in +certain directions even beyond, the achievements of the past. The 20th +century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe and +America. In every country men were striving once again to bring back to +their world-old craft something of artistic taste and skill. + + _Technical Methods._--All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or of + modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay, dug + from the earth's surface, was or is prepared by beating and kneading + with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood; stones and + hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well tempered with + water, was used without any addition. From this clay, vessels were + shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump or ball, by building up + piece by piece and smoothing down one layer upon another or by + squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object or prepared mould or + form. The potter's wheel, though very ancient, was a comparatively + late invention, arrived at independently by many races of men. In its + simplest form it was a heavy disk pivoted on a central point to be set + going by the hand, as the workman squatted on the ground; and it may + be seen to-day in India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive + simplicity (see fig. 1). This form of potter's wheel was the only one + known until about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently, + the improvement was introduced of lengthening the spindle which + carries the throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much + larger disk which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have + both hands free for the manipulation of the clay (fig. 2). No further + advance seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the + wheel was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a + steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century, + this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Potter moulding a vessel on the wheel (from a + painting in a tomb at Thebes about 1800 B.C.). Compare the wheel on + the left in fig. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Potter's wheel of the time of the Ptolemies, + moved by the foot (from a wall-relief at Philae). Compare fig. 5, the + wheel on the right.] + + A prevalent misconception with regard to the potter's wheel needs + correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is impossible to + carry the work to completion on the wheel at one operation as is + generally imagined. All that the potter can do while the clay is soft + enough to "throw" on the wheel is to get a rough shape of even + thickness. This operation completed, the piece is removed from the + wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about leather-hard, it may be + re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old practice), or placed in a + horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and turned down to the exact + shape and polished to an even, smooth surface. The Greek vase-makers + were already adepts in what is often reckoned a modern, detestable + practice. Many Greek vases have obviously been "thrown" in separate + sections, and when these had contracted and hardened sufficiently they + were luted together with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed + and turned down on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of + mechanical finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the + Chinese; many of their forms have been made in two or three portions, + subsequently joined together and finished on the outside as one piece. + Indeed it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered for + themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held up to + opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age. Always it + should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by "pressing" + cakes of clay into moulds is much older than the potter's wheel, and + has always been the method of making shapes other than those in the + round. The modern method of "casting" pottery by pouring slip, a fluid + mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds seems to have + originated in England about the middle of the 18th century; and this + too is a genuine potter's method which does not merit the disapproval + with which it has been generally regarded by writers on the potter's + art. + + In all ages the work of the "thrower" or "presser" has been largely + supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape, and applies to it + handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Early Greek pottery-kiln, about 700-600 B.C. + (from a painted votive tablet found at Corinth, now in the Louvre). + The section shows the probable construction of the kiln.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is + for the insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated + floor, made of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing,--it was + probably a dome.] + + _Firing._--The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a + specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be + referred here to the technological works mentioned in the bibliography + at the end of this article. It is, however, necessary that we should + briefly describe the earlier forms of potters' kilns used by the + nations whose pottery counts among the treasures of the collector and + the antiquary. Here again we now know that the primitive types of kiln + used by the potters of ancient Egypt or Greece have not vanished from + the earth; it is only in the civilized countries of the modern world + that they have been replaced by improved and perfected devices. The + potters of the North-West Provinces of India use to-day a kiln + practically identical with that depicted in severest silhouette on the + rock-tombs of Thebes; and the skilful Japanese remain content with a + kiln very similar to the one shown in fig. 3. This Greek type of kiln + was improved and enlarged by the Romans, and its use seems to have + been introduced wherever pottery was made under their sway, for + remains of Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4). + With the end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their + technical methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter + of the period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his + methods afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of + medieval potter's kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an + Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria + and Albert Museum[3] (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal + reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-fired pottery of + Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &c.), as well as for Chinese porcelain and + the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery as a + factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were introduced, + and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries is + practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section, from + 10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore, of + containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would have formed + the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every device that can be + thought of for the better utilization of heat and its even + distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experimented with; + and, though the results have been most successful from the point of + view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired ovens remain very + wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of available heat being + relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-fired kilns and ovens + are now being used or experimented with in every country, and their + perfection, which cannot be far distant, will improve the most vital + of the potter's processes both in certainty and economy. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two forms of Italian potter's wheels, about + 1540.] + + _Glazes._--We are never likely to known when glaze (i.e. a coating of + fired glass) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of + knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed + objects we possess are those of ancient Egypt,[4] but the practice may + have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of the + elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes were of + the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass before they + can be applied to pottery. + + Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after it was + fired, in order to get a glossy surface; and in other cases the + surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with waxy or + resinous substances which were often coloured. It is possible that the + black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such a method, and though + that point is not settled, we have many types of primitive pottery, + both modern and ancient, which are coated in this way. Such a coating + is only a substitute for glaze in the work of peoples who do not know + or have not mastered the technical secrets of true glazes. We can only + consider as glazes those definite superficial layers of molten + material which have been fired on the clay substance. Glazes are as + varied as the various kinds of pottery, and it must never be forgotten + that each kind of pottery is at its best with its appropriate glaze. + The earliest known glazes (Egyptian and Assyrian) were silicates of + soda and lime containing very little alumina and no lead. Such glazes + are very uncertain in use, and can only be applied to pottery + unusually rich in silica (i.e. deficient in clay). Consequently these + alkaline glazes cannot be used on ordinary clay wares, and when they + have been used successfully, the clay has always been coated with a + surface layer of highly siliceous substance (e.g. the so-called + Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian pottery of the early middle + ages). The fact that glazes containing lead-oxide would adhere to + ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes would not was discovered at a + very early period; for lead glazes were extensively used in Egypt and + the nearer East in Ptolemaic times, and it is significant that, though + the Romans made singularly little use of glazes of any kind, the + pottery that succeeded theirs, either in western Europe or in the + Byzantine empire, was generally covered with glazes rich in lead. + Throughout Europe, and over the greater part of the world, leaded + glazes have been continuously used and improved for all ordinary + pottery, and it is only with certain special hard-fired types of ware + that they have yet been successfully replaced. Chinese porcelain and + all the European porcelains made by analogous methods are fired at so + high a temperature that a glaze by felspar softened by lime and silica + is found most suitable for them, and the hard-fired stonewares, rich + in silica, are often glazed with a salt glaze, or a melted earth rich + in oxide of iron. + + Every kind of potter's clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &c., + from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze, and + from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could produce + in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him by the + clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay which cannot + be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have always proved + the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large quantities of + sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of common salt; and + mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European porcelain, can be + glazed by melting felspathic materials upon them. Naturally those + species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the most + durable--the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable than lead + glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes. + + The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (e.g. + Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &c.), the oldest and most uncertain; (2) + lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all ordinary + purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired porcelains, + generally unsuited to any other material; (4) salt glaze, produced by + vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares. Many + intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs, but these + remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this important + subject must be sought in the technical works. + + _Colours._--The primitive potters of ancient and modern times have all + striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest, and + therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in natural + earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition that they + fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream, buff, red, + brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One clay daubed or + painted upon another formed the primitive palette of the potter, + especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze was used these + natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths, other than + clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were gradually + discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some of the + very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or iron + (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians and + Assyrians). Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials, but + the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian, Syrian + and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time the art of + glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been thoroughly + learnt. Vases, tiles, &c., shaped in good plastic clay, were covered + with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive glazes of this + type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted colours then + known. With this rudimentary technique the potters of the countries + south and east of the Mediterranean produced, between the 9th and 16th + centuries of our era, a type of pottery that remains ideal from the + point of view of colour: for, with nothing more than the greens given + by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise of pure copper, the deep + yet vivid blue of cobalt, the beautiful uncertain purple of manganese, + and in certain districts the rich red of Armenian bole, they achieved + colour schemes that have never been surpassed in their brilliant yet + harmonious richness. + + When the coating of white siliceous clay was replaced by an opaque + tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &c., a necessary + change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the copper-greens + and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground; the fine manganese + purple turned to brown or black and the rich iron-reds to filthy + shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the Spanish-Arab potters paid + more attention to their lustre decoration, for that was the natural + thing to do. How strong and fine a palette could be evolved for use on + a tin-enamel ground was shown by the Italian majolists of the 15th and + 16th centuries; and when the later developments of tin-enamelled + pottery took place in France, Holland, Germany, &c., their colour + schemes are only echoes of Italian majolica crossed with Chinese + porcelain. Delft, Nevers, Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with + its individuality; Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us + that they too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always + go back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian + and Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them. + + The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are + known as "under glaze" colours, because they were painted on the + pottery before the glaze was fired. + + The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been white, + but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of coloured + glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along with the + painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and Persian potters. + Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the only artistic + productions of the medieval European potters' kilns, and their use + everywhere preceded the introduction of painted pottery. The most + extensive application of coloured glazes was, however, that made by + the Chinese, who developed this type of colour decoration before they + used painted patterns in underglaze colour. The earliest Chinese + porcelains, and the hard-fired stonewares out of which their porcelain + arose, were decorated in this way, and the beauty of many of the early + Sung coloured glazes has never been surpassed. + + With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese porcelain + very few underglaze colours could be used; and the prevalence of blue + and white among the early specimens of Chinese porcelains is due to + the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance known to the + potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the high temperature + needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the Chinese were driven to + invent the method of painting in coloured fusible glasses on the + already fired glaze. They adopted for this purpose the coloured + enamels used on metal; hence the common term "enamel decoration," + which is so generally applied to painting in those colours which are + attached to the already fired glaze by refiring at a lower + temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured Chinese + porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly followed by our + European potters, and a new palette of colours and fresh styles of + decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-glaze colours, being + executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass painting, and it + generally offers a striking contrast both in technique and + colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the glaze. In + the former the work can be highly finished and the most mechanical + execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich nor so + brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same softness as + is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour when the glaze + is melted over it. + + It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method of + pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at which + the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally more + limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in their turn + than the on-glaze colours. + + When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery took on + its modern form, of earthenware made after the English fashion, and + porcelain like the French and German, the lead or felspathic glazes + used brought about another revolution in the potter's palette. The + growing ideal of mechanical perfection discounted the freedom of the + earlier brushwork, and printed patterns, or painting that might almost + have been printed, removed the mind still farther from the richness of + painted faience or majolica. It is useless to look for the glorious + colour of Persian faience, Italian majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in + modern wares produced by manufacturing processes where mechanical + perfection is demanded to a degree undreamt of before the 19th + century. The finest modern pottery colour is only to be sought in the + work of those enthusiasts and experimenters who are striving to + produce work as rich and free as the best of past times. + + _Metals_.--The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver, have, + since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as + adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white + earthen-wares and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the + gold was applied with a kind of japanner's size and was not fired to + the glaze, but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally + been fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing + the metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass. + There can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia, + Syria and Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their + decorative effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been. + The early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to + have been "sized" or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable that + the use of "fired" gold was taught to the Oriental by the European in + the 18th century. To-day "liquid" gold is exported to China and Japan + from Europe for the use of the potter. + + +PRIMITIVE POTTERY + +We can group together that great and widely-spread class of vessels made +by the primitive races of mankind, whether before the dawn of +civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting to note that +many modern races still make pottery by the same rude method as the +Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with striking similarity of +result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods and practices of the +primitive potters of our own time furnishes the best possible guide to +the methods of fabrication and ornamentation of the ancient specimens +that are dug up from barrows, grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only +natural that the materials and methods of such pottery are always of the +simplest. The clay is used with very little preparation, and it is no +unusual thing to find bits of stone, gravel, &c., embedded in the paste +of such wares, though at a later stage of development they would have +been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of potters +practised the art for long without discovering that their vessels were +not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in firing, if fine +sand or pounded "potsherds" were mixed with the clay; and when we are +dealing with the work of races that have passed beyond the Stone Age and +have learned the use of metals we find this custom universal. + +There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common to almost +every primitive race:-- + + 1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay. + + 2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or + matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and smoothing + down successive layers of clay. + + 3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and these + are coiled round and round upon each other and smoothed down with the + hands and with simple tools of bone, wood or metal. + +The use of the potter's wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable how +beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery is. The +primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders Petrie in Egypt, +and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric date from Spain, are +remarkable instances of this. Some primitive races leave their pottery +without decoration, especially when they have a fine red-burning clay to +work in, but, generally speaking, primitive pottery of every race and +time is elaborately decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such +decorations consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions +arranged in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. All +this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it is +fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so obviously +been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the neck or bowl of a +vase; though the thong may have been used in the first instance merely +to serve as a support while the vessel was dried. At a later stage the +ornament is generally obtained by scratching with a tool, by pressing +the end of a hollow stick into the clay to form rows of circles, by +using a stick cut at the end into the shape of a half-moon, or other +equally simple decorative device. In certain tropical countries this +rudimentary pottery becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when +merely dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries it +must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an open +fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into the +ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imperfect the +firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke. In those +countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired the pieces +naturally become buff, drab, brown or red. + +The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-mounds of +England and the northern countries generally have received a number of +fanciful names for which there is very little warrant except in the case +of the cinerary urns. These are generally the largest vessels of this +class, and as they were used to contain burnt bones there seems +sufficient warrant for the supposition that they were made for this and +for no other purpose. + +Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved during +recent years by the labours of a number of American students connected +with the United States Geological Survey, who have carefully recorded +the present-day practices of those native tribes who make and use +pottery in various parts of North America and Mexico; while, in the same +way, Peruvian, Brazilian and other South American pottery has been as +closely investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no +primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze, though much +of it has been highly polished after firing, and in some cases a varnish +has been applied which may perhaps be regarded as the earliest kind of +"glazing" ever applied to pottery vessels. + + LITERATURE.--On primitive pottery the following works may be specially + mentioned. W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_ (1877); Boyd-Dawkins, + _Early Man in Britain_ (1880); Mortimer, _Forty Years' Researches in + British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire_ (1905); Abercromby, + "The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in Britain," _J. Anth. Inst._ vol. + xxxii. (1902), 373; _Guide to Antiquities of the Bronze Age_ (British + Museum, 1904); Koenen, _Gefässkunde der vorrömischen, römischen und + fränkischen Zeit in den Rheinländern_ (1895); Wosinsky, _Der + inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-zeit_ (1904); Walters, + _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek and Roman) (1905); Holmes, + _Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States_ (Bureau of + Ethnology, Washington, 1899); also Holmes and Cushing in _Report_ of + Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (1880); Von + der Steinen, _Natur-Völkerei Central Brasiliens_ (1894); Hartman, + _Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica_ (1905); Strebel, on "Mexican + Pottery" in _Publications_ of Museum für Völkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6, + 1899); Werner, _British Central Africa_ (1907); Füllborn, _Deutsche + Ost-Afrika_, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer, "Kabyle Pottery," _Journ. Anth. + Inst._ vol. xxxii. p. 245, and "Upper Egypt," _ibid_. xxxv. p. 20; + Myres, "Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia Minor," _Journ. Anth. Inst._ + xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, _Notes analytiques sur les + collections ethnographiques du Congo_, tome ii. (1907); Cupart, + _Debuts de l'art de l'ancienne Égypte_ (1903). (W. B.*) + + +EGYPT AND WESTERN ASIA + +_Egyptian Pottery_.--Egypt affords us the most striking instance of the +development of the potter's art. As in other countries pottery was made +even in Neolithic times, for the Nile mud forms a fine plastic clay and +sand is of course abundant. With these materials various kinds of +pottery, often extremely well made and of good form, have been +continuously produced for common domestic requirements, but such pottery +was never glazed. + +The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a special +preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all, it contained so +little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty the Egyptians had learnt to +shape little objects in this tender material and cover them with their +wonderful turquoise glazes. We have therefore to study the development +of two independent things: (1) the ordinary pottery of common clay left +without glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be +special to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the +technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the nearer +East. + +We probably do not possess any specimens of the most primitive Neolithic +pottery; the oldest type known to us, the black and red ware of Ballas +and Nagada (1), dates from the later Neolithic age, when copper was just +beginning to be used. This ware is very hard and compact and the face is +highly burnished. The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red +clay; the black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of +air in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie suggests, +by placing the pot's mouth down in the kiln, and leaving the ashes over +the part which was to be burnt black. Both red and black colour go right +through in every case. All-red and all-black vases are occasionally +found, the red with geometrical decorations in white colour, and the +black with incised decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at +the same time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it +is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the wheel. +Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete in 1905 during +the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hierapetra. The general +appearance of the Cretan pottery is much the same as that of the +Egyptian, and the duller red and black decoration (which here has a +spotted or mottled appearance) was probably obtained in the same way, +the black spots being due to the action of separate fragments of the +baking material. This discovery is important in view of the probable +early connexion of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres. + +A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and harder make, +and often with a brighter surface, was introduced into Egypt at a later +date (XIIth Dynasty), probably by Nubian tribes who were descended from +relatives of the Neolithic Egyptians. From their characteristic graves +these people are called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known +by the same name. + +Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares, but by +no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of primeval +Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface decorations in +red. These decorations are varied in character, including ships, birds +and human figures; wavy lines and geometrical designs commonly occur. +The whole _facies_ of this ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been +compared with the decorated "Kabyle pottery" of modern times. To call +the people who made this ware "Libyans" on the strength of this +resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six thousand +years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric Egyptians were not +Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the peculiar decoration of their +pottery, which seems so strangely barbaric, is in reality merely the +most ancient handiwork of the Egyptian painter, and marks the first +stage in the development of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (2). +Other types of pottery (3), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also +in use at this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase +with a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed +out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This cylindrical +type outlived the red and black and the red and buff decorated styles +(which are purely Neolithic and predynastic) and continued in use in the +early dynastic period, well into the Copper age. The other unglazed +pottery of the first three dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty +of form or colour, and is indeed of the roughest description (4), but +under the IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and +vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (4). This fine ware continued in +use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though the forms of course +differed from age to age. Under the XIIth Dynasty, and during the Middle +Kingdom generally, either this or a coarser unpolished red ware was in +use. The forms of this period are very characteristic (5); the vases are +usually footless, and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape--some +small ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign "Pan-Grave" +black and red pottery was also in use (see above). + +The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated +with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly +early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the +Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.). Under the XIIth Dynasty pottery made of this +characteristic Egyptian faience seems to have come into general use, and +it continued in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor +of the glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (6). The +oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape of beads, +plaques, &c.--rarely in the form of pottery vessels. The colour is +usually a light blue, which may turn either white or green; but beads of +the grey-black manganese colour are found, and on the light blue vases +of King Aha (who is probably one of the historical originals of the +legendary "Mena" or Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have +the king's name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the +blue-white glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid. +This style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue +continued till the end of the "New Empire" shortly before the XXVIth +(Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the decoration +before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light blue glaze was used +well into the time of the XIIth Dynasty (British Museum, No. 36,346), +but was then displaced by a new tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on +which the black decoration shows up in sharper contrast than before. +This blue, and a somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the +time for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of +scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite --not +faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of glazed stone +begins about this period, and not only steatite or schist was employed +(on account of its softness), but a remarkably brilliant effect was +obtained by glazing hard shining white quartzite with the wonderfully +delicate XIIth Dynasty blue. A fragment of a statuette plinth of this +beautiful material was obtained during the excavation of the XIth +Dynasty temple at Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948). +Vessels of diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the +blue glaze. A good specimen of the finest XIIth Dynasty blue-glazed +faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 B.C.) in the Cairo +Museum (No. 3666) (6). The blue-glazed hippopotami of this period, with +the reeds and water-plants in purplish black upon their bodies to +indicate their habitat, are well known. Fine specimens of these are in +the collection of the Rev. Wm. MacGregor at Tamworth (8). + +The blue glaze of the XIIth Dynasty deepened in colour under the XIIIth, +to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the manganese black) of +fish and lotus plants belong (8) (British Museum, Nos. 4790, &c.). The +finest specimens of XVIIIth Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir +el-Bahri, in the neighbourhood of which place there may have been a +factory for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &c., of this +fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor (good +collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this dynasty +polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and dark blue, violet, +purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other tints were used, not +only for smaller objects of faience, such as rings, scarabs, kohl-pots, +&c., but also for vases, e.g. No. 3965 of the Cairo Museum (Amenophis +III. wine-bottle), the ground colour of which is white with a decoration +of flower wreaths in blue, yellow and red, with an inscription in +delicate blue (6). This polychrome faience was also now used for the +_ushabti_ figures which were placed in the tombs; hitherto they had been +made exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery; +henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the polychrome +glazes (e.g. British Museum, Nos. 34,180, 34,185) were soon abandoned, +and the plain blue and black of the ordinary vases was adopted. The +_ushabtis_ of King Seti I. (British Museum, No. 22,818, &c.) (9) are +fine specimens of this type. Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and +became weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used for +their _ushabtis_ a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary colour +which at once distinguishes the faience of this period from that of all +others (9). The same brilliant glaze was used for vases of various kinds +as well. The polychrome ware had developed into a style of inlaying with +glazed faience, which we see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty +(1400 B.C.) (10), and at Tel el-Yah[=u]d[=i]ya under the XXth (1200 +B.C.), used for wall decoration. After this time polychrome ceramic +decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained in Asia +(see below). + +The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by such a +remarkable object as the gigantic _Uas_-sceptre of blue glazed faience, +now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (12, 8). This is the largest known +piece of Egyptian glazed faience; really large vases of faience are not +found. Faience vases were very commonly built up or carved out of a ball +of the dried material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous +substance --it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have +been fashioned on the wheel. Sometimes even small vases were made of +separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (6). Under the +XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of deities or animals in +relief became common; these were made in moulds (6). In the matter of +form the faience pottery of the New Empire follows the lead of the new +earthenware types. Forms had altered considerably from those of the +XIIth Dynasty. In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we +now find egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without +handles, great _amphorae_ with almost pointed bases, sometimes with the +handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-tipped, squat jugs; +little handleless vases somewhat resembling the modern _kulla_, "_mit +mehrfach eingezogenem Bauch_" (V.B.), and the common flat flask-like +type known as the "pilgrim bottle" (6, 13, 14, 15). + +Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time, imported +vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean _Bugelkannen_ and +Cypriote black "base ring" jugs, have been found in the tombs and +deposits of this age (14). Imitations of foreign forms, especially the +_Bugelkannen_, are found[5] chiefly in faience (British Museum, 22,731, +is an imitation of a Minoan jug from Crete). The faience forms of the +XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties include also the _kulla_ shape, the pilgrim +bottle, miniature _amphorae_, &c. (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous forms +not found in common pottery, imitating metal and stone vases, e.g. the +blue-green ribbed pots of the XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze +originals, and the _alabastron_ of the XVIIIth; these last go back to +the XIIth Dynasty. Very pretty cups in the shape of lotus flowers (see +fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are of the XIXth Dynasty, +and mostly came from Tuna (6, 8). + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Egyptian pottery made of fine blue paste.] + +The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth Dynasty during +the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty has already been +mentioned. Characteristic of the latter period of this ware are long +jugs with attenuated body and single handle, which, because they have +been found with Mycenaean objects in Cyprus, have been considered to be +of foreign, probably of Syrian origin. They may, however, be Egyptian. +Vases of the same ware in the shape of men and animals are not uncommon +(17). Another ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face, +sometimes becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in this +ware the pilgrim bottles are common. An unpolished, brittle, and thin +yellow ware was also used largely for wine-vases. The rougher, commoner +red and brown ware at this period became decorated with designs, chiefly +of lily wreaths, &c., in paint of various colours (13). This new +development hid the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply +obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of the +period (see fig. 8). This painted pottery continued in use until about +the time of the XXIInd Dynasty. From this time onwards, till the +Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a red ware, usually covered +with a white slip. Under the XXVIth Dynasty a finer homogeneous white +ware occurs, usually for vases with a rude representation of the face of +the god Bes on their bodies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.] + +The XXVIth Dynasty marks a new period of development in the history of +Egyptian faience. The old deep blue colour had gradually deteriorated +into an ugly green (British Museum, No. 8962), which was replaced by the +Saite potters with a new light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in +accordance with the archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light +blue of the earliest Dynasties. The glaze itself is very thin and +"sugary" in texture. The old decoration of the blue with designs and +inscriptions in manganese-black is abandoned; on the _ushabtis_ the +inscriptions are now incised. Side by side with this light blue glaze +was used an unglazed faience, a sort of composition paste with the +colour going right through.[6] It has more variety of colour than the +glazed faience, light green and a dark indigo blue being found as well +as the Saite light blue. Sometimes it is of a very soft, almost chalky +consistency. It was used for vases, but more generally for small figures +and scarabs (6). The commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim +bottle, now made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with +inscriptions on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the +possessor. These flasks appear to have been common New Year's gifts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Egyptian pottery with painted ornament and sham +marbling.] + +Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further new development +of glaze began, of a more radical character than ever before. The colour +deepened, and the glaze itself became much more glassy, and was thickly +laid on. The new glaze was partly translucent, and differed very greatly +from the old opaque glaze. It first appeared on _ushabtis_ at the end of +the Saite period. A curious effect was obtained by glazing the +head-dress, the inscription &c., of the _ushabtis_ in dark blue, and +then covering the whole with translucent light blue glaze. This method +was regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman periods, +when the new style of glaze came into general use. A yellowish green +effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body of the vases in yellow +and covering this with the translucent blue glaze. This method was used +to touch up the salient portions of the designs in relief, imitated +from foreign originals, a style which now became usual on vases. The +usual decoration is mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally +predominating. A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue, +blue-green, grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found. The glaze is +very thickly laid on, and is often "crazed" (6, 8). A remarkable +instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the god Bes in +the British Museum (No. 35,028). A hard, light blue, opaque glaze like +that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally, but rarely, met with in the +case of vases (British Museum, Nos. 37,407, 37,408). + +We know something of the common wares in use during this period from the +study of the _ostraka_, fragments of pottery on which dated +tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written. From the _ostraka_ we +see that during the Ptolemaic period the commonest pottery was made of +red ware covered with white slip, which has already been mentioned. At +the beginning of the Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar +light pink ware with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark +brown ware. About the 3rd century A.D. horizontally ribbed or fluted +pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use. These were +often large-sized _amphorae_, with very attenuated necks and long +handles (see fig. 9). During the Byzantine (Coptic) period most of the +pottery in use was ribbed, and usually pitched inside to hold water, as +the ware was loose in texture and porous. + +During the Coptic period, a lighter ware was also in use, decorated with +designs of various kinds in white, brown or red paint on the dull red or +buff body. In Nubia a peculiar development of this ware is +characteristic of the later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712). + +A polished red ware of Roman origin (imitation Arretine or "Samian") was +commonly used as well. + +The heavily glazed blue faience continued in use until replaced in the +early Arab period by the well-known yellow and brown lead-glazed +pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds of Fostat (Old +Cairo). + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Egyptian pottery under the Ptolemies, showing +Greek influence in the shapes.] + +_Western Asia.--Palestine_. The most ancient Palestinian pottery is the +rough "Amorite" ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi) which sometimes has wavy +handles like the prehistoric Egyptian (18). Later we find actual +Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (19), an interesting testimony to the +truth of the legend which brings the Philistines from Crete; the fourth +and fifth cities of Lachish (1200-1000 B.C.) show us the first ordinary +Phoenician or Israelite pottery--buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter +with the handles sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong +Egyptian influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found as +in Egypt. + +The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery is the +Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite period, of which +the characteristics are well known. Some of this may actually have been +made in Egypt. + +The course of the potter's art in Mesopotamia and Persia appears to have +run on lines of development parallel with the art in Egypt, for the +country between the Tigris and the Euphrates is rich in good clays, and, +wherever the invention of glass arose, its application to pottery +decoration was certainly developed at an early period in Egypt and in +Mesopotamia. + + Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed out, + though they have nothing to do with vase-making. + + 1. The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets, + cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the + literature of the time. The cylinders and prisms were thrown on the + potter's wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form was then + sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform + inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried + and fired. + + 2. The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs. While the + Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application of + their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished + objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture + decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork. The bricks were of very + open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects were + obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which formed a kind + of _cloison_ or boundary, the shallow cells between being filled in + with coloured clays--yellow, red or white--or with coloured glazes of + turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown. These glazes are + obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely prepared and + are always full of bubbles and consequently more or less opaque. Yet + the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid colour effect, + strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to a very high rank + among all the world's work in clay and glaze. The "Frieze of the + Archers" now in the Louvre may be mentioned as one of the finest + productions of its kind, and the Louvre and British Museum possess the + finest collections of this early architectural use of glazed and + coloured clay. (See also MURAL DECORATION ) + +Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-formed vases +made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were made. Small figures of +deities made of the same clay are often found. It is practically the +same terra-cotta as that of the inscribed tablets. None of the forms are +particularly distinctive (see fig. 10). The excavations of the French in +Persia have brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely +interesting painted ware, which belongs to a very early period. The +decoration is usually geometrical. The technique seems to be analogous +to the Mycenaean-Greek (_Firnismalerei_), and the whole effect is very +like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon pottery. The ware is +buff in colour and fine in texture, with a polished surface. The +decoration is sometimes in polychrome, but usually in the grey-brown +iron-glaze (?) alone. This pottery degenerates later and finally +disappears (20). + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Assyrian biscuit pottery.] + +During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century B.C.) we find a +polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown) obviously of +Egyptian origin. It was used, not for vases, but architectonically for +friezes, ornamental bosses, &c. Its origin may be found in Egypt under +the XVIIIth Dynasty, when Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and +Babylonia had regular diplomatic relations with Egypt In Asia this +polychrome decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had +ceased to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick +decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay +decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik. In the +Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see fig. 11) which are +probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imitations of Egyptian +faience. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.] + +Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed pottery +of which the slipper-shaped coffins, of the time were made (British +Museum, Nos. 1645-1647) (21). This glaze possibly contains a small +amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the contemporary +translucent blue glaze of Egypt. The Egyptian glaze certainly spread +into western Asia, and we find the last specimens of it in the tiles +from the destroyed city of Rhagae in Persia, which may be as late as the +13th century A.D. The lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman +period, may be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no +means clear. + + REFERENCES.--(1) Petrie-Quibell, _Ballas and Nagada_ (date erroneous); + (2) Jacques de Morgan, _L' Âge de la pierre et des métaux_; (3) + Petrie, _Diospolis Parva_, frontispiece (also for "sequence-dates" of + pottery); (4) Garstang, _Mahâsna and Bêt Khallâf_, pls. xxix.--xxxii.; + (5) Petrie, _Illahûn_, pl. xii. (corr. by V. Bissing in (14)); (6) V. + Bissing, _Catalogue générale du musée de Caire, _"Die + Fayencegefässe"; (7) Petrie, _Abydos_, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry + Wallis, _Egyptian Ceramic Art_ (Macgregor Collection); (9) _Guide to + Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum_, p. 252 ff.; (10) + Petrie, _Tel-el-Amarna_; (11) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian + Rooms_, p. 261; (12) Petrie, _Nagâda_, pl. xxviii.; (13) Petrie, + _Illahûn_, pls. xx., xxi.; (14) V. Bissing, _Strena Helbigiana_, p. 20 + ff.; (15) Garstang, _El Arábah_, pls. xviii.-xxi., xxviii., xxix.; + (16) Hall, _Oldest Civilization of Greece_, p. 143 ff. ibid. figs. 29, + 30, 69; (17) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms_, pl. viii.; + (18) Petrie, _Tell-el-Hesy_, pl. v.; (19) Welch, _Ann. Brit. Sch. + Ath_. vi.; (20) de Morgan, _Délégation en Perse_, viii. (1905); (21) + _Brit. Mus.: Guide to Babylonian and Assyrian Room_. (H. R. H.) + + +GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN + +GREEK. _Study of Greek Vases_.--It is not so many years since an account +of Greek pottery would naturally have followed chronologically the +history of Egyptian pottery with little overlapping; but recent +discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and, while up to the end of +the 19th century the earliest remains to be traced on Greek soil could +be assigned at the furthest to the period 2500-2000 B.C., it is now +possible not only to show that at that period technical processes were +highly developed, but even to trace a continuous development of Greek +pottery from the Neolithic age. This result has been mainly brought +about by Dr Arthur Evans's researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of +similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece. Whether the +race which produced this pottery can strictly be called Greek may be +open to question, but at all events the ware is the independent product +of a people inhabiting in prehistoric times the region afterwards known +as Greece; its connexion with the pottery of the historic period can now +be clearly traced, and in its advanced technical character and the +genuinely artistic appearance of its decoration even this early ware +proclaims itself as inspired by a similar genius. + +The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional impetus from +the light that it throws on the early civilization of the country, and +its value for the student of ethnology. But it has always appealed +strongly to the archaeologist and in some degree also to the artist or +connoisseur, to the former from its importance as a contribution to the +history of Greek art, mythology and antiquities, to the latter from its +beauty of form and decoration. Attention was first redirected to the +painted vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time +they served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur +or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the 18th +century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of more than +merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted to the elucidation +of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive at a chronological +classification. Two facts must, however, be borne in mind: firstly, that +down to the middle of the 19th century the great majority of painted +vases had been found only in Italy; secondly, that these vases were +mostly of the later and more florid styles, which, if artistically +advanced, are now known to represent a decadent phase of Greek art. + +From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were the product +not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the term "Etruscan vase" +arose and passed into the languages of Europe, surviving even at this +day in popular speech in spite of a century of refutation. Meanwhile, +the study of the subjects depicted on the vases passed through the +successive stages of allegorical, historical and mystical +interpretation, until a century and more of painstaking study led to the +more rational principles of modern archaeologists. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Jug from Cyprus of Oriental style, 10 in. +high.] + + _Sites and Discoveries_.--The sites on which Greek vases have been + found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from the + Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt. By far the great + majority, at all events of the finer specimens, have been extracted + from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the later + period or decadence have been found in large numbers on various sites + in southern Italy, such as Capua, Curnae and Nola in Campania, Anzi in + Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia. In the western Mediterranean, Sicily has + also been a fruitful field for this pottery, early varieties being + found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti and elsewhere. Painted + vases have also come to light in Sardinia and in North Africa, + especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds mostly belong to the 4th + century B.C. In Greece proper the most prolific site has been Athens, + where the finds extend from the Dipylon vases of the 8th century B.C. + down to the decadent productions of the 4th century; one group, that + of the white funeral _lekythoi_, is almost peculiar to Athens. Next to + this city, Corinth has been most productive, especially in pottery of + the archaic period and of local manufacture. Large quantities of + pottery of all periods have been yielded by Thebes, Tanagra and other + sites in Boeotia, and remains of the "Mycenaean" period at Mycenae, + Argos and elsewhere. But on the whole painted pottery is rare in other + parts of the mainland. Among the western islands of the archipelago, + Aegina and Euboea have proved fruitful in vases of all periods; Thera, + Melos and others of the Cyclades are remarkable for pottery of the + prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all Crete is + now famous for the wondrous series of painted and ornamented pottery + of pre-Mycenacan date, which can be traced back even to the Neolithic + period, and the discovery of which has entirely revolutionized the + preconceived theories on the appearance of painted pottery in Greece. + This has been found in the recent excavations at Cnossus, Palaeokastro + and elsewhere. In Asia Minor there have been some important finds on + the mainland, but only along the coast; some of the islands, more + especially Samos and Rhodes, have been more fruitful in this respect. + At Kertch and elsewhere in the Crimea, large numbers of fine but + somewhat florid vases of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. have come to + light. Cyprus has long been known as a rich field for pottery of all + periods, from the Mycenaean onwards, the later varieties being marked + by strong local quasi-oriental characteristics, with little + development from the more primitive types (figs. 12 and 13). The + principal sites are Salamis, Amathus, Marion (Poli) and Curium. + Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have + yielded results of considerable importance for the history of early + Greek vase-painting. