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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:47 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:47 -0700 |
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padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2 + "Camorra" to "Cape Colony" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33052] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME V SLICE II<br /><br /> +Camorra to Cape Colony</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CAMORRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CANDYTUFT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CAMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CANE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CAMPAGNA DI ROMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CANEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CAMPAIGN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CANE-FENCING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CANEPHORAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CANES VENATICI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CAMPANIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CANGAS DE ONÍS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CAMPANILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CANGAS DE TINÉO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CAMPANULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CANGUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CANINA, LUIGI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CAMPBELL, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CANIS MAJOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CAMPBELL, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CAÑIZARES, JOSÉ DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CANNAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CANNANORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CAMPBELL, LEWIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CANNES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CANNIBALISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CAMPBELL, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CANNING, CHARLES JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CANNING, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CAMPBELTOWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CANNOCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CAMPECHE</a> (state of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CANNON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CAMPECHE</a> (city of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CANNON-BALL TREE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CANNSTATT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CAMPER, PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CANO, ALONZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CANO, MELCHIOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CANOE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CAMPHORS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CANON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CANONESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CAMPI, GIULIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CANONIZATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CANON LAW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CAMPINAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CANOPUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CAMPING OUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CANOPY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CAMPION, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CANOSA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CAMPION, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CANOSSA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CANOVA, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CAMPOBASSO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CAMPODEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CANT, ANDREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CANTABRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CAMPOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CÂMPULUNG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CANTACUZINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CANTAGALLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CAMULODUNUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CANTAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CANTARINI, SIMONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CAMUS, CHARLES ÉTIENNE LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CANTATA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CAMUS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH DES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CANTEEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CAMUS DE MÉZIÈRES, NICOLAS LE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CANTEMIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CANAAN, CANAANITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CANTERBURY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CANACHUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CANTHARIDES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CANADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CANTICLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CANAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CANTILEVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CANAL DOVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CANALE ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CANTILUPE, WALTER DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CANALIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CANTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CANANDAIGUA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CANTON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CANARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CANTON</a> (city of China)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CANARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CANTON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CANARY ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CANTON</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CANCALE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CANTON</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CANCEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CANTON</a> (country division)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CANCELLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CANTONMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CANCER, LUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CANTÙ, CESARE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CANCER</a> (astronomy)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CANUSIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CANCER</a> (disease)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CANUTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CANUTE VI.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CANDELABRUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CANVAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CANDIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CANVASS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CANDIDATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CANYNGES, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CANDLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CANYON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CANDLEMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CANZONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CANDLESTICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CAPE BRETON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CAPE COAST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CAPE COLONY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CANDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CAMORRA,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a secret society of Naples associated with robbery, +blackmail and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful. +Probably both the word and the association were introduced +into Naples by Spaniards. There is a Spanish word <i>camorra</i> +(a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have existed in Spain +long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It was +in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was +primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan +prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and +oppression, its first purpose being the protection of prisoners. +In or about 1830 the Camorra was carried into the city by +prisoners who had served their terms. The members worked +the streets in gangs. They had special methods of communicating +with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach of +the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached. +A long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze +meant he was not “worth powder and shot,” and so on. The +society rapidly extended its power, and its operations included +smuggling and blackmail of all kinds in addition to ordinary +road-robberies. Its influence grew to be considerable. Princes +were in league with and shared the profits of the smugglers: +statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact, were +involved in the society’s misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra +drew huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The +general disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly +organized that merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to +superintend the loading and unloading of merchandise. Being +non-political, the government did not interfere with the society; +indeed its members were taken into the police service and the +Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled the authorities. +After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when the +constitution was granted by Francis II., the <i>camorristi</i> then in +gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became +all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862. +Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its +power. In September 1877 there was a determined effort to +exterminate it: fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi +being simultaneously arrested in the market-place. Though +much of its power has gone, the Camorra has remained vigorous. +It has grown upwards, and highly-placed and well-known camorristi +have entered municipal administrations and political life. +In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra’s power were made in +the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the +Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner. +A government inquiry also took place. As the result +of this investigation the Honest Government League was +formed, which succeeded in 1901 in entirely defeating the +Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.</p> + +<p>The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the “swell +mobsmen,” the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed +with and levied fines on people of highest rank. Most of these +were well connected. There were the lower order of blackmailers +who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c.; and there were +political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the society +were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve +for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted +camorrista when he was sometimes called <i>picciotto d’ honore</i>, and +after giving proof of courage and zeal became a <i>picciotto di +sgarro</i>, one, that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some +localities he was then called <i>tamurro</i>. The initiatory ceremony +for full membership is now a mock duel in which the arm alone +is wounded. In early times initiation was more severe. The +camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground, and at a signal +all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the novice had +at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that his hand +was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate +as <i>picciotto di sgarro</i> lasted three years, during which the lad had +to work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as +master. After initiation there was a ceremony of reception. +The camorristi stood round a table on which were a dagger, +a loaded pistol, a glass of water or wine supposed to be poisoned +and a lancet. The <i>picciotto</i> was brought in and one of his veins +opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he held it out to +the camorristi and swore to keep the society’s secrets and obey +orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock the +pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to +die for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the +dagger, placed his right hand on the lad’s head while with the +left he fired off the pistol into the air and smashed the +poison-glass. He then drew the dagger from the table and presented +it to the new comrade and embraced him, as did all the others. +The Camorra was divided into centres, each under a chief. +There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one time +to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was +Aniello Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested. +The chief of every centre was elected by the members of it. All +the earnings of the centre were paid to and then distributed by +him. The camorristi employ a whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their +chief is <i>masto</i> or <i>si masto</i>, “sir master.” When a member +meets him he salutes with the phrase <i>Masto, volite niente?</i> +(“Master, do you want anything?”). The members are +addressed simply as <i>si</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Monnier, <i>La Camorra</i> (Florence, 1863); Umilta, <i>Camorra et +Mafia</i> (Neuchâtel, 1878); Alongi, <i>La Camorra</i> (1890); +C.W. Heckethorn <i>Secret Societies of All Ages</i> (London, 1897); +Blasio, <i>Usi e costumi dei Camorriste</i> (Naples, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMP<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>campus</i>, field), a term used more particularly +in a military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized +place of food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary +housing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camping-out</a></span>). The shelter of troops in the field +has always been of the greatest importance to their well-being, +and from the earliest times tents and other temporary +shelters have been employed as much as possible when it is not +feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in barracks or in +houses. The applied sense of the word “camp” as a military +post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the +Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern +warfare the word is used in two ways. In the wider sense, +“camp” is opposed to “billets,” “cantonments” or “quarters,” +in which the troops are scattered amongst the houses of towns +or villages for food and shelter. In a purely military camp the +soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground allotted for +their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of concentration and +readiness for immediate action, and are under better disciplinary +control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from the +weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the +restricted sense “camp” implies tents for all ranks, and is thus +opposed to “bivouac,” in which the only shelter is that afforded +by improvised screens, &c., or at most small <i>tentes d’abri</i> carried +in sections by the men themselves. The weight of large regulation +tents and the consequent increase in the number of horses +and vehicles in the transport service are, however, disadvantages +so grave that the employment of canvas camps in European +warfare is almost a thing of the past. If the military situation +permits, all troops are put into quarters, only the outpost troops +bivouacking. This course was pursued by the German field +armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter campaign.</p> + +<p>Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole +army to bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are +not to be depended upon, tents must be provided, for no troops +can endure many successive nights in bivouac, except in summer, +without serious detriment to their efficiency. In a war on the +Russo-German frontier, for instance, especially if operations +were carried out in the autumn and winter, tents would be +absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In this +connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates +many of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For +training purposes in peace time, <i>standing camps</i> are formed. +These may be considered simply as temporary barracks. An +<i>entrenched camp</i> is an area of ground occupied by, or suitable +for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and protected by +fortifications.</p> + +<p><i>Ancient Camps.</i>—English writers use “camp” as a generic +term for any remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span> +their special age, size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it +various dissimilar things. We may distinguish (1) Roman “camps” +(<i>castra</i>) of three kinds, large permanent fortresses, small +permanent forts (both usually built of stone) and temporary +earthen encampments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Army</a></span>); (2) Pre-Roman; +and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English +hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to +their special periods. Often we can say no more than that the +“camp” is not Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified +with earthen walls were thrown up as early as the Bronze Age +and probably earlier still, and that they continued to be +built down to Norman times. These consisted of hilltops or +cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified with one +or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining +huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have +come in first with the Normans. Their <i>mottes</i> or earthen mounds +crowned with wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by +an enclosure on the flat constituted a new element in fortification +and greatly aided the conquest of England. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castle</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPAGNA DI ROMA,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> the low country surrounding the +city of Rome, bounded on the N.W. by the hills surrounding +the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E. by the Sabine mountains, +on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W. by the sea. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Latium</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span> (province).)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPAIGN,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a military term for the continuous operations of +an army during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the +time when armies went into quarters during the winter and +literally “took the field” at the opening of summer. The word +is also used figuratively, especially in politics, of any continuous +operations aimed at a definite object, as the “Plan of Campaign” +in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived from the Latin +<i>Campania</i>, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f. +Italian, <i>la Campagna di Roma</i>, from which came two French forms: +(1) <i>Champagne</i>, the name given to the level province of that name, +and hence the English “champaign,” a level tract of country free +from woods and hills; and (2) <i>Campagne</i>, and the English +“campaign” with the restricted military meaning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1752-1822), +French educator, the companion of Marie Antoinette, was born +at Paris in 1752. Her father, whose name was Genest, was first +clerk in the foreign office, and, although without fortune, placed +her in the most cultivated society. At the age of fifteen she could +speak English and Italian, and had gained so high a reputation +for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader to the three +daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general favourite, +and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the +Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of +5000 <i>livres</i> as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first +lady of the bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued +to be her faithful attendant till she was forcibly separated from +her at the sacking of the Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792. +Madame Campan survived the dangers of the Terror, but after +the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost penniless, and being +thrown on her own resources by the illness of her husband, she +bravely determined to support herself by establishing a school at +St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by +Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment +of Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded +by Napoleon at Écouen for the education of the daughters and +sisters of members of the Legion of Honour. This post she held +till it was abolished at the restoration of the Bourbons, when she +retired to Mantes, where she spent the rest of her life amid the +kind attentions of affectionate friends, but saddened by the loss +of her only son, and by the calumnies circulated on account of her +connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in 1822, leaving valuable +<i>Mémoires sur la vie privée de Marie Antoinette, suivis de +souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les règnes de Louis XIV.-XV.</i> +(Paris, 1823); a treatise <i>De l’Éducation des Femmes</i>; and one or +two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style. +The most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that +which especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place +given to domestic economy in the education of girls. At Écouen +the pupils underwent a complete training in all branches of +housework.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jules Flammermont, <i>Les Mémoires de Madame de Campan</i> +(Paris, 1886), and histories of the time.