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pottery from Cyprus with geometrical + ornament.] + + The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs; but some + important discoveries have been made on the sites of temples and + sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Naucratis. In such + cases the vases are seldom complete, having been broken up and cast + away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments have remained + undisturbed. The tombs vary greatly in form, those of Greece being + usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy often fine and + elaborate chambers with architectural details, and the manner in which + the vases are found in these tombs varies greatly. Plain unornamented + pottery is almost universal, and may be considered to have formed the + "tomb-furniture" proper--the painted vases being as in daily life + merely ornamental adjuncts. + + _Shapes and Uses of Greek Vases_.--The enormous number of painted + vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence of the + important part they must have played in the daily life, of the Greeks, + and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows the high + estimation in which they were held. It is, however, remarkable that, + with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its use in + daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical literature + which throw light on the purposes for which these vases were used. + Where any are described at full length there is always evidence that + metal vases are intended. Athenaeus and the lexicographers have indeed + put on record a long list of names of shapes, but it is only in a few + cases that we can be certain what forms they describe, or whether any + of the typical forms of existing vases can be identified with the + literary descriptions. + + We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly, the + uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly, the + classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery + which have come down to us. + + As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been discovered in + tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were made + principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had their uses + in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware cannot be + doubted. They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the commoner + wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us, being largely + ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on special occasions + for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at banquets or in + religious ceremonies. + + Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled cup + in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (_Cythera_) and + inscribed with the word [Greek: hêmikotylion] or "half-kotyle," + equivalent to about one-fourth of a pint. Another vase found at Athens + is supposed to represent the official [Greek: choinix] or quart, + having a capacity of 0.96 litre; it is inscribed [Greek: dêmosion] or + "official measure," and bears the official stamp of the state. + Conversely many names of vases, such as the _amphora_ or the _kotyle_, + were adopted to indicate measures of capacity for liquid or dry + commodities. Earthenware vessels were used for storing both liquids + and food, for the preparation of foods and liquids, and for the + various uses of the table and the toilet. That the painted ware was + used at banquets or on great occasions we learn from scenes depicted + on the vases themselves, in which vases painted with subjects appear + in use. In connexion with athletics, they were given as prizes, as in + the case of the Panathenaic _amphorae_, a class of vases given for + victories in the games held at Athens at the Panathenaic festivals, + where, however, they do not represent prizes so much as marks of + honour corresponding to modern racing cups. Vases were also used as + toys for children, as is proved by the discovery of many diminutive + specimens, chiefly jugs, in the tombs of children at Athens, on which + are depicted children playing at various games. They also served a + purely decorative use as domestic ornaments, being placed on columns + or shelves; or, in the case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the + wall. Many of the later Greek and Italian painted vases are very + carelessly decorated on the one side, which was obviously not intended + to be seen. + + We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory, + sacrificial or funerary. Of all these uses, especially the last, there + is ample evidence. That vases were often placed in temples or shrines + as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature + of the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that + painted pottery served the same purpose for those who could only + afford the humbler material. Of late years much light has been thrown + upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis of Athens, + at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta, where numerous + fragments have been found bearing inscriptions which attest their use + for such purposes. It was a well-known Greek custom to clear out the + temples from time to time and form rubbish-heaps (_favissae_) of the + disused vases and statuettes, which were broken in pieces as useless, + but it is to this very fact that we owe their preservation. At + Naucratis many of the fragments bear incised inscriptions, such as + [Greek: Apollônos eimi], "I am Apollo's" (possibly a memorandum of the + priest's, to mark consecrated property), or [Greek: ho deina anethêke + tê Aphroditê], "So-and-so dedicated me to Aphrodite." Fig. 14 gives + another example with a dedication to Apollo. At Penteskouphia, near + Corinth, a large series of painted tablets ([Greek: pinakes]), dating + from 600 to 550 B.C., with representations of Poseidon and dedicatory + inscriptions to that deity, were found in 1879. Votive offerings in + this latter form were common at all periods, and tablets painted with + figures and hung on trees or walls are often depicted on the vases, + usually in connexion with scenes representing sacrifices or offerings. + + There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones) + must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of + the Greeks. We read of them in connexion with the Athenian festival of + the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis. They were also + used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured cup in the + British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to Dionysus. + In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (_phiale_) is + invariable. + + But their most important use, and that to which their preservation is + mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies. They were not + only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the tombs + to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the ashes of the + dead or as "tomb-furniture," in accordance with Greek religious + beliefs in regard to the future life. Several classes of vases are + marked out by their subjects as exclusively devoted to this purpose, + such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at Athens, which + were placed outside the tombs, the white Athenian _lekythoi_ of the + 5th and 4th centuries B.C., and the large _krateres_ and other vases + of the 4th century B.C. found in the tombs of Apulia and other parts + of southern Italy. Their use as cinerary urns was perhaps more + restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases, though the + custom is well known and is referred to in literature from Homer + downwards. In "Mycenaean" times coffers ([Greek: larnakes]) of clay + were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine painted + examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the best periods + there are but isolated instances. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication + to Apollo.] + + The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of + Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of + form was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest + nomenclature; each form has its conventional name appended. These + shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in which + food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids were mixed + or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids were poured out or + food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other vases for the use of + the table or toilet. Thus we have the _pithos_ and _amphora_ for + storing wine, the _krater_ for mixing it, the _psykter_ for cooling + it, the _kyathos_ for ladling it out, and the _oinochoe_ or _prochoos_ + for pouring it out; the _hydria_ was used for fetching water from the + well. The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumerable, the + principal being the _kylix_, _kotyle_, _kantharos_, _rhyton_ + (drinking-horn) and _phiale_ (libation bowl). The _pyxis_ was used by + women at their toilet, and the _lekythos_, _alabastron_ and _askos_ + for oil and unguents. + + _Technical Processes_.--Though the Greeks succeeded in making pottery + of a very high order from the point of view of form and decoration, + the technical processes remained throughout of the most + elementary--for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the + simplest, and the temperature at which the ware was fired was not high + enough to introduce any serious difficulties. As we should expect, it + is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical processes + in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no + vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative + triumphs on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as + those that satisfied his predecessors. As in every other case + technical and artistic refinement went hand in hand. In the earliest + times the clay was used with very little preparation; at all events + before the introduction of the potter's wheel the finish is not to be + compared with that of the early races in Egypt. As the practice + developed no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain + districts, and these became centres of manufacture or the clays were + carried to other established centres. The primitive wares usually + exhibit the natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other + elementary pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no + gloss. Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it + becomes finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the + glowing orange, inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th + century B.C. In the vases of the later Italian centres the colour + again reverts to a paler hue. + + The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of + sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles. It was mixed + with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately fine + clay of two or three grades was obtained. Both red and whitish clays + were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that mixtures of + different clays gave the best results. The clay for the Athenian vases + was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica; and as it did not burn to a + very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (_rubrica_) was added to it to + produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes the best vases. + Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were also famous for their + clays, and at the first named tablets have been found bearing + representations of the digging of clay for pottery. + + [FIG. 15.--Shapes of Greek Vases.] + + The improved manipulation of the clays, and the increasing knowledge + that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture of other + substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way for what is + known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This delicate gloss, so + thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called glaze, but it + cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of finely-ground + glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability, as the Greek + potter used finer and finer clays and so was enabled to perfect his + shapes, he found that after a vase had been "thrown" he could get a + closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer clay + material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the wheel when + sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for such a purpose--of + very siliceous clay and ochre--would, when they were burnt in the + Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright colour, but also to + a glossy surface, especially where the flames had freely played about + them; and it is more in accordance with our knowledge to believe that + the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest Greek red vases was produced + in this way, for it seems impossible that it can have been a coating + of any special glaze. + + In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is + always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic + sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of about + 900° C., which a modern potter would consider very low. When broken + the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and is often + yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The material + is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it (another + proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the material of + Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing of the + secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of these + analyses may be summed up as follows: silica, 52-60 parts; alumina, + 13-19 parts; lime, 5-10 parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts; oxide of iron, + 12-19 parts. Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple red burning clays + would give a similar result. It is to the glory of the Greek potter + that with such ordinary materials, by the exercise of selection, + patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results we see. He + did as much as can be done with natural clay materials, but the glory + of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or Chinese, was + not for him. + + _Manufacture of Vases_.--The earliest Greek pottery is, like all + primitive pottery, hand-made. The introduction of the potter's wheel + into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but we now + know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive pottery + of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, for instance, the Bronze age + tombs of 2500-1500 B.C. contain only hand-made pottery, but in the + next period (1500-1000 B.C.) we find hand-made and coarse vases side + by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery--the + "Mycenaean"--obviously made on the wheel. It seems probable, + therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about 1500 B.C.; + it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion shows (_Il._ + xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with the hand, + not the foot; representations of its use are seen on several vases of + the archaic period (fig. 16), and they further prove that the vase was + replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of painting, + polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as for the + original shaping or "throwing." + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Votive tablet from Corinth; a potter applying + painted bands while the vessel revolves on the wheel.] + + The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same as that + still in use, need not be described in detail; the feet, necks, mouths + and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds, and attached + while the clay was moist, as is also indicated on a vase. Large and + coarse vases, such as wine casks ([Greek: pithoi]), were always + modelled by hand on a kind of hooped mould ([Greek: kannabos]). + + Parts of vases were modelled by hand at all periods by way of + decoration. Even in the geometrical period we find horses modelled in + the round on the covers of vases and later on handles enriched with + moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such embellishments + are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations of metal forms, + but the plastic principle is one which obtained in Greek pottery from + the very first, as for instance in the primitive pottery of Troy, in + which the vases are often modelled in human or animal forms; and the + same principle is involved in the common practice of speaking of the + "neck," "shoulder" or "foot" of a vessel. In the best period the + practice of adding moulded ornaments or of modelling vases in natural + forms took a subsidiary place, but examples occur from time to time, + as in the beautiful _rhyta_ or drinking-horns of the red-figure period + (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller details such as are seen in + handles enriched with heads in relief, a favourite practice of the + potter Nicosthenes. In the 4th-century vases of southern Italy the + handles are often much ornamented in this fashion, as in the large + _krateres_, where they are adorned with masks in relief. + + The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with designs in + relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence of the art, + when imitations of metal were superseding the painted pottery. Even + then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a mould, except in + the case of those in the form of human figures or animals (Plate II., + figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the heading of terra-cotta + figures, except for the fact that they are usually painted in the + manner of the vases. But in southern Italy the tendency to imitate + metal led to the popularity of ornaments made separately from moulds + and attached or let in to vases otherwise plain. Vases of this period, + with reeded bodies, must also have been made from moulds, as were a + series of _phialae_ or libation-bowls associated with Cales in + Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are known to be direct imitations + of metal. + + All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black glaze + or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of those + moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia with + opaque colouring laid on the varnish. Some of these plain black vases + of the 4th century are ornamented with _stamped_ patterns made with a + metal punch impressed in the moist clay. This decoration is confined + to simple patterns. + + After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried in the sun + and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnishing and + painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought out by a + process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed with a + piece of wood or hard leather. On a vase in Berlin a boy is seen + applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably for this + purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has evidently not + been varnished. Many vases are varnished black all over the exterior + (whether decorated with designs or not) with the exception of the foot + and lip. + + The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in the + potter's art. It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-dried + vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have come + down to us have been baked. The amount of heat required was regulated + by the character of the ware, but was not very high. Many examples + exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected to too much or + too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish or reddish + hue. Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an ashen-grey + colour, the black remaining unimpaired. Other accidents were liable to + occur in the baking, such as cracking under too great heat, or the + damaging of the shape by vases knocking against one another and so + being dented in or crushed. The form of the oven was of the simplest + (fig. 17). No furnaces have been found in Greece, and only one or two + in Italy, but we have a variety of evidence from vase-paintings. They + were fed by fires from beneath, and the vases were inserted with a + long shovel. They were heated with charcoal or wood fuel, and there + are representations of men poking or raking the fires with + long-handled implements. One vase-painting gives a bird's-eye view, in + horizontal section, of the interior of an oven full of jugs of various + forms. Others have more complete presentations of potteries, with men + engaged in the different processes of vase manufacture, modelling, + painting or supplying the kilns with newly-made wares. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Model of Kiln found in Essex.] + + _The Painting of Vases_.--We may distinguish three principal classes + of painted pottery, of Which two admit of subdivision. + + 1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly + linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush. + The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing + into black. The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse. + + 2. Greek vases painted with figures. These may be subdivided as + follows:-- + + (a) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground. + + (b) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of shining + black. + + 3. Vases with polychrome decoration. + + (a) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in + various colours on white ground (these range from the 6th to the 4th + century B.C.). + + (b) Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid over a + ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive period to the + 3rd century B.C.). + + Of these the second group is by far the largest and most important, + including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek + vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the + technical processes by which the most successful results were + obtained. In both the classes (a) and (b) the colouring is almost + confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black. + + This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies + under different circumstances according to differences of locality, of + manufacture or accidents of production. It is seen in its greatest + perfection in the "Nolan" _amphorae_ of the earlier red-figure period, + at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Greek vases. + The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat, + i.e. stoving at a higher or lower temperature. It also varies in + thickness. At present no certainty has been attained as to its + composition--Brongniart's oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted --nor + has any acid been found to have an effect upon it, though the chemical + action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear. + + The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the + black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the + former which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole + vase being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red + to receive the figures. It is obvious that the transition to merely + leaving the figures red is but a slight one. But in all black-figured + vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black + silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly + indicated by a pointed instrument making a faint line. The surface + within these outlines being filled in with black, details of anatomy, + dress, &c., were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed + tool. After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the + designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple and + white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in their + respective use. After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix + these colours the vase was complete. + + In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background. + But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not + by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their + contours. Recent researches have attempted to show that the instrument + with which this was achieved may have been a feather brush or pen, by + which the lines were drawn separately, not concurrently. The other + tools used for painting would be an ordinary metal or reed pen and a + camel's-hair brush, or at any rate something analogous. Thus the + outlines of the figures were clearly marked, and the process is one of + drawing rather than painting, but it was in draughtsmanship that the + best vase-painters excelled. The next stage was to mark the inner + details by very fine black lines or by masses of black for surfaces + such as the hair; white and purple were also employed, but more + sparingly than on the earlier vases. The main processes always remain + the same down to the termination of vase-painting, though the tendency + to polychromy, which came in about the end of the 5th century B.C., + effected some modifications. The blacking of the whole exterior + surface--a purely mechanical process--took place after the figures had + been completed and protected from accidents by the thick black border + of which we have spoken. + + A fragment of an unfinished vase preserved in the Sèvres Museum gives + a very clear idea of the process just described, the figures being + completed, but the back ground not yet applied (fig. 18). There is + also another vase in existence which gives the interior of a + vase-painter's studio, in which three artists are at work with their + brushes, their paint-pots by their side. + + [Illustration: (From a photo supplied by the Director of the Sèvres + Museum) + + FIG. 18.--Fragment of unfinished red-figured vase] + + In the class of vases (3 (a)), with polychrome figures on a white + ground, the essential feature is the white slip or _engobe_ with which + the naturally pale clay is covered. In the archaic vases of the 7th + and 6th centuries B.C., especially in the Ionian centres, as at + Rhodes, Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but + with this, difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary + black-figure method, the only additional colour being purple laid on + the black. We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or + outline, in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th + century B.C., which technically are of a very advanced character. The + colours used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow, + crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were + not fired. + + In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in the + class of _lekythoi_ or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral + uses. Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with + handles, &c., were covered with a coating of white clay. A second + coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration, + and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and + finally fired at a low temperature. The decoration was achieved as + follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines, ignoring + draperies, &c., and not always followed when the colours were laid on. + This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour being applied + with a fine brush in monochrome--black, yellow or red--following the + lines of the sketch. For the drapery and other details polychrome + washes were employed, laid on with a large brush. All varieties of red + from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow, blue, black and + green. Hair is treated either in outline or by means of washes. + + Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (b)) in which + opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with + which the whole vase is coated. This method is met with at three + distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long + distances of time. + + We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where it seems + to have been introduced not long after the close of the Neolithic + period, about 2500 B.C., and where it holds its own for about a + thousand years against the contrasted method of "dark on light" + painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of + "Mycenaean" civilization in Crete. The colouring is very varied, + orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed. + + The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a small + class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of transition + between the black-figured and red-figured. White and orange-red are + here employed, sometimes with accessory details in purple and black + and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually black-figured, + though the appearance of the vases is often red-figured. Lastly, it + appears in southern Italy as a final effort of vase-painting to + flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd century. Some of + these vases were made in Campania, where the method resembles that of + the Attic class just described, others in Apulia, probably at Gnathia. + The latter have feeble conventional decoration in purple and white + with details in yellow, confined to one side of the vases, and are + also distinguished by the use of ornaments in relief. They were also + occasionally made in Greece proper. + + Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters, + especially in the best periods. The deep purple used for accessory + details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on + the white _lekythoi_ is an ochre ([Greek: miltos], _rubrica_). The + white also used for accessories is an earth or clay; in the slip + coating of the white ground vases it assumes the consistency of + pipe-clay. Yellow, where used for details on the later vases, is an + ochre, and blue and green are produced from artificial compounds + containing copper. A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and + green, used by the polychrome painters, are obviously artificial + pigments which have not been fired. When gilding was employed it was + laid on over a raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool + or brush, and was attached by varnish, not by fire. + + _Potters and Inscriptions_.--The potters who made these vases were + mostly--at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, B.C.--[Greek: + metoikoi], or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply. We + have an Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and + a Scythes. The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases + seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities + may be merely due to the use of a vernacular. They formed a gild or + fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less + division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of + slaves. This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing + the interior of potteries. Others again "specialized" in different + shapes, and were known as [Greek: chutroplathoi], [Greek: + lêkuthopoioi], and so on. + + Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five hundred + vases. They go back to about 700 B.C., the earliest names being found + on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority of the signatures + are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares. Some, such as + Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are combined. The best + known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs eighty times. The + ordinary forms of signature are four--(1) [Greek: ho deina epoiêsen]; + (2) [Greek: ho deina hegrapsen ]; (3) [Greek: ho deina hegrapse kahi + epoiêsen]; (4) A [Greek: hegrapse]. B [Greek: epoiêsen]. Where [Greek: + epoiêse] alone occurs (as in a signature of Euxitheus), it probably + refers to the master of the pottery who designed the vase and + superintended its production; in other cases the share of the actual + artist is clearly indicated. Some artists, such as Duris and Makron, + sign [Greek: hegrapse] alone; in all cases, the form of signature + affords us a useful guide to their style. + + Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases, + which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations + uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the [Greek: kalos] + names discussed below; all these are painted on the designs + themselves. There is also another class of _graffiti_ inscriptions, + which includes those incised by the owners with their names and + memoranda scratched under the foot, probably made by the potter or his + workmen relating to the number of vases in a batch or "set" and their + price. + + _Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares_.--In Greek tombs a class of pottery + is often found which approximates, more in appearance to porcelain, + but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porcelain at all, + but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which it is in + point of fact an imitation. It is distinguished by the white gritty + material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and forming + what is sometimes known as "frit" from its semi-vitreous consistency. + The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale blue or cream + colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple or brown are + sometimes found. Some of the earliest examples of this ware have been + found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus, in the form of vases + moulded in the shape of human or animal heads. These exhibit a + remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more like Greek work + of the 6th century B.C. Apart from the technique they have nothing in + common with the Egyptian importations so often found in Mycenaean + tombs. + + In a subsequent period (8th-7th century B.C.) Egyptian objects in + faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those of + Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy, through + the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of faience occur in + the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 B.C.) and similar vases with a + pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs of the same date. In + Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found ornamented with friezes of men + and animals in relief, or imitating in colour and design the glass + vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems probable that the Greeks of + Rhodes and other centres attempted the imitation of this ware (see + fig. 19), for we find faience _aryballi_ or globular oil-flasks + modelled in the form of helmeted heads or animals, which are purely + Greek in style. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Enamelled pottery from tombs in Rhodes, made + under Egyptian influence.] + + In the Hellenistic period the fashion was revived at Alexandria, and + under the Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled faience with figures + in relief and bearing the names of reigning sovereigns were made and + exported to the Cyrenaica and to southern Italy. Two of these are in + the British Museum (Egyptian department). The same collection includes + a very beautiful glazed vase in the form of Eros riding on a duck, + found in a tomb at Tanagra, but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a + head of a Ptolemaic queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze. + + Subsequently in the 1st century B.C., this so-called porcelain ware + was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly + coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often + indicated. This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus + in Asia Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was + probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not + confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures; + the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal + (Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green + to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different + tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with figures + or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of these + glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and oxide + of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the green + and yellow glazes of medieval Europe.[7] + +HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF GREEK VASE-PAINTING.--It has been indicated in the +section dealing with technical processes that Greek vases may be +classified under four headings according to the character of the +decoration, and this classification may with a slight modification be +adopted as a chronological one, the history of the art falling under +four main heads, under which it will be convenient to describe its +development from the earliest specimens of painted pottery down to the +period when it was finally replaced by other methods of decoration. + + These four classes and their main characteristics may be summarized as + follows:-- + + I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_ from about 2500 or 2000 to 600 + B.C., including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages of + historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated in + polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining black on + a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown or black + (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying from white to + pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked by its + naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the latter the + ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals; human + figures and mythological scenes being very rare. + + II. _Black-figured Vases_ from about 600-500 B.C.; figures painted in + shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to bright + orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for details; + subjects mainly from mythology and legend. + + III. _Red-figured Vases_, from 520 to 400 B.C.; figures drawn in + outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining + black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple + and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are + included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In these, + which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of vase-painting + is reached between 480 and 450 B.C. + + IV. _Vases of the Decadence_, from 400 to 200 B.C.; mostly from + southern Italy, technique as in Class III., but the drawing is free + and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal, + theatrical and fanciful. At the end of this period vases are largely + replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms, or + with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal + vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation + of the Hellenistic world. + +I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_.--It has been noted in the +introductory section that it is possible to trace the development of +pottery in Greece as far back as the Neolithic period, owing chiefly to +the light recently thrown on the subject by the excavations in Crete. +These have yielded large quantities of painted pottery of high technical +merit, usually with decoration in polychrome or white on a dark ground, +in what is known as the Kamares ware, covering the period 2500-1500 B.C. +(fig. 20). This was gradually superseded by painting in dark shining +pigments on a light glossy ground during the later Minoan period +(1500-1000 B.C.), forming what is known as the "Mycenaean" style. The +subjects, though chiefly confined to floral ornaments or aquatic plants +and creatures, are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their +treatment, often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East. +In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread all +over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found in Greece, +especially at Mycenae, in Rhodes and other Greek islands, and in Cyprus, +where a series of vases with animals, monsters, and even human figures +shows what is probably the latest development of the pure Minoan or +Mycenaean style. + +[Illustration: From _Annual of the British School at Athens_. + +FIG. 20.--Minoan or "Kamares" ware, from Crete.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Primitive black pottery from the Troad.] + +Outside Crete the earliest Greek pottery has been found in Cyprus and at +Troy, with simple incised or painted patterns on a black polished +ground, the vases being all hand-made, and often treated in a plastic +fashion with rude modelling of human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22); +these cover the period 2500-2000 B.C. Early painted pottery, parallel +with the Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important +cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos. But until the general spread of +Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second +millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and +successful development can be studied. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Primitive red pottery from the Troad.] + +About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by the Dorian +invasion (1100 B.C.) the then decadent Mycenaean civilization was +replaced by a new one much more backward in development, making pottery +of a far simpler and more conventional type, the decoration being +largely confined to geometrical patterns to the exclusion of motives +derived from plant forms. This is usually known as the geometrical +style, and the pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 B.C. It +is found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits a +certain development towards a more advanced stage. The patterns include +the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander, and the circle, in +various combinations, painted in dull black on a brown ground. In most +places the art advanced no further, but in Boeotia, and still more at +Athens, we can trace the gradual growth of decorative skill, first in +the introduction of animals, and then in the appearance of the human +figure. In the Athenian cemetery outside the Dipylon gate a series of +colossal vases has come to light, on which are painted such subjects as +sea-fights and funeral processions. The human figures are exceedingly +rude and conventional, painted almost entirely in silhouette, but there +is a distinct striving after artistic effect in the composition and +arrangement. In Boeotia the vases do not advance beyond the animal +stage, and many exhibit a tendency to decadence in their carelessness, +as contrasted with the painstaking helplessness of the Athenian artists. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vase with bands of animals, Oriental in style, +(British Museum.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles +and Hera, and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.] + +In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the art of +vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean tradition, and was +distinguished by its naturalism and originality, and by the bold and +diverse effects produced by variety of colour or novelty of subject. The +ornamentation is at first elementary, consisting of friezes of animals, +especially lions, deer and goats (figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand +out sharply in black against the creamy buff ground which is +characteristic of nearly all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out +by means of engraved lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by +drawing parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the +clay ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments such +as rosettes and crosses in great variety of form to cover the +background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek artist abhorred. +The system of decoration has been thought to owe much to Assyrian +textile fabrics. + +One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic pottery is +a _pinax_ or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum, on which is +represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus +(fig. 25); their names are inscribed over the figures, and this is +almost the earliest known instance of a mythological subject, the date +of the painting being not later than 600 B.C. To a slightly later date +belongs another remarkable group of cups with figures on a white ground, +probably made at Cyrene in North Africa. Of these the most famous has a +painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Cyrene from 580 to +550 B.C., weighing goods for export in a ship. Others have mythological +subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus, Cadmus and Pelops. + +But these vases, though still retaining the older technique, really +belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases, and they belong +to a time when in all Ionian centres this method was being superseded by +the new technique which Corinth had introduced and Athens perfected, to +the consideration of which we must return. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest +of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.] + +For some 150 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry of pottery on +the west of the Aegean. Large numbers of examples have been found in or +near the city itself, many bearing inscriptions in the peculiar local +alphabet. They show a continuous progress from the simplest +ornamentation to fully-developed black-figured wares. In the earliest +(Plate I. fig. 52) oriental influence is very marked, the surface being +so covered with the figures and patterns that the background disappears +and the designs are at times almost unintelligible. The general effect +is thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely +chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian art, such +as the sphinx and gryphon. The vases are mostly small, the ground varies +from cream to yellow, and the figures are painted in black and purple. + +Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th century +the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a unification of +styles under the growing influence of Athens. In Ionia (see above) +figure subjects become more common, and the technique approaches +gradually nearer to the black-figure method. Similarly at Corinth the +ground ornaments diminish and disappear, the friezes of animals are +restricted to the borders of the designs, and human figures are +introduced, first singly, then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged +in some definite action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last +stages Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new development, +traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of Athens, was the +distinguishing of female figures by the use of white for flesh tints. A +somewhat similar development was in progress at Athens, though +represented by comparatively few vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian +and Ionian technical improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th +century the fully developed black-figure style which by degrees +supplanted or assimilated all other schools. + +II. _Black-figured Vases_.--At the head of this new development stands +the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi in 1844 (Plate I. +fig. 53). Its shape is that of a _krater_ or mixing-bowl, and it bears +the signatures of its maker and decorator in the form "Ergotimos made +me, Klitias painted me." It might be described as a Greek mythology in +miniature, with its numerous subjects and groups of figures all from +legendary sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager, +or the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their names +inscribed. + +The general technique of the black-figured vases has already been +described. It may be noted as a chronological guide that the use of +purple for details is much commoner in the earlier vases, white in the +later, but towards the end of the century when the new fashion of red +figures was gaining ground, both colours were almost entirely dropped. +The drawing of the figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and +conventional, though it advanced considerably in freedom before the +style went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully and +delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and +affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias (Plate I. +fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication of date, ranging +from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing lines of angular falling +folds. + +The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters of this period +are the _amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe_ and _lekythos,_ the +first-named being the most popular. A special class of _amphorae_ is +formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given as prizes in the +Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure of the patron goddess +Athena on one side and a representation of the contest in which they +were won on the other (fig. 26). They usually bear the inscription +[Greek: tôn Athênêthen athlôn eimiruv] "I am (a prize) from the games at +Athens." Some of these can be dated by the names of Athenian archons +which they bear, as late as the 4th century, the old method of painting +in black figures with a stiff conventional pose for the goddess being +retained for religious reasons. + +FIG. 26.--Panathenaic amphora. + +The chief interest of the black-figured vases is really derived from +their subjects, which range over every conceivable field, the proportion +of myth and legend to scenes from daily life being much greater than in +the succeeding period. They include groups of Olympian and other +deities, and the various scenes in which they take part, such as the +battle of the gods and giants, or the birth of Athena (treated in a very +conventional manner, as on a fine _amphora_ in the British Museum); +Dionysus and his attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits +of Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy and +other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life, battle scenes, +athletics, the chase and so on. The same classification of course holds +good for the later periods of vase-painting, with some exceptions. The +proportion of genre-scenes subsequently becomes greater, and some myths +disappear, others rise into prominence, new deities such as Eros +(Love), and Nik[=e] (Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally +speaking, the later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or +tendency to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional +stereotyped compositions of the 6th century artist. + +A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is that a +stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted at least for the +principal figures, but minor variations are generally to be found, as, +for instance, in the number of bystanders; and it is almost an +impossibility to find any two vase-paintings which are exact duplicates. +The form of the composition, was partly determined by the field +available for the design; when this took the form of a long frieze the +space was filled up with a series of spectators or the repetition of +typical groups, but when the design is on a framed panel or confined by +ornamental borders the method of treatment is adapted from that of a +sculptured metope, and the figures limited to two or three. In many +cases it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether +or no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological types are +over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary life, even to the +divine attributes or poses of certain figures. + +[Illustration: Vase by Andocides. Black figures on obverse. + +Vase by Andocides. Red figures on reverse. + +FIG. 27.] + +Among the artists of the period who have left their names on the vases, +besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous is Nicosthenes, a +potter of some originality, from whose hand we have over seventy +examples, a few being in the red-figure method. He is supposed to have +introduced at Athens a revival of the Ionic fashion of painting on a +cream-coloured ground instead of on red, of which some very effective +examples have been preserved. He was always a potter rather than a +painter, and most of his vases are remarkable for their +forms--introducing plastic imitations of metal vases--rather than for +their painted decoration. Most of the artists of this period, as in the +succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (_kylikes_), but this +form did not receive so much attention from the painter as at a later +period, and many of these examples bear only inscriptions and no painted +decoration. + +III. _Red-figured Vases._--The sudden reversal of technical method +involved in the change from black figures on a red ground to red figures +on black is not at first sight easy of explanation. Some artists, like +Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods, sometimes on the same +vase, and there is no doubt that the two went on for some years +concurrently. As, however, no intermediate stage is possible, there is +no question of development or transition. The new style was in fact a +bold and ingenious innovation. It may possibly have been suggested by a +small class of vases in which the figures are painted in the +black-figure _method_, but have the converse appearance, that is to say +they are painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black. It +may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could obtain the same +effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted on the red clay and +surrounding them with the black. The change, must, however, be closely +associated with the career of the artist Andocides, who not only +produced vases in each method, but also several in which the two are +combined (fig. 27). In two or three cases the subject is actually the +same on each side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the +colouring is reversed. + +The date at which the change took place was formerly placed well on in +the 5th century, on account of the great advance in drawing which most +of the red-figured vases show, as compared with the black. They were +thus regarded as contemporary with the painter Polygnotus, if not with +Pheidias. But the excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many +fragments in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier than +480 B.C., that it has become necessary to find an earlier date for its +appearance. This is now usually placed at about 520 B.C., overlapping +with the preceding period. + +The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking the chief +stages of development, and known respectively as the "severe," "strong," +"fine," and "late fine" periods. Their principal characteristics and +representative painters may be briefly enumerated. + +In the _severe_ period there is no marked advance on the black-figured +vases as regards style. The figures are still more or less stiff and +conventional, and some vases even show signs of an analogous decadence. +The real development is partly technical, partly in the introduction of +new subjects. Although the change of style probably had its actual +origin in the _amphora_, as treated by Andocides, the new developments +are best seen in the _kylix_, a form of vase which now sprang into +popularity and called forth the chief efforts of the principal artists. +Its curved surface gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and +decorative arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their +attention to perfecting it as a work of decorative art. For other +shapes, such as the _hydria_, and _lekythos_, the old method was for a +time preferred. + +The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other famous +cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias. The earliest cups +are decorated in a quite simple fashion like those of the black-figure +period, often with a single figure each side between two large +"symbolical" eyes, and a single figure in a circle in the interior. To +the latter the artist at first devoted his chief efforts, though even +here his scope was at first limited. But although he had not yet +attained to skill in composition, he did discover that the circular +space was well adapted for exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a +draughtsman and for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived +attitudes. In all cases the object was to fill the space as far as +possible, a characteristic of all the best Greek art. By degrees more +attention was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single +figures were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form of +friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the end of +this period. Epictetus was throughout his career a thoroughly "archaic" +artist, but a considerable advance was made by Cachrylion, who stands +on the verge of the succeeding stage. + +The _strong_ period centres round the name of Euphronius, the author of +a really great artistic movement. His capacity for inventing new +subjects or new poses--or otherwise overcoming technical and artistic +difficulties--marks a great advance on all previous achievements, and he +seems to represent the stage of development traditionally associated +with the painter Cimon of Cleonae, the inventor of foreshortening and +other novelties. Thus figures were no longer represented exclusively in +profile, as in the black-figured vases which had made no advance beyond +the conventions of Egyptian art. Ten vases signed by him are in +existence (though it is not certain that all were actually painted by +him), most of them having mythological subjects (fig. 28). + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Cup by Euphronius.] + +Of his contemporaries, Duris, Hieron and Brygus take foremost rank, all +three being, like Euphronius, essentially cup-painters, though they use +other forms at times. For decorative effect and beauty of composition +their vases have never been surpassed. As an example we may quote a +_kotyle_ or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with a group +of Eleusinian deities. The larger vases of this period are more rarely +signed, but many of them rival the cups in execution, though the +subjects are characterized by greater simplicity and largeness of style. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.] + +In _the fine_ style (460-440 B.C.) breadth of effect and dignity are +aimed at, and although cup-painting had passed its zenith, and signed +specimens become rarer, yet, considering the red-figured vases as a +whole, this period exhibits the perfection of technique and drawing. In +many of the larger vases the scenes are of a pictorial character, +landscape being introduced, with figures ranged at different levels, and +herein we may see a reflection of the style of the painter Polygnotus. +One of the finest cups in this style is in the Berlin Museum, it is +signed by the artists Erginus and Aristophanes, and the subject is the +battle of the gods and giants. To the end of the period belongs a +beautiful _hydria_ in the British Museum by the painter Meidias with +subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29). Generally speaking, +there is a reaction in favour of mythological subjects. + +In the _late fine_ style, which begins about 440 B.C., the pictorial +effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the +compositions deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once +over-refined and careless. The figures are crowded together without +meaning or interest. The fashion also arose of enhancing the designs by +means of accessory colours--almost unknown in the previous stages--such +as white laid on in masses, blue and green, and even with gilding. +Athletic and mythological subjects yield place to scenes from the life +of women and children or meaningless groups of figures (fig. 30). + +A good example of this style is an _amphora_ from Rhodes with the +subject of Peleus wooing Thetis, in which polychrome colouring and +gilding are introduced. There are also many imposing and elaborate +specimens found (and perhaps made) in the colonies of the Crimea and the +Cyrenaica; in particular one signed by Xenophantus with the Persian king +hunting, and another representing the contest of Athena and Poseidon for +the soil of Attica, both from the Crimea. + +Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the figures are +painted on a white slip or _engobe_ resembling pipe-clay, with which the +whole surface was covered; the figures are drawn in outline in red or +black, and partly filled in with washes of colour, chiefly red, purplish +red, or brown, but sometimes also with blue or green. This style seems +to have been popular about the middle of the 5th century B.C. and was +employed for the funeral _lekythoi_ which came into fashion at Athens +about that time. These vases, which form a class by themselves, were +made specially for funeral ceremonies and were painted with subjects +relating to the tomb, such as the laying-out of the corpse on the bier, +the ferrying of the dead over the Styx by Charon, or (most frequently) +mourners bringing offerings to the tomb (fig. 31). They continued to be +made well on into the 4th century, but the later examples are very +degenerate and careless. + +Of other forms, especially the _kylix_ and the _pyxis_ (toilet-box), +some exceedingly beautiful specimens have come down to us, which show a +delicacy of drawing and firmness of touch never surpassed, although the +lines were probably only drawn with a brush. The technique of these +vases may reflect the methods of the painter Polygnotus and his +contemporaries, who used a limited number of colours on a white ground. +Among them no finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum +with Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown +outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and +refinement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis, +showing painted vases used to decorate a lady's room. On the left is a +gilt pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right +two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated +with painted figures, and contain flowers.] + +In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same variety of +choice as on the black-figured, but on the other hand there is +infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The stereotyped form of +composition is almost entirely discarded, and each painter forms his own +conception of his subject. The class of slim _amphorae_, known as +"Nolan" from the place where they were mostly found, are distinguished +by having the design limited to one or at most two figures on each side, +often on a large scale; these vases are also famous for the marvellous +brilliance of their shining black (fig. 32). + +Towards the middle of the 5th century the patriotism of the Athenian +artist finds expression in the growing importance which he attaches to +local legends, especially those of Theseus, the typical Attic hero. He +seems to have been regarded as the typical Athenian athlete or +_ephebus_, and his contests as analogous to episodes of the gymnasium. +Hence the grouping on some vases of scenes from his labours are like so +many groups of athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general tendency of +the red-figured vases, especially the cups, to become a sort of +glorification of the Attic _ephebus_, the representations of whom in all +sorts of occupations are out of all proportion to other subjects. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Funeral lekythos showing vases placed inside +tomb.] + +We find evidence of this, too, in another form. Many vases, especially +the cups of the "severe" and "strong" periods, bear names of persons +inscribed on the designs with the word [Greek: kalos], "fair" or +"noble," attached; sometimes merely, "the boy is fair." The exact +meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evidence seems to +show that the persons celebrated must have been quite young at the time, +and were probably youths famous for their beauty or athletic prowess. +Some of the names are those of historical characters, such as +Hipparchus, Miltiades or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be +identified with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been +obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases, Further, +the practice of the vase-painter of adopting his own particular +favourite name or set of names has enabled us to increase our knowledge +of the characteristics of individual artists by identifying unsigned +vases with the work of particular schools. + +IV. _Vases of the Decadence_.--For all practical purposes the red-figure +style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the city in 404 B.C. +Painted vases did not then altogether cease to be made, as the +Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral _lekythoi_ testify, but at the +same time a rapid decadence set in. The whole tendency of the 4th +century B.C. in Greece was one of decentralization, and the art of +vase-painting was no exception, for we find that there must have been a +general migration of craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and +to North Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief +centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and flourishing +Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Tarentum, Paestum and +Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an addition to their many +luxuries. In the character of the vases of this period we see their +tendencies reflected, especially in their splendid or showy aspect; the +only aim being size and gaudy colouring. + +The general method of painting remains that of the Athenian red-figure +vases, but with entire loss of simplicity or refinement, either in the +ornamentation, the choice of colours, or the drawing of the figures. +Large masses of white are invariably employed, especially for the flesh +of women or of Eros, the universally present god of Love, and for +architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair or +features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-purple +uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have subjects, are devoid +of all accessory colouring, and the figures are drawn with the greatest +carelessness, as if not intended to be seen. There is throughout a +lavish use of ornamental patterns such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves, +or ornaments strewn over the field (a reversion to an old practice). + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--"Nolan" amphora by Euxitheus (c. 450 B.C.), +figure of Briseis; the other side has Achilles.] + +The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the opposite +extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often effeminate. The +fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of the figures and the +frequent architectural settings seem to indicate that theatrical +representations exercised much influence on the vase-painters. The great +painters of the 4th century may also have contributed their share of +inspiration, but rather perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to +style; though the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly +pictorial, they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic +themes. + +The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as comedy +plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others indirectly, +from the plays of Euripides, such as the _Medea_, _Hecuba_ (Plate II. +fig. 60), or _Hercules Furens_, and the arrangement of the scenes is +essentially theatrical. The influence of comedy is seen in subjects +derived from the _phlyakes_, a kind of farce or burlesque popular in +southern Italy, and here again the setting is adapted from the stage, +some vases having parodies of myths, others comic scenes of daily life. + +Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were +expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear +representations of the underworld, with groups of figures undergoing +punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted--sometimes +containing effigies of the deceased, at which the relatives make +offerings--as on the Athenian _lekythoi_. But by far the greater portion +of the subjects are taken from daily life, many of these being of a +purely fanciful and meaningless character like the designs on Sèvres or +Meissen china; the commonest type is that of a young man and a woman +exchanging presents, the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes +of courtship. + +The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four different +types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania, Campania and +Apulia, each with its special features of technique, drawing and +subjects. In Lucanian vases the drawing is bold and restrained, more +akin to that of the Attic vases; in Campania a fondness for polychromy +is combined with careless execution. In Apulia a tendency to +magnificence exemplified in the great funeral and theatrical vases is +followed by a period of decadence characterized by small vases of +fantastic form with purely decorative subjects. Besides these we have +the school of Paestum, represented by two artists who have left their +names on their vases, Assteas and Python. A well-known example of the +work of the former is a _krater_ in Madrid with Heracles destroying his +children, a theatrical and quasi-grotesque composition, and there is a +fine example of Python's work in a _krater_ in the British Museum, with +Alkmena, the mother of Heracles, placed on the funeral pyre by her +husband Amphitryon, and rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig. +55). + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Cup with exploits of Theseus.] + +About the end of the 3rd century B.C. the manufacture of painted vases +would seem to have been rapidly dying out in Italy, as had long been the +case elsewhere, and their place is taken by unpainted vases modelled in +the form of animals and human figures, or ornamented with stamped and +moulded reliefs. These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and +so-called "Samian" red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we +see a tendency to the imitation of metal vases, which, with the growth +of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced painted pottery +both for use and ornament; the pottery of the period is reduced to a +subordinate and utilitarian position, merely supplying the demands of +those in the humbler spheres of life. + + _Collections_.--The majority of the painted vases now in existence are + to be found in the various public museums and collections of Europe, + of which the largest and most important are the British Museum, the + Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come the collections at + Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and St Petersburg; isolated + specimens of importance are to be found in other museums, as at + Florence, Madrid or the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. Most of the + great private collections of the two preceding centuries have now been + dispersed. In recent years the Boston Museum has raised America to a + level with Europe in this respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New + York contains a vast collection of Cypriote pottery. + + LITERATURE.--Important original articles are to be found in various + archaeological journals such as _American Journal of Archaeology_ + (1885, &c); _Annual of the British School at Athens_ (1894, &c.); + _Athenische Mitteilungen_ (1876, &c.); _Bulletin de correspondance + hellénique_ (1877, &c.); _Comptes rendus de la commission impériale + archéologique_ (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); _Gazette archéologique_ + (Paris, 1875-1889); _Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen + archäologischen Instituts, Berlin_ (1886, &c.); _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_ (1880, &c.); _Monumenti antichi_ (Milan, 1890, &c.); + _Monuments grecs_ (Paris, 1872-1898); _Monuments Piot_ (Paris, 1894, + &c.); _Revue archéologique_ (Paris, 1844, &c.). The older works have + been recently superseded by important publications embodying the + latest views such as Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen des + strengen rotfigurigen Stils_ (1893); Louvre, _Catalogue des vases + antiques de terre cuite_, by E. Pottier (1896, &c.); S. Reinach, + _Répertoire des vases peints_ (Paris, 1899-1900); H. B. Walters, + _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with + an excellent bibliographical list; also art. "Hischylos" in _J.H.S._ + xxix. (1909) p. 103. + +ETRUSCAN POTTERY--Parallel with the development of the art of pottery in +Greece runs the course of the art in Etruria, though with far inferior +results; in its later stages it is actually no more than a feeble +imitation of the Greek. The period of time which we must consider +extends from the Bronze age (1000 B.C. or earlier) down to the 3rd +century B.C., when Etruscan civilization was merged into Roman. + +The earliest civilization traced in Italy is not, strictly speaking, +Etruscan, but may perhaps be more accurately styled "Umbrian." It is +usually referred to as the "Terramare" period from the remains +discovered in that district in the basin of the Po. These people were +lake-dwellers, barely removed from the Neolithic stage of culture, and +their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and roughly baked. Cups +and pots have been found sometimes with simple decoration in the form of +knobs or bosses, and many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a +support for the thumb. + +The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as "Etruscan," is +known as the "Villanova" period, from a site of that name near Bologna, +or as the period of pit-tombs (_a pozzo_), from the form of the graves +in which the pottery has been found (see VILLANOVA). It begins with the +9th century B.C. and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs +usually contain large cinerary urns or _ossuaria_ (containing the ashes +of the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic clay +known as _impasto Italico_. These vessels were irregularly baked in an +open fire, and the colour of the surface varies from red-brown to +greyish black. They appear to have been covered with a polished slip, +intended to give the vases a metallic appearance. The shape of the urns +is peculiar, but uniform; they have a small handle at the widest part +and a cover in the form of an inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig. +63). Their ornamentation consists of incised or stamped geometrical +ornaments formed in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body; +more rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery is also +found showing little advance on that of the Terramare period except in +variety of decoration. The technique and ornament are the same as in the +case of the urns. They correspond in development, though not in date, to +the early pottery of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive +pottery of other races, but one marked difference is the general +fondness of the Italian potter for vases with handles. + +Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (_tuguria_), though +these are more often found in the neighbourhood of Rome. One of the best +examples is in the British Museum; it still contains ashes which were +inserted through a little door secured by a cord passing through rings. +The ornamentation suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the +cover or roof being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams. +The surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted +with patterns in white. + +In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs, the pit +being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known as the +"trench-tomb" or _a fossa_ period, and extends from the 8th century B.C. +to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of Greek pottery now first +make their appearance. The character of the local pottery actually +remains for some time the same as that of the preceding period, but it +improves in technique. By degrees an improvement in the forms is also +noted, and new varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is, +however, no evidence that the wheel was used. + +Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri (Caere) +belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars ([Greek: +pithoi]) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while the +upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or friezes. These +designs were either produced from single stamps or rolled out from +cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The subjects are usually +quasi-oriental in character, and it is not certain that this ware was +made in Etruria, especially as similar vases have been found in Rhodes +and Sicily; either it was imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek +models. + +The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature of the +clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in white outlines +on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of _impasto Italico_, was first +hardened by baking, and then a mixture of wax, resin and iron oxide was +applied and polished; on this the pigments, a mixture of chalk and +earth, were laid. The subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least +Greek in character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the +drawing is crude and un-Greek in the extreme. + +The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third; but the +difference is defined firstly by the appearance of a new type of tomb in +the form of a chamber (_a camera_), secondly, by the all-pervading +influence of oriental art, and to a less extent of that of the Greeks. +The period extends from about 650 to 550 B.C., and is further marked by +the general introduction of the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance +of inscriptions in an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the +earlier tombs the typical local pottery is of hand-made _impasto +Italico_ resembling that of the previous periods; in the later we find +what is known as _bucchero_ ware--the national pottery of Etruria--which +is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked tendency +to imitate metal. + +To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or Grotto d'lside +at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the British Museum and +include some remarkable specimens of pottery. It dates from about +620-610 B.C. The most remarkable of the vases is a _hydria_, of +reddish-brown clay covered with a lustrous black slip on which have been +painted designs in red, blue and a yellowish white. The colours have +unfortunately now almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had +been fired. The principal subject is from the story of Theseus and +Ariadne. This tomb also contained a large wheel-made _pithos_ of red +_impasto_ ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the +Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri (about 650 B.C.) large cauldrons of +red glossy ware were found, with gryphons' heads projecting all round, +to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from Falerii on a high +open-work stand is now in the British Museum. + +We now come to the _bucchero_ ware, which is characteristic of the later +portion of this period, though the earliest examples go back to the end +of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black paste of which it is +composed, covered with a more or less shining black slip. Modern +experiments seem to indicate that the clay was smoked or fumigated in a +closed chamber after baking, becoming thereby blackened throughout, and +the surface was then polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware +have proved that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired. +The oldest _bucchero_ vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with +incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like metal-work. +Oriental influence then appears in a series of chalice-shaped cups found +at Cervetri with friezes of animals. From about 560 B.C. onwards the +vases are all wheel-made, with ornaments in relief either stamped from a +cylinder or composed of separate medallions attached to the vase. The +subjects range from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants +making offerings (fig. 34); in other cases we find meaningless groups of +figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern +Etruria, but at Chiusi (_Clusium_) a more elaborate variety found favour +from about 500 to 300 B.C. The shapes are very varied and the ornament +covers the vase from top to bottom, the covers of the vases being also +frequently modelled in various forms. The figures are stamped from +moulds, incised designs being added to fill up the spaces. The range of +subjects is much widened, including scenes from Greek mythology and +oriental types combining Egyptian and Assyrian motives, which must have +been introduced by the Phoenicians. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Etruscan oinochoe, of black bucchero ware, with +figures in relief. (British Museum.)] + +Thus the technique of the _bucchero_ wares is purely native, but the +decoration is entirely dependent on foreign types whether Greek or +oriental, and throughout the whole series the tendency to imitate +metal-work is to be observed in every detail, both in the forms and in +the methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing work +in bronze. + +The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for notice +is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the [Greek: +kanôpoi] in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their mummies. They +are rude representations of the human figure, the head forming the +cover, and in the tombs were placed on round chairs of wood, bronze or +terra-cotta. An example of such a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be +seen in the Etruscan Room of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65). +Their origin has been traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest +Etruscan tombs. From these a gradual transition may be observed from the +mask (1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head +modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at last the +complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are found in the +"pit-tombs" of the 8th century B.C., and the latest and most developed +types belong to the 5th century B.C. + +The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-engraving never +extended to their pottery, which is always purely imitative, especially +when they attempted painted vases after the Greek fashion. The kinds +already described are all more or less plastic in character and +imitative of metal, except in the case of the Cervetri and Polledrara +finds, which have little in common with anything Greek, and exhibit a +quite undeveloped art. But towards the end of the 6th century B.C., when +Greek vases were coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were +made to imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular +class of Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most +museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from peculiarities of +style, drawing and subject, as well as their inferior technique (fig. +35). + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting +scene of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.] + +At a later date (4th-3rd century B.C.) they began to copy red-figured +vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the exception of a small +class of a somewhat ambitious character made at Falerii (Civita +Castellana), of which there is a good example in the British Museum with +the subject of the infant Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all +marked by their inferior material and finish and their bizarre +decoration. The style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as +ineffective, and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are +generally introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in +the Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate into +barbarism. + +Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the extreme south +of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous races of the +Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is partly geometrical, +partly in conventional plant forms, and is the result of natural +development rather than of imitation of Greek types. Some of the shapes +are characteristic, especially a large four-handled _krater_. They cover +the period 600-450 B.C., after which they were ousted by the +Graeco-Italian productions we have already described. + +ROMAN POTTERY.--Roman vases are far inferior to Greek; the shapes are +less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes not without merits +of its own, owes most of its success to the imitation or adaptation of +motives learnt from earlier Grecian, Egyptian or Syrian potters. They +required only the skill of the potter for their completion, and, being +made by processes largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower +scale of artistic production. + +It has been noted that during a certain period--namely, the 3rd and 2nd +centuries B.C.--ceramic art had reached the same stage of evolution all +round the Mediterranean, painted pottery had been ousted by metal-work, +and such vases as continued to be made were practically imitations of +metal both in Greece and Italy. These latter we must regard as +representing ordinary household pottery, or as supplying to those who +could not afford to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in +metal, a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta +bowl of the 2nd century B.C. in the British Museum which is an exact +replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same collection, and +may serve as an illustration of this condition of things (Plate II. fig. +56). + +These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy, a +district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria, and we +have already seen that the same principle had long been in vogue among +the Etruscans. Hence it is not surprising that an important centre of +pottery manufacture should have sprung up in Etruria, in the and century +B.C., which for many years set the fashion to the whole Roman world. But +before discussing such products it may be as well to say something on +the technical character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general. + + _Technical Processes_.--Roman pottery regarded in its purely technical + aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek, chiefly + owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters' apparatus in + western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which only + the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far the + greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull + earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red shining + wares, usually known to archaeologists as _terra sigillata_, clay + suited to receive stamps (_sigilla_) or impressions. + + For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in + different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to + grey, drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in + quality; most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from + the ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at + St-Remy-en-Rollat and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In + Italy we find a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being + devoted to its preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration + and style there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the + Italian and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is + often very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured + where they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of + manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have been + common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain and + Germany, and perhaps even to Britain. + + The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has been a + much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the excavator of + the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming that it was a + natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing of the surface, + by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now generally agreed + that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman lamps and many of + the commoner wares have a gloss produced by polishing only, varying in + colour and brightness with the proportion of iron oxide in the clay + and the degree of heat at which the pieces were fired. But the surface + finish of the finer or _terra sigillata_ wares is something quite + distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully uniform perfection. + + It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman + world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it + does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant + glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to + leave no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated + attempts have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but + chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that + it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body than + glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface polish or + than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have to wait + for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at once + a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. Whatever its + nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze itself + was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour of the + clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the quality of + red coral. + + In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes as the + Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of abnormal + size, such as the large casks (_dolia_), which were built up on a + frame. Specimens of potters' wheels have been found at Arezzo and + Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for the pivot, and + bearing small cylinders of lead round the circumference to give a + purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum of the wheel. For the + ornamental vases with reliefs an additional process was necessary, and + the decoration was in nearly all cases produced from moulds. The + process in this case was a threefold one: first the stamps had to be + made bearing the designs; these were then pressed upon the inside of a + clay mould which had been previously made on the wheel to the size and + shape required; finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the + vase was thus produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare + occurrence in Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete, + requiring only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in + various materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64). + The moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired + when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in clay. + Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III. fig. 61), + and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo. Those + discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable evidence as + to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their presence + obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of this + evidence is increased when they bear potters' names. + + Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery[8] are very numerous in + western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are at + Lezoux near Clermont, at Châtelet in Haute-Marne, and near Agen in + Lot-el-Gäronne. In Germany good remains have come to light at + Heiligenberg in Baden, al Heddernheim near Frankfort, Rheinzabern near + Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In England the best kilns are + those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at Castor in Northamptonshire + (see fig. 4). + + _Shapes_.--As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of + shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same + difficulties as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They + may, however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing + liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on. + In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of archaic + and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in sacrifices. + + The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were:--The + _dolium_, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the _amphora_, a jar + holding about six gallons; and the _cadus_, a jar about half as large + as the _amphora_. The _dolium_ had no foot, and was usually buried in + the earth; it was also used for purposes of burial. The _amphora_ + corresponds to the Greek wine-jar of that name, and had, like its + prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii stamped + with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. _Od._ in. 21. I), or with painted + inscriptions relating to their contents. The _cadus_ is mentioned by + Horace and Martial. + + Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and + flasks, the principal were the _urceus_, answering to the Greek + [Greek: oinochoê], the _ampulla_, a kind of flask with globular body, + and the _lagena_, a narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups + the Romans had almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great + majority of the ornamented vases preserved to the present day were + devoted to this purpose. The generic name for a cup was _poculum_, but + the Romans borrowed many of the Greek names, such as _cantharus_ and + _scyphus_. The _calix_ appears to have answered in popularity, though + not in form, to the Greek _kylix_, and is probably the name by which + the ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are + _lanx_, _patina_ and _catinum_. Another common form is the _olla_ + (Greek [Greek: chutra]), which served many purposes, being used for a + cooking-pot, for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn. + The form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or + elliptical body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases + the principal was the _patera_ or libation-bowl, corresponding to the + Greek [Greek: phialê]. + +_Arretine Ware_.--The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny, mention +numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere, which were famous +for the production of pottery in Roman times. Pliny mentions with +special commendation the "Samian Ware," the reputation of which, he +says, was maintained by Arretium (Arezzo). Samian pottery is also +alluded to by other writers, and hence the term was adopted in modern +times as descriptive of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs, +whether found in Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only +accepted with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840 +discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases found +there as a local product, now known as "Arretine" ware. The name +"Samian" has, however, adhered to the provincial wares and at the +present day is often used even by archaeologists. But recent researches +have shown that nearly all the provincial wares can be traced to Gaulish +or German potteries, and, since it is implied by Pliny that "Samian" +pottery is older than "Arretine," the name may now be fairly rejected +altogether, as we have rejected the name "Etruscan" for Greek pottery. +The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak of +"china," and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later Greek +pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century B.C. + +There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery centres in +Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere, as well as at Saguntum +in Spain, but all were surpassed in excellence by Arretium. In more +modern times its pottery came under notice even in the middle ages, and +discoveries were made in the time of Leo X (about 1500) and again in the +18th century. The Arretine ware may be regarded as _the_ Roman pottery +_par excellence_, and its popularity extended from about 150 B.C. down +to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height in the +1st century B.C., after which it rapidly degenerated, and its place was +taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general characteristics may be +summed up as follows:--(1) The fine local red clay, carefully levigated +and baked very hard to a rich coral red or a colour like sealing-wax; +(2) the fine red glaze, which has already been discussed; (3) the great +variety of forms employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work; +(4) the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters' names. The +majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself, but there +was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing pottery almost equal +in merit, and it was also exported to central and eastern Europe and +Spain. + +The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red appears to +have been introduced by 100 B.C., when the first potters' stamps appear. +These are usually quadrangular in form, though other shapes are found, +and are impressed in the midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or +on plain wares on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters' +names is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific than +others, and to have employed a large number of slaves, whose names +appear with their masters' on the stamps. The best known is Marcus +Perennius, whose wares take highest rank for their artistic merit, the +designs being copied from good Greek models. He employed seventeen +slaves, of whom the best known is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing +as M·PEREN and TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his +finest vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of +Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures were designed +by the masters, but that the vases were actually moulded by the slaves. +Other important artists are Calidius Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P. +Cornelius, who had no less than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself +A·TITI·FIGVL·ARRET; the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus, a +degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish wares. + +The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed from metal +shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37, Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11). +They are mostly of small size and devoid of handles, but a notable +exception is a bell-shaped _krater_ or mixing-bowl, of which there is a +very fine example in the British Museum, found at Capua and decorated +with the four seasons (Plate III. fig. 62). For the decoration and +subjects the potters undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the +"new-Attic" reliefs of the Hellenistic period, of which the _krater_ +just cited is an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing +maenads or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes +which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others again +are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament, figures when +they occur being merely decorative. There is throughout a remarkable +variety both in the ornamentation and in the methods of composition. + +_Provincial Wares_.--The Arretine ware, as has been noted, steadily +degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and the manufacture of +ornamental pottery appears to have entirely died out in Italy by the +time of Trajan. Its place was taken by the pottery of the provinces, +especially by that of Gaul, where the transference of artistic +traditions led to the rise of new industrial centres in the country +bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine. + +As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is, of +the ornamented wares or _terra sigillata_, the clay is fine and +close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows a light +red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a brighter yet +darker red colour (i.e. less like coral) than that of Arretine ware, but +the tone varies with the degree of heat used. The most important feature +is the fine glaze with which it is coated, similar in composition to +that of the Arretine; it is exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid +equally over the whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of +the clay. The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware, +by which, however, it is indirectly inspired. + +The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various types +of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are preferred +almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently bear the stamp +of the potter impressed on the inside or outside. Although this ware is +found all over the Roman world, by far the greater portion comes from +Gaul, Germany or Britain, and evidence points to two--and only +two--districts as the principal centres of manufacture: the valleys of +the Loire and the Rhine and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st +century A.D. Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and +isolated finds of it occur in Spain and other parts. + +The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. Déchelette have shown +that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be clearly traced, both +in the shapes employed and in the method of decoration; and, further, +that it is possible--at least as regards Gaul--to associate certain +potters' names and certain types of figures, though found in many +places, with two centres in particular, Graufesenque near Rodez +(department of Aveyron) in the district occupied by the Ruteni, and +Lezoux near Clermont (department of Puy-de-Dôme) in the country of the +Arverni. The periods during which these potteries flourished are +consecutive, or rather overlapping, but not contemporaneous, the former +being practically coincident with the 1st century A.D., the latter with +the 2nd and 3rd down to about A.D. 260, when the manufacture of _terra +sigillata_ practically came to an end in Gaul. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Bowl of Gaulish ware, with moulded patterns in +slight relief.] + +There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a +transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north of +Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, e.g. St Remy-en-Rollat, and +others of later date, as at Banassac and Montans in the latter district, +but none of these produced pottery of special merit or importance. The +early Rhenish wares are, strictly speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic +character, while the later German _terra sigillata_, for which the +principal centres were Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in +Bavaria, are of similar character but inferior to the 2nd-century +pottery of Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV. +fig. 66. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine; +18-65, Gaulish and German.] + +The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we have said, +almost confined to two or three varieties, which follow one another +chronologically. A shape favoured at first is the _krater_, which has +been mentioned as one of the characteristic Arretine forms; but this +enjoyed but a short term of popularity. Early in the 1st century we find +a typical form of bowl in use, which, following the numeration of Dr +Dragendorff's treatise, is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is +characterized by its moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings, +and by the division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes +for the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative, +consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds are +introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular panels +or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a second variety +of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was introduced; this is +cylindrical in form, and, being found both at Graufesenque and Lezoux, +may be regarded as transitional in character. In the latter half of this +century a new form arises (No. 37; fig. 37), a more or less +hemispherical bowl which holds the field exclusively on all sites down +to the termination of the potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new +system of decoration is introduced, the upper edge being left quite +plain. The panels and medallions at first prevail, but are then +succeeded by arcading or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and +finally after the end of the 1st century (and on form 37 only) we find +the whole surface covered with a single composition of figures +unconfined by borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze; +this is known as the "free" style (Plate IV. fig. 69). + +As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down that the +conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are obvious +imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the absence of +Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include representations of gods and +heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters and animals, the two latter +classes being pre-eminently popular. + +The potters' names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common Roman +type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux are Gaulish in +form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, Illixo or Laxtrucisa. This seems to +imply that Roman influence was still strong in the earlier centre which +drew its inspiration more directly from Arretium. But even the purely +Roman names are sometimes converted into Gaulish forms, as _Masclus_ for +Masculus, or _Tornos_ for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form, +depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief; on the +plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but on the +ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the figures. The +usual formula is OF (for _officina_) or M (for _manu_) with the name in +the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for _fecit_ with the nominative. + +Besides the ordinary _terra sigillata_ with figures produced in moulds +we find other methods of decoration employed. In the south of France, +about Arles and Orange, vases were made with medallions separately +moulded and attached round the body; these have a great variety of +subjects, both mythological and gladiatorial or theatrical, or even +portraits of emperors. There is a remarkable specimen in the British +Museum with a scene from the tragedy of the _Cycnus_, on which Heracles +and Ares are represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate +IV. fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ. + +Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux. Here each +figure is attached separately to the vase, and the background is filled +in with foliage produced by the method known as _en barbotine_ +(slip-painting), of which we shall speak presently. The effect of these +vases, which are mostly large jars or _ollae_ (Plate IV. fig. 70), is +often very decorative, and there is a fine specimen in the British +Museum from Felixstowe, on which the modelling is really admirable. +Other good examples have been found in various parts of Britain. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Jar of Castor ware, with reliefs of a stag +pursued by a hound, executed in semi-fluid slip. 6 in. high.] + +The "slip-decoration" process is practically unknown in Italy, but it is +found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany, and appears to +have originated in the Rhine district. It is not confined to the red +ware, but in the early German examples is applied on a dull grey or +black background. On the continent its use is almost limited to simple +decorative patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in Britain it was largely +adopted, as in the well-known Castor ware made on the site of that name +(_Durobrivae_) in Northamptonshire. Many of the vases found or made here +have gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes, or chariots executed by this +method (fig. 38). The decoration was applied in the form of a thick +viscous slip, usually of the same colour as the clay, but reduced to +this consistency with water, and was laid on by means of a narrow tube +or run from the edge of a spatula. The Castor ware appears to date from +the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. + +Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally produced in +Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such ware seems to have +been produced in the Rhine district, represented by small jars covered +with a glossy black coating, on which are painted in thick white slip +inscriptions of a convivial character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or +VIVAS (Plate IV. fig. 68). A very effective ware, obviously imitating +cut glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux in +both the red and black varieties. + + LITERATURE.--Dragendorff in _Bonner Jahrbücher_, xcvi. 37 ff.; + Déchelette, _Vases céramiques de la Gaule romaine_ (1904); Walters, + _Ancient Pottery_, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii.; _British Museum Catalogue + of Roman Pottery_ (1908). (H. B. Wa.) + + +PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH POTTERY[9] + +Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter's art, it was the custom +to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman empire and the +appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian pottery of the early +middle ages, as if the intervening centuries had produced nothing worthy +of note. Even yet the successive steps by which this beautiful art arose +are largely matters of inference and deduction, but it must be borne in +mind that while the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of +glaze and painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and +Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction. In +discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already pointed out at +what a very early period they had developed the production of rich and +beautiful coloured glazes--the Egyptians as a jewel-like decoration of +small pieces made in a very sandy paste, or actually carved from stone, +and the Assyrians, on a bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured +brickwork. Though the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the +peoples of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried +on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There is +abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of Roman times and +later with rich turquoise blue and yellow glazes, though the potters had +learned to produce this glaze on a material containing more clay and +less sand than that used in earlier days. We know also that they had +learned that the addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to +be applied on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to +be shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt, but +appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia Minor; and +throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of pottery were made which +were clearly the starting-points of much of the fine pottery produced in +Europe in later times. We find, for instance, side by side, a +manufacture of bowls, dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of +two distinct materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise +blue, green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda +and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple painted +patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2) similar vessels +made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and porous, coated with a +white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin) covered with a yellowish lead +glaze. These vessels were decorated in a variety of ways: (1) +_Graffiati_; patterns cut or scratched through the coating of white slip +while it was still soft, down to the red ground, so that when the vessel +was glazed it displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2) +Yellow and red ochre and copper scales were rudely "dabbed" over the +white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it presented a +marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red, yellow, brown or +green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the section on _Egyptian +pottery_ above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron were added to the lead +glaze, and the resulting green or yellow glazes were applied to plain +vases or to vessels decorated with moulded reliefs. In all these methods +we see the continuation of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall +also see that these, in their turn, became the starting-point of much of +the medieval pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other +southern countries. + +In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian times +seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters of Assyria, +just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian device of raising +strong brown outlines round a design to control the flow of coloured +glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze of Archers in the Louvre, was +carried on by them, for it appears unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque +of Mahommed I. built at Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse +between the Persian and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to +a general diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of +the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean, though +our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient data for any +definite placing of the progress made. Our information is mainly derived +from the examination of the rubbish mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in +Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat +was built in A.D. 640 by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century; +partially rebuilt, it was given over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke +sultan, and all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the +site being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same way +Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the site of which +lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about 1220 by Jenghiz +Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but was destroyed again in +the following century, so that its existence practically ceased in the +14th century. Rhagae was once an important centre of the ceramic +industry, but this was transferred to the neighbouring town of Veramin, +in the 13th century. Excavations have also been made on the site of +Rakka, near Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few +others of minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on +the development of the potter's art in these countries during the period +between the 4th and 12th centuries. Yet, until systematic excavations +have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the Delta, on the same +scale as those which have proved so valuable in Greece, Crete, Cyprus +and the valley of the Nile, we cannot hope to possess sound +chronological data of the developments of the arts in these countries. +Meantime the exact share which should be allotted to each district for +its discoveries will remain ground of contention for scholars of +conflicting schools, though there can be little doubt that Egypt and the +southern part of Syria played a more important part than has generally +been supposed in the development of the potter's art at this period. + +_Persian Pottery_.