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance +philosopher, was born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen +years of age he had mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented +to him. In his fifteenth year he entered the order of the +Dominicans, attracted partly by reading the lives of Albertus +Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of learning. He took a +course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in Abruzzo, and +in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow course of +study, he happened to read the <i>De Rerum Natura</i> of Bernardino +Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its +appeal to nature rather than to authority. His first work in +philosophy (he was already the author of numerous poems) was a +defence of Telesio, <i>Philosophia sensibus demonstrata</i> (1591). +His attacks upon established authority having brought him into +disfavour with the clergy, he left Naples, where he had been +residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven years he led an +unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his talents and +the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox, and +was an uncompromising advocate of the pope’s temporal power. +He returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was +committed to prison because he had joined those who desired to +free Naples from Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudée, however, +declares that the expressions used by Campanella were wrongly +interpreted as revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven +years in prison. Yet his spirit was unbroken; he composed +sonnets, and prepared a series of works, forming a complete +system of philosophy. During the latter years of his confinement +he was kept in the castle of Sant’ Elmo, and allowed considerable +liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been regarded +as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was thought +better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set at +liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of +the Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at +Rome by the pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy +headed by his pupil, Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go +to Paris (1634), where he was received with marked favour by +Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of his life he spent in +preparing a complete edition of his works; but only the first +volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of +May 1639.</p> + +<p>In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (<i>q.v.</i>), +a follower of Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore, +in the uncertain half-light which preceded the dawn of modern +philosophy. The sterility of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he +understood it, drove him to the study of man and nature, +though he was never entirely free from the medieval spirit. +Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region of +theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception. +The prime fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and +Descartes, the certainty of individual consciousness. To this +consciousness he assigned a threefold content, power, will and +knowledge. It is of the present only, of things not as they are, +but merely as they seem. The fact that it contains the idea of +God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the divine existence, +since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from the Infinite. +God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect degree, +those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity +possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action +presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its +parts have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate +are in everything. The more remote from God, the greater the +degree of imperfection (<i>i.e.Not-being</i>) in things. Of imperfect +things, the highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue +of the possession of reason are akin to the Divine and superior to +the lower creation. Next comes the mathematical world of +space, then the corporeal world, and finally the empirical +world with its limitations of space and time. The impulse of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span> +self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion; above this +comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the perfection +of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and love, +and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in +origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is +superior to the state, and, therefore, all temporal government +should be in subjection to the pope as the representative of God.</p> + +<p>In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio, +advocates the experimental method and lays down heat and +cold as the fundamental principles by the strife of which all life +is explained. In political philosophy (the <i>Civitas Solis</i>) he +sketches an ideal communism, obviously derived from the Platonic, +based on community of wives and property with state-control +of population and universal military training. In every detail +of life the citizen is to be under authority, and the authority +of the administrators is to be based on the degree of knowledge +possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial organism +for the promotion of individual and collective good. In contrast to +More’s <i>Utopia</i>, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking in +practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity +in the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to +whether this system was a philosophic dream, or a serious +attempt to sketch a constitution for Naples in the event of her +becoming a free city. The <i>De Monarchia Hispanica</i> contains +an able account of contemporary politics especially Spanish.</p> + +<p>Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic +thinker, is among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern +empirical science, and on the other of Descartes and Spinoza. +Yet his fondness for the antithesis of Being and Not-being +(<i>Ens</i> and <i>Non-ens</i>) shows that he had not shaken off +the spirit of scholastic thought.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For his works see Quétif-Echard, appendix to +E.S. Cypriano, <i>Vita Campanellae</i> (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722); +Al. d’Ancona’s edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). +The most important are <i>De sensu rerum</i> (1620); +<i>Realis philosophiae epilogisticae partes IV.</i> +(with <i>Civitas Solis</i>) (1623); +<i>Atheismus triumphatus</i> (1631); +<i>Philos. rationalis</i> (1637); +<i>Philos. universalis seu metaph.</i> (1637); +<i>De Monarchia Hispanica</i> (1640). For his life, see Cypriano +(above); M. Baldachini, <i>Vita e filos. di Tommaso Campanella</i> +(Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, <i>Lettere inedite +di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti</i> (1878); +and <i>Nuovi documenti di T.C.</i> (1881); and especially +L. Amabile, <i>Fra T. Campanella</i> (3 vols., Naples, 1882). +For his philosophy H. Ritter, <i>History of Philos.</i>; M. Carrière, +<i>Philos. Weltanschauung d. Reformationszeit</i>, pp. 542-608; +C. Dareste, <i>Th. Morus et Campanella</i> (Paris, 1843); +Chr. Sigwart, <i>Kleine Schriften</i>, i. 125 seq.; +and histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda, +<i>Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica +di fronte al socialismo moderno</i> (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). +His poems, first published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered +and printed again (1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered +into English verse by J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography +see <i>Dict. de théol. cath.</i>, col. 1446 (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPANIA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a territorial division of Italy. The modern +district (II. below) is of much greater extent than that known +by the name in ancient times.</p> + +<p>I. <i>Campani</i> was the name used by the Romans to denote the +inhabitants first of the town of Capua and the district subject to +it, and then after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), +to describe the inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally. +The name, however, is pre-Roman and appears with Oscan +terminations on coins of the early 4th (or late 5th) century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +(R.S. Conway, <i>Italic Dialects</i>, p. 143), which were certainly +struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of Campania, whom the +name properly denotes, a branch of the great Sabelline stock +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>); but in what precise spot the coins were minted is +uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the +Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in +the last quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded +appearance being at the conquest of their chief town Capua, +probably in 438 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (or 445, according to the method adopted in +interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on this see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cumae</a></span>), or 424 +according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was taken by them in 428 or +421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite language they +spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all Campania +except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans +remained here and there for at least another century (Conway, +op. cit. p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took +over not merely the wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their +customs; the haughtiness and luxury of the men of Capua was +proverbial at Rome. This town became the ally of Rome in 338 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +(Livy viii. 14) and received the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>, the +highest status that could be granted to a community which did +not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was +completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories +(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent +in alliance with Rome. These towns were faithful to +Rome throughout the Hannibalic war. But Capua and the +towns dependent on it revolted (Livy xxiii.-xxvi.); after its +capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and the jealousy +and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both finally +appeased (cf. Cicero. <i>Leg. Agrar.</i> ii. 88). We have between +thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating, +probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway, +<i>Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to +the curious cult described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jovilae</a></span>, while two or three +are curses written on lead; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osca Lingua</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, <i>Campanien</i> +(2nd ed.), c. “Capua”; Th. Mommsen, <i>C.I.L.</i> x. p. 365.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + +<p>The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from +Campani (see above), and did not come into common use until the +middle of the 1st century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> Polybius and Diodorus avoid it +entirely. Varro and Livy use it sparingly, preferring <i>Campanus +ager</i>. Polybius (2nd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) uses the phrase <span class="grk" title="ta pedia +ta kata Kapuen">κατὰ Καπύην</span> to express the district bounded on the north by the +mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the Apennines of +Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which +ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by +the sea, and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy. +But the geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division +of Italy Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried +the north boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and +even the river Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village +of San Pietro in Fine preserves the memory of the north-east +boundary which ran between Venafrum and Casinum. On the east +the valley of the Volturnus and the foot-hills of the Apennines +as far as Abellinum formed the boundary; this town is +sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to +Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the +time of Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended +much farther north, and included the whole of Latium. This district +was governed by a <i>corrector</i>, who about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 333 received +the title of <i>consularis</i>. It is for this reason that the district +round Rome still bears the name of Campagna di Roma, being no doubt +popularly connected with Ital. <i>campo</i>, Lat. <i>campus</i>. This +district (to take its earlier extent), consisting mainly of a very +fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south, and the sea on +the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the Liris and +Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right down +to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is +comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is +the main plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the +central Apennines, and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus, +Sebethus, Savo, belong entirely to Campania.</p> + +<p>The road system of Campania was extremely well developed +and touched all the important towns. The main lines are +followed (though less completely) by the modern railways. The +most important road centre of Campania was Capua, at the east +edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to the north-west, was the +only bridge over the Volturnus until the construction of the Via +Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing through +Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the +Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum +and Cales. At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia +began to turn east and to approach the mountains on its way to +Beneventum, while the Via Popillia went straight on to Nola +(whence a road ran to Abella and Abellinum) and thence to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span> +Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating at Regium. From +Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia and Telesia, +while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up ancient +warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae, +Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae, +Puteoli and Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella +and Neapolis. Neapolis could also be reached by a branch from +the Via Popillia at Suessula, which passed through Acerrae. +From Suessula, too, there was a short cut to the Via Appia before +it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian further improved +the communications of this district with Rome, by the construction +of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at +Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river +Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must +have been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along +the shore, past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here +it fell into the existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana +over the hills, at the back, and the newer, dating from the time +of Agrippa, through the tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast. +The mileage in both cases was reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond +Naples a road led along the coast through Herculaneum to +Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and Surrentum, +and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From +Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran +to Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but +outside the limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to +Abellinum and thence to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum +was another important centre: it lay at the point where the Via +Latina was crossed at right angles by a road leaving the Via Appia +at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca, while east of +Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road from +Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched +off to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and +rejoined it near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed, +probable that the original road made the detour by Venafrum, +in order to give a direct communication between Rome and the +interior of Samnium (inasmuch as roads ran from Venafrum to +Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae), and Th. Mommsen +(<i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies the antiquity +of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo), though it is +shown in Kiepert’s map at the end of the volume, with a milestone +numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing +and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the +road to Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short +cut was not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century +coins of Telesia, Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian +type.</p> + +<p>Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most +important from the commercial point of view. Its period of +greatest comparative importance was the 2nd-1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +The harbours constructed by Augustus by connecting the Lacus +Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the sea, and that at Misenum +(the latter the station of one of the chief divisions of the Roman +navy, the other fleet being stationed at Ravenna), were mainly +naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but was less +important than Puteoli.</p> + +<p>The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as +in modern times;<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the best portion was the Campi Laborini or +Leborini (called Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in +modern times, though the name has now extended to the whole +province of Caserta) between the roads from Capua to Puteoli and +Cumae (Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i> xviii. III). The loose black volcanic +earth (<i>terra pulla</i>) was easier to work than the stiffer Roman soil, +and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt, wheat and millet +are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables; and the +roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the +Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the +east and south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other +districts also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited +to the slopes than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.</p> + +<p>The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania +(Pompeii, Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but +at some date soon after that Latin became general, except in +Neapolis, where Greek was the official language during the whole +of the imperial period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Beloch, <i>Campanien</i> (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway, +<i>Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>, +iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.</p> +</div> + +<p>II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably +larger area than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the <i>compartimento</i> +of Campania belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento, +Naples, Avellino and Salerno.</p> + +<p>It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila +(Abruzzi) and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of +Foggia (Apulia), on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and +on the south and west by the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289 +sq. m. It thus includes the whole of the ancient Campania, a +considerable portion of Samnium (with a part of the main chain +of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of <i>Latium adjectum</i>, +consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part of which +lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the extraordinarily +fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro, +with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains +and the sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc. +Liris), which rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno +(94 m. in length), with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which +rises near Sarno and waters the fertile plain south-east of +Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose main tributary is the Tanagro, +which is in turn largely fed by another Calore. The headwaters +of the Sele have been tapped for the great aqueduct for the +Apulian provinces.</p> + +<p>The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of +Fondi with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient <i>Ager +Caecubus</i>), renowned for its wine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fondi</a></span>). The mountains +(of the ancient Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the +east side of the extreme promontory to the south-east is the port +of Gaeta, a strongly fortified naval station. The east side of +the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the marshes at the mouth of the +Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its unhealthy lagoons, +continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico, which reaches +the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as far +as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct +craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of +Naples, which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of +Naples. Here the scenery completely changes: the Bay of +Naples, indeed, is one of the most beautiful in the world. The +island of Procida lies 2½ m. south-west of the Capo Miseno, and +3 m. south-west of Procida is that of Ischia. In consequence +of the volcanic character of the district there are several important +mineral springs which are used medicinally, especially at +Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of Ischia.</p> + +<p>Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy +in the 1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, is now mainly noticeable for the large +armour-plate and gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the +volcanic earth (<i>pozzolana</i>) which forms so important an element +in concrete and cement, and is largely quarried near Rome also. +Naples, on the other hand, is one of the most important harbours +of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata +at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports for smaller +vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is manufactured +extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare +di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval +shipbuilding yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare +the promontory of Sorrento, ending in the Punta della +Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m. south-west) forms the +south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest point of this +mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine +chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east +as Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the +low marshy ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno, +malaria is very prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf +of Salerno is formed by another mountain group, culminating +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span> +in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.); and on the east side of this +is the Gulf of Policastro, where the province of Salerno, and with +it Campania, borders, on the province of Potenza.