--The most important pottery of the nearer East, +whether considered on its own merits or from the influence it has +exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly valued by +collectors under the distinctive name of Persian; though much that +passes under that name may not have been made in Persia. From the 10th +to the 16th centuries the craftsmen of Persia were perfect masters of +decorative design and colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of +the forms proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity +ever exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly of metal +than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling for the +material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are not only true +clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to exhibit the qualities of +the glaze and colour with which they were to be decorated. Certainly +from the 12th to the 16th centuries the pottery of the Persians must +rank among the greatest achievements of the potter's art. The ware was +shaped from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of--but +whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large proportion of +sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish or red tint, and +was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous slip, or with a +mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin, which made it whiter +still--the one aim was to produce a white pottery. On this white +ground--with a coarsish absorbent surface--beautiful patterns, in +conventional floral or animal forms, were deftly painted in +cobalt-blues, manganese-purples, copper-greens and turquoise, with +mixtures for intermediate tints; while a strong brownish-black outline +colour was compounded by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be +turned into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and +later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour, often used +in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze, generally of +considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused; and the resultant +effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour relieved on a ground of +slightly toned white. Judging from fragments which have been found at +Rai, and which can scarcely therefore be later than the 13th century, we +find the characteristic Persian style of ornament already developed; +dumpy little figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between +cypress trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with +conventional borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known +type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral ornament +which often runs to a beautiful tracery of "arabesque" lines. The +drawing is generally finely outlined with brown or black (a survival of +the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the earliest pieces the flat +washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-blue, turquoise or green +from copper, and shades of purple and brown from manganese. From the +16th century onwards Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the +designs and in the colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted +with patterns in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the +imitation of Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks. +Finally, Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number of +Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan, and we find +that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-tê-Chên, with blue +decorations in the Persian taste, so that we cannot be surprised at the +growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style of decoration. From this period, +however, Persian pottery deteriorated both in its technical and artistic +aspects. Crudely moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with +an opaque yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and +turquoise, began to make their appearance, especially on the famous +Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black outlines of +the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource) vanish, and we get +brighter and more glittering, yet poorer colours, including a rose-red +enamel fired over the glaze, evidently imitated from the Chinese +_famille-rose_ porcelains of the 18th century. + +The finest work appears to have been produced from the 11th to the 14th +centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge of what is truly Persian, +Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced to accept many conventional names +that have perhaps little but custom to recommend them. There is, for +instance, an important class of pottery known, until recently, only from +a few remarkably handsome vases, and once called "Siculo-Arab" because +these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware is +characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished +ornament--leaf-shaped panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns; +striped and dotted bands; friezes of animals or birds amidst flowers and +foliage, inscriptions, &c.; all strongly and firmly drawn in black or +brown outlines and washed in with a very pure cobalt-blue or with +turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of these pieces to the oldest +Persian wares, we know that bowls, dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of +the same kind have been dug up on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar +ware has been found at Fostat, together with evidences of local +manufacture, and occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so +that probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria between +the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards made by Syrian +potters both in Persia and Egypt. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria +and Albert Museum.)] + +_Other Persian Wares_.--We have already spoken of the prevalent use of +coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer East--from Egypt to +Persia--from remote times, either as the sole colour decoration or in +conjunction with modelled or painted ornament. The fragments from Rai +and Fostat include rich turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient +Egyptian), deep and light-green glazes containing lead and copper, +imitations of ancient Chinese céladon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a +coffee-brown glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze.[10] All these may be +found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled ornament; or +covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted in white slip or +incised in the paste. Sometimes, even at this early period, there are +traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but not fired, to the glaze. + +At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls, dishes and +vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque patterns in a singularly +still underglaze black, and covered with the blue turquoise or green +copper glazes. This characteristic and beautiful ware is common to +Persia, Syria and Egypt in Saracen times, and it was soon prized in +Europe, as is shown by the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury +Fortnum built into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was +apparently placed in the 12th century.[11] + +At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance, and in the +13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there is a comparatively +modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces bearing patterns modelled +in low relief. + +_Persian Porcelain_.--This beautiful and somewhat mysterious ware--often +called "Gombroon" ware--apparently made its appearance in the 13th +century, though the bulk of the known examples are not earlier than the +17th or 18th century. The ware is quite translucent and is of soft and +delicate texture. Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture +of pipe-clay and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a +fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary porcelain +oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes, bowls (often +mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are generally very thin and are +either perfectly plain or bear flutings or simple wavy patterns incised +in the paste. Most characteristic and beautiful is the decoration by +means of delicate perforations either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the +finest pieces the perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form +a decoration analogous to the well-known "rice-grain" decoration of the +Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour, either a +delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright céladon, or the +well-known Persian blue ground; and this is sometimes decorated with +lustre patterns. Nowhere can this rare and delicately beautiful ware be +so well studied as in the Victoria and Albert Museum. + +_Lustred Ware_.--The decoration of pottery with iridescent metallic +films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inventions ever made +by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only coloured clays, coloured +glazes, or colours fired under the glaze, but we are now brought face to +face with a colour effect produced by refiring the finished glazed +pieces, at a lower temperature, with pigments painted upon the glaze +(fig. 40; see also Plate V. 13th-century Persian lustre). How such a +practice originated is probably an idle speculation, but it may have +come through repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold +was painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably +vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver, applied +over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make it adhere, +may have given the first films of iridescent colour. We know certainly +that before the 13th century the elements of the process had been +mastered, and that the potters of the nearer East had learnt that by +mixing some compound of silver (doubtless the sulphide) with clay, and +painting the mixture on the finished vase, which was refired in such a +way that the pieces were only raised to a dull red heat and were then +exposed to the vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were +left on the ware that looked like metal--but metal shot over with all +the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green. Numerous +fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred from the site at +Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the beautiful process was of +Persian origin, particularly as most of the examples then known bore +designs of distinctly Persian style. We are now inclined to think that +the process really arose in Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward +to Persia, just as it was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In +support of this view there is the written record of the Persian +traveller Nasiri Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the 11th century +(1035-1042). He was apparently familiar with the pottery of his own +country, and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of +Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the traffic of +East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He mentions, specially, +certain translucent bowls of earthenware decorated with colours +resembling a stuff called "bougalemoun," "the tints changing according +to the position which one gives to the vase." Such a description could +only apply to "lustred" pottery, and it would seem as if this process +must have been known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia +(see Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret was +soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it was practised +at Rhagae in the next century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in +brown copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting is +gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)] + +The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-shaped tile +of the year A.D. 1217 (A.H. 614), decorated with spotted hares, +heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre relieved by dots and +curls, and surrounded by an inscribed border. A vase in the Godman +collection bears the date A.D. 1231 (A.H. 629), and some of the +well-known "star and cross" tiles from Veramin belong to the year A.D. +1262. The early Persian lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles +with which the walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the +more ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller numbers +and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives of decoration were +animals and birds (sometimes showing Chinese influence), the hare and +the deer being favourites; roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and +women, mounted or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend), +conventional foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in +a lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots +etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered all +over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out of this when +it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white tin-enamel with which +the early wares are generally coated. The lustre itself when viewed +directly may look like some golden or deep chocolate-brown colour, but +as the piece is turned to catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to +bear a thin iridescent film, which glows with golden, green, purple or +ruby-red metallic _reflets_. On the earliest examples the decoration is +often entirely in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a +pattern painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the +glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear +14th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decoration, +more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised in low +relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class, belonging to the +14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze, with designs in low +relief, picked out with scrolls and arabesques in white enamel or bold +floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is frequently found applied to the +rich cobalt-blue ground, and there are still existing a few magnificent +vases which show the artistic possibilities of this scheme of +decoration. It should be noted that when the pieces are in the round, +the pattern is usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre +ground as on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was +replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration continued in +use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629). To the last +period belong many charming bowls, narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown +lustre, with ruby _reflets_, on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware +is pure white in substance and generally translucent, and the pieces are +occasionally signed (see _Persian porcelain_ above). + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Lamp from the Mosque of Omar.] + +_Damascus Ware_.--This time-honoured name (for "Damas Ware" was often +mentioned in medieval inventories, and appears to have included many +varieties of oriental pottery which were highly prized in Italy, France +and England in the middle ages)[12] forms rather a puzzle nowadays for +the archaeologist, for many diverse wares have been included under this +title, some of which were not made at Damascus. Yet Damascus is one of +the oldest cities in the world, and has seen unnumbered dynasties come +and go around its desert-fringed oasis. An important centre of caravan +traffic, a nexus of palpitating life from east and west, north and +south, we cannot wonder if it developed a special pottery of its own, +tinged with something of a cosmopolitan spirit. Formerly the Damascus +wares were treated as a variety of the Persian pottery we have just +described, but the best examples of the class now known under this name +exhibit a mingling of various influences such as we might expect, and +have well-marked affinities both with the Persian wares and those +brilliant productions now commonly recognized as Syrian and Turkish, +while even far-off echoes of Chinese decorative mannerisms are not +wanting. The characteristic Damascus ware of the collector is marked by +its quality; the ground is of very clear white, the colours are pure and +brilliant, and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made. +The decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more +formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish +pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay pigment +of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably occur in the +design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple made from +manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in quality. Fine +examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the British Museum and in +the Louvre; its characteristic style of pattern is well shown in the +16th-century Damascus piece reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid +example is the lamp from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the +British Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the +Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong rather to +Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears a dated +inscription, "In the year 956 in the month _Jemazi-l-oola_. The painter +is the poor and humble Mustafa." This is reckoned as June A.D. 1549. It +may be remarked that our difficulties of identification are increased by +the fact that, under Arab rule, Syrian and Persian potters were at work +in Damascus, in Old Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments +classified by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian +workmen. In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese +blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the nearer East, and +quantities of fragments have been found at Fostat, Ephesus and +elsewhere. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Rhodian Jug.] + +_Turkish Pottery_.--This beautiful and striking ware, formerly called +Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a known centre of +manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in all the countries overrun +by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th century, so that the name "Turkish," in +spite of some opposition, is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42; +and the 16th-century Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine +white body of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash +of pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly +blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped up in +palpable relief--the whole of the ornament being outlined with black or +dark green. The ware was glazed with an alkaline glaze of great depth, +so that the colours soften and sometimes run, producing one of the most +brilliant and attractive of all the oriental wares. In certain districts +the white ground was not used, but over it a slip of the red colour +(Armenian bole), varying in strength from bright red to pale salmon, was +laid over the piece, reserving the pattern only in the white slip, which +consequently lies lower than the red ground. Other examples are known +where the ground has been covered with lavender, blue, sage, apple and +turquoise greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect of +the whole was often increased by the application of gold-leaf over the +fired glaze. The decorative motives are distinguished from those of the +Persian wares by a breadth and boldness which are in keeping with the +brilliant, and not always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is +true, the Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the +thistle-bloom and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment which +permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish flowers such as +the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, cornflower and lily (some of +which were imported into Europe by the Turks), is as original and +distinctive as the arrangement of the different elements of the design +is artistic and charming. Other styles of design include formal patterns +and diapers, rarely human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial +devices and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining +the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile +hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic articles, +dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers, sprinklers, jugs, +tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls and mosque lamps are also +plentiful. The tiles are found in all parts of the Turkish empire, +though they were probably made at certain centres, such as Nicaea (which +gave its name to the ware in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many +of the mosques in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other +centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot be +distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and Kutaia. A +small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian inscription stating +that it was made by "Abraham of Kutaia" in the 16th century. A few fine +bowls and vases, painted in a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and +rosette scrolls, recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but +of very characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place; +and later, in the 18th and up to the end of the 19th century, an +inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware usually +takes the form of small objects--plates, cups, jugs, egg-shaped +ornaments, &c.--with a thin, well-potted, white body and slight patterns +of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &c., in blue, black and yellow. +Turkish pottery was at its best in the 16th and the early part of the +17th century, and though good tile work of later date exists, the +general pottery deteriorated before the 18th century. An inferior ware +of poor colour is still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some +attempt has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration, but +the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old times. + + _Collections_.--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest + collection of the medieval pottery of the nearer East--the British + Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent examples. + The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten collection of + Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The museums of the + Louvre and of Sèvres have also many beautiful examples. Berlin, + Frankfort and other German towns have collections, but much smaller in + extent. Private collectors in England and France own many fine + specimens, and mention may be made particularly of those owned by Mr + Ducane Godman and Mr George Salting. + + LITERATURE.--Fortnum, _Majolica_ (1896) (also in South Kensington + Museum Handbook); Falke, _Majolica_ (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet, + _Contributions a l'étude de la céramique orientale_ (Cairo, 1900); + Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik," in _Monatsschrift fur den + Orient_ (1884); Lane-Poole, _Art of the Saracens in Egypt_ (1886); + Migeon, _Manuel de l'art musulman_, vol. ii. (1907); Sarre, _Persische + Keramik_; and _Jahrbuch der koniglichen preussichen Kunstsammlung_ + (1905), part ii.; H. Wallis, _The Godman Collection_ (1) _Lustred + Vases_ (London, 1891); (2) _The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles_ + (1894); _Notes on some Early Persian Lustre Vases_ (1885); _Egyptian + Ceramic Art_ (1898). (R. L. H.; W. B.*) + + +HISPANO-MORESQUE POTTERY + +With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round the eastern +Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting to follow the +westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see how in their wake there +also sprung up in Spain a ware of high distinction and beauty. The +Iberian peninsula had been the scene of pottery-making from prehistoric +times--a red unglazed ware was made before the dawn of civilization as +finely finished as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see +EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_), and the Romans had one of their great +provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when a great +part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and distinctive +pottery was produced. What is by no means clear is how it came to pass +that when the traditional methods, learnt by the Arabs in Egypt and +Syria, were carried westward they should have undergone such a radical +change. Oxide of tin, the opacifying and whitening material in glazes +_par excellence_, was certainly known and used in the East from at least +the 6th century B.C.; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of +white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and it was +similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and not general in +those countries, where we find instead a consistent development of the +pottery made with a white slip-coating and a clear alkaline glaze. +Perhaps it was that at this period tin was almost as costly as gold, and +it was only when potters with an oriental training brought their skill +to Spain, where tin abounded, that the relative cheapness of the +material led them to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There +is a wide distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced +wares, glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental +type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is +finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or no lead: +in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for the addition +of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense coating of white +enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color of the clay beneath.) Such +colours as were used for painted patterns were painted over this enamel +coating before it was fired, so that they became perfectly incorporated +with it, and then this ground furnished a splendid medium for the +development of those thin iridescent metallic films that we call +"lustres." The knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from +the East also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing +use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver--until the +red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter silver +lustres--we get the simple technique of one of the most distinctive +kinds of pottery known. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and +copper lustre.] + +Briefly, the wares were "thrown" upon the wheel or "pressed" on modelled +forms--handles, ribs and dots of clay, or strongly incised patterns were +often added by hand--and they were then fired a first time. A coating of +the tin-enamel (rich in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this +coating designs were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these +colours were only used as masses to break up the background. Then the +second firing took place and the piece came from the firing all shining +and white, except where the blue or brownish purple had been painted +(see fig. 43). The lustre pigments, a mixture of sulphide of copper or +sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre or other earth, was then +painted over the glazed surface with vinegar as a medium. The repainted +piece was fired a third time to a dull red heat, and smoked with the +smoke from the wood used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent +ochre and metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent +films in all their beauty. + +The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the composition of +the lustre pigments are given in Cocks's account of the processes +followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises receipt of 1785 +gives:--copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver 1 peseta piece, sulphur 3 +oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped off the pots after lustring 36 +oz.[13] Interesting documents have recently been published concerning +the works executed by the "Saracen," John of Valencia, at Poitiers in +1384, and it is certain, from the list of materials supplied to him, +that he made there tiles that were enamelled and lustred. + +The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer +Edrisi's mention of the manufacture of "golden ware" then carried on at +Calatayud in Aragon in 1154. Ibn Sa'id (1214-1286) speaks of the glass +and the golden pottery made at Murcia (city), Almeria and Malaga. From +the 4th century the notices which have come down to us divide themselves +into two main groups relating to the industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at +various localities, but especially Manises in Valencia. + +_Malaga_--Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom of Granada, +which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century, the last remnant of +Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under the art-loving Nasride dynasty, +Mussulman arts and learning flourished to an unprecedented degree. In +1337 Ahmed ben-Yahya al-Omarí enumerates, among the craft productions of +Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not to be +met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta mentions (1350) +the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada, +in his description of Malaga. The principal monument of the period is +the royal palace of Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th +century, from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases +were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the "Alhambra +vase," is admittedly the most imposing product of Hispano-Moresque +ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped body (4 ft. 5 in. high) is +encircled by a band of Arabic inscription, above which are depicted +gazelles reserved in cream and golden lustre upon a blue field; the rest +of the body and the prominent handles are covered with compartments of +arabesques and inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck, +divided by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques. Vases +similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic characters and +arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in the museums at St +Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to the exact date of these, +experts are not agreed. Though presenting all the characteristics of the +14th-century Hispano-Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were +produced at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in +the Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which is +by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1409-1418), not to Yusuf +I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a dish (Sarre collection, +Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon its back, in Arabic, the word +Malaga; it is ornamented with eight segmental compartments filled +alternately with strap-work designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was +reconquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its +industry probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in +1539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished. + +_Valencia._--The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by Aragon in 1238. +The history of its lustred ware is known from 1383, when Eximenes (whose +evidence has been erroneously held to date from 1499) mentions the +golden ware (_Obra dorada_) of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind +was an offshoot of the Malagan industry, as in documents lately +published (ranging from 1405 to 1517) it is repeatedly designated Malaga +ware (_Obra de Malaga_). Its decorative qualities became famous +throughout the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly +manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl or Boil +family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output of the kilns, +and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is distinguished as regards +its ornamentation from the pottery of Malaga by the adoption of a more +natural rendering of plant form motives and by the use of armory. The +ware consists of drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates, +aquamaniles, vases, &c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed +during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic +inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the vine, +bryony, &c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently bear the +arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of Manises, or other +Valencian or Italian families for whom they were made. Great dexterity +is shown in the execution of minute and complicated schemes of ornament +and in the richness of the colour schemes; golden lustre of various +hues, with blue and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the +ruby, violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours a +wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and manganese was +gradually discontinued and the ornament quickly became nondescript, but +the brilliancy of the lustre pigment nevertheless obtained a wide +popularity for the ware, as is attested by Marineo (1539), Viciana +(1564) and Escolano (1610). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609) +the industry was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by +Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their productions +can be summed up in the word "decadence." In the course of the 15th +century the manufacture of lustred pottery was carried on at various +other small towns near Valencia; in 1484 it was produced at Mislata, +Paterna and Gesarte. It is known to have flourished at Calatayud in +1507, and at Muel, also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district +much pottery for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also +produced. + +_Majorca._--Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was +imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these +imitations "majolica," changing the letter in the name of the islands +(then called Majorica) where they originated. The truth would appear to +be that Valencian wares, being exported in Balearic vessels that called +at Majorca on the voyage to Italy, acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin. +There is extant a potter's petition praying for permission to establish +himself in Majorca (1560), in which he states that "Manises ware," &c., +had to be imported, as it was not made there. + + _Collections._--In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British + Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny Museum + collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains many fine + typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the archaeological + museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg museums, the Metropolitan + Art Museum at New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain + good specimens. The private collections of England, France and Italy + are rich in these wares, among the finest being those of Mr F.D. + Godman (Horsham), and of Don G.J. de Osma (Madrid). + + LITERATURE.--A. Van de Put, _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the 15th + Century_ (1904); F. Sarre, "Die spanisch-maurischen Lusterfayencen des + Mittelalters," &c. (in _Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen_, + xxiv. (1903); G.J. de Osma, "Apuntes sobre cerámica morisca: textos y + documentos valencianos," No. 1, 1906, and "Los Letreros ornamentales + en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv." (in the review _Cultura + Española_, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Gumá, _Rajolas valencianas y + catalanas_ (1905); J. Tramoyeres Blasco, "Cerámica valenciana del + siglo xvii." (in the _Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico Las + Provincias de Valencia_; J. Gestoso y Pérez, Historia de los barros + vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J.C. Davillier, _Histoire des + faiences hispano-moresques à reflets metalliques_ (1861). + (A. v. de P.) + + +MEDIEVAL AND LATER ITALIAN POTTERY[14] + +Little is known of the potter's art in Italy after the fall of the Roman +empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the Roman potters appear +to have been gradually lost, leaving behind only sufficient skill to +make rude crocks for domestic use and to coat them, if required, with a +crude yellowish lead glaze sometimes stained to a vivid green with +copper oxide. Applied ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched +designs were the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the +same class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of +Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with Asia +Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had been highly +developed in fresh directions, as we have seen, introduced into Italy as +well as the rest of Europe those superior wares characterized by a white +surface decorated with bright colours under a brilliant transparent +glaze, and glorified by metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not +long remain unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian +and Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the households +of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque wares from +which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for a new ware of their +own. The technique of a siliceous slip-coating with colour painted on +that and covered with a transparent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly +used, and then not very successfully; it is only the introduction of the +tin-enamel that was turned to fruitful account and led to the production +of the magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. In +the same way the practice of lustre decoration might have been learnt +from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares (16th century) +and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain, rather than to the +earlier lustres of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are further evidence that +though oriental decorative motives gave the Italians certain early types +of design, it is the Hispano-Moresque potters from whom the Italians +learnt the art they were afterwards to develop so splendidly in a new +direction.[15] + +All the Italian pottery above the level of common crocks may be +conveniently grouped into four classes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Italian Graffiato Plate, 16th century. (South +Kensington Museum.)] + +1. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay, coated with +a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered with a crude lead +glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of rendering this ware +ornamental, and fitting it for more than vulgar use, led to a great +development of the _graffiato_ process; where, while the vessel, with +its white clay coating was firm yet soft enough, patterns were scratched +or engraved through the white slip to the red body beneath. This +decorative method has been already mentioned several times, for it was +practised during the early middle ages in all the countries from India +to Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor has its +practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times when painted +majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier and humbler pottery +was used by those who could not afford the former; and the +gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a fine decorative quality +of their own. From the depth beneath the present soil at which fragments +of this ware have been disinterred, it is obvious that the method was +widely practised in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known +except those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early +examples have been found all over northern Italy--in Faenza, Florence, +Pisa, &c., and particularly in Padua, where it seems to have been +extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its manufacture, even to +the end of the 17th century, and Citta di Castello must have been noted +for it in the 16th century, for Piccolpasso describes this ware as "alla +Castellana" (see fig. 44). Apparently in the latter half of the 15th +century a sudden advance takes place in the colouring of this +_graffiato_ ware. Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of +the earlier productions, underglaze colours--green, purple, blue and a +brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black where +it is thick--were applied in bold splashes under the straw-coloured +glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very simple means. As +fine examples of this kind we may mention the dish with the mandoline +players, and one with cupids disporting themselves in a tree, in the +Victoria and Albert Museum; the tazza, supported by three modelled +lions, in the Louvre; and the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two +saints, in the museum at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite +erroneously, _mezza-majolica_. It had nothing to do with majolica, being +the natural development of a much older process; and its manufacture was +carried on all through the period of majolica manufacture and has never +ceased. + +2. _Mezza-Majolica_--This name is accurately applied to certain Italian +wares that made their appearance in the 12th century or even earlier, +when rude patterns--a clumsy star, a rude crossing of strokes or some +equally elementary work--are found painted on a thin white ground +covering a drab body. The pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms, +are uncouth in the extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and +then thinly coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first +to have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were added +to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the rude painting +were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese, and the final glaze, which +is generally thin and often imperfectly fused, seems to have been based +on the alkaline glazes of the nearer East. The specimens so assiduously +recovered by Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are to +be found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert museums, +are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller knowledge of +Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew. + +3. _Majolica_--For the last three centuries the word majolica has been +used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but comparatively soft buff +body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel of varying degrees of whiteness +and purity, on which a painted decoration was laid and fired. In the +later pictorial wares, a fine coating of transparent alkaline glaze was +fired over the painting to soften the colours--really to varnish them. +The word itself appears to have been derived from the name of the island +Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the lustred wares +of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably arriving in +ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do not believe that +the ware was actually made in that island. That the secret of the +tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian majolica, was known +in Italy in the 13th century is practically proved; and there is both +literary and archaeological proof of its use there in the 14th. Mention +of it is made in the _Margarita Preciosa_ published at Pola by Pierre Le +Bon in 1336, and the well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I., +discovered under the Manfredi palace at Faenza, must have been made +shortly after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of +the mezza-majolica, until it practically superseded the latter for +painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples have little +more than an archaeological interest, and it was only after the last +decade of the _quattrocento_ or the first of the _cinquecento_ that it +blossomed into an artistic creation. In its prime the production of +majolica was confined to a very small part of Italy. Bologna on the +north, Perugia to the south, Siena on the west, and the Adriatic to the +east, roughly enclose the district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini, +Pesaro, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena. +Towards the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and in +the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurian factories at Genoa, Albissola +and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent styles, while, at the +end of the 17th and in the early part of the 18th centuries, the +southern town of Castelli, near Naples, produced a ware which closes the +period of artistic majolica. + +[Illustration: PLATE I + + FIG. 52.--CORINTHIAN JAR. + + FIG. 53.--FRANÇOIS VASE. (From Furtwängler and Reichhold, <i>Griechische + Vasenmalerei</i>, by permission of F. Bruckmann.) + + FIG. 54.--BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA BY EXEKIAS. + + FIG. 55.--VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY. Signed by Python.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II + + FIG. 56.--BOWL MADE AT CALES IN IMITATION OF METAL. (2ND CENT. B.C.) + + FIG. 57.--VASE OF 5TH CENT. B.C., MODELLED IN FORM OF HEAD. + + FIG. 58.--VASE OF 6TH CENT. B.C., IN FORM OF HELMETED HEAD. + + FIG. 59.--FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE. (ROMAN PERIOD.) + + FIG. 60.--AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH SCENE FROM EURIPIDES' + "HECUBA."] + +[Illustration: PLATE III + + FIG. 61.--MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL. + + FIG. 62.--JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA. + + FIG. 63.--EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR. (VILLANOVA PERIOD.) + + FIG. 64.--STAMP FOR ORNAMENTING ARRETINE VASE. + + FIG. 65.--ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC" JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.] + +[Illustration: PLATE IV + + FIG. 66.--MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE. (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.) + + FIG. 67.--MEDALLION FROM VASE MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE FROM + TRAGEDY. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.) + + FIG. 68.--JAR OF RHENISH WARE WITH INSCRIPTION. (3RD CENT. AFTER + CHRIST.) + + FIG. 69.--BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES IN "FREE" STYLE. + (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.) + + FIG. 70.--JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)] + +4. _Lustred Majolica_--This brilliant species of Italian pottery (to +which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to have been +mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though experiments were made at +Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza and Siena. Considering how much the +Italian majolist owed to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable +that this beautiful method of decoration should have made so tardy an +appearance, for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier +than the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently +abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of Deruta, +probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-marked affinities +with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier examples are hardly to be +distinguished from Spanish wares, and to the last the ware remained +technically like the earlier ware, though with perfectly Italian +decorative treatment. Yet the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have +a quality of tone that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a +wash of very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the +most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us through +the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre is a magnificent +ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability the lustre process was so +quickly abandoned on the fine painted majolica, because the increasing +efforts to make a "picture" were discounted by so uncertain a process. +When one of the later majolica painters had spent weeks on the +decoration of some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of +carefully drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose +it to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process +were inordinately great--Piccolpasso says, "Frequently only six pieces +were good out of a hundred"--so that its use was relegated only to +inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished and forgotten +until its rediscovery in the second half of the 19th century. + +The history of the development of these noble wares is by no means +clear, nor is it always certain what part was played by each town in the +successive inventions of technical methods, decoration and colouring, so +that it is better, in such a general sketch as this, to treat the +subject in its broadest features only. In the earlier painted wares the +only colours used were manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green +as on the mezza-majolica, but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was +added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate of +lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were largely +influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain, +specimens of which were so prized as to be used for the decoration of +church fronts and the façades of public buildings. The lustre of the +Saracenic wares was not yet understood, but its place was taken first by +manganese and afterwards by yellow. The designs were chiefly +conventional flower-patterns in the Persian or Moorish style, +arabesques, and floral scrolls, the ground being filled at times with +those tiny spirals, scrolls and dots to which the Eastern potters were +so partial. Figures, human and animal, were introduced either among the +formal ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the +outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see the +early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures were, in fact, +drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and not the vessel made +to display the figure-subject as in the majolica of the succeeding +century. The earliest dated example of this period is the pavement laid +down in the Caracciolo chapel in the church of San Giovanni a Carbonara, +in Naples, about 1440. Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the +British Museum, and from their style it has been suggested that they +were made by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen +Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period also have +been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain drugs or confections, +and decorated with bold scrolls of formal oak leaves enclosing spirited +figures of men or animals, or heraldic devices. These are characterized +by a rich blue colour generally piled up in palpable relief and +sometimes verging on black; the outlines are usually in manganese, and +transparent green is used for details and occasionally even as a ground +colour. This ware has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem +very inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as +Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert itself, and +it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that he soon freed +himself from repeating the styles of the wares from which he obtained +his methods, and produced a distinctive type of ornament of his own. He +revelled in patterns with bold floral scrolls, or those based on +peacocks' feathers (see fig. 45), and then he advanced to concentric +bands of painted ornament, borrowed from classic art yet breathing the +true spirit of the Renaissance; while cable borders, chequer and scale +patterns, bands of stiff radiating leaves, festoons of fruit and +flowers, zigzags and pyramidal scrolls occupied nearly the whole surface +or framed an armorial or emblematic central subject. Figure-subjects +occur with increasing frequency as the century advanced; Madonnas and +other sacred subjects, portraits, and, occasionally, groups of figures +after the early Italian masters, or scenes borrowed from the first +illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the +conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface of the +piece. The provenance of these 15th-century pieces still remains +uncertain--Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other places offering +rival claims,--but there is no doubt that from the earliest times Faenza +was the most fertile centre of their manufacture, and almost all the +motives of the _quattrocento_ wares are found on fragments discovered +there or on examples that can be traced to Faventine factories. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Early Faenza plate, with peacock-feather +design, in blues, yellow and orange-red. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] + +[Illustration: Early Faenza Potter's mark. + +Late Faenza Potter's mark.] + +It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca della +Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1399-1482), and his followers, +Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members of the family, as +belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than of pottery, and this is +right, for there is nothing certainly known of the work of this great +sculptor which connects it with painted majolica. The old theory that +Luca invented the tin-glaze is long since exploded; what he did was to +use coloured glazes made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly +modelled terra-cottas--a very different thing,--and it is by no means +certain that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert +Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every kind; and +one may see there these beautifully modelled figures in high relief +covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a background of slatey blue +or rich manganese purple and framed in wreaths of flowers and fruit +which are coloured with blue, green, purple and sometimes yellow. There +are altar vases too, of classic shape with low relief ornament, covered +with the same peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with +modelled fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of +roundels painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months; +but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method is not +that of painted majolica. + +A remarkable development took place at the beginning of the 16th +century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest perfection of +manipulative skill, both in potting and painting, was attained. +Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed methods of painting +then adopted are too much allied to fresco-painting to be considered as +fit treatment for enamelled clay; but this view was certainly not +accepted at the time, nor is it subscribed to by many modern collectors; +yet, regarded as decorated pottery, the 15th-century majolica, simpler +and more conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable. +The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry under +their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite view and +spared no expense to provide subjects for their pot-painters. During +the first two decades the influence of Faenza was paramount, and though +the encroachments of purely pictorial motives are clearly indicated on +the wares, room was still found for ornamental patterns. The broad rims +of the dishes were covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently +including grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza +Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.). Sometimes reserved in the white on +a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and yellow, sometimes +traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze (called _berettino_) or +painted in darker tints on a ground of orange or full yellow, the +Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous feature of the early wares of +this century. Honeysuckle patterns and interlaced lines drawn in pure +white on a toned tin-enamel (white on white or _sopra-bianco_ +decoration) commonly appear on the sides of the deep wells of the +dishes, while in the centre is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a +small figure-subject. A similar treatment, without the _sopra-bianco_, +was accorded to the fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &c., with +moulded gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to +Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also noted for +delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a rich +brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too, the "grotesque" +decoration was practised with marked success. Other developments of this +style are the "_a candelieri_" designs, in which grotesques were +symmetrically arranged round some central subject, such as a candelabrum +or vase, and "_a trofei_" in which trophies of arms, musical +instruments, and other objects were symmetrically disposed, or arranged +in studied disarray throughout the design; these patterns are generally +associated with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers' gifts, +dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust of a girl +or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective inscribed on a +ribbon in the background, were common to Faenza, Castel Durante and many +other factories. Elaborate figure-subjects also were attempted early in +the century at Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a +dish in the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of +the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schöngauer, delicately +painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500. + +In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are almost +always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the grey-blue +_berettino_ ground, and blue was the prevailing colour of the shading +and details. In the third decade of the century the style affected at +Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The majolica painter's palette was now +complete; in addition to the primitive blue, manganese-purple, +transparent green and yellow, we find black, white, orange, greens of +varying shades, brown, and a great number of intermediate tints obtained +by mixing the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the +best periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing, +and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a thing as +painting in enamels on the finished ware and refiring them at a lower +heat was unknown before the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th +century. A true red colour seems to have been beyond the power of most +of the Italian majolists, and was only attained at Faenza, and with less +complete success at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery +behaves very indifferently on tin-enamel. + +[Illustration: Urbino Potter's mark.] + +In the Urbino style, which now became general, the ware was given over +entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes from history or romance, +scriptural and mythological, copied from the compositions of the Italian +painters and usually set in a background of Italian landscape. +Guidobaldo II., duke of Urbino, spared no pains to develop this phase of +the art; the cartoons of Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others, +were placed at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the +paintings of Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi, +Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together with +engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico and others, +were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the majolica. Some of the +painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli, were eclectic in their tastes +and made up their subjects by taking a figure here or there from various +pictures. Thus of three figures on a plate in the British Museum, +painted with the Dream of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and +another from Mantegna. These "_istoriati_" wares reached their zenith at +Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops of the +Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity was very +general, and skilful painters at many other towns produced specimens +that it is hard to distinguish from those of Urbino. Baldasara Manara +was a prolific painter in this style at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel +Durante were little behind Urbino in the skill of their artists, the +Lanfranchi family in the former town having a well-deserved reputation, +while the founders of the Fontana factories learnt their art in the +latter; and a few pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini +as their place of origin. + +There will always remain a large number of specimens of majolica which +cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular factory, partly +because the same style of painting was in vogue at many places at the +same time, and partly because of the itinerant propensities of many of +the painters, whose signed works prove that they moved from place to +place to practise their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists +whose touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear their +signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion of the +finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the founder of the +Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante to Urbino in 1519, and +worked at the latter place in the factory of his son, Guido Fontana. +There is little doubt that he was the painter of the famous service in +the Correr Museum at Venice, which marks the transition from the style +of Faenza to that of Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces +with strongly marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the +careful landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily +recognized in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the +Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.). His pupil, who frequently signed his +name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost Urbino +painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring and fine +figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish flesh tints. But +Niccola's grandson, Orazio Fontana (see example, Plate VI.), was perhaps +the most celebrated exponent of the pure Urbino style, and his free +drawing and soft harmonious colouring, in which a brilliant blue is +usually conspicuous, are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the +period. + +[Illustration: Venetian Majolica Potter's mark.] + +Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been noted. Those +with the grey-blue (_berettino_) glaze were principally made at the +factory called Casa Pirota, though inferior imitations were also +produced at Padua, and a blue glaze of paler tint was largely used at +Venice. Dolphins are a frequent motive in the arabesque ornaments of the +same Faventine workshop, and many of the wares are marked with a circle +divided by a cross and containing a dot in one of the quarters. A +capital P crossed with a line or paraph is another Faventine mark, and a +somewhat similar monogram, with an S added to the upper part, is found +in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has already been stated that a red colour +is peculiar to Faenza and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo; +it was used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto in +the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici family, many +fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faventine style; a deep blue, +heavily applied and showing the marks of the brush, was freely used in +backgrounds, and delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and +reminiscent of Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see +example, Plate VI). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the +reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and Siena are +richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric bands; those of +Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or have one or two rings of +yellow. A few pre-eminently beautiful dishes, with central figure +subjects of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes with poplar +trees in a peculiar mannered style, are probably the work of M. +Benedetto of Siena. Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange +ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps decorated by the same +hand. The dishes covered, except for a few small medallions, with +interlaced oak branches ("_a cerquate_" decoration), are no doubt the +productions of Castel Durante; and a certain class of large dishes with +figure subjects in blue on a toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal +ornaments in relief, are of undisputed Venetian origin. + +[Illustration: Later Cafaggiolo Potter's mark.] + +Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle of the 16th +century and synchronized with the decline of the pictorial style. The +figure subjects were relegated to central panels or entirely replaced by +small medallions, and the rest of the surface covered with fantastic +figures among floral scrolls, inspired by Raphael's grotesques painted +on the walls of the Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this +ornament was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is +always more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed over +with a pure milk-white, known as _bianco di Ferrara_ or _bianco +allatato_, said to have been invented by Alphonso I., duke of Ferrara, +who took an active interest in his private factory founded at Ferrara, +and managed by potters from Faenza and Urbino. + +The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara; at the +first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi family, and +lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica was now in full +decline, partly through the falling off of princely patronage, and +partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour of Chinese porcelain, +which was becoming more plentiful and better known in Europe. The +manufacture, however, never entirely ceased, and revivals of the old +style were attempted at the end of the 17th century by Ferdinando Maria +Campori of Siena, who copied Raphael's and Michelangelo's compositions, +and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli. The +majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the ware, good +technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak colouring; it +continued into the 18th century. A coarse and inferior ware was made at +Padua and Monte Lupo; and the factories of Faenza were still active, +producing, among other kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops +and gadroons. The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the +north. Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the +17th century, and at Savona and Genoa blue painted ware in imitation of +Chinese blue and white porcelain made its appearance. In the 18th +century a new departure was made in the introduction of enamel painting +over the glaze, a method borrowed from porcelain; but this process was +common to all the faience factories of Europe at the time, and though it +was widely practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any +particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th century wares +continue to be made in the factories of Ginori, Cantigalli and others, +not excepting the lustred majolica of Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared +with the old pieces, the modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in +drawing, suspiciously wanting in the quality of the colours and the +purity of the final glaze which distinguish the work of the best period. + +[Illustration: Turin Potter's mark. + +Savona Potter's marks.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 46--Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre +only, made at Pesaro or Deruta, c. 1500. The motto on the scroll may be +Englished as follows: "He who steers well his ship will enter the +harbour." (Louvre.)] + +_Lustred Wares._--The lustred wares of Deruta have marked +characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from the +Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour of such a +derivation. The most characteristic examples are large dishes and +plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel on the upper face only, the +back having a lead glaze. They are often decorated (see fig. 46) with a +single figure or bust in the centre (with or without an inscribed +ribbon), which is usually set against a dark blue background which +covers only half the field, while in the other half is a formal flower, +and in the borders are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with +scale pattern, or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic, +the designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a +greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent _reflets_ recalling +mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this _madreperla_ tint to a +brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes modelled +in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the Deruta lustred +wares are scarcely older than the 16th century, and the style was +continued as late as the second half of that century. Deruta pottery was +not always lustred, and some of the pieces signed by the painter El +Frate, who flourished between 1541 and 1554, are without the lustre +pigment, though showing the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares. +The lustred majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the +work of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from Pavia, +with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained citizenship in +1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction of sculpture, and some +of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia are still in existence; +indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred majolica attributed to him is +a plaque of 1501, with the figure of St Sebastian in relief, in the +Victoria and Albert Museum. It is not known whence he learnt the secret +of the beautiful transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or +rosy lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares, and no +doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter and developed by +Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden, yellow, brown and opalescent +lustres were also freely used at Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly +applied. Finished painted pieces were sent from other factories to +receive the addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be +distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre is an +integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred enrichment, the +majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities, for its styles were +various and almost all borrowed (see fig 47). The archaic taste of +Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques of Faenza and Castel Durante, and +in a lesser degree the "_istoriato_" style of Urbino, reigned in turn. +Perhaps the most characteristic paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the +central medallions of cups and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of +a child or a cupid in _grisaille_. Giorgio's larger figure compositions, +if indeed his signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted +the designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising +to a very high standard--as the dish with "the Three Graces" in the +Victoria and Albert Museum, and the "Bath of Nymphs" in the Wallace +collection--while in others the figure drawing is quite inferior. The +arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio wares are usually of great +merit. There are a few known pieces of unlustred Gubbio wares with +figure subjects, painted chiefly in blue and in the style of the early +Faventine artists. After 1517, when we may assume that the lustre +process was thoroughly mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed +with the initials or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly +executed scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of +the plates and dishes. The master's latest signed work is dated 1541, +and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene assisted +him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor of the lustre +secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who signed his wares with +the initial N, but this conjecture rests solely on the ingenious, but +unsupported notion that N is a monogram of the first three letters of +the name Vincentio. Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio +plates, and the latest dated example of the ware is signed by one +"Mastro Prestino" in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that +it is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely +disappear. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and +blue outline. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] + +[Illustration: Gubbio Potters' marks.] + + The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows:--among the earliest + are small bowls (_scodette_), often with flattened sides; jugs + (_boccali_) with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil + form; large dishes with gradually shelving sides (_bacili_), or with + flat broad rims and deep centres; akin to these are the plateaux with + a raised flat disk in the centre; small dishes with broad flat rims + and deep though narrow central walls (_tondini_), suitable for handing + a wine-glass or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (_piatti_ or + _taglieri_); saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with + moulded sides (_tazze_ or _fruttieri_) suitable for holding fruit. + Among the vase forms ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat + handles are common in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars + for confectionery, drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form + with graceful concave sides known as the "_albarello_," in shape of + Eastern origin, and in name perhaps derived from the Persian _el + barani_ (a vase for drugs, &c.); other vase forms with spouts and + handles were used for the same purpose; ornamental vases after + classical designs (_vasi a bronzi antichi_); and in the best Urbino + period a great variety of fanciful forms--ewers, vases, cisterns, + shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots, &c., with applied masks and serpentine + handles, were made in the exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece + of furniture for the bedside of ladies in childbirth (_vaso + puerperale_) consisted of a bowl with a foot surmounted by a flat + trencher on which fitted an inverted drinking-bowl (_ongaresca_); and + above this again a salt-cellar with cover. Many of these shapes were + suited to daily use, but the richly decorated majolica was designed to + adorn the walls, the _credenze_, table-centres and cabinets of the + rich. This alone could have been the destination of the large dishes + (_piatti di pompa_) with rim pieces for suspension, and the smaller + dishes (_coppe amatorii_) with portraits of young men and girls and + lovers' symbols; and it is inconceivable that the costly lustred wares + of Gubbio or the fine _madreperla_ dishes of Deruta were designed for + anything but decorative use. The ware was in fact an article produced + for the wealthy in the century of Italy's glory, and under no other + conditions could such magnificent and expensive pieces have been made. + + _Technical Methods._--This is a convenient place to give an account of + the methods used by the early medieval potters--(1) because they + represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th century, + and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because, besides + all that a potter could derive from an examination of the wares, we + have ample written accounts of the methods and processes followed by + the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published an epitome of + the account given in Biringuccio's _La Pyrotechnica_ (Venice, 1540), + and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a potter of Castel + Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and Albert Museum, which, + besides giving an account of the processes, contains illustrations of + kilns, mills, decorative motives, &c.[16] + + 1. The potter's clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds + prepared by (a) beating and picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing + with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic + clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the + potter's clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish, + Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known + geologically as "marls," which contain a large percentage of carbonate + of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and + give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other + kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see + Deck's _La Faience_). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares are + useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery + bodies for such purposes. + + +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+ + | | Delia | Majolica. | Delft. | French | + | | Robbia. | | | Faience. | + +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+ + | Silica | 49.65 | 48.00 | 49.07 | 48.65 | + | Alumina | 15.50 | 17.59 | 16.19 | 17.05 | + | Lime | 22.40 | 20.12 | 18.01 | 19.43 | + | Magnesia | 0.17 | 1.17 | 0.82 | 0.27 | + | Oxide of iron | 3.70 | 3.75 | 2.82 | 4.33 | + | Carbonic Acid, | | | | | + | water, &c. | 8.58 | 9.46 | 13.09 | 10.27 | + +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+ + + 2. _Shaping._--The vessels were either "thrown" on the potter's wheel + (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian times), or + they were formed by "pressing" thin cakes of clay into moulds, made of + a composition of plaster (_gesso_), bone-ash and marble dust. In the + latter way all shapes that were not circular were made, as well as + those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated from embossed metal + forms. It is interesting, though not surprising, to note that for the + fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when sufficiently dry, + were recentred on the wheel or were placed in a joiner's lathe and + smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The Greek potters did the + same, and this practice must always be followed where fine painting or + gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the later florid vases of the + Urbino style the piece was built up of thrown parts and moulded parts + (handles, masks, spouts, &c.), luted together with slip when they were + dry enough to be safely handled, and then retouched by the modeller or + vase-maker, a method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of + pottery or porcelain. + + [Illustration: PLATE V. + + Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century. + + Syro-Persian: 13th century. + + Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century. + + Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century. + + Damascus: 16th century. + + Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.] + + 3. _The Glaze._--The white enamel which formed at first both the glaze + and the ground for painting upon--_bianco_, as it was called--was + prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (_marzacotto_) was + made by melting together clean siliceous sand (_rena_) and the potash + salt left as the lees of wine (_feccia_). This corresponds to the + alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash for + soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian + potter, and accordingly the _bianco_ was made by melting together + thirty parts of _marzacotto_ and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes. + The white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and + potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin. + + 4. Pigments (_colori_) were compounded from metallic oxides or earths; + the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed with oxide of + iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper (the turquoise + tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide of copper is + impossible with a glaze of lead and tin); and the greens were made by + mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or oxide of iron; blue, + from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue glass (_smalto_, or + _zaffara_); brownish-purple, from manganese; black, from mixtures of + the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish brown, of Faenza and + Cafaggiolo was probably the same Armenian bole that was used so + magnificently by the makers of the Turkish pottery, but on the white + enamel ground this colour was most treacherous and uncertain. It must + be remembered that many of these colours owe their tint to the lead + used in their composition, or to the grounds containing oxides of lead + and tin on which they were painted. Piccolpasso describes the + preparation and composition of the various colours used in his day. + + 5. _Coperta_, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin + coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to give + a smooth bright surface. This _coperta_ was a soft lead glass + consisting of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts; + potash, 12 parts; and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then + finely ground in water. + + 6. _Methods of Glazing and Decorating._--In the mezza-majolica and the + early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in the + white bath to give it an envelope (_invetriatura_) before it was fired + at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much better + to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and brittle + as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel, by + dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This was + the practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel, the + thickness of glove leather, having been obtained, the piece was + carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the + absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes, + &c., in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other + colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second time to a + heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted on the + vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the same + operation. This method of painting on the unbaked enamel demanded a + bold direct treatment--for alteration or retouching was + impossible--and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due to + this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was + felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface, + and so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of _coperta_ + and fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother + and more glossy. Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs + of pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The + white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy + surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could + execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film + of _coperta_ was then washed over the painting, and the piece was + fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances + it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method + has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally we + should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been + painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely + certain when delicate white patterns have been "picked out" in a + coloured ground. + + Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica it + indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final + firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those + used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an + otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were + placed in a special kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just + visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was + allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films + (silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze.[17] + + _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the + most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at + the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan + collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection is + valuable, being rich in "signed" pieces of the first quality. The + Wallace collection and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum + collection, &c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable + examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at Sèvres have + fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be found in the + Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum at Brunswick contains + one of the largest collections known, but many inferior and doubtful + examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St Petersburg have noteworthy + collections. In Italy, the Bargello at Florence and the museums of + Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, Pesaro, Urbino, Rome and Naples all have + collections, whilst interesting examples of local manufactures are to + be found in many of the smaller Italian towns. The American museums, + especially those in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine + examples. + + LITERATURE.--F. Argnani, _La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine_ (Faenza, + 1889 and 1903); D. Bonghi, _Intorno alle Majoliche di Castelli_ + (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, "Siena," in the _Nineteenth + Century_, September 1900; Hensel, _Essai sur la majolique_ (Paris, + 1836); G.I. Montanari, _Majoliche dipinte nella collezione del N.S.C. + Domenico Mazza_ (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, _Di un insigna raccolta di + majoliche_ (Bologna, 1844); also _Di un pavimento in majolica_ + (Bologna, 1853); J.C. Robinson, _Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages_ + (London, 1862); E. Darcel, _Musée du Louvre: Notice des faïences + peintes_; Drury E. Fortnum, _Contribution to the History of Pottery_ + (London, 1868); Delange, _Recueil de faïences italiennes du XV^e au + XVII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, _Italienische Maiolika + Fliesen_ (Berlin); E. Molinier, _Les Majoliques italiennes en Italie_ + (Paris, 1883), also _La Céramique italienne au XV^e siècle_ (Paris, + 1888); C. Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, Castel + Durante 1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris, + 1841 and 1860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari, + _Notizia della raccolta Correr_ (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, _A + Descriptive Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum_ + (London, 1873); Beckwith, _Majolica and Faience_ (New York, 1877); G. + Corona, _La Ceramica_ (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, _Istoria delle + fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi_ (Pesaro, 1879); A. Genolini, + _Majoliche italiane_ (Milan, 1881); Mely, _La Céramique italienne_ + (Paris, 1884); J.E. Jacobsthal, _Süd-italienische Fliesen_ (Berlin, + 1886); Bertolotti, _Figulini, fonditori, e scultori_ (Milan, 1890); H. + Wallis, _Italian Ceramic Art_ (1897), _The Oriental Influence on the + Ceramic Art of the Italian Renaissance_ (1900), _The Art of the + Precursors_ (1901), _The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century_ + (1902), _Oak-leaf Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware_ (1903), _The + Albarello_ (1904), also _Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana_ (1905), + and _Italian Ceramic Art: Figure Designs_ (1905); Tesorone, _L'Antico + Pavimento delle Logge di Raffaello in Vaticano_ (Naples, 1891); + Columba, _Il "Quos Ego" di Raffaello_ (Palermo, 1895); Drury E. + Fortnum, _Majolica_ (London, 1896); also _Fortnum Collection in the + Oxford Museum_ (London, 1896); O. von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin, + 1896); also _Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italienischen + Majoliken_ (Leipzig, 1899); Antaldi Santinelli, _Museo di Pesaro_ + (Pesaro, 1897); De Mauri, _L'Amatore di Majolica_ (Milan, 1898); E. + Hannover, _De Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence_ + (Copenhagen, 1906). (R. L. H.; W. B.*) + + +FRENCH POTTERY FROM THE 15TH TO THE 19TH CENTURY + +The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here, for it was, +in the main, similar to that which was made generally in Europe--rudely +shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated with modelled ornament +and glazed with yellow or brown lead glaze, or, if coated with white +slip, decorated with bright green glazes, and towards the end of the +15th century with greyish blue. The later specimens of this simple +ware--pronouncedly Gothic in feeling--were often extremely decorative. +Avignon, Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly +national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work, the +reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumulates that +from time to time the princes and great nobles imported Spanish or +Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decoration of their +palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought Jehan de Moustiers and +Jehan-le-Voleur, "_ouvriers en quarrieaux peints et jolis_," in 1391, to +paint tiles for his palaces at Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we +have already referred to the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at +Poitiers by John of Valencia, the "Saracen," in 1384 for Duke Jean de +Berry.[18] Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign +work left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at a +later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia from Italy to +decorate his "Petit Château de Madrid" in 1529, or when Masseot +Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at Rouen the painted tile pavements +for the château of Ecouen, the cathedral of Langres, and other places, +nothing came of the imported methods; the works were executed and left +no traces on the general pottery of the country. During the 16th +century, however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France of +distinctive quality, and both eminently French--the Henri-Deux ware and +the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators. + +_Henri-Deux_, _Oiron_ or _St Porchaire_ ware, for all these names have +in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery, specimens +of which are now valued at more than their weight in gold, was once +believed to have been made by the librarian Bernard, and his assistant +Charpentier, for their patroness Helène de Hangest about 1529 at her +château at Oiron, near Thouars.[19] A few years ago this theory was +discarded in favour of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of +St Porchaire in the same region;[20] but even of this theory there is +insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the maker and +the place of origin. All we know is that the ware dates from the reign +of Henry II., and that it was probably made somewhere near Oiron, as +most of the specimens have been found in that district. The work is _sui +generis_, for it had no direct ancestry, neither did it leave any mark +on contemporary French pottery. Sixty-five pieces of the ware (see fig. +48) are known to be in museums and private collections; the Louvre and +the Victoria and Albert Museum have the best collections of their kinds, +but the Rothschilds still hold the greater number of examples. The ware +is fashioned in a simple whitish pipeclay, and ornamented with +interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of the period, inlaid in +yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The forms are generally graceful, but +some examples are over-elaborate and overloaded with modelled ornament. +The pieces were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas, +ewers, holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been "thrown" +and "turned" to a perfect shape, metal tools, such as were used by the +bookbinders and casemakers of that day, were pressed into the clay, so +as to form sunk cells of ornamental tooling. These cells were carefully +filled with finely-prepared slips of other clays, that would burn +yellow, buff or dark-brown; and when the whole was dry the piece was +carefully smoothed again, and moulded reliefs were attached, or touches +of colour were applied. After being fired the ware was glazed, +apparently with the ordinary lead glaze of the time carefully prepared +and fired again. At a later period the ornament was not inlaid in this +elaborate manner, but was simply painted, as indeed it might all have +been so far as decorative effect is concerned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Tazza of Oiron pottery. (Louvre)] + +[Illustration: Oiron Potter's mark.] + +_Palissy Ware._--Bernard Palissy was a genius of original talent, but, +at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained a legendary rank as +one of the great potters of the world which his pottery does not +warrant. He is supposed to have spent sixteen years in the search for +the white enamel which was being used all the time in Italy and +Spain--probably he was searching for the mystery of Chinese +porcelain--and when he settled down to make the "Palissy ware," he did +nothing more than carry to perfection the methods of the village +pot-makers of his own district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed +groups of moulded plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with +crude green, brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a +well-prepared lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators, like A. +Cléricy and B. de Blémont, who executed works quite as good as those of +their master; but their works also vanished and left no permanent +impression on the general trend of French pottery. + +Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed over the +French border and attempted to introduce the manufacture of their +tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works of Gambin and Tardessir of +Faenza, established at Lyons about 1556; of Sigalon at Nîmes in 1548; of +Jehan Ferro at Nantes about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed +impetus came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague, became +duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists, working under +princely patronage, planting their decadent art in the centre of France. +The first efforts met with little success until, with the appearance of +the Conrades from Savona, who were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get +the genuine ware of Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of +the Conrades or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased +majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder, the +colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited. The first +departure from Italian traditions is seen in the ware of the so-called +"Persian style" of Nevers--probably adopted from contemporary work in +Limoges enamels on metal--where conventional and fanciful designs of +flowers and foliage, birds, animals or figures were thickly raised in +white enamel on a ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the +middle of the 17th century the Italian style of design appears to have +been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in blue or in +polychrome, but really imitated from the "Delft" copies of Chinese and +Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and Moustiers became famous for their +distinctive wares Nevers copied their designs also, and on a gradually +descending scale the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th +century, when France was flooded with the rude _Faiences patriotiques_ +from this centre. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Dish of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in +blues and deep red.] + +The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces of Italian +influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the famous Poterats in +the later part of the 17th century. A new scheme of ornamentation was +gradually evolved in the daintily-designed scalloped and radiating +patterns adapted from oriental fabrics, lace and needlework, and from +the ornamental devices of contemporary printers. These designs, having +been skilfully drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue, +strong yellow, light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief, +applied as flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and +sparkling ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian +majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that rival +factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny, Quimper, Lille, +and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and Lille made fine pottery +of this class at the end of the 17th and in the early 18th century. It +was imitated at Nevers, the potters' marks shown being those of J. +Bourdu and H. Borne. In the south of France, Pierre Clérissy established +the industry at Moustiers in 1686, and, though the early Moustiers ware +bears a strong resemblance to the debased Italian majolica of the time, +the Moustiers painters soon left that behind, and on a glaze of +inimitable whiteness and softness they deftly pencilled blue patterns +based on the engravings of designs after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a +later date Olerys, who had been to Alcora to introduce the French +faience into Spain, returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale +polychrome style very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are +covered with patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale +green and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the +grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of Callot. +Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as those at Apt, Ardus +and Montauban, and even at Narbonne, Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just +as the northern factories had sprung from Rouen. + +[Illustration: Nevers Potters' marks.] + +We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns in the +Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly followed at all the +French factories during the 18th century. At Strassburg a fresh impetus +was given in this direction when, about 1721, Charles Hannong introduced +the practice of painting his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze +colours used by the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French +potter to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and +moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the coveted +porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe. This new departure +marks the end of the best period of French faience, but so successfully +did it meet the demands of the time that it gradually displaced the old +method of decoration where the colours were painted on the raw glaze and +fired along with it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new +ware in the first half of the 18th century at Niederviller, Lunéville +and Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at Rouen, +Sinceny, Marseilles, &c. With its general adoption the old French +faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed, to make way for a +tin-enamelled imitation of _famille-rose_ porcelain. But this last style +was not of long life. The wealthy classes were no longer patrons of +pottery but of porcelain, and when, after 1786, the newly perfected +English earthenware was thrown upon the French market, the French +faience-makers had to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of +this neater and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery. +This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary times, +brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we shall treat +of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a subsequent +section. + + _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British Museum + contain typical examples; but not such collections as are to be seen + in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sèvres, or the French + provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles, Lille, St Omer, &c. + + LITERATURE.--Deck, _La Faience_ (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and Garnier, + _French Pottery_ (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks, 1884); Le + Breton, _Le Musée céramique de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1883); Milet, (?) + _Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1898); + Pottier, _Histoire de la faience de Rouen_ (Amiens, 1870); L'Abbé H. + Requin, _Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers_, tome I^er + (Paris, 1903); M.L. Solon, _The Old French Faience_ (London, + 1903)--the best survey of the whole subject, with a very full + bibliography. The various volumes of the _Gazette des beaux-arts_ + contain many valuable original articles. (W. B.*) + + +GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN POTTERY + +In northern Europe until the time of the Renaissance the making of tiles +is the only branch of the potter's craft of artistic rank. The pavement +tiles of Germany of the Gothic period, examples of which have been +found in the valley of the Rhine from Constance to Cologne, often bear +designs of foliage or grotesque animals full of character and spirit. +Their decoration is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood +or clay, or by "pressing" the tile in a mould to produce a design in +relief. The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze--green, brown +or yellow--but is generally left unglazed. + +Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as the 14th +century for the construction of stoves, such as have continued in use in +Germany to the present day. About 1500 a development took place in the +combination of glazes of different colours on a single tile. In the +middle of the 16th century Renaissance ornament appears in place of +Gothic canopies and tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used +in combination with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the costume +of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches are a +favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares of similar +technique known as _Hafnergefässe_, which have been wrongly attributed +to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were made not only in that city but +also in Silesia and at Salzburg, Steyr, and elsewhere in Upper Austria; +their manufacture continued into the 18th century. + +Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on a white +enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany about 1525, and it +is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel should really be +associated. The same style survived for more than a century and a half +in the stoves and pottery made by the Pfau family at Winterthur in +Switzerland, from the end of the 16th century onwards. An interesting +development is exhibited by certain rare productions, of Silesian +origin, dating from about 1550, with decorations in coloured enamels +which are prevented from flowing together by a strong outline incised in +the clay. + +_Stoneware_.--The most important feature of the history of German +pottery is the development of stoneware along the valley of the Rhine. +This ware is of a highly refractory white or grey body of intense +hardness, glazed by the introduction of salt into the kiln when the +highest temperature was reached. It was exported in large quantities +through the markets of Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England, +France and other parts of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in +its decoration of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the +German potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers. + +The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at Siegburg +near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to the neighbourhood, +made from local clay, must have been made and exported in considerable +quantities at least as early as the 15th century; plain beer-jugs of +that date with cylindrical neck and slightly swelling body have been +unearthed in London and the eastern counties of England. In the 16th +century an artistic development took place, and the potters were formed +into an exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture +lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent +attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a creamy +white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely coloured by +staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression with small stamps +or by the application of reliefs pressed from separate moulds. The +motives include sacred and classical figure subjects, portraits of +contemporary sovereigns, and armorial bearings, with accessory foliage +in which a survival of Gothic feeling is often perceptible. +Characteristic forms are the high tankard (_Schnelle_) and the ewer with +long spout (_Schnabelkrug_), but the fancy of the potter also found +expression in various quaint or extravagant forms. + +At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained importance +about 1550, and was continued for over seventy years; 1539 is the +earliest date known to occur on this ware. The pieces were of two kinds, +brown-glazed and grey; the latter usually decorated with blue. The +favourite form is a baluster-shaped jug with heraldic designs or a +frieze of figures round the middle. The subjects are from Scripture +history or contemporary peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham +and the German and French "Little Masters." Examples are known bearing +dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among them Ian Emens and +Baldem Mennicken; but it must not always be inferred that a piece is as +old as the date introduced in its decoration, for the same set of moulds +might be used for many years. + +Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen near +Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as _Bartmänner_, from the bearded mask +applied in front of the neck, covered with a brown glaze, which in later +examples is often coagulated into thick spots, were first made here +towards the end of the 15th century, and continued to be the staple +product well into the 17th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards +or Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England, Scandinavia +and the Low Countries, were mostly made here. At Cologne itself there +were also factories, probably before the 16th century, the later +productions of which resemble those of Frechen. + +During the 17th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware centre was the +district surrounding Höhr-Grenzhausen in Nassau known as the +Kannebäckerländchen, where artistic ware was being made before 1600. +Soon after that date manganese purple was first used in the decoration +in addition to cobalt blue, and henceforward colour in combination with +impressed and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede +decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes, foliage on +wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels of large size and +fantastic shape appear beside the standard forms of the earlier +factories. In the 18th century the forms of beer-vessels became +stereotyped in the globular jug with cylindrical neck and the +cylindrical tankard, while tea and coffee pots, inkstands and other +vessels, hitherto unknown, began to be made. A stoneware manufacture +dating back to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria. The +productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries consist +of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red body, covered +with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently painted after the first +firing in brilliant enamel colours with figures of the Apostles, the +electors of the Empire, or other oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the +wares of Raeren and Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi; +other minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near Cologne +and Bunzlau in Silesia. + +As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain Delft potters) +and in Germany, attempts were made with some success, early in the 18th +century, to imitate the Chinese red stoneware, known as _boccaros_. The +early efforts of Böttger, the discoverer of the secret of true +porcelain, at Meissen, belong to this category. His red ware is of such +hardness that it was cut and polished on the lapidary's wheel. For some +time after the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed +brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration was made at +Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories of this class cannot now +be identified. + +Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery, such as the +bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical devices modelled in +relief and applied. Slip-covered wares with _graffiato_ decoration, +apparently of indigenous growth and not inspired by foreign examples, +were made well on into the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in +Germany, at Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in +Pennsylvania. In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made in the +18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling the Dutch +carved woodwork of the period. + +_Delft._--One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of pottery +is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed state, of the +manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at Delft. It was introduced +in that town by Herman Pietersz of Haarlem, but whence he learned his +art is unknown. The faience-makers (_plateelbackers_) were one of the +eight crafts of Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 1611. +About 1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years of +the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more serviceable +wares of the English potteries, Delft remained the most important centre +of ceramic industry in northern Europe. The ware is of fine +buff-coloured clay, dipped after the first firing in a white tin-enamel, +which formed the ground for painted decoration; after painting, this was +covered with a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that +in its technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian +majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly ranked +among the greatest achievements of the potter's art. + +Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in blue +monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular life in the style +of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of the oriental porcelain +imported by the Dutch East India Company were introduced about 1650 by +Aelbregt de Keizer and continued for some time among the finest +productions. At the same time the earlier tradition was developed in the +finely painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and +Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were Lambartus +van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the large reeded vases with +Chinese floral designs in polychrome, Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen +Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale; to the last are attributed the pieces with +yellow decoration on an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples +with polychrome decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese +lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker. With the 18th century came +a largely increased demand and a consequent deterioration in artistic +quality. The rise of the German porcelain factories had its effect in +the introduction of overglaze painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified +by the work of the Dextras, father and son. This innovation, by which +the Delft potters attempted to compete with European porcelain, +contributed to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch +required for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but +not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory (the +rose, the peacock, the three bells, &c.), or the name or initials of its +proprietor. + +A small faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff about 1755 at +Arnhem; its productions were of good quality, chiefly in the rococo +style, marked with a cock. + +The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned the rise of +numerous factories in that country for making faience in imitation of +the Dutch. Among these may be named Hanau (founded about 1670), +Frankfort and Cassel. Others, such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their +inspiration from the productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (q.v.). At +Nuremberg a factory was founded in 1712, which was but little affected +by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions are +dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs with long +necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted. Similar wares were +made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French styles were carried by German +potters into Scandinavia; factories were established at Copenhagen in +1722, at Rörstrand and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1728 and 1758, and at +Herrebøe in Norway about 1759. + +At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported English +earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops were established for +painting the English cream-coloured ware with subjects suited to the +Dutch taste; and in Germany cream-coloured wares and _steingut_ in +imitation of Wedgwood's productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau +and elsewhere. The "Delft" ware of Holland during the 17th century was a +beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters caught +successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value, of Chinese +blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over the whole of Europe, and +its styles were readily imitated by the potters of all other countries +who made a similar ware. Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so +beautiful as the "blue and white," is strongly decorative, and one sees +in the polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more than a +trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted by English +earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that was technically +superior displacing a more artistic product. + +[Illustration: PLATE VI. + + Calaggiolo: 16th century. + + Faenza. Casa Pirota, 1525. + + Urbino. Decorated by Orario Fontana. + + Urbino. 1525 (?). A plate of the famous Gonzaga Este service. + + Faenza: early 15th century.] + + _Collections._--For German wares the German museums are naturally + best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid collections + of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany. Cologne has a + wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and Berlin and Hamburg + have good general collections. Copenhagen and Stockholm are especially + good for Scandinavian wares, and Zürich for Swiss. There are also good + collections of German stoneware in the Victoria and Albert and the + British museums, and in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum + at Sèvres; but there are no notable collections of the German + tin-enamelled wares out of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best + studied in the museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an + interesting collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchère in + Delft. The principal museums in England, France and Germany all have + fair to good collections of this renowned ware. + + LITERATURE.