</p> + +<p>The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of +the province of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes, +the chief towns being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua +Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni (20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844); +that of the province of Benevento was 256,504, with 73 communes, +the only important town being Benevento itself (24,647); that of +the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69 communes, the most +important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del Greco (33,299), +Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata (28,143), +Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino (Principato +Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425, with +128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and +Ariano di Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno +(Principato Citeriore) 564,328, with 158 communes, the chief +towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera +Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief railway centre: a main +line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence there is a +branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to +Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on +the line between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento), +Sparanise (branch to Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples. +From Caserta, indeed, there are two independent lines to Naples, +while a main line runs to Benevento and Foggia across the +Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to Vinchiaturo +(for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From +Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples, +branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato, +San Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to +Caserta (and thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local +lines to Pozzuoli and Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to +Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the other via Pompeii, which together +make up the circum-Vesuvian electric line, and were in connexion +with the railway to the top of Vesuvius until its destruction in +April 1906. The main line for southern Italy passes through +Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and +Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for +Mercato San Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one +line going east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro), +Potenza and Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line +along the east coast of Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east +along the west coast of Calabria to Reggio.</p> + +<p>Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli +and the towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia +(including the latter) on the north-east shores of the Bay of +Naples. The native peasant industries are (besides agriculture, +for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>) the manufacture of pottery and weaving +with small hand-looms, both of which are being swept away by +the introduction of machinery; but a government school of +textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement of +the trade.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name Osci—earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Opikoi">Όπικοί</span>)—presumably +meant “tillers of the soil.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> Italian mechanician and +natural philosopher of the 17th century, was born at Spoleto. +He held a curacy at Rome in 1661, but devoted himself principally +to scientific pursuits. As an optician he is chiefly celebrated +for the manufacture of the large object-glasses with which +G.D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn’s satellites, and for an +attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-glass; +and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated +dial-plate, and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt +to correct the irregularities of the pendulum which arise from +variations of temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work +on horology, and on the manufacture of lenses for telescopes. +His younger brother Giuseppe was also an ingenious optician +(indeed the attempt to correct chromatic aberration has been +ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is, besides, noteworthy +as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by the +aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter, +the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio +Divini.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPANILE,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> the bell tower attached to the churches and +town-halls in Italy (from <i>campana</i>, a bell). Bells are supposed +to have been first used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope +Sabinian (604), the immediate successor to St Gregory; and +their use by the municipalities came with the rights granted by +kings and emperors to the citizens to enclose their towns with +fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a great bell. It is to +the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that we are indebted +for the introduction and development of the campanile, which, +when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature +peculiar to Christian architecture—Christians alone making use +of the bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The +campanile of Italy serves the same purpose as the tower or +steeple of the churches in the north and west of Europe, but +differs from it in design and position with regard to the body of +the church. It is almost always detached from the church, or +at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a rule also +there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few +exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara; +S. Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the +churches in south Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely +from the northern type; it never has buttresses, is very tall and +thin in proportion to its height, and as a rule rises abruptly from +the ground without base or plinth mouldings undiminished to +the summit; it is usually divided by string-courses into storeys +of nearly equal height, and in north and central Italy the wall +surface is decorated with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel +strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an octagonal +turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and Modena +cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and dimensions +as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a lightness +to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits +only, impart solidity to the whole composition.</p> + +<p>The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S. +Apollinare in Classe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basilica</a></span>, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare +Nuovo at Ravenna, dating from the 6th century. They are circular, +of considerable height, and probably were erected as watch +towers or depositories for the treasures of the church. The next +in order are those in Rome, of which there are a very large +number in existence, dating from the 8th to the 11th century. +These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part +quite plain till well above the church to which they are attached. +Above this they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried +on stone corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the +lower storeys with blind arcades and the upper storeys with +open arcades. The earliest on record was one connected with St +Peter’s, to the atrium of which, in the middle of the 8th century, +a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added. One of the finest is +that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th or 9th century. +In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient columns of +the Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The tower +is 120 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the four +upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second +from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number, +are recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their +length equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a +mid-wall shaft. This type of arcade or window is found in early +German work, except that, as a rule, there is a capital under +the impost block. Rome is probably the source from which the +Saxon windows were derived, the example in Worth church being +identically the same as those in the Roman campanili. In the +campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each storey, +each divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS. +Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana, +S. Croce in Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia, +S. Pudenziana, S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in +Capite, are characteristic examples. On some of the towers are +encrusted plaques of marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed +in a tile or moulded brick border; sometimes these plaques are +in majolica with Byzantine patterns.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:918px" src="images/img125a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Alinari.</span><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:990px" src="images/img125b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Brogi.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Campanile of St Mark’s, Venice.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another +type, the north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> +decorated with vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and +horizontal arcaded corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the +campanile of S. Satiro at Milan is in perfect preservation; it +is divided into four storeys by arched corbel tables, the upper +storey having a similar arcade with mid-wall shaft to those in +Rome. One of the most notable examples in north Italy is the +campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense height and +has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall +face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally +with arcaded corbel tables,—this campanile, the two towers of +S. Antonio, Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal +plan, being among the few which are thus terminated. In the +campanile at Torcello we find an entirely different treatment: +doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide each face into two lofty +blind arcades rising from the ground to the belfry storey, over +100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the upper or belfry +storey having an arcade of four arches on each front. This is the +type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where there +are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark’s was of similar +design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower +portion, built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but +not completed till the middle of the 12th century. In 1510 a +belfry storey was added with an open arcade of four arches on +each face, and slightly set back from the face of the tower above +was a mass of masonry with pyramidal roof, the total height +being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole structure +collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in +1510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part, +would seem to have been the principal contributors to this +disaster, as the pile foundations were found to +be in excellent condition.</p> + +<p>In central Italy the two early campanili at Lucca +return to the Lombard type of the north, with +pilaster strips and arcaded corbel strings, and the +same is found in S. Francesco (Assisi), S. Frediano +(Lucca), S. Pietro-in-Grado and S. Michele-in-Orticaia +(Pisa), and S. Maria-Novella (Florence). +The campanile of S. Niccola, Pisa, is octagonal on +plan, with a lofty blind arcade on each face like +those in Venice, but with a single string-course halfway +up. The gallery above is an open eaves +gallery like those in north Italy.</p> + +<p>In southern Italy the design of the campanile +varies again. In the two more important examples +at Bari and Molfetta, there are two towers in each case +attached to the east end of the cathedrals. The +campanili are in plain masonry, the storeys being +suggested only by blind arches or windows, there +being neither pilaster strips nor string-courses. +The same treatment is found at Barletta and +Caserta Vecchia; in the latter the upper storey has +been made octagonal with circular turrets at each +angle, and this type of design is followed at +Amalfi, the centre portion being circular instead of +octagonal and raised much higher. In Palermo the +campanile of the Martorana, +of which the two lower storeys, decorated with three concentric +blind pointed arches on each face, probably date from the +Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the two upper storeys. +The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral have +similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group +well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two +towers of the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble +those of Bari and Molfetta as regards their treatment.</p> + +<p>The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of +Siena and Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that +they owe their decoration to the alternating courses of black +and white marble. Of this type by far the most remarkable so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> +far as its marble decoration is concerned is Giotto’s campanile at +Florence, built in 1334. It measures 275 ft. high, 45 ft. square, +and is encased in black, white and red marble, with occasional +sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized by octagonal +projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled that of +the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three +upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side +in the two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the +belfry stage. A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure, +above which a spire was projected by Giotto, but never carried out.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:1083px" src="images/img126a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Alinari.</span><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Giotto’s Campanile, Florence.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 387px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:1006px" src="images/img126b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Alinari.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Campanile of the Palazzo del Signore, Verona.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft. +high. Though built in the second half of the 13th century, and +showing therefore Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the +belfry and two storeys below, and the substitution of the pointed +for the semicircular arch of the arcaded corbel string-courses, it +follows the Lombard type in its general design, and the same is +found in the campanile of S. Andrea, Mantua. In the 16th +century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned with a +conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some +of the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these +leaning towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at +Bologna form conspicuous objects in the town; the two +more remarkable examples are the campanile of S. Martino +at Este, of early Lombard type, and the leaning tower at +Pisa, which was built by the citizens in 1174 to rival that of +Venice. The Pisa tower is circular on plan, about 51 ft. in +diameter and 172 ft. high. Not including the belfry storey, +which is set back on the inner wall, it is divided into seven +storeys all surrounded with an open gallery or arcade. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate I. fig. 62.) Owing to the sinking +of the piles on the south side, the inclination was already +noticed when the tower was about 30 ft. high, and slight +additions in the height of the masonry on that side were +introduced to correct the level, but without result, so that +the works were stopped for many years and taken up +again in 1234 under the direction of William of Innsbruck; +he also attempted to rectify the levels by increasing +the height of the masonry on the south side. At a +later period the belfry storey was added. The inclination now +approaches 14 ft. out of the perpendicular. The outside is built +entirely in white marble and is of admirable workmanship, but +it is a question whether the equal subdivision of the several +storeys is not rather monotonous. The campanili of the churches +of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both in Pisa, are also +inclined to a slight extent.</p> + +<p>The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches, +but there are others belonging to civic buildings some of which +are of great importance. The campanile of the town hall of +Siena rises to an enormous height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft. +wide; it is built in brick and crowned with a battlemented +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> +parapet carried on machicolation corbels, 16 ft. high, all in stone, +and a belfry storey above set back behind the face of the tower. +The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is similarly +crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced +in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example +is the fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4, +the lower portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone +and above entirely in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft., +and pierced with putlog holes only. The belfry window on each +face is divided into three lights with coupled shafts. An octagonal +tower of two storeys rises above the corbelled eaves.</p> + +<p>In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general +proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself +easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were +adhered to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei +Greci. In that of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio +returned to the simple brickwork of Verona, crowned with a +belfry storey in stone, with angle pilasters and columns of the +Corinthian order in antis, and central turret with spire above. +In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins are either +decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters, with +or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a +belfry storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of +their greater projection present a fine effect.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> +<p style="clear: both;"> </p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPANULA<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants +containing about 230 species, found in the temperate parts +of the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the Mediterranean region. +The name is taken from the bell-shaped flower. The plants +are perennial, rarely annual or biennial, herbs with spikes or +racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several are native in +Britain; <i>Campanula rotundifolia</i> is the harebell (<i>q.v.</i>) or +Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,—the delicate +slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers; +<i>C. Rapunculus,</i> rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a +panicle of broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and +occurs on gravelly roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It +is cultivated, but not extensively, for its fleshy roots, which +are used, either boiled or raw, as salad. Many of the species +are grown in gardens for their elegant flowers; the dwarf forms +are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or fronts of borders. +<i>C. Medium</i>, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple and white +flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there +are numerous varieties. <i>C. persicifolia</i>, a perennial with more +open flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous +forms, including white and blue-flowered and single and double. +<i>C. glomerata</i>, which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on +the stems and branches, found native in Britain in chalky and dry +pastures, is known in numerous varieties as a border plant. +<i>C. pyramidalis</i>, with numerous flowers forming a tall pyramidal +inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are also a number of +alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as <i>C. alpina, caucasica, +caespitosa</i> and others. The plants are easily cultivated. +The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by young +cuttings in spring, or by seeds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1788-1866), American religious +leader, was born near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the +12th of September 1788, and was the son of Thomas Campbell +(1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman of the Presbyterian +“Seceders.” Alexander in 1809, after a year at Glasgow +University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania, +where the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association +of Washington, “for the sole purpose of promoting simple +evangelical Christianity.” With his father’s desire for Church +unity the son agreed. He began to preach in 1810, refusing any +salary; in 1811 he settled in what is now Bethany, West +Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run Church, as the +Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging baptism +by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his +father’s place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (<i>q.v.