--For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, _Geschichte + der europäischen Fliesen-Keramik_ (Strassburg, 1900; chapters on the + Netherlands and Germany); Walcher von Molthein, _Bunte Hafnerkeramik + der Renaissance in Österreich ob der Enns und Salzburg_ (Vienna, + 1906); Hafner, _Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Öfen in Winterthur_ + (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, _Tulip-ware of the Pennsylvania + German Potters_ (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware, see Solon, _The + Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Germany_ (London, + 1892); Van Bastelaer, _Les Grès wallons_ (Mons, 1885). For Böttger's + red ware, see Berling, _Das Meissner Porzellan_ (Leipzig, 1900), chap. + iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, _Histoire de la faïence de Delft_ + (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on "La Faïence d'Arnhem" in + _Gazette des beaux-arts_, 2nd series, vol. xx. (1879). For German + faience, see von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin, 1896), and articles by + Stieda, "Deutsche Fayencefabriken des 18. Jahrhunderts," in + _Keramische Monatshefte_, vols. ii. and iii. For Scandinavian pottery, + see Nyrop, _Danske Fajence og Porcellainsmaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1881); + Stråle, _Rörstrand et Marieberg_ (Stockholm, 1872); Grosch, + _Herrebøe-Fayencer_ (Christiania, 1901). Excellent accounts of most + branches of the subjects are given by Brinckmann, _Das hamburgische + Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe_ (Hamburg, 1894). (B. Ra.) + + +LATER WARES OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + +We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds of pottery +that have exerted real influence on the historical development of the +art. Offshoots from the main stem that have developed little or no +individuality can only be briefly mentioned. When the characteristic +Spanish-Moorish lustre wares ceased to be desired by the wealthy they +rapidly sank into insignificance, though as a decorative peasant pottery +their manufacture never really ceased and has been revived again in our +day. The course of pottery importation was changed and the now +fashionable Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and 17th +centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the opposite course +two centuries earlier. Besides the influence which these imported wares +had on the Spanish potters, a number of wandering Italian majolists +found their way into Spain, so that we find the use of painted colour, +particularly blue, yellow, orange, green and purple, making its +appearance at various centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville, +&c., but the most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of +the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian majolica +of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain designs, probably +filtered through to the Spanish potters by the then popular enamelled +Delft wares, is very apparent. The potteries of Talavera are mentioned +as early as 1560, and they continued at work, with varying fortunes, +down to the end of the 18th century. Many and varied wares were +produced, including tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery +pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, _tinajas_, holy-water vessels, +drug-pots, and hanging flower vases, together with moulded and painted +snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind of fruit. +Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of ornament also rendered +the ware much inferior to that of Italy or of France. The popular +Talavera wares were imitated elsewhere in Spain, and a number of +factories existed at Toledo in the 17th century, but their wares are +very inferior. In the 18th century, besides debased imitations of this +ware, some coarse but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo +near Toledo. + +An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be found in +the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from the early 17th +century. It is said that Spanish potters were settled at this place by +the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the making of a debased form of +Spanish majolica continued there for nearly two centuries. See Barber's +"Tin-Enamelled Pottery," _Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum_, 1907. +During the 18th century determined efforts were made by King Charles +III. and by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery +wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain. The efforts +of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain works at Buen Retiro +near Madrid, which will be mentioned later, and considerable success +also attended the revival of strong copper lustre, like that of the late +Hispano-Moresque wares; but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those +made at Alcora in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726, +which continued in operation down to the French wars. For his purposes +the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the famous French pottery +centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a well-known pot-painter. He went to +Alcora as chief draughtsman and designer, having charge of a number of +Spanish potters and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of +decoration, and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best +period recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to +add that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow +and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to France in +1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he introduced this new +style of delicate polychrome decoration at Moustiers. The mixture of +motives and ideas that animated the duke and his potters may be seen by +the following list of wares produced about 1750. Vases of different +shapes; small teapots; teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and +covers, Dutch fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entrée dishes; +salt-cellars, Chinese style; _escudillas_ (bowls) of Constantinople; +_barquillos_ (sauce-bowls), Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of +different kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work, and +finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and refrigerators. +Later in the century the manufacture of porcelain was introduced here, +as well as white earthenware made in imitation of the productions of +Wedgwood, and the tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did +elsewhere. + +The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also practised in +Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times; but the ware never +attained to any distinction and is little known outside that country. +The best-known specimens were made at Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory +was founded in 1767 under the patronage of the court. + +Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain and +Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots, and other +domestic utensils are still made in these countries for ordinary +domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of the most primitive +kind. Many of these vessels, especially the _tinajas_ (wine-jars) and +water-coolers, are based on ancient, classical or Arab forms, and in +every country market-place it is still common to see groups of vessels, +in unglazed pottery of fine shape and finish, exposed for sale--a very +different state of things from what obtains in France, Germany, and +particularly in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are +being imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to the +18th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known as +_buccaros_ was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal. The body of +the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, according to the special +kind of clay. The curious point about this ware is that, if we may +believe contemporary documents, the vessels were delicately scented, +like a ware imported from Mexico; and the soft vessels are said to have +been eaten--a custom common enough in certain parts of Central and +Southern America. (See M.L. Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_, 1896.) + (W. B.*) + + +ENGLISH POTTERY FROM THE 16TH TO THE 18TH CENTURY[21] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are +shown] + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Common forms of medieval pottery; the upper +part of the slender jug is covered with a green vitreous lead glaze; the +other is unglazed with stripes of red ochre.] + +The course of pottery manufacture in England followed, generally rather +in the rear, that of France, Germany and other northern countries. +Before the coming of the Romans much pottery of the late Stone age and +the Bronze age was made in Britain. The Romans introduced their more +advanced technique, and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery, +they founded numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch, +Castor, Uriconium, &c. With the departure of the Roman legions their +simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery vanished, and Saxon and +early Norman times have left us little but wares resembling those of the +Germanic and Frankish productions (fig. 50). The early middle ages +passed without much improvement, and, though rare specimens--like the +ewer in the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum--proved that +glazed wares were made in this country, the general run of our medieval +pottery vessels never soared above the skill of the travelling brick or +tile maker.[22] The monastic tile-makers, with their strong, Gothic tile +pavements, produced artistic work of a very high order; but the patrons +of the common potter remained content with his rudely made and simply +glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even in the +16th century the excellence of English pewter probably acted as a +barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it was only the +importation of foreign wares--Italian, German, Dutch and French--that +stirred up our native clay-workers to the possibilities of their art. In +early Tudor times there was some importation of Italian majolica as well +as of the Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the +constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to the eastern +counties not only the stonewares of the Rhineland and the "Delft" wares +of Holland, but also emigrant potters from those countries who tried to +practise their native crafts amongst us. The Civil War appears to have +been unable to check this new spirit, for we have the evidence of dated +examples to show that various immigrants went on quietly practising +their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the outskirts of +London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent as well. It seems +probable that the earliest influence was an Italian one, but before this +was firmly domiciled it was supplanted by that of the Dutch and Germans. +The first wares of an improved kind that were made in England are so +closely related to the German stonewares and the "Delft" wares that it +is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of English +or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the greatest, of +English potters was John Dwight, an educated man, who had held the +office of secretary to three successive bishops of Chester, and who +obtained a patent in 1671 for the manufacture of certain improved kinds +of pottery. We have no knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the +potter's art, for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan +(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign potters had +settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory at Fulham, where he +resided till his death in 1703. He was always an eager experimenter, and +from his diaries it seems certain that he was searching after the, then, +mysterious Chinese porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he +ever attained success in this search, for his known productions may be +grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stoneware--mostly +small vessels, teapots, mugs, &c., in imitation of the Chinese +buccaros.[23] (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed stoneware made in +imitation of, and often not to be distinguished from, the wares of the +Rhineland. But Dwight produced a considerable number of modelled +portrait-busts, statuettes, &c., all in stoneware of various tints, +which entitle him to a place in the very first rank of potters. The +portrait-bust of Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of +Meleager (British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &c., are worthy of a +sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy of Lydia +Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the most beautiful works +ever executed by an English potter. + +Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style of +"Delft," was prosecuted with increasing industry in London on the south +side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth. By the end of the 17th +century the same imitation "Delft" wares were made at Bristol and +Liverpool, continuing until, in the closing years of the 18th century, +tin-enamelled earthenware was abandoned in favour of the perfected +English cream-colour. There is a strong family likeness in all this +English "Delft," whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body +of the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares of the +continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose, as it is +generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually painted in cobalt +blue of good tone, though inferior in softness and richness of tint to +that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome painting was not so common, +and it differs from that of the Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a +pale yellow colour and the general absence of any good red like that +found on the polychrome wares of Delft, Rouen, Sic. + +German stoneware also received a well-merited share of attention long +before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible to distinguish the +grey and brown ale-jugs, greybeards, &c., presumably of English +manufacture in the 17th and early 18th centuries, from their German +prototypes. Fulham remained an important centre of this manufacture, and +a fine brown stoneware was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700; +in each case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to this +day. + +The development of a native English pottery took place in North +Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters, who manufactured +some strongly decorative English wares by very simple means, was +established here from the middle of the 17th century. Rudely fashioned +dishes, jugs, bottles, &c., were shaped in the local red-burning brick +clays, and, while the pieces were still soft, simple but effective +decorative patterns were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip), +trailed on through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient +and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic Egyptian, the +Roman and the Byzantine potters) has furnished the peasant potters of +every European country with characteristic wares, but nowhere was it +used with greater skill than in England. The English slip-decorated +wares are often spoken of as "Toft ware," because Thomas Toft, living in +what is now Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his +pieces (1670, &c.); but similar wares were made at Wrotham in Kent, in +Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of the Staffordshire +district must have spread by the time of the Revolution, for soon after +1690 John Philip Elers, a Dutchman of good family, settled there and +began to make a superior pottery to any previously made in the district. +Elers is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds +of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known to have +made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite recently, records +of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers and some other Staffordshire +potters with suborning his workmen and infringing his patents have been +brought to light. It is certain that, from the time of Elers, the +Staffordshire potters made great advances in the fabrication of their +wares, and during the 18th century they evolved two distinctively +English kinds of pottery, (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English +earthenware. + +_Staffordshire Salt-glaze._--It is uncertain when and how the +Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could be +glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height of the +firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland more than a +century before. Many writers have maintained that the practice was +introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain. Early in the 18th century a +fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware was made in Staffordshire, in many +quaint and fanciful forms largely influenced by Chinese porcelain--still +an object of wonder and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies, +plates, dishes, bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great +variety, and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a +brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time, a +distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent and to the +American colonies. + +_English Earthenware._--The manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery +scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the invention of the +white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one of the greatest revolutions +in the potter's art that the world has ever seen. This was nothing less +than the abandonment of the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of +white slip or of tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white +throughout its substance, prepared by mixing selected white-burning +clays and finely-ground flint (silica).[24] The change has generally +been associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters, but he +really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the Warburtons, +Turners and others, the work of half a century's experiment and +discovery. The ware compared most favourably, from the point of view of +serviceableness, neatness and mechanical finish, with all that had gone +before it, and as the tin-enamelled wares had almost everywhere in +Europe sunk to the position of domestic crockery--for the Chinese, +German, French and English porcelains had displaced it with the +wealthy--this better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its +final death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be met +with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from Cadiz to +Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the continental +nations soon began a similar manufacture for themselves. Everywhere this +great change was encouraged by the growing fondness for mechanical +perfection, and it is not without a sigh that a lover of pottery can +witness the gradual disappearance of the painted tin-enamelled +wares--degenerate survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French +faience and Dutch "Delft"--before the unconquerable advance of another +form of pottery which in its inception was based on technical rather +than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a century passed before +the new material was turned to artistic account. + +By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been pre-eminently +associated with this great change, and with good reason, for though he +had many contemporaries who equalled or even excelled him in certain +kinds of pottery, no other potter ever approached him in the range of +his products and the varied applications to which he turned the exercise +of his remarkable talents.[25] True, he soon abandoned the simple +Staffordshire wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to +which the names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the +varied productions of his factory united the best work of a district +fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial to Wedgwood +himself. Thus he adopted and improved the green and yellow glazes which +had come down from medieval times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate +X.), and gave a new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert +services, candlesticks, &c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-fired +red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &c., introduced by +Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he invented drab, grey, brown +and other colours in similarly hard-fired unglazed bodies. He neither +invented nor alone perfected the Staffordshire cream-coloured +earthenware, but he made it so well that his "Queen's ware" was the best +of its class. He undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on +grounds of unglazed blue, green, black, &c., white figures and +ornamental motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and +other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to reproduce the +painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours painted over a hard +black body. + +Wedgwood's "Jasper ware," his most original production (see Plate X.), +differed both in nature and composition from all the species of pottery +that had preceded it. In an attempt to obtain the qualities of the +finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood discovered, after years of +experiment, that by mixing together a plastic white clay and "cawk" or +barytes he could obtain a "body" which might be "thrown" on the wheel or +"pressed" in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and +sub-translucent pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual +metallic oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and +black. The ware resembled "biscuit" porcelain in that it needed no glaze +to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the culmination of +those "dry" or unglazed wares that had been so largely made in China, +Japan and Europe, where the quality resides in the fired clay material +without any adventitious aid from a glaze. The general practice was to +make the body of the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this +with applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in "white" of the same kind, +"pressed" from intaglio moulds and then applied by wetting the surface +and squeezing--leaving the fire to unite the vessel and its applied +ornament into one piece. Sometimes the ornament was in a coloured clay +applied on a white body, and we get in the same way black on red, buff +on red or black, and red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety +of bodies produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is +exceedingly great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of their +application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases, plates, dishes, +jardinières, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers, inkstands, +scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every kind of thing +that could be made in clay. Many of the applied designs, whether of +figures or ornament, were very beautiful in a way, being copied or +adapted from Greek and Roman gems, vases, &c. At their best they are +marvellous for the precision and delicacy of their execution, and it is +impossible to imagine that anything better could have been done in this +style. So perfectly did they represent the taste of their period that +attempts were made at Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce +something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can be +compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great contemporary Turner +(see Plate X.), in beauty of colour or perfection of workmanship. + +It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired by mistaken +motives; that it was founded on an imperfect view of ancient art; and +that it was marred by its mechanical ideals; but it must be remembered +that it was in perfect harmony with the spirit of the times, and that +while it emphasizes for us the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th +century, it marks an advance in the technical skill of the potter, which +is simply astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone +further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally +supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances were +introduced for the performance of many portions of the potter's work +that had hitherto been indifferently performed by rude and exhausting +manual toil; and while the application of mechanism was pushed too +far--so that in the first half of the 19th century we find the most +inartistic pottery the world has ever seen--we must regard this even +more as a cyclic movement of human feeling than as the work of any +individual, or group of men. The late 18th century marks the period when +pottery was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux +ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen, Moustiers, +Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the wealthy, but when it +was largely in demand by the poorer classes, anxious in their turn to +have a useful ware which should imitate the more costly porcelain used +by the great. France, Germany, Sweden, Russia, and later the United +States, all followed in the wake of the English potters, and the +printing-press was applied in all countries to produce elaborate +engraved patterns in blue, brown, green, &c., in order to get an +effective-looking ware in harmony with the spirit of the times, and at +the same time cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the +vanquished tin-enamel. + + _Collections._--The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums + naturally contain the most representative collections of English + pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and + Nottingham, also have good collections, while Birmingham, Manchester + and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall Museum, London, + is rich in early wares found or made in London and its vicinity. + Continental collections of English pottery are meagre in the extreme + and badly described, even in the ceramic museums at Sèvres and + Limoges. The collection at Dresden is interesting, as it was purchased + from the collection made by Enoch Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In + America, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of + New York, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia, + contain interesting examples of wares exported to America in the late + 18th and early 19th centuries. + + LITERATURE.--The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt's _Ceramic Art + in Great Britain_ (1878), and _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_ (1865); + Chaffers, _Marks and Monograms_ (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900); + Meteyard's _Life of Wedgwood_ (1865-1866), and Shaw's _History of the + Staffordshire Potteries_ (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always be + of interest as original sources of information; but the later works, + such as Church, _English Earthenware_ (1884; new edition, 1906); + _Josiah Wedgwood_ (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907); Solon, _Art of the + Old English Potter_ (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, _Catalogue of + English Pottery in the British Museum_ (1903); Burton, _English + Earthenware and Stoneware_ (1904), are the best authorities. + (W. B.*) + + +CHINESE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN[26] + +In China, as in every other country where pottery-making has been +practised for centuries, we find a natural progression from primitive +pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture to the pottery of +other primitive races the world over. We find too the early use of +bricks, tiles, &c., as in Egypt and Assyria; and then the usual +succession of domestic utensils, funeral vases, and vessels for +religious ceremonials. There is nothing to show that the potter's wheel +made its appearance in China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese +potters have used the simple methods of carving and "pressing" from +moulds which preceded the use of the potter's wheel, even more than +other nations. In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 B.C.) the +difference between the processes of "throwing" and of "pressing" from +moulds is clearly described,[27] and it is instructive to note that many +early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery are remarkably like their +works in bronze. In the same way there is no definite date to which we +can refer the introduction of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of +glazed ware known are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han +dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), a date much later than that of the +earliest glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the intercourse +between China and the West, at times historically remote, it is not +impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with a glaze was +carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any case the Chinese +developed the potter's art on their own lines, for we have ample +evidence that from very early times they fired their pottery to a much +higher temperature than was common in the west of Asia, and so +discovered types of glaze and of pottery that remained for centuries a +mystery elsewhere. The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned +are quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria, Egypt or +Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can scarcely be +scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze has become iridescent +by age as though it contained oxide of lead. The easily-fired friable +wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece seem to have had no attraction for +the Chinese, and the glazes on their hard-fired wares were naturally +different from those already described. The Chinese appear to have been +the first potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high +temperature pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed +with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary refractory +clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this technique lay the +germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced form of pottery the world +has yet seen. It is necessary to consider the pottery that preceded +porcelain, for not only was it the matrix out of which porcelain grew, +but in certain districts of China, where the necessary materials for +porcelain are not found, similar wares have been manufactured without +intermission to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the +technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by +developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the shaping +and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured enamels or +glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great authority on the +Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on two outstanding types of +Chinese pottery other than porcelain which have exercised considerable +influence on the doings of European potters. + + 1: _Yi-Hsing-Yao_.[28]--This is the pottery, generally of unglazed + fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the province + of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these fine-coloured + clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished pieces, + such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-bottles and + wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under the Ming dynasty + (A.D. 1368-1643) and later.[29] It was imported into Europe by the + Portuguese, who applied to it the name _boccaro_, formerly given only + to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico and Peru.[30] This + pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder as the poles in nature + as well as origin, but the potters of northern Europe regarded every + kind of pottery coming from the Far East as a species of porcelain, + and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs, bowls, cups, &c., in + imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread during the late 17th and + early 18th centuries under the name of red porcelain. Dwight, Elers + and Böttger are notable names in this connexion. + + 2. _Kuang-Yao_.--The name given by the Chinese to the pottery made in + the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of manufacture + in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this article it is + sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are dense, + hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured grey, + red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with thick, variegated + or opalescent glazes, grey, blue, green, yellow or red, but flecked, + veined and streaked with other tints. The wares are so like the + productions of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) that modern pieces are + often confounded with the more precious productions of that epoch. One + of the first lessons to be learnt by the student of Chinese pottery is + that, with great reverence for their own antiquities, the Chinese of + every period have endeavoured to reproduce the famous wares of their + ancestors, and often with such skill as to deceive the most expert. + Even when the manufacture of porcelain was at its highest in + King-tê-chên, the potters in other parts of China carried on the + production of glazed or unglazed pottery in coloured clays, and, + further, the directors of the imperial factory from time to time + strove to reproduce the most archaic wares that could be found in the + Empire. + +[Illustration: PLATE VII + + Chinese. Sang de Boeuf. + + Chinese. Flambé. + + Chinese. Turquoise glaze "crackled." + + Purple Soufflé. + + Coral red. + + Peach blow. Pigeon's blood. + + Lemon yellow. + + Apple green.] + +_Porcelain._--By this word we distinguish broadly all those pieces of +pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and translucent, and +also, broadly speaking, in which the material is white throughout, +unless minute quantities of metallic oxides have been definitely added +to colour it. It is impossible to draw any hard and fast line between +porcelain and stoneware, for both may be thoroughly vitrified and +translucent in thin pieces--but generally the stonewares are drab, red +or brown in the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the +precious quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is +not even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or +earthenware. The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to fire +their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified stonewares +before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed these stonewares with +fusible mineral substances, and from that stage the natural refinements +of methods must necessarily have produced porcelain. In regions where +beds of primary clay were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter +than elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic +rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance and one that +was more readily fusible and Would spread better over the whole piece. +How many centuries were needed before a ware white enough and +translucent enough to be now classed as porcelain was produced we cannot +know; but the process was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some +Chinese writers in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote +periods the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens +are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution, and +literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle such a +difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present time is that +something worthy of the name of porcelain was made during the Tang +dynasty (A.D. 618-907), but we have no pieces earlier than the Sung +dynasty (A.D. 960-1259), and the majority of these are perhaps more +fitly described as stoneware than as porcelain. + +Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, and all +the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery of distinguished merit was +made in many districts, and much of it has been classified as porcelain +because the body is whitish and vitrified, though it is much inferior in +finish and in translucence to the perfect white porcelain of later +times. It is necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any +pottery with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th +century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs incised +or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration is to be found in +the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, whether stoneware or +porcelain, were covered. The glaze is never clear and white as at later +times; it is generally uneven, imperfectly fused and presents all the +marks of an imperfect technique. The nearest approach to white is found +in an opalescent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The +glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the _céladons_, a +family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth and +softness. Besides the _céladons_ which are the most uniform in tints of +the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender, brownish yellow +and brownish black, but these are all subtly or boldly mottled, +splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones of red, blue, purple, +opalescent grey and black. The most famous of these now very rare Sung +wares were the stonewares of Chunchow, remarkable for their rich and +varied glazes, the black variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province, +"hare's fur cups" and "partridge cups" of collectors, and the four +principal wares that may be called porcelain, viz.--the _Ju-Yao_, made +at Ju-chow in Honan; the _Kuan-Yao_ (Kuan = "official" or "imperial"), +made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; the _Ko-Yao_, made +at Liu-t'ien; and the _Ting-Yao_, made at Tung-chow in Chih-li. + +This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known beyond its +native country, for the first mention of porcelain outside China appears +in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller, Sulaiman, who visited China +in the 9th century and wrote: "They have in China a very fine clay with +which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen +through them";[31] and its first appearance in the west is always given +as A.D. 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty pieces to +the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an export trade was +developed, particularly in the _céladon_ wares of Lung-chüan, a city in +the south-west of the province of Chehkiang. This famous ware, the +"green porcelain" of the Chinese, probably made as an imitation of jade, +exists mostly in the form of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing +incised or fluted patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green +glaze of indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is +white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the glaze have +a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste, and when the ware was +reproduced in later times this reddish-brown tint had to be imitated +artificially. The ware was highly prized both in China and Japan, in the +islands of the East Indies, and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia +it was largely used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the +last century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco. +"Archbishop Warham's cup" at New College, Oxford, which is the first +specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that we can now produce, +is a _céladon_ bowl with a silver-gilt mount of the time of Henry +VIII.[32] + +The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai Khan +(grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in Tatar hands until +1368, when the great native dynasty of the Mings was established. During +this period (Yuan dynasty), roughly a century, one can say little of +ceramic progress, for the wares of the period are singularly like those +of Sung times. But two important changes took place which had a marked +influence on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain--(1) the +concentration of the industry at King-tê-chên, which was consummated in +the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the introduction of painted +decoration under a white transparent glaze, the idea of which (and +perhaps the necessary cobalt mineral) was brought from Persia. + +King-tê-chên was already a pottery centre when its factories were +rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who made it +the imperial factory, so that the best porcelain workers were attracted +thither, and in the other old centres the industry was abandoned or some +earlier manufacture was continued, as in the southern province of +Kiang-su. In the province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain +manufacture has also continued. We have already mentioned the black +glazed cups, "hare's fur," &c., made in this province in Sung times, +and, while King-tê-chên was to be the scene of the developments of the +coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien perfected the +manufacture of the famous and beautiful white porcelain in bowls, +dishes, cups and statuettes, best known under its French title of _blanc +de Chine_. + +The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to the +beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be older, speak +strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. The pieces are massive +both in form and substance, and the ornament, consisting of figures +mounted or on foot, animals, bands of diaper or foliage, or pendant +necklaces, is strongly silhouetted by a raised outline recalling the +decorative methods of the Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also +recall the methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was +glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes, similar in +nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and quite unlike the +Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined spaces and melted at +a lower temperature. The Grandidier collection in the Louvre, the +Franks collection at the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, +as well as all the great private collections of Chinese porcelain, +contain samples of this primitive and archaic-looking ware. + +The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to take an +entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with its brilliant +painted decorations in blue, green and purple on a pure white ground, +exercised its natural fascination over men as keen in colour-sense as +the Chinese potters. With the concentration of the industry at +King-tê-chên, and the rapid improvement in technical skill and knowledge +that followed, the production of a fine porcelain with a transparent +white glaze was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian +pot-painter the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the +Chinese porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and +with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from copper, the +foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. It would be idle to +try and fix any specific date for this important development, which took +more than a generation to perfect, but it is reasonably accurate to say +that the blue and white painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th +century and were fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century. +Chinese collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of +Suen-tê (A.D. 1426-1435), of Chêng-hwa (1465-1487), and next of Yung-lo +(1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour used during these +reigns is spoken of as "Mahommedan" blue, so that it was evidently +brought from some country to the west. This 15th-century blue and white +porcelain is admittedly the finest of its class, and though the Chinese +never abandon an old method and have continued to make blue and white +porcelain, often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may +be, rarely equal these. + +The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already been +mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours was largely +used during the same period. At first it appears as a general ground +colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then vessels were made in +special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to display its qualities, finally +it was used either alone or in conjunction with blue in painted designs +under a white glaze of exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the +15th century describes one of his pieces as being decorated with "three +red fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly +outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as to +dazzle the eye." + +Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in Ming times are +the marvellous "eggshell" porcelains, called by the Chinese "bodyless" +from their extreme thinness. As early as the reign of Yung-lo +(1403-1424) these delicate wares were in high repute, and their +manufacture has been continued ever since with varying skill and +success. In spite of their extreme thinness the specimens have designs +of dragons in the midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c., engraved +in the paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is so +delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with +liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured glaze +which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized of these are +the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi (1488-1505) and +Chêng-tê (1506-1521). + +Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made its +appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, commonly +spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as "grain of rice" +porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited consummate skill in the +manufacture of perforated pieces of all kinds. Sometimes the +perforations are left clear, but in the rice-grain pattern the incisions +are generally filled up with the melted glaze so that they become like +so many windows in the walls of the piece. We have already seen that the +Persian potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century, +but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated in +China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional +proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia. + +It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find the first +examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired over the glaze. It +seems probable that the practice grew out of the use of enamels on +metal, which had spread from Byzantium to China, and which the Chinese +developed with remarkable skill. It is important to remember that the +very nature of the glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high +temperature to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to +cobalt-blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the +rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some other means +must be found, and so the device was adopted of taking a finished piece +of blue and white and decorating it further by very fusible colours +painted over the fired glaze and then attached to it by refiring at a +lower temperature equal only to that used by the enameller on metals. At +first the on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in +the Ming (_San ts' ai_) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and +yellow. Then we get the Ming (_Wan-li Wu ts' ai_) five-colour scheme, in +which the same three colours are combined with an over-glaze red and all +are painted over a skeleton pattern in under-glaze blue. This +development, as its name implies, only took place in the reign of Wan-li +(1573-1620). + +At this time King-tê-chên must have produced a very large quantity of +porcelain. The requirements of the court were enormous, for in 1583 one +of the supervising censors, remonstrating with the emperor, declared +that one year's demands comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell +writes: "The colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the +abundance of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present +day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection of +bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may be seen with +sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter, or ladling syrup out of +large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's shop without a cracked +Wan-li jar standing on the counter to hold scraps of meat." + +Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the wares of +this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship to the wares of +the preceding and also of later periods, but the influence of the +growing export trade doubtless told in the same direction. For several +centuries the native Chinese porcelain had been exported to all the +neighbouring countries, and through Persia and Cairo to the West. No +long time elapsed before the Chinese adopted forms, colours and +decorations for these export wares, not in accordance with Chinese +usage, but presumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence +the Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the 15th +and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries. Now, for the +first time, there came a direct European demand, and cargoes of ware +were brought to Europe by the Portuguese and afterwards by the Dutch, +which were increasingly decorated in fashions foreign to Chinese taste. +The production of these export wares slowly modified the taste of the +Chinese themselves and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th +and early 18th centuries. + +The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty +definitely separated the first great period of Chinese porcelain from +its second and culminating period. The works at King-tê-chên were +destroyed more than once in the 17th century, but in spite of these +difficulties the potters must have remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi +(1662-1722), Yung-chêng (1722-1735), and K'ien-lung (1736-1795) covered +a century and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic +production was reached and passed. It is only possible here to sketch in +broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which has formed the +subject of many learned works. + +It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, when a +spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions of their ancient +kilns should receive no less attention than the new methods of +decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the same time many of the +discoveries of the later Ming days were carried on to perfection. The +first remarkable productions of the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green +and blood-red _Lang-yao_ glazes, were made in the attempt to produce +glazes like those of old times. With the more carefully prepared body +and glaze the results are strikingly different and, as we think, +superior, for it is difficult to believe that any example of the +"sacrificial" red of the reign of Suen-tê can have been as glorious as +the red _Lang-Yao_, the crown of all that group of glazes known from +their general colour as _sang de boeuf_ (see example, Plate VII.). In +the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming period was +continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue pigment be not so +pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative effect of the blue and +white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example, Plate VIII.) has never been +equalled in Europe. The subjects of the blue and white pieces of this +period are very varied, including religious, ceremonial, battle and +hunting subjects, homely scenes such as ladies and children amusing +themselves in gardens, or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous +monsters disporting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called +"hawthorn ginger jars" form a class by themselves in the opinion of +modern collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen +being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility of the +painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and white of this +reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the harmonious relation +between the tones of the white and the blue, especially when it is seen +_en masse_, as in the famous Dresden collection.[33] + +The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that the +pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened by the use of +slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of powder-blue appear to +have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment was not applied by a +brush, but was blown on through a tube, one end of which was covered +with fine muslin, in a rain of minute drops. This ground was either +carried over the whole piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating +blue glaze--in which case it was generally covered with conventional +designs pencilled in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze--or panels were +reserved in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in +on-glaze colours. + +In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived or +re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as of so +many others in our great European collections, date only from the +beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and pierced or reticulated +pieces were made to great perfection, and the coloured glazes in light +green, turquoise, purple and black (see Plate VII.) reached their +height. The early glazes of this type appeared in Sung times (see +above), but on the finely prepared K'ang-hi wares much more striking and +brilliant colour effects were obtained. As in old times, for the +production of some of these glazes a departure was made from the general +Chinese methods. The vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state, +and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese were +fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give the +"peacock-blue," "kingfisher-green" and "aubergine-purple" glazes. Many +varieties of single-coloured glazes were made by covering a white glazed +piece with on-glaze colour, and in this way new shades of coloured +glaze, such as the coral-reds (Plate VII.), were obtained. The various +brown or bronze-coloured grounds, so well known in the so-called +"Batavian" porcelain, were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of +some ochreous clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do +not exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for +they carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze +colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance of a +vivid green enamel (_famille verte_; see Plate VIII.), and finally, in +the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and purple colours +predominate (_famille rose_; see Plate VIII.). It is probable that these +latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, were introduced into China +from Europe, but the Chinese employed them whole-heartedly, until in +fact they largely ousted all the earlier types of colour decoration. + +During the reign of Yung-Chêng (1723-1735) the diverse styles seem to +have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng was an ardent +collector of ancient Chinese porcelains, and he sent to King-tê-chên +specimens of the most ancient wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to +be reproduced, while at the same time he and his court patronized the +wares in foreign styles and colours (Japanese and European.) + +The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th century, but +in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the "iron-rust" and +"tea-dust" glazes of the reign of K'ien-lung in harmony with old Chinese +effects, what we must regard as the inferior decorative style triumphed, +and we see the gradual disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of +(1) wares of a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze +colours, principally those of the _famille rose_, and (2) a very large +production of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated with +on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste of the 18th +century. + +This "armorial" china, so much of which was once foolishly ascribed to +Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material is seldom of the best +quality, and the Chinese rendering of European arms and crests, or stiff +copies of European engravings surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of +diaper, &c., does nothing to recommend it. A great deal of this ware, +though manufactured at King-tê-chên, was decorated at Canton, and the +school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this export +trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure Chinese taste, +especially some of the ruby-backed plates and dishes and the small cups +and saucers decorated with deftly-painted designs of cocks, peonies, &c. + +It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the replacement +of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by those painted in colours +over the glaze profoundly influenced the style of painting. In the +earlier wares the treatment is bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery +colour, and the softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the +artistic charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting +on glass--fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or +cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are impossible +or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering takes the place of +conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate minuteness of finish +supplants the broad freedom of direct brushwork. During the 18th century +the same leaven was at work on the porcelains of China and of Europe, +the East influenced the West, and the West in its turn bore down the +East. If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European +counterfeits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter +and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him. + +There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th century. +The European demand was practically killed by the growth of porcelain +works at home, and the imperial patronage, so great a factor in the +production of artistic wares, was fitful and uncertain. Tao-Kwang +(1821-1850) gave some attention to porcelain, and the pieces made for +him and marked "_Shen-te-t'ang_" are valued by collectors. The so-called +Peking bowls of his reign (made of course at King-tê-chên) are also of +repute. But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for +the cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and England +served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past (see the Musée +Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign of the next emperor +Hien-fêng (1851-1861) the T'aipings overran the province of Kiang-si and +destroyed King-tê-chên and its factories. Since then the town has been +rebuilt and is once again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless +by the high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the +Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the +single-coloured, _sang de boeuf_, _flambé_ and other glazes are being +made, while the highly prized "hawthorn" jars and black-ground vases are +receiving the same undesirable attention. + + _Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain._--For many centuries + after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from every other + known species of pottery both in its material and its manufacture. + While the pottery of all other countries was generally made of + coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken "shards" and fired at a + comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain was compounded from + the purest white clays, sand and fusible rock; it was glazed with + fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that the entire mass became + vitrified and translucent. The germ of the manufacture lay in the + discovery of large masses of primary clay (kaolin) mixed with + finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of which were carefully + washed, levigated and purified. The body of Chinese porcelain varied + from time to time within wide limits, but, broadly speaking, it always + consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and quartz (sand), mixed in + various proportions, sometimes with additional ingredients, according + to the quality of ware desired. For the glaze the purest and cleanest + portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse) were selected and mixed + with lime--all being ground to fine powder. The lime causes the glaze + to melt at a lower temperature than would be necessary for petuntse + alone. The lime also gives the Chinese glazes their luscious softness + of aspect and the faint greenish or bluish tone, while it enabled them + to receive the later decorations in piled-up enamels, impossible on + the harder European porcelain glazes of the 18th century. The + finely-prepared glaze was applied to the clay vessels, before they had + been fired, either by dipping, by painting, or by insufflation; and + then glaze and body were fired together at a very high temperature. + For certain glazes--turquoise, purple, &c.