</i>, popularly +called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed +momentarily to approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists, +but by his statement, “I will be baptized only into the primitive +Christian faith,” by his iconoclastic preaching and his editorial +conduct of <i>The Christian Baptist</i> (1823-1830), and by the tone +of his able debates with Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the +disfavour of the Redstone Association of Baptist churches in +western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his followers transferred +their membership to the Mahoning Association of Baptist +churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the +Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to +the Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery +neighbours, now established <i>The Millennial Harbinger</i> +(1830-1865), in which, on Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation, +but which he used principally to preach the imminent Second +Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in which year he died, +on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia, having been for +twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He travelled, +lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in +England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian +champions, with Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert +Owen; and edited a revision of the New Testament.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Thomas W. Grafton’s <i>Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great +Reformation of the Nineteenth Century</i> (St Louis, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Mrs <span class="sc">Patrick Campbell</span>) +(1865-  ), English actress, was born in London, her maiden +name being Tanner, and in 1884 married Captain Patrick +Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the provincial +stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre, London, +in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero’s <i>Second +Mrs Tanqueray</i> at the St James’s, her remarkable impersonation +at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For +some years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London, +playing notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson’s <i>For the +Crown,</i> and in <i>Macbeth</i>; and her <i>Magda</i> (Royalty, 1900) +could hold its own with either Bernhardt or Duse. In later +years she paid successful visits to America, but in England +played chiefly on provincial tours.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, GEORGE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was +born at Aberdeen on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the +Rev. Colin Campbell, one of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of +George Campbell of Westhall, who claimed to belong to the Argyll +branch of the family, died in 1728, leaving a widow and six +children in somewhat straitened circumstances. George, the +youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and after +attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes +at Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an +apprentice to a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he +attended the theological lectures, and when the term of his +apprenticeship expired, he was enrolled as a regular student in +the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a distinguished career he was, +in 1746, licensed to preach by the presbytery of Aberdeen. From +1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory Ternan, a parish on the +Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then transferred to Aberdeen, +which was at the time a centre of considerable intellectual +activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King’s +College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid’s predecessor, held the +chair of medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor +of divinity at Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie +(1735-1803) became professor of moral philosophy in the same +college. These men, with others of less note, formed themselves in +1758 into a society for the discussions of questions in philosophy. +Reid was its first secretary, and Campbell one of its founders. +It lasted till about 1773, and during this period numerous papers +were read, particularly those by Reid and Campbell, which were +afterwards expanded and published.</p> + +<p>In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In +1763 he published his celebrated <i>Dissertation on Miracles</i>, in +which he seeks to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are +capable of proof by testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity +are sufficiently attested. There is no contradiction, he argues, +as Hume said there was, between what we know by testimony and +the evidence upon which a law of nature is based; they are of +a different description indeed, but we can without inconsistency +believe that both are true. The <i>Dissertation</i> is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> +a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was +and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In +1771 Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal +College, and resigned his city charge, although he still preached +as minister of Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His +<i>Philosophy of Rhetoric</i>, planned at Banchory Ternan years before, +appeared in 1776, and at once took a high place among books on +the subject. In 1778 his last and in some respects his greatest +work appeared, <i>A New Translation of the Gospels</i>. The critical +and explanatory notes which accompanied it gave the book a high value.</p> + +<p>In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the +offices he held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he +received a pension of £300 from the king. He died on the 31st of +March 1796.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Lectures on Ecclesiastical History</i> were published after his +death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform +edition of his works in 6 vols.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at +Edinburgh on the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the +legal profession, he was sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an +attorney; but his tastes soon led him to abandon the study of +law and to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1736 he +published the <i>Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke +of Marlborough</i>, and soon after contributed several important +articles to the <i>Ancient Universal History</i>. In 1742 and 1744 +appeared the <i>Lives of the British Admirals</i>, in 4 vols., a +popular work which has been continued by other authors. Besides +contributing to the <i>Biographia Britannica</i> and Dodsley’s +<i>Preceptor</i>, he published a work on <i>The Present State of +Europe</i>, onsisting of a series of papers which had appeared in the +<i>Museum</i>. He also wrote the histories of the Portuguese, Dutch, +Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend settlements in the East +Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre +and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the <i>Modern +Universal History</i>. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a +vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying +in it a descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar +Islands in the West Indies. By the king he was appointed agent +for the provinces of Georgia in 1755. His last and most elaborate +work, <i>Political Survey of Britain</i>, 2 vols. 4to, was published +in 1744, and greatly increased the author’s reputation. Campbell +died on the 28th of December 1775. He received the honorary +degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in 1745.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1779-1861), lord +chancellor of England, the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, +D.D., was born on the 17th of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife, +where his father was for fifty years parish minister. For a few +years Campbell studied at the United College, St Andrews. In +1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln’s Inn, and, after a +short connexion with the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, was called to the +bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at <i>nisi +prius</i> (<i>i.e.</i> on jury trial). Of these <i>Reports</i> he published +altogether four volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas +1807 to Hilary 1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal +to criminal business, but in spite of his unceasing industry he +failed to attract much attention behind the bar; he had changed +his circuit from the home to the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly, +and it was not till 1827 that he obtained a silk gown and found +himself in that “front rank” who are permitted to have political +aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the borough of Stafford +in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in 1831. In the +House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive zeal +for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense, +but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however, +like that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by +the abolition of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of +new and striking principles.</p> + +<p>Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries +Abolition Act 1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act +1833; the Real Property Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act +1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts 1841; and the Judgments +Act 1838. All these measures were important and were carefully +drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a biographical +notice. The second was called for by the preference which the +common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the +half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an +indefeasible title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term +shortened by Lord Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth +reduced the number of witnesses required by law to attest wills, +and removed the vexatious distinction which existed in this +respect between freeholds and copyholds; the last freed an +innocent debtor from imprisonment only before final judgment +(or on what was termed <i>mesne</i> process), but the principle stated +by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be imprisoned +was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in 1869.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land +Registration (<i>q.v.</i>), which formed the theme of his maiden speech +in parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His +most important appearance as member for Stafford was in defence +of Lord John Russell’s first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate +and learned speech, based on Fox’s declaration against constitution-mongering, +he supported both the enfranchising and the +disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the cries of “corporation +robbery,” “nabob representation,” “opening for young +men of talent,” &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell +solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he +represented till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general +and was returned by Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that +of a moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church +and state, and opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot. +In parliament he continued to lend the most effective help to the +Liberal party. His speech in 1835 in support of the motion for +inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities with a view to their +partial appropriation for national purposes (for disestablishment +was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much terse argument, +and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the +formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell +had a fierce encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which +followed the motion of T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) +on the repair and maintenance of parochial churches and chapels. +The legal point in the dispute (which Campbell afterwards made +the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether the church-wardens +of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any means +of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or ecclesiastical +censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but on the +broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported +the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh +annuity-tax.