--which were not of the + felspathic type, the vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state, + and the glazes were then applied and fired at a much lower + temperature--the usual practice of the potters of other countries. + When painted wares in blue and red were first introduced, the + necessary pigments were painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze + was applied over them, and then all was finished at one and the same + firing. With the later enamel colours the piece was first fired as + above described, and the fusible colours were then painted on the + glaze, which was of course like glass. A second firing at a lower + temperature fused these on-glaze colours to the ware. For information + on Chinese materials and methods the reader is referred to the letters + of Père d'Entrecolles in the collection of Jesuit letters known as + _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_. The English reader will find + reliable translations of the essential parts in Bushell's _Oriental + Ceramic Art_, Dillon's _Porcelain_, and Burton's _History of + Porcelain_. Later information will be found in Brongniart's _Traité + des arts céramiques_, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and in an + article by G. Vogt, _Bulletin de la Société d'encouragement pour + l'industrie nationale_, April 1900, pp. 530-612. + + _Collections._--The Franks collection in the British Museum; the + Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr George + Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections + belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at the + Louvre; the collection at the Musée Guimet; the Sèvres Museum. + Fontainebleau, the Musée Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain + Collection--the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of Fine Arts. New + York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the Garland and other + collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection; as well as + magnificent private collections, at the head of which is that of the + late W.T. Walters of Baltimore. + + LITERATURE.--The older European works on Chinese porcelain have been + superseded by the later books. The following list contains the best + recent books:--S.W. Bushell, _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (New York, 1897; + text separately 1899); _Chinese Porcelain before the present Dynasty_ + (Pekin, 1886); _Chinese Art_, vol. ii., Victoria and Albert Museum + Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd + edition, with valuable supplements by Salvétat, 1877); Dillon, + _Porcelain_ (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, _Catalogue of Oriental Pottery + and Porcelain_ (1878); Grandidier, _La Céramique chinoise_ (1894); + Griggs, _Examples of Armorial China_ (1887); Hippisley, _Ceramic Arts + in China_ (Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1890); Hirth, _Ancient + Chinese Porcelain_ (Leipzig, 1888); Julien, _Histoire et fabrication + de la porcelaine chinoise_ (Paris, 1856); Meyer, _Lung-chuan Yao, oder + alter Seladon Porzellan_ (Berlin, 1889); Monkhouse, _History of + Chinese Porcelain_ (1901); O. du Sartel, _La Porcelaine de Chine_ + (Paris, 1881); Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); Bushell and Laffan, _The + Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York_ (1907). + (W. B.*) + + +EUROPEAN PORCELAIN TO THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY + +Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the white and +translucent pottery _par excellence_, for when the first specimens of +Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps as early as the 11th +or 12th century, they excited the greatest wonder and admiration. Cairo +was at this time the great mart for the exchange of the products of East +and West, and from this centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i +Khosrau, the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in A.D. 1035-1042, +was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also speaks of a +translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which may well have been the +progenitor of the glassy porcelains of Persia, as well as of those made +in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries. In A.D. 1171 the famous +Saladin sent from Cairo a present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain +to the sultan of Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent +records of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the +treasuries of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the +potter's art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural that +efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious and +beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods was _nil_, and +for a further two centuries all that Europe manufactured in the shape of +translucent pottery was the artificial porcelain made with glass, which +can only be looked upon as a substitute for true porcelain. In Italy +during the 16th century, and in France during the century from 1670 to +1770 roughly, this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At +Meissen in Saxony the famous Böttger made a true porcelain from +materials analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture +was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe (even in France, +the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after 1770), so that by the +end of the 18th century, when Chinese porcelain had reached and passed +its zenith, the manufacture of a similar material was well established +in Europe, and the glassy porcelains had been generally abandoned. The +only country which offered any departure from this general rule was +England. The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French, +and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts +were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758-1781) to introduce the +manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German counterparts, +but these failed and the English potters finally invented a third kind +of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones were added to the clay and +ground rock to give a white translucent porcelain capable of receiving +any form of decoration. This distinctively English porcelain, perfected +about 1800, is not only the principal kind made in England in our own +times, but its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France, +Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States. + +It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European potters +without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the 18th century all +the three kinds of European porcelain were struggling for supremacy. It +is advisable, therefore, to keep clearly in mind which kind of porcelain +is in question, for many problems of manufacture and decoration are +absolutely determined by the nature of the materials. + +If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest European +porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again in 1519; while we also +read of its manufacture at Ferrara in 1561.[34] Unfortunately, +documentary evidence alone is not conclusive, and the first European +porcelain, known from actual specimens as well as by documentary +evidence, was that made at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de' +Medici, between 1575 and 1585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to +be found only in great museums and private collections, where they rank +among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the Florentine +potters never fully mastered their difficult material, for the ware is +always imperfect and compares indifferently in whiteness and +translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze is neither smoothly +melted nor free from defects. Obviously the effect of Chinese blue and +white porcelain was aimed at, the decorations, reminiscent of the style +of the Persian pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone. These +rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive marks; for at their period +the use of painters' marks or monograms had become fairly general on +artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best known marks is the "palle" +or balls of the arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters "F M M E +D II." for "Franciscus Medici Magnus Etruriae Dux II."; while other +pieces have a rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence and the +letter "F." + +[Illustration: Florentine Potter's mark.] + +[Illustration: PLATE VIII. + + Chinese. K'ang-hsi period. + + Chinese. Black ground. K'ang-hsi period. + + Chinese (_Famille Verte_). K'ang-hsi period. + + Chinese (_Famille Rose_). Ch'ien-lung period. + + Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K'ang-hsi period.] + +Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine porcelain that +have survived to our day a manuscript has been found in the +Magliabechian Library at Florence which states that the paste was +composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass (powdered rock crystal 10 +and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth of Faenza. To 12 parts of this +mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic clay of Vicenza were to be added, and +the pieces glazed with a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of +the Italian faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a +material unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine +porcelain being the first of a long line of European porcelains the +artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large quantity of +glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they may almost be regarded +as a species of glazed and painted glass. The technical methods used in +their manufacture and decoration, however, were those of the potter and +not of the glass maker. + +With the death of Francesco de' Medici in 1587 it seems probable that +this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end, and we hear no more +of porcelain in Italy for more than a century. During this century +(1587-1687) there can be no doubt that efforts were made all over Europe +to discover the secret of porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable +date we can point to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of +Rouen, obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture of +porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased with the +death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are extant in the shape of +salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few vases, the latter of +considerable size. The pieces are usually decorated in blue with +patterns in the Rouen style and were evidently painted by an expert +faience painter. In composition, the porcelain of Rouen, like that of +Florence, was of the artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a +similar ware made its appearance at the faience works of St Cloud near +Paris, and at various works in the city of Paris. Well-known pieces, +bearing the marks here shown, formerly supposed to be the earliest +specimens of French porcelain and the work of Poterat at Rouen, are +probably experimental pieces made in Paris after the date of Poterat's +discovery, as they differ in important particulars from his ware. + +[Illustration: Paris Potters' marks.] + +[Illustration: St Cloud Potters' marks.] + +Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under the patronage +of the French court or of some great French noble, rapidly assumed a +position of importance. The works at St Cloud received letters-patent +from Louis XIV. in 1696, and the manufacture was continued there down to +1773. The appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic, +for though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine quality with a +clear and brilliant glaze. The first efforts appear to have consisted in +frank imitations of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces +decorated only with branches of flowering plum in relief, or pieces +modelled with imbricated or scale pattern or with delicate flutings, +were made. The earliest colour decoration was naturally in under-glaze +blue, and while quasi-oriental designs were largely used, the commonest +feature is the prevalence of painted borders like those used on the +faience of Rouen and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze +colours and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never reached +to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory at +Sèvres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most distinctive French +porcelains of the 18th century. + +_German Porcelains._--While the glassy porcelains of France were being +developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent order was reached in +Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed +an extensive collection of Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be +seen in the Dresden Museum, and he had established experimental pottery +works, bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief +investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Böttger, both +alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first European +to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the nature of its +materials, and in the appearance of its paste and glaze. It may be +surmised that Böttger was guided toward this momentous discovery by +information brought from China, though such an idea is always stoutly +denied by German authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that +Böttger at the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European +experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the problems +offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production was an +extremely hard redstone-ware--often erroneously called "Böttger's red +porcelain"--resembling the Chinese "boccaros" or red teapots of the +Yi-hsing potteries. He had been anticipated in this direction by Dwight +of Fulham, but the red pottery of Böttger was so intensely fired that it +became dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were +a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the +Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity, as +well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At the same time +(1710) Böttger exhibited a few crude specimens of greyish-white +porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in 1713, and by 1716 its +manufacture was definitely established, though the pieces were still far +from perfect. Böttger died in 1719, having had the rare fortune, in his +short and eventful life, to establish in Europe the manufacture of true +porcelain. + +The life of Böttger reads like a page of romance, and the story of the +subsequent development of porcelain manufacture throughout the German +empire is hardly less romantic. When the importance of Böttger's +discovery was recognized, he and his workmen were removed from Dresden +to the Albrechtsburg, a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so +that the manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All +concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme rigour +doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped from time to +time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a knowledge of the +manufacture, found patrons among the German princes all eager to gain +reputation as experimenters in the new art of porcelain. Some of these +wandering "Arcanists," like Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt +from them, travelled all over the empire, and the following list of +dates will show how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent +factory at Meissen:-- + + Meissen 1710 | St Petersburg 1744 + Vienna 1718 | Berlin 1750 + Ansbach 1718 | Nymphenburg 1758 + Bayreuth 1720 | Ludwigsburg 1758 + +_Meissen._--Although the factory which was founded at Meissen as a +result of Böttger's discovery remained on its old site until 1863, the +porcelain made there has been commonly known as Dresden porcelain; +probably because Dresden was the seat of the Saxon court, and the +enterprise was conducted at the expense of the electors of Saxony. So +jealously were the secrets of this factory guarded that when Napoleon, +the master of Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use +at Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer, the +director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain the +processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best example by +which we may follow the changes of fashion and taste that governed the +styles of porcelain decoration in Europe during the 18th century. The +early Meissen porcelain was made from the kaolin found at Aue, near +Schneeberg, and while there is no mention of any other material, we may +be sure that clay and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese _kaolin_ +and _petuntse_, were obtained from the same quarries, and were used +together. Until after the death of Böttger in 1719 it cannot be said +that the venture was more than a _succès d'estime_. The specimens +preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the pieces were generally +thick in substance and clumsy in shape, being often made from the moulds +that had been designed for Böttger's red-stoneware. Naturally enough +these early examples were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and +decoration. As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were +common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains, the +decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the blue colour +being much run and blistered; and when attempts were made at decoration +in enamel colours (i.e. colours fired on the finished glaze) the result +was unsatisfactory, as, owing to the refractory nature of the hard +felspathic material, these colours frequently scaled off. The later +success of the Meissen factory must be attributed to Herold or Höroldt +(who joined the staff in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to +Kandler, a sculptor, who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of +these two men the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese +and Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while the +composition of the body and the glaze, and the application of colours +and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was appointed director of +the works a few years after 1720, and retained that post until 1765, +while Kandler was chief modeller from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730 +(when the work definitely emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775 +(when Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen +porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen porcelain of +this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples of _Alt-Meissen_ +command high prices in the sale rooms, especially in Germany. This +appreciation was quite as apparent in the 18th century, for by 1740 +Meissen porcelain had won the greatest renown in Europe, and was +actually exported by way of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries +of the Nearer East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers +as being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was its +vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen--a large number +for those days--were employed, and the industry brought large profits as +well as great reputation to the Saxon court. Each year saw some fresh +departure from the original inspiration of the work, some fresh +innovation of European style in design. After 1730 the rude +reproductions of Chinese forms and decorations in white or blue and +white were replaced by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially +those decorated in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a +race with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations in +red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain +factories of Europe. Gradually European _motifs_ became predominant. The +simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively European shapes +with architectural mouldings, handles and feet. Instead of the dainty +Japanese patterns, we perceive the gradual introduction of "Rococo" +scroll-work (as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or +border for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins, +figure-subjects, hunting scenes, &c., executed in the limited palette of +on-glaze colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from +oriental influence is to be found in the numerous "armorial" services +produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same period we find the first +appearance of a style of decoration that has persisted to our own times, +as a means of passing off pieces with small flaws in body or glaze, by +hiding them among sprays of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly +or some other winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the +surface of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used +at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general, and a +device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture was elevated +into a distinct style of decoration by later European factories (e.g. +Strassburg, Niederviller, &c.). + +The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory +attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve apostles, an +equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic proportions, and many +models of animals intended for the decoration of the Japanese palace at +Dresden. Many of these latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and +create an unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame +of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the little +statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed in a steady +stream from his facile hand; for though these figures have prettiness +rather than grace, and _flair_ rather than style, they are instinct with +the spirit of the middle 18th century, and were eagerly imitated or +boldly copied at every factory in Europe. Only in the _biscuit_ +porcelain figures of Sèvres, and in some few of the portrait figures of +Derby, do we find anything artistically superior. These Meissen +statuettes look their best when they are simply in white; many are +grotesque and ugly, and the colour decorations are usually in very poor +taste, the harsh, shining colours contrasting unpleasantly with the +pronounced white of the porcelain. + +Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at Meissen. +Originating in the simple application of modelled branches of prunus, +&c. in imitation of the white porcelains of Fu-kien, the method +developed until we get not only the characteristic "May-flower" +decoration (see example, Plate IX.), but also independent sprays and +bouquets modelled in porcelain and coloured with the utmost mechanical +precision. It is not quite clear whether this production of porcelain +flowers was first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,[35] but it was +largely practised at both places. + +Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames and +clock cases were modelled in the most _outré_ rococo forms with applied +scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their modelled details +picked out in gold and colours, while the success of the French styles +of decoration is still further shown by the copies of Watteau figures +and groups on the more important vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the +Great made sad havoc with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven +Years' War. He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on +the latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models, working +moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks the end of the most +distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this time Sèvres became the +most important porcelain factory in Europe, and the later productions of +Meissen were, for the most part, German versions of the styles initiated +at the French royal factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was +at the head of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler. +They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like a +blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under the +directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen, fallen from +its high estate, was content to follow the lead of Sèvres. + +After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of Meissen. The +old productions of the factory had become valuable, and the custom of +reproducing them, marks included, was adopted. Such a practice was not +likely to lead to further progress, and, though the factory was removed +from its old site in the Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to +have added anything to the progress of European porcelain during the +19th century. + +[Illustration: "Dresden" Potter's mark.] + + During the initiatory period the "Dresden" pieces bore the monogram + "A.R." interlaced (Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716 pieces + intended for sale and not for the use of the court were marked with + the sign of Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff). From about + 1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze, with or + without accompanying stars, crosses, &c., formed the general mark, but + the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that, in itself, + it is of slight value as a means of identification. + +_Vienna._--The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in Vienna +occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier, was granted a +patent. He had secured two runaways from Meissen, Stölzel and Hunger, +yet little progress was made until after 1744, when the factory was +bought by the empress Maria Theresa. At first the traditional styles of +Meissen were continued, but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was +produced after 1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours +and elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner. +Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period, succeeded in +producing a more extensive and brilliant palette of colours than was in +use at any other European porcelain factory in the last quarter of the +18th century; and the gilding was rich and elaborate. Apart from its +technical merits the ware has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of +decoration showed pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the +saving merits of the French work in the same style. The works was closed +in 1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should be +reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small Viennese +factories, are to be found on the market. + +[Illustration: Wegeli's mark.] + +_Berlin._--The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper Wegeli, +aided by workmen from other German factories, as early as 1750. This +business was unsuccessful and came to an end in 1757, but its +productions are highly prized on account of their rarity. Success only +came when Frederick the Great brought workmen, moulds and materials from +Meissen in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works in 1763, founded +the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory. Though Meissen workmen and +methods had been imported, and the Meissen style governed the earliest +productions, Frederick's well-known _penchant_ for French art was +doubtless responsible for the fact that the rococo style of decoration +was more determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The +colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being seldom +decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured enamel, a +favourite colour with the great Frederick, is quite characteristic. The +Royal Berlin Factory passed under a cloud in the troubled condition of +the Prussian monarchy during the early years of the 19th century, and +down to 1870 it was content to follow in the wake of Sèvres like most of +the other European factories. Since about the year 1880, however, it has +developed into the most scientific of European porcelain works, and it +was here that Seger manufactured his special porcelain, made to +reproduce the qualities of the finest Japanese wares. In spite of this +scientific success it must be remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is +artistically disappointing, being too exuberant for our taste and +recalling anything rather than porcelain in its treatment. + + _Minor German Factories._--It is unnecessary to describe the + productions of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for + not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at + producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin. + In every case the industry was established under the patronage or at + the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate the + success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and generally + the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron or from his + unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his purse. + + The factory at Höchst was started about 1720 by wanderers from + Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the + patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The general + style of Höchst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary wares of + Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures and + groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780). He + modelled, at Höchst, more than three hundred figures, as well as many + portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end during the + French invasion of 1794. + + Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs of + Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector palatine + from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end to its + activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Höchst after 1780, + and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sèvres and Dresden were + made. + + Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal factory + in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of fine quality, + but without special distinction. Melchior came on here about 1800, + remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg figures are as + highly esteemed as those he modelled at Höchst and Frankenthal. In the + early years of the 19th century elaborate painting became the rule + here, as at the other royal factories, and copies were made on + porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the Munich galleries. The + works is still in existence, in the hands of a private company, who + unfortunately sell many reproductions of the 18th-century wares. + + Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory from + 1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Württemberg. + Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because the + ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been + called "Kronenberg" porcelain. + + Fürstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick. + Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced + before 1770. Fürstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known + styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its + "biscuit" statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in operation + until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction, imitations of + the old pieces are now common. + + Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth, + Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach. + + Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous decorators, + like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both German and + oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim, produced + effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a diamond and + rubbing black colour into the lines. + +While France and Germany were each developing their own particular type +of porcelain, it was only natural that the kings and princes of other +countries should strive to emulate them in the manufacture of this still +rare and highly esteemed form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the +countries to the north and east seem to have been influenced most by +German methods, whilst those to the south and west followed the French +example. + + _Holland._--The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as + 1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude + Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L. + After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the "Amstel" + porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The ware resembled + the German both in material and decoration. The best porcelain made in + Holland was produced at a factory at the Hague, founded some time + after 1775. There is a choice collection of this ware in the Gemeente + Museum at the Hague. No porcelain appears to have been made in Holland + after about 1810 until 1890 or later. + + _Denmark._--It has been stated that porcelain of the German type was + made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite record + of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when potters, + modellers and painters from some of the German works founded the + enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII. in 1779 and + converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king's patronage, fine + porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely made down to the + end of the 18th century. The collection in the castle of Rosenburg + contains many examples of the work of this period. In the early years + of the 19th century the Empire style of decoration was adopted, and + the artistic influence of Sèvres became paramount. Large sums of money + were continually required from the crown to maintain the establishment + until, in 1867, it was sold into private hands to get rid of an + encumbrance. The subsequent new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen + porcelain works must be noted in the next section. + + _Sweden._--The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is + connected with the factories at Rörstrand and Marieberg, both in the + environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both these + places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the 18th + century, though the Rörstrand works was reopened some fifty years ago + and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains were of + two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the German, and the + other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at Mennecy in France. It + is interesting to note that the decorative styles in both cases are + distinctly French in character. + + _Russia._--Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain + factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony, + but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the + empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal + fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian + porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype. + In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian factory + followed the example of Sèvres in producing costly dinner services and + extravagant vases of large dimensions. + + Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of + Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and another by + A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these Moscow + factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes, the most + interesting being those representing Russian peasant types. + + _Hungary._--The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at + Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this + factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived many + collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the word + "Herend" in the paste. + + _Switzerland._--Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland, and + considering the geographical position of the country it seems natural + that porcelain of the German type should have been made at Zurich and + of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but these + productions are of no particular importance. + +_French Porcelains._--The beginnings of French porcelain at Rouen and St +Cloud have already been mentioned, as they preceded Böttger's discovery +of true porcelain; but as nothing was known in France of the methods and +materials used by the German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy +porcelain held sway in France through the greater part of the 18th +century. The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded at +Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince de Condé, an +enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese porcelains. One +distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain is its imitation of the +Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century, especially those bearing +delicate patterns in the Kakiemon style. This imitation was not confined +to the decoration alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the +delicious tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the body of +the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel used by the French +faience makers. Similar imitation of the Kakiemon style of decoration +became the rage all over Europe, and was largely followed at Meissen and +in England as well as in France; but no European imitations equalled +those of the famous Chantilly ware. + +[Illustration: Lille and Chantilly Potters' marks.] + +Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy and at Lille, +but the most important French factory was that founded at Vincennes +about 1740, not only because of the many beautiful pieces produced +there, but also because the works was taken under the direct patronage +of the king in 1753 and was transferred to Sèvres in 1756, becoming +ultimately the most important porcelain factory in Europe. + + Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition + of the artificial porcelain (_pâte tendre_) of Sèvres, and a brief + account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the glassy + porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by preparing a + glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt, gypsum, + soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered and + washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded by + adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or marl + and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in water + until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled to a + thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap or + parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for the + workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were made from + this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of considerable + thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and were then either + turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper to reduce them to + sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other ornaments in + relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary with every + other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then fired into + what is known as the "biscuit" condition; the most difficult part of + the whole process. During this firing the pieces frequently went out + of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of the material and its + tendency to soften as it approached the melting point of the frit. + Consequently an elaborate system of "propping" the pieces had to be + resorted to, and even then a very large proportion became deformed. + When the porcelain was drawn from the oven after the first firing, the + supports were removed and the pieces were rubbed with sand to clean + the surface, and were then coated with glaze by sprinkling with a + brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very rich in lead. The glaze + coat was melted by refiring the piece at a lower temperature; and it + was frequently necessary to repeat this process several times in order + to get a perfectly even and brilliant result. The difficulties of such + a process were enormous, and it was only by the financial support of + wealthy patrons, or of the state, that such a method of manufacture + was ever carried on for any length of time. At its best the material + is an exceedingly beautiful one, lending itself especially to + decoration in on-glaze colours, and the pieces produced at Vincennes + and at Sèvres, between 1745 and 1770 or thereabouts, form a distinct + class by themselves. Skilful chemists like Hellot and Macquer were + employed to direct the operations, and many beautiful ground colours, + such as the famous _gros-bleu, bleu de roi, rose Pompadour_, pea-green + and apple-green were invented. + +_Sèvres Porcelains._--The forms of the Sèvres porcelain are exceedingly +varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by Duplessis, the king's +silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are more proper to metal than +to pottery; but the French glassy porcelain is such an artificial +material in every respect that such a point should not be strained too +far. Owing to the want of plasticity in the paste the pieces were always +made in moulds of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were +moulded in separate parts and these united together with metal screws or +mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for actual use +were usually painted on a plain white ground with the full palette of +on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich gilding. The decorative +pieces such as vases, candelabra, jardinières, &c., were decorated in a +much more sumptuous fashion by covering the greater part of the piece +with a ground of one of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned, +reserving only panels in white on which delicate miniature-like +decorations of the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired +(see fig. 52; and examples of Sèvres, Plate IX.). Such collections as +the Wallace at Hertford House, or the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and +Albert Museum, show at once the variety and perfection to which the work +attained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sèvres vase, _pâte tendre_; green body and gilt +imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] + +This Sèvres porcelain is entirely devoid of the broad decorative +treatment and rich full colour of any of the great kinds of fine pottery +or porcelain. Artistically considered, it has no place beside the +triumphs of the Chinese or Persian potters, or of the Italian majolists. +Its shapes are too formal, and are not sufficiently imbued with a sense +of the qualities of the material. The ground colours defy every natural +tendency of pottery colour for they are even, flawless and mechanical, +with none of the palpitating richness that comes so naturally from the +potter's processes. The paintings, whether of flowers, birds or +figure-subjects, are extraordinarily skilful regarded as miniatures, but +as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to the swift, +apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters of earlier times. So +pronounced was the demand of the period for smooth even finish that such +ground colours as _gros-bleu_ and _bleu de roi_, where the colour +naturally came varied and uneven, were subsequently decorated with small +diapers or lines of gold in the form of _[oe]il de perdrix_ or +_vermicelle_, so as to produce a more regular and even effect. The most +elaborate and costly of all the varieties of old Sèvres is what is known +as "jewelled Sèvres," which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such +as turquoises, pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones. +These imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased +mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found examples +of the punches and other tools used in making these mounts. On account +of the enormous expense involved in the production of such costly +triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled Sèvres are rare even in the best +collections, but the English student is fortunate in the fact that the +Wallace collection contains a considerable number of them. + +[Illustration: Sèvres Potters' marks, 1753 and 1772.] + +Many reasons--the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory, the +knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of cost, the +mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and decoration, as well as +the fact that the glassy porcelain was abandoned as too costly and risky +after about 1780--have all conspired to raise the prices which modern +collectors are prepared to pay for fine examples of _vieux Sèvres_. It +is doubtful whether even the prices paid for paintings by old masters +have advanced so rapidly as those paid for Sèvres porcelain of the best +period. In the 'seventies of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of +remark that a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction for +three old Sèvres vases; thirty years later one such piece would probably +fetch the same price. It should be added that the extravagant prices now +paid for Sèvres porcelain, which is much more a triumph of technical +than of artistic skill, have led to an extensive system of "faking" and +even forging specimens which are purchased at high prices by amateurs. + +Beautiful as the old Sèvres porcelain was, those who were responsible +for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that the porcelain made +at Meissen and other German factories was both harder and whiter in +substance, more truly resembling the oriental porcelain in every +respect. It was also known that these German porcelains were not so +difficult, and therefore so costly to manufacture as the French, and all +these causes combined to make the directorate of Sèvres unremitting in +their efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to those +used by the German and Chinese potters. Père d'Entrecolles, the famous +Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France long before an account of the +methods used by the Chinese, as well as samples of the materials they +employed; and after many years' research Millot and Macquer discovered +the precious materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, _History +of French Porcelain_, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of this +French porcelain, similar in material to the German and Chinese, appear +to have been made about 1769; but it was some years after this before +the manufacture of the new product was firmly established, and then to +the end of the 18th century more and more of the hard porcelain and less +of the glassy porcelain was made at Sèvres. Speaking broadly, we might +say that after 1780 comparatively little of the original French +porcelain was made in France; and from that time to this practically all +French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain, viz. +made with china clay and felspathic rock. This technical change in the +nature of the materials had a profound influence on the artistic +qualities of French porcelain, and the change was doubtless accentuated +by the neo-classical rage which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum +and Pompeii. The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern +renderings of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague, +and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter of the 18th +and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a definite period in +pottery design and decoration. The introduction of hard-paste porcelain +rendered the manufacture of large vases and other pieces possible; and +after 1780 we find the manufactory at Sèvres engaged in the production +of enormous vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been +continued there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first +production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies of +well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The earliest of +these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this material it was +only possible to make them of quite modest dimensions; with the +introduction of hard-paste porcelain very large slabs were manufactured, +and a series of these are to be seen in the museum at Sèvres. + +The most artistic of all the productions of Sèvres are undoubtedly the +"biscuit" figures and groups. These were modelled with great skill by +many of the best French sculptors of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle, +Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri, Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The +best of these Sèvres "biscuits" have a real artistic value which places +them in a class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at +Meissen, Frankenthal and Höchst. + + _Paris_.--Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges and + prerogatives had been given to the Sèvres manufactory, such as the + exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the + breakdown of the monarchical régime, which was rapidly accelerated + after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris + and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of + hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal + manufactory of Sèvres. In order that the royal edicts might be more + easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the patronage + of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen Marie + Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of these + Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them, such as + those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king's eldest + brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette); Rue de + Bondy (patronized by the duc d'Angoulême), compare not unfavourably + with those of Sèvres itself. + + It is impossible to do more than mention the other important French + factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg, + Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years + of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these + factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal + factory at Sèvres passing through a kind of lingering death between + 1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the + glories of Sèvres that modern French porcelain really came into being. + +Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into Holland, +Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c., we find the manufacture of a glassy +porcelain analogous to the early French arising in Belgium, Italy, Spain +and England. The materials and methods were so like those used in France +that it would be ridiculous to claim for them an independent origin, +even were we unable to prove by documentary evidence that workmen +trained in the French factories had migrated into those countries. + + _Italy_.--In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano + (1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese + Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and + Capo-di-Monte near Naples (1736-1820); with minor factories like those + at Vinovo, Treviso, and the Volpato factory at Rome. The most + important of these were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte. The + porcelain made at Doccia was famous for its soft translucent texture, + so that it lent itself beautifully to the production of white glazed + porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of Fu-kien. + + [Illustration: Capo-di-Monte Potters' marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.] + + The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of Charles + III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions are in + pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces, though + modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and + seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides + groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have + the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers, + plates, &c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high + relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly + admired because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period + the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but after + about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and + decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820. + + [Illustration: Buen Retiro Potters' marks.] + + _Spain_.--Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in 1759 + and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the Capo-di-Monte + factory, as well as the best moulds and models. He established a new + china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a palace outside Madrid. + As long as Charles III. lived immense sums were lavished on this + factory, and the ware was not allowed to be sold, but was either used + for the decoration of the royal palaces or for presentation to other + European sovereigns. Enormous vases were made, following the example + of Sèvres, and these were often filled with bouquets of flowers + modelled in porcelain. The most famous productions of this factory, + however, were the plaques and slabs of porcelain used for lining the + walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of these rooms still + remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish _rococo_ style. The + factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the French war, and + since that date no porcelain of any importance has been made in Spain. + +_English Porcelains of the 18th century._--There can be no doubt that +whatever experimental work may have been conducted by our early English +potters, such as the famous John Dwight of Fulham, nothing like an +established manufacture of porcelain existed in this country prior to +about 1740-1745. There are records of many tentative experiments before +this date, but no real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important +porcelain works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby, +and when we examine the productions of these factories it is impossible +to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been imported from +France. The early English porcelains, like all the French porcelains of +that date, were composed of artificial or glassy mixtures. + +We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as typical of the +earliest English porcelain of which there is any definite record. The +material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand from Alum Bay in the Isle of +Wight, and glass, while the glaze was a fusible English flint-glass rich +in lead. It is obvious, therefore, that we are dealing with substances +very similar to those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above), +and such mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to +great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries +the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on at the +expense of some royal or princely patron; in England, however, the +manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and it is probably for this +reason that at a very early date we find the English porcelain-makers +experimenting with other materials than glass and clay in order to make +their processes more certain. In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas +Frye of the Bow works we find mention of the use of bone-ash--the +material that was to make English porcelain a distinct species by +itself. From 1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large +proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the English +porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced into the paste in +order to obtain a more refractory material; yet it was not until about +1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent abandoned entirely the use of +glass and composed his porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic +rock for the body, glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the +foundation of distinctively English porcelain. The material has many +merits both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more +easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better for +ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it permits the +fullest range of decoration. + +Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English +factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the various +influences that were at work in determining what the porcelain-maker +should do, both in the way of shape and decoration. The eyes of all men +were, of course, turned first to the porcelain brought from the far +East; and in the early efforts of the English factories, as of those of +France and Germany, we notice a predominance of white pieces or of +pieces decorated with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously +inspired by the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea +produced large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early days +of the Worcester factory little else was made there than white, or blue +and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese. Another oriental +influence was to be found in the Imari patterns of Japan, particularly +those in the style of Kakiemon. It has been noted that Meissen, +Chantilly and other continental factories had already created a vogue +for these reproductions of Japanese decorations, and in our own country +Bow, Chelsea and Worcester followed suit. The later Imari patterns, +heavily decorated with blue and red and gold for the use of "the +foreigner," furnished another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and +the vogue of these English "Japan" patterns, in the last quarter of the +18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great that +they represent a large proportion of the output of our English porcelain +works during that period. The productions of the German and French +factories also exerted a profound influence on English potters; so that +throughout the 18th century English porcelains largely consisted of +imitations of the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy. + +We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration which +undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of transfer-printing, +whereby patterns printed on paper from engraved copper plates are +transferred to porcelain or pottery and subsequently fired, either under +or on the glaze. At the best these printed patterns are in no way +superior to the stencilled work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at +the worst, European and American printed patterns have been perhaps the +most inappropriate decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world. It +has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it enables +elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so brings decorated +pottery within the reach of the humblest. The truer view is, that the +simplest brushwork patterns, or even no pattern at all, would be +preferable to the tawdry results that the cheapest forms of +transfer-printing have rendered possible. + +_Chelsea._--Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was the most +important of all the English porcelain works, and fine specimens of this +period command high prices in the saleroom to-day. We know little of the +origin of this important factory, though it is believed to have been in +existence from some time after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally +demolished and some of the workmen and part of the plant were removed +to the then important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles +Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750. Sprimont retained +possession of the works until 1769, and died in 1771. It was during his +management, from 1750 to 1770, that the finest and most characteristic +pieces of Chelsea porcelain were made. + +Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely varied, little was +produced there that was really English in character. The earliest pieces +appear to have been either in pure white or in white decorated with +paintings in under-glaze blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish +salt cellars, the shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats, +small cups and saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the +decorations, mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed by +reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain. Afterwards we +find the appearance of table wares modelled in imitation of leaves, +animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently adopted from current +French and German practice. + +In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown by the +production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.), and of the +small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of which there is such a +fine collection in the British Museum. In the latter days of the factory +(say after 1758) we find Chelsea following in the wake of Sèvres in the +production of large and elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and +covers, scroll-work bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen +in the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of this +elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine blue, +turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour, while white +panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and painted in enamel +colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects in absolute rivalry with +the pieces manufactured at Sèvres. + +The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the ill-health +of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury, the proprietor of +the Derby works. He carried on the establishment from 1770 to 1784, but +in this period a great change is noticeable in the product of the +factory. The "rococo" forms and decorations of the true Chelsea +porcelain were replaced by works in the neo-classical style already +rendered popular by the success of Josiah Wedgwood, and the +Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite a distinct production from the early +works of Chelsea. The most distinctive mark of the Chelsea porcelain is +an anchor--either embossed in the paste or painted in gold or colour. +Often the anchors occur in pairs, and it is frequently associated with +other marks such as a dagger or a cross. Some of the Derby-Chelsea +pieces are marked with a conjoined D and an anchor. + +[Illustration: Chelsea Potters' marks.] + +_Bow._--The date of the establishment of the factory at +Stratford-le-Bow, in what is now the East End of London, is quite +uncertain, but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected +with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture of porcelain. +The materials mentioned in this patent are not such as would produce +porcelain at all, and it appears likely that the specification was made +purposely defective. In 1748 a further patent was applied for in which +we get the first mention of bone-ash, so that from the technical point +of view the wares made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance +as indicating the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain in +which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the works at Bow +belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and was then known as "New +Canton," and as 300 workpeople were employed, the operations must have +been conducted on a large scale; but ultimately, from causes that can +only be surmised, the partnership was dissolved and the business failed, +so that in 1775 the works was bought for a very small sum by the William +Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the plant and moulds +to his more prosperous works at Derby. It would appear from what we know +of the factory and its productions that the business was conducted on +simpler lines than at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no +elaborate vases in imitation of Sèvres, and no important groups of +figures which might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is +common with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the +production of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted +with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then followed +the well-known "Quail," or "Partridge," and "Wheat-sheaf" patterns in +red and green and gold in imitation of the Japanese patterns; and the +manufacture of table ware decorated with these simple yet bright and +pleasant devices seems to have formed the greater part of the work at +the factory. Many figures and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but +they are fewer in number and less cleverly made and decorated than the +contemporary productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise that +there was considerable rivalry between these two works situated on the +outskirts of the metropolis, for we find the "anchor" mark, which is the +best recognized mark of Chelsea porcelain, often occurring on specimens +that from internal evidence or from the piece itself we should rather +attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are not very certain, but some of the +likeliest are here given. + +[Illustration: Bow Potters' marks.] + +_Worcester._--The third of the early English factories, and ultimately +the most important of all, was that founded at Worcester in 1751 by Dr +Wall, a man of unusual attainments, and a number of his friends. How Dr +Wall came to learn the secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown, +but even assuming that he acquired some information from wandering +workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon developed on +original lines. The nature of the paste and the glaze of the early +Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety of their decorations, +stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen really developed a +native porcelain. Between 1751 and 1770, the first period of Worcester +porcelain, the prevalent influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white, +and the pieces of that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for +their artistic quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in +England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied, and a +collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory from +the aesthetic point of view. The productions at this time were tea and +coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and plates. The cups were usually +made without handles in imitation of the oriental practice, but large, +two-handled covered cups for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made +during the early period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed +pattern resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced +at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets were also +made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion. + +The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was introduced +at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock, an engraver, came +from York House, Battersea, where the process was first employed for the +decoration of the Battersea enamels. The early Worcester prints +comprised portraits of celebrities of the time (the Frederick the Great +mug), or adaptations of the works of great artists such as Gainsborough +and Watteau, or copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The +first printing was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the +fired glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of +printing in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to +note that for many years this process of transfer printing was developed +side by side with the older method of porcelain painting, and until the +end of the 18th century the processes appear to have been used at +Worcester quite independently. The closing of the Chelsea factory in +1770 led to the migration of some of the Chelsea painters to Worcester, +and from about that date a considerable amount of Worcester porcelain +was decorated on the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the +styles that had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only +fair to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always +distinguished by a certain English character both in the style and the +workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and most artistic period +of Worcester porcelain came to an end before 1783, when, after the death +of Dr Wall, the works passed under the control of Thomas Flight and his +two sons, who had been jewellers. The Flight influence was soon +noticeable from the fact that the new shapes were more and more based on +those of Sèvres and Meissen, while the decoration became more mechanical +and precise as befitted the work of jewellers rather than potters. King +George III. and Queen Charlotte visited the works in 1788 and bestowed +upon the firm the privilege of styling themselves "China Manufacturers +to Their Majesties," since when the works has always been known as the +Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793 Martin Barr was taken into +partnership; the "Flight & Barr" period, so well known to collectors, +lasted until 1807. + +[Illustration: Early Worcester Potters' marks.] + +Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after 1784, viz. the +Chamberlain factory, which was working in rivalry with the original +establishment; but its productions are of no particular artistic merit, +and in 1840 the two firms became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the +present Worcester Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the +productions of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th century +were the "Armorial" services made for various royal and noble families, +and those adaptations of Imari patterns known as "Old Japan." + +_Derby._--Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear to have +been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee, Andrew Planché; +but the business, which was afterwards to attain such a great +development, was only founded in 1756 with William Duesbury as its +manager. Duesbury was originally a decorator of china figures in London, +and his career proves that he was a man of great industry and energy, +for within twenty-five years he not only built up a large business at +Derby, but he absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in +the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important china +manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a commercial success +like this implied the absence of any distinct artistic impulse. The +porcelain produced at Derby is for the most part only an echo of the +successes of Meissen, Sèvres, or the earlier English factories. It is +only fair to remark that a very deep and rich under-glaze blue was +attained at the Derby works, and that this was associated with very +mechanical painting of birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional +quality. At this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with +exceptional vigour, until "Crown-Derby Japan" became a standard trade +name for this clobbered oriental style. + +[Illustration: Derby Potters' marks.] + +Mention has already been made of the "biscuit" porcelain figures made at +Derby, which are superior in style to anything else made in-Europe in +the 18th century except the "biscuit" porcelains of Sèvres. The Derby +"biscuits" of the best type range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest +specimens have a "waxy" surface, though there is little or no sheen and +every detail remains as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its +maker. The most famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and +statuettes of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an +artist named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups +adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a workman named +Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic figures and animals. + +_Plymouth and Bristol._--The porcelain factories at Plymouth and +Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only English +factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous to the Chinese +was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a Quaker druggist of +Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting to discover in Cornwall +and Devonshire minerals similar to those which were described in the +letters of Père d'Entrecolles as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain. +After many years of travel and research he ascertained the nature of the +Cornish stone and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at +Plymouth for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from +these native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise, +from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only be +referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the factory +was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards transferred to +Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant, who had already been dabbling in +the fashionable pursuit of porcelain making. Champion's Bristol factory +lasted from 1773 to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number +of Staffordshire potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed. +The Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true +felspathic porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the china +clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder and whiter +than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh, glittering glaze +marks it off at once from the wares of Bow, Chelsea, Worcester or Derby. + +The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much in its +style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One can point to +nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens now command very +high prices in the salerooms it is on account of their rarity rather +than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that they possess. + +Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the production of +the Bristol works, but a considerable number of figures are known, in +many cases obviously copied from those of Meissen, and a few large +hexagonal vases similar in style to specimens produced at Chelsea and at +Worcester. The most distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are +certain small plaques or slabs in "biscuit" porcelain, usually bearing +in the centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by a +wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these choice +productions are to be seen in the British Museum. + +[Illustration: Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and Swansea marks.] + +The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its general mark the +alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was also used to a limited extent +at the Bristol factory, though the general Bristol mark was a cross or a +copy of the crossed swords of Meissen. The Staffordshire potters who +bought the rights of the Bristol porcelain factory from Champion +established a works at Shelton, near Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, +under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they never manufactured +anything of artistic account. + + _Minor English Factories._--A number of other porcelain factories were + founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but none of + these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain made at + Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy and ugly in + form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic of the + factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by William + Duesbury. + + The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain + amount of porcelain, as well as "Delft" and other earthenwares, and + the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their productions. + + A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th + century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because + certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of + "Armorial" porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China. + Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was + only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing cheap + wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the more + important English factories. + + Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English + porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of + Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English + factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English + factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as + Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred to + the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain. + + _Collections._--The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum + contain the best general collections of English porcelain. The museums + at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local wares; while + the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works has an admirable + collection of the wares of that factory. Many noteworthy private + collections are in existence, of which we may mention those of Mr + Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell. + + LITERATURE.--Alex. Brongniart, _Traitié des arts céramiques_ (1844); + Jacquemart, _Histoire de la céramique_ (Eng. ed. 1873); Jännicke, + _Grundriss der Keramik_ (1879); Dr Brinkmann, _Handbook of European + Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum_; Marryat, _History of Pottery and + Porcelain_ (1857); Jewitt, _Ceramic Art of Great Britain_ (1878); + Auscher, _A History and Description of French Porcelain_ (1905); + Burton, _A History and Description of English Porcelain_ (1902); + Dillon, _Porcelain_ (1904); Solon, _Old English Porcelain_ (1903); + Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); R. Almstrom, _Lervarorna och deras + Tillverkning_ (1903). (W. B.*) + + +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN DURING THE 19TH CENTURY + +The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain in Europe +and America throughout the 19th century need not be treated in such +detail as the history of its growth up to that period, for modern means +of communication and the general diffusion of knowledge have tended to +destroy the individual character which was so marked a feature of the +pottery of different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century +was distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it +witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those methods of +handicraft which made the older pottery individual and interesting even +in its simplest forms. Collectors are prepared to pay very large sums +for choice examples of the potter's art of bygone centuries, but it is +doubtful if much of the pottery of the 19th century will ever be +collected for its intrinsic merits, though it may be preserved as an +illustration of the spirit of the age. + +In preceding sections of this article the development of the brightly +painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated porcelains of +various European countries have been traced down to the end of the 18th +century, because that date marks, quite distinctly, the period when the +old handicraft of the potter was for various reasons displaced by +organized manufacture. The disturbed economic condition of Europe in the +last quarter of the 18th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early +19th century proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain +works where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional +methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and +cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood and his +contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more perfectly finished +and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled pottery of the +continent. It vied in finish with the expensive continental porcelains, +and for nearly half a century it carried all before it, not only in +England, but throughout the world. An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de +Saint Fond, writing in the beginning of the 19th century, remarks of +English pottery that "Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the +advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine +glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and +the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and +so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg, from +Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the +extremity of the south of France one is served at every inn upon English +ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are supplied with it; and vessels are +loaded with it for the East Indies, the West Indies, and the continent +of America."[36] It was calculated that at this time three-fourths of +the pottery manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of +things was not likely to continue, and in most of the European +countries, after the settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as +had survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose, +adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases experienced +Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these works, and so far as +ordinary domestic pottery was concerned, the first half of the 19th +century witnessed the establishment in every country of Europe and in +the United States of America of pottery works managed by Englishmen, +where earthenwares were made after the English fashion. We shall refer +presently to the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and +porcelain, but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one +or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England itself +witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture, which became +more and more aggregated in that district of North Staffordshire +designated emphatically "The Potteries," where, in spite of later +developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters of all the pottery and +porcelain made in the British Isles is still produced. This +concentration of the industry in England has resulted in a race of +pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere in the world, and while it +was the supply of cheap coal and coarse clay which first gave +Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-eminence is now retained as +much by the traditional skill of the workmen of the district as by the +enterprise of its manufacturers. + +[Illustration: PLATE IX. + + Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin. + + Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pâte-dure. + + Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pâte-dure. + + Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1756.] + +While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the methods of +manufacture which have placed England in the first rank as a +pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have brought within the +reach of the humblest domestic utensils of high finish and great +durability, it is impossible to say much for the taste or art associated +with them. Neatness, serviceableness and durability, English domestic +wares undoubtedly possess in a degree unknown to any earlier type of +pottery, but the general use of transfer-printing as the principal +method of decoration, and the absence of any distinctive style of +ornament, must cause them to take a low rank in comparison with the +wares of past centuries, when mechanical perfection was impossible and +rich colour and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of +the pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition of +1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of art as +applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as marking the period +when many of the old handicrafts had been extinguished by the use of +mechanical appliances and the growth of the factory system, and when the +delight of men in these current developments was so great that they were +regarded as triumphs in themselves, when they were only "means to an +end." + +Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain has followed +two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of manufacturers to +produce the most artistic results possible with modern processes and +methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable efforts of those +individual potters in every country with whom art was the first +consideration and commercial production was disregarded. + +Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount importance +in the first half of the 19th century, it must be remembered that some +of the oldest factories in Europe were still alive and active. The royal +factories in Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and +elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the Napoleonic Wars, continued at the +expense of their respective states, to produce porcelains which were the +legitimate development of their work during the 18th century. + +_Meissen and Berlin._--At Meissen, efforts were made to improve the +technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen wares had +already become valuable, and they were reproduced, marks included, until +all initiative was destroyed, and the factory continued to live, mainly, +on its old reputation. + +At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy throughout +the early years of the 19th century were severely felt, so that a +cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured. The only innovations that +can be ascribed to the factory during this period, though highly +esteemed at the time, form striking examples of the artistic decadence +of the period. Such was the lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in +porcelain slip so that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a +porcelain facsimile; another was the production of slabs of porcelain +modelled in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it +appeared like a picture painted _en grisaille_. + +From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the +majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in the world +has greater attention been paid to the technical and scientific problems +of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment has rendered the +greatest service in the development of the important chemical and +electrical industries of Germany by the splendid appliances it has +invented for scientific use. + +Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been conducted +with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger perfected his soft +porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the best Japanese +porcelains, and here also he developed the manufacture of copper-red +glazes in imitation of the old _sang-de-boeuf_ and _flambé_, glazes of +the Chinese, at the same time establishing some of the scientific +principles underlying their production. At Berlin, too, all the modern +methods of decoration, whether in coloured glazes, raised enamels, _pâte +sur pâte_, the elaborate paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the +use of crystalline glazes, have been followed with great success; but +the factory has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to +the decorative side of porcelain. + +_Vienna._--Few European factories were so little affected by the general +trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have already +referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding which became the +distinguishing feature of its wares towards the end of the 18th century, +and this style, once perfected, seems to have been continued with little +change. It has been stated by a renowned German authority, that the +Viennese porcelain was at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this +period the plan of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was +developed to its utmost, and this, in combination with the richest +gilding, marks the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to +an end in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap +porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and therefore styled +"Viennese porcelain," has during the last twenty years overwhelmed the +English and American markets. + +_Sèvres._--The important part played by the Royal French manufactory at +Sèvres has already been sketched. During the troublous years of the +French Revolution the works practically came to a standstill, and under +the Directory it was a question whether this manufactory, along with +certain other state establishments in France, should be closed. +Napoleon, however, decided that for the glory of France and as a means +of encouraging its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the +English potters, the establishment at Sèvres should be conducted as a +national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brongniart, a man +of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was appointed director, +and retained that post under the successive governments of France until +his death in 1847. In the hands of Brongniart the establishment at +Sèvres became at once a school of research and a centre of practical +accomplishment--the influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its +products were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French +monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose ideas of +Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of his victories, and +after every campaign a fresh table service or new suite of vases was +produced to commemorate the emperor's successes. The most striking piece +of this kind was the vase made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon +and Marie Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled +with figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than +115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the +acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures. This vase +was three years in making, and is said to have cost something like +£1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary example of the productions +of Sèvres, for under every successive government of the 19th century the +factory has been called to produce enormous vases which are to be found +in the rooms or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and +while these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their +manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered, very few of +them possess either spontaneity or charm. They are correct, frigid, +cold, and compare most unfavourably from the artistic point of view +with the masterpieces of oriental pottery. + +Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again the +influence of Sèvres became paramount in Europe, and its styles of +painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830 to 1870 by all +those European potters who were attempting to make anything beyond +useful domestic wares. As an instance of its aims in the period between +1830 and 1850, large sums were spent in the production of great slabs of +porcelain many feet in area; on which were painted copies of some of the +famous portraits and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of +the Louvre. A number of these are preserved in the museum at Sèvres, and +must always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical +accomplishment. + +The most noticeable invention of Sèvres in the middle part of the 19th +century was the _pâte sur pâte_ decoration in which porcelain clays of +various colours are used as the artist's medium. The idea appears to +have been adopted from an old Chinese vase by Robert, the chief painter, +and at the London International Exhibition of 1862 some small cups +decorated in this method, by Gely, were first shown. The most successful +work in this style was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked +at Sèvres until 1870. In that year he came to England and was employed +at Minton's, where for about thirty-five years he continued this method +of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of pottery +decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M. Solon the _pâte sur +pâte_ decoration took the form of paintings of figure subjects or dainty +ornamental designs in white slip on a coloured porcelain ground of +green, blue, dark-grey or black. On such grounds a thin wash of the slip +gives a translucent film, so that by washing on or building up +successive layers of slip, sharpening the drawing with modelling tools, +or softening or rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate +gradations of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip +to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly adopted by all +the principal European factories, though nowhere was it carried to such +perfection as at Sèvres and at Minton's. M. Taxile Doat has executed +many extraordinary pieces in this style of decoration at Sèvres, and in +the British Museum there is a large vase of his, presented by the French +government at the beginning of the present century. One great feature of +French porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the development +of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district of central +France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain production in the period +between 1780 and 1850, but after the latter date it rapidly developed +into a pottery centre second only in importance to that of the Potteries +district in England. We can do no more than mention this fact, because, +for the most part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the +production of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art. + +The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sèvres, and all work came to +a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory, which was almost +completed before the outbreak of the war, was opened by Marshal MacMahon +in 1876, but for many years the work was continued under great +discouragement. Between 1879 and 1889 attention was paid to the study +and imitation of old Chinese methods, and this resulted in the +reproduction of many of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the +despair of European potters. + +At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sèvres was perhaps +the most notable feature of the magnificent collection of ceramics +gathered there. The collection included many varieties of porcelain, +both hard and soft paste, decorated in all the current styles of the +period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze painting, flambé glazes and +crystalline glazes, but most beautiful of all were the magnificent +groups of "biscuit" figures designed as table garnitures by some of the +best French sculptors of the time. + +_English Progress._--The demand for elaborate specimens of painted +porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between 1851 and 1880, and +this demand was undoubtedly fostered by the series of international +exhibitions held during that period, when every European pottery works +of note produced large and costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware, +smothered with painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced +something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of European +factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton at +Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the Arnoux's of Apt, +an old family of French potters, was at this time the technical and +artistic director of Messrs Minton's works, and he was the only pottery +director during the 19th century who could in any sense be compared with +M. Brongniart of Sèvres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree +artistic with technical skill, and under his management the works of +Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in Europe. +Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse, and Protat, and +pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill, E. Lessore and L. +Solon were engaged at this factory and produced many of the most +characteristic European decorations of the middle of the 19th century. + +To this period, too, we must refer another English invention, that of a +special porcelain known as "Parian." This in its finest expression was a +"biscuit" porcelain used for the production of statuettes and groups +rivalling the finest 18th century "biscuit" figures of Sèvres and Derby. +It seems probable that this Parian was first made at the works of +Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-upon-Trent; but it was immediately +adopted at Minton's, Wedgwood's, and at Worcester; and each of these +firms used it in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured +at the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain +works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by the +Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of Longton, and other +English manufacturers until it became an important branch of the English +porcelain made in the period under review. + +_Japanese Influence._--At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great +collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm, and there +was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese art in Europe once +more; not as in the 18th century, when the old Japanese patterns were +copied or frankly imitated, but a European-Japanese style arose, based +on the methods and ideas of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen, +the workers in metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the +Worcester Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and +skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and minute +execution must be ranked before all other European works of their kind. + +The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese art was, +however, developed at the Royal Copenhagen works, the productions of +which are not only famous all over the world, but have set a new style +in porcelain decoration which is being followed at most of the +continental factories. By the use of the pure Swedish felspar and quartz +and the finest china clays from Germany or Cornwall a material of +excellent quality is prepared, and on this naturalistic paintings of +birds, fishes, animals and water or northern landscapes and figure +subjects are painted in delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens. +The Royal Copenhagen works has also produced a profusion of skilfully +modelled animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately +tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours. + +Not only have Berlin, Sèvres and other European factories adopted the +modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the Japanese are now +imitating these skilful productions which were originally inspired by +their own early work. + +_Stonewares._--Mention must be made of the revival of the manufacture of +artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and Villeroy and Boch, the +great German potters. Doultons, besides reviving the older forms of +English stoneware, made some entirely new departures, and their pieces +with designs etched in the clay are admirable examples of the right use +of a refractory material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish +stonewares, and many interesting new departures in addition, but mostly +in German forms that have not commended the wares to other nations. + +[Illustration: PLATE X. + + Chelsea porcelain; 1745-1770 Figure after Watteau. + + Worcester Porcelain; c. 1760-1770. + + Whieldon and Wedgwood, cauliflower ware; c. 1750-1760. + + Wedgwood's jasper; c. 1780. + + Turner's jasper; c. 1780.] + +_Artistic Results._--While the great potteries of Europe have been +employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in consolidating +their knowledge on the technical and scientific side, so that they are +able to produce pottery more perfect in shape, with a higher degree of +finish and greater certainty of result than was ever known before, it +cannot be said that the artistic results have been commensurate with the +labour expended. Fortunately, however, the success of these important +industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited a +considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists, to become +artist-potters and producers of individual wares, often recalling the +works of the great schools of bygone centuries. This movement, which +to-day has its exponents in every European country as well as in the +United States of America, originated in France between 1840 and 1850, +when the formation of the earliest ceramic museums and the new-born +interest in the old French faience led to various attempts at +pottery-making by the old methods of handwork and rule of thumb. +Avisseau of Tours (1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859) +began to make pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863) +revived painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand +for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs, and in +France and other countries artists began to dabble in the painting of +pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom, painting pieces +obtained from some pottery manufacturer, which he sold on his own +account after they had been decorated and fired; or he became attached +to a particular factory and his productions were sold by the potter; or +the artist became an amateur potter, and either worked alone or +encouraged other artists to co-operate with him. + +It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent men in +each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their own day, but are +also likely to be regarded always as among the distinguished productions +of the 19th century. Emile Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who +were attracted by the technique of the potter. For some time they bought +specimens of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at +Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial art +for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours in a +delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from old +engravings. He worked for a short time at Sèvres, and then, like so many +other French pottery artists of this period, he came to Minton's in +England, and finally entered into an engagement with the old firm of +Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which continued almost to his death (1860-1876). +On their fine cream-coloured earthenware he sketched many thousands of +fanciful designs which had a great vogue in the 'seventies and 'eighties +of the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His first +innovation was a method known as "Barbotine" or slip-painting, in which +coloured clays were used "impasto," often in considerable thickness, so +that after the work had been fired and glazed it bore some resemblance +to an oil painting. For a few years this style of decoration became the +rage all over Europe, but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it +had found favour, and is now only used for the decoration of common +wares. Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the +discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first European +potter to produce flambé glazes after the manner of the Chinese, and a +fine collection of these productions of his is preserved in the museum +at Sèvres. + +The greatest of all the French innovators was, however, Théodore Deck, +who had been trained as a working potter and was led to forsake the +management of an ordinary tile and pottery business in Paris to +experiment on his own account. He started a little workshop in the +Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and rapidly gathered round him a number +of young painters all eager to experiment in the magnificent colours +which Deck with his passionate love of Persian and other oriental +pottery could place at their disposal. Within a few years this venture +was so successful that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a +great potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier, +Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased by the +lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of his career came in +1887, when he was appointed director of the National Manufactory at +Sèvres, for he was the only practical potter who had ever occupied that +position; but he died in 1890 before he had been able to impress his +personality on the work of Sèvres. + +The same movement that was active in France found its exponents in other +countries as well. In Italy and the south of France the last quarter of +the 19th century witnessed a revival of Italian majolica and of lustre +decoration. Prominent in this direction were the productions of +Cantegalli of Florence and of the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near Cannes; +while in England William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his +tiles and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours +recalling those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages. +This departure in England was, however, followed up by many +manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of pottery +colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw & Company of Jackfield, +and Minton's of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced much excellent work, in tiles +and vases inspired from the same oriental sources. + +Meantime, in America there had been growing up a manufacture of pottery +after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey; East Liverpool, +Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these centres English workmen +had been attracted, and earthenware after the current English styles was +manufactured; but, as was the case in Europe, individual efforts were +made to produce artistic pottery. The first and best known of these +artistic departures was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and +again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an enterprise +which has since produced some very original work. From 1880 to 1889 the +work was mainly carried on at the expense of this lady, but since that +date the enterprise has been self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery +has become known throughout the world. + +The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development of +new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes--and it is not +too much to say that much of the improved sanitation of modern dwellings +and towns has been rendered possible by the special appliances invented +by potters for these purposes. In this direction the English potters +undoubtedly led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated +abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large works in +Germany, France and the United States of America. Varieties, too, of +hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares, stonewares and porcelains, +have been invented for use in the chemical and electrical industries. +But these belong to the great modern branch of pottery manufacture, not +to pottery art. In the same way, the revived attention paid to the +various forms of pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings +belongs rather to the question of mural decoration than of pottery. + +At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and Germany the +leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany excelling in the amount +of its output, and England in the fineness and finish of its +productions. France, in addition to the National Manufactory at Sèvres, +as much as ever divorced from commerce, has its porcelain industry at +Limoges and large manufactories of tiles and earthenware in many +departments; while there are also a number of artist potters like +Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic +pottery in hard-fired stonewares (_grès_) and porcelain, while the +production of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been +developed by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Müller. A great +development has also taken place in the production of decorative pottery +and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides producing +quantities of painted blue and white earthenware (made in the English +and not in the old Dutch fashion), has been experimenting largely in the +development of crystalline and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while +the Rozenburg factory at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near +Amsterdam, have made some distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery +and porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has already +been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of Bing & +Gröndhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles of decoration +initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there are two important +factories at Rörstrand and Gustafsberg. Under the accomplished director +of the Rörstrand factory, Mr Robert Almström, a great variety of +products have been successfully manufactured, including hard-paste +porcelain, English bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy, +Spain and Belgium have also important modern pottery works. + +In the United States of America there are large establishments for the +manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all after the English +fashion, while in addition there are a number of experimental kilns at +work producing artistic pottery. The Rookwood factory has already been +mentioned, but the wares produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs +Robineau and T. Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See "Report on +American Art Pottery," pp. 922-935 of _Special Reports of the U.S. +Census Office, Manufactures_, pt. iii., 1905.) + + _Technical Pottery Works._--It is only possible to give a selection of + the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical side + of pottery production. Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd + ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvétat; E. Bourry, + _Traité des industries céramiques_ (Paris, 1897); Théodore Deck, _La + Faïence_ (Paris, 1887); A. Granger, _La Céramique industrielle_ + (Paris, 1905); E.S. Auscher, _La Céramique cuisant à haute + température_ (Paris, 1899); _Technologie de la Céramique_ (Paris, + 1901); _Les Industries céramiques_ (Paris, 1901); Seger, _Gesammelte + Schriften_ (Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., Eastern, Pa., U.S.A., 1902); + Langenbeck, _The Chemistry of Pottery_ (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895); + William Burton, _Porcelain_ (London, 1906). (W. B.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin + of some example of ancient pottery--was it made in the district where + it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre? When we + possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the use of + one general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will + frequently enable such a question to be answered, where now all is + doubt and speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto + are often not worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose, + the older methods of silicate analysis being only approximate. + + [2] It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the + production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft + of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less + interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British + Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France, + Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant pottery + little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical skill + from the country work of the middle ages. In England the cheapness of + machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such village industries. + + [3] _I tre libri dell' Arte del Vasajo_, by Cipriano Piccolpasso of + Castel Durante, A.D. 1548. + + [4] The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once + dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called + pottery at all, though we have no other name for them. The material + is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass. + + [5] Foreign pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early as + the XIIth Dynasty, e.g. the Cretan polychrome ware of the Middle + Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib ("Kahun") and + the Cypriote (?) "punctuated" black ware from the same site, and from + Khata'anah (17). The date between the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties is + certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom Egyptians do not seem to have + imitated these earlier foreign forms. British Museum, No. 17,046, is, + however, probably an instance of an Egyptian idea imitated by the + foreign potter (17). + + [6] Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture of + sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy + porcelain--the earliest porcelain of which we have any record. + + [7] On this subject see in particular Mazard, _De la connaissance par + les anciens des glaçures plombifères_, a scientific and valuable + monograph (1879); also Rayet and Collignon, _Hist. de la céramique + grecque_, p. 365 (or _B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery_, Introduction). + + [8] For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters, + _Ancient Pottery_, ii. 443-454. + + [9] See examples in colour on Plate V. + + [10] A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many + shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving + the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground of + the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance--probably + an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, manganese and + iron--and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it. + + [11] See Drury Fortnum, _Archaeologia_, vol. xlii. + + [12] Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with + elaborate English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these + were doubtless included under the name of "Damas Wares." + + [13] See Riaño, _Spanish Arts_, Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook, + pp. 149-151; and _Sobre la manera de fabricar la antigua loza dorado + de Manises_ (1878). + + [14] See examples in colour, Plate VI. + + [15] There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the + lustred pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th + century onwards; and it is important to note in this connexion that + almost all the fine examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern + collections have been obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian + families. + + [16] Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, dated 1548. It + has been several times translated both into modern Italian and + French. The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this + interesting MS. in the volumes on _Majolica_ by Drury E. Fortnum. + + [17] For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, _Comptes + rendus_ for December 1905, and W. Burton, _Society of Arts Journal_, + 2846, vol. lv., 1907. + + [18] See Magne, _Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers_ (Paris, 1904); + also Solon in _Burlington Magazine_ (November 1907). + + [19] See B. Fillon, _Les Faiences d'Oiron_ (1862). + + [20] See E. Bonaffe, _Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire_ (1898). + + [21] See examples in colour, Plate X. + + [22] An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval pottery + will be found in Hobson's "Medieval Pottery found in England," + _Archaeological Journal_, vol. lix. + + [23] Böttger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the + discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwight's death. + + [24] For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved + the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A.H. Church's + _English Earthenware_, and W. Burton's _English Earthenware and + Stoneware_. + + [25] It is amusing or annoying to find in European museums the wares + of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all lumped + together as "Wedgwood," and yet one can hardly wonder at it, + remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and how little of + the other English potters of the 18th century. + + [26] See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII. + + [27] S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_ (Victoria and Albert Museum + Handbooks, ii. 5-6). + + [28] _Yao_ is the Chinese term equivalent of the English "pottery" or + "ware." + + [29] See Brinkley, _Japan and China_, ix. 353-365. + + [30] Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_ (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896). + + [31] M. Reinand, _Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les + Persans dans l'Inde el à la Chine dans le IX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1845). + + [32] The suggestion has been made that the _céladon_ wares found in + Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the Chinese, + but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point consult + Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik" in _Österreichische + Monatsschrift für den Orient_, vol. x., 1884; A.B. Meyer, "Über die + Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane" under "Über die Marta banis," + ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, _Ancient Porcelain_ (1888), and Bushell, + _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (1899). + + [33] It is of interest to note that the "Delft" of Holland, also a + product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest + approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese. + + [34] See Drake, Sir W., _Venetian Ceramics_; and Davillier, Baron + Ch., _Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe_. + + [35] A perfect _tour de force_ in this inartistic style of work, + preserved in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen, + has been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See _Gaz. des + beaux-arts_, September 1904. + + [36] _Travels in England and Scotland_ (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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