</p> + +<p>In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action +(thought by some to be a political conspiracy<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a>) which the Hon. +G.C. Norton brought against the Whig premier for criminal +conversation with his wife. At this time also he exerted himself +for the reform of justice in the ecclesiastical courts, for the +uniformity of the law of marriage (which he held should be a +purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners charged with +felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of <i>The Times</i> newspaper, +which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the +duchess of Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly +remarkable for the Confession—“I despair of any definition of +libel which shall exclude no publications which ought to be +suppressed, and include none which ought to be permitted.” +His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the +bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular +ground that “the vast bulk of the population believe that +morality depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be +raised among them that the ten commandments were given by +God from Mount Sinai, men would think they were at liberty to +steal, and women would consider themselves absolved from the +restraints of chastity.” But his most distinguished effort at the +bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House of Commons in +the famous case of <i>Stockdale v. Hansard</i>, 1837, 7 C. and P. 731. +The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers, +a report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated +that an obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the +prisoners to read. Stockdale sued the Commons’ publisher, and +was met by the plea of parliamentary privilege, to which, however, +the judges did not give effect, on the ground that they were +entitled to define the privileges of the Commons, and that publication +of papers was not essential to the functions of parliament. +The matter was settled by an act of 1840.</p> + +<p>In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John +Frost, one of the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town +of Newport, all of whom were found guilty of high treason. We +may also mention, as matter of historical interest, the case +before the high steward and the House of Lords which arose out +of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the earl of +Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was +clear that the “punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call +honour” was no excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment +of everybody, Lord Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of +felony because the full name of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett +Phipps Tuckett) was not legally proved. It is difficult to suppose +that such a blunder was not preconcerted. Campbell himself +made the extraordinary declaration that to engage in a duel +which could not be declined without infamy (<i>i.e.</i> social disgrace) +was “an act free from moral turpitude,” although the law +properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne +administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable +chancellor of Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to +resign, and the Whig attorney-general, who had never practised +in equity, became chancellor of Ireland, and was raised to the +peerage with the title of Baron Campbell of St Andrews, in the +county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth Campbell, the eldest +daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the Campbells of +Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in +1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the +withdrawal of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post +of chancellor Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then +resigned it to his successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards). +The circumstances of his appointment and the erroneous belief +that he was receiving a pension of £4000 per annum for his few +days’ court work brought Campbell much unmerited obloquy.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no legal duty, +except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish +appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary +fame troubled Lord Campbell’s leisure.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her +<i>Lives of the Queens of England</i>, and by Lord Brougham’s <i>Lives of +Eminent Statesmen</i>, he at last produced, in 1849, <i>The Lives of the +Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from +the earliest times till the reign of King George IV.</i>, 7 vols. 8vo. +The conception of this work is magnificent; its execution +wretched. Intended to evolve a history of jurisprudence from +the truthful portraits of England’s greatest lawyers, it merely +exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning, without a +trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a spark of +that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and +spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present +becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A +charming style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be +expected from a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly +be held responsible for the frequent plagiarisms, the still more +frequent inaccuracies of detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes +on almost every page, the hasty insinuations against the memory +of the great departed who were to him as giants, and the petty +sneers which he condescends to print against his own contemporaries, +with whom he was living from day to day on terms of +apparently sincere friendship.</p> + +<p>These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke, +Eldon, Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed +out by the biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +And yet the book is an invaluable repertory of facts, and must +endure until it is superseded by something better. It was +followed by the <i>Lives of the Chief Justices of England, from the +Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield</i>, 8vo, 2 vols., +a book of similar construction but inferior merit.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that during this period the literary +lawyer was silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently. +The 3rd volume of the <i>Protests of the Lords</i>, edited by Thorold +Rogers (1875), contains no less than ten protests by Campbell, +entered in the years 1842-1845. He protests against Peel’s +Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen Act 1843, as +conferring undue power on church courts; against the perpetuation +of diocesan courts for probate and administration; +against Lord Stanley’s absurd bill providing compensation for +the destruction of fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and +against the Parliamentary Proceedings Bill, which proposed +that all bills, except money bills, having reached a certain stage +or having passed one House, should be continued to next session. +The last he opposed because the proper remedy lay in resolutions +and orders of the House. He protests in favour of Lord Monteagle’s +motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn duties; +of Lord Normanby’s motion on the queen’s speech in 1843, for +inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military +occupation); of Lord Radnor’s bill to define the constitutional +powers of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened +Mazzini’s letters. In 1844 he records a solitary protest against +the judgment of the House of Lords in <i>R.</i> v. <i>Millis</i>, 1844, +10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed that a man regularly +married according to the rites of the Irish Presbyterian Church, +and afterwards regularly married to another woman by an +episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of +bigamy, because the English law required for the validity of a +marriage that it should be performed by an ordained priest.</p> + +<p>On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was +appointed chief justice of the queen’s bench. For this post he +was well fitted by his knowledge of common law, his habitual +attention to the pleadings in court and his power of clear statement. +On the other hand, at <i>nisi prius</i> and on the criminal +circuit, he was accused of frequently attempting unduly to +influence juries in their estimate of the credibility of evidence. +It is also certain that he liked to excite applause in the galleries +by some platitude about the “glorious Revolution” or the +“Protestant succession.” He assisted in the reforms of special +pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with +Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of +Lords. But he had neither the generous temperament nor the +breadth of view which is required in the composition of even a +mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was made lord chancellor of +Great Britain, probably on the understanding that Bethell +should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House of +Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In +the same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier +an amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare’s +legal acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> +Drocess which runs through the book: “If Shakespeare was +really articled to a Stratford attorney, in all probability, during +the five years of his clerkship, he visited London several times +on his master’s business, and he may then have been introduced +to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his countrymen +connected with that theatre.” The only positive piece of +evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash’s “Epistle +to the Gentlemen of the Two Universities,” prefixed to Greene’s +<i>Arcadia</i>, 1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to +be Shakespeare) with having left the “trade of Noverint” and +busied himself with “whole Hamlets” and “handfuls of +tragical speeches.” The knowledge of law shown in the plays +is very much what a universal observer must have picked up. +Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent +layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has +been well said of him in explanation of his success, that he lived +eighty years and preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had +a hard head, a splendid constitution, tireless industry, a generally +judicious temper. He was a learned, though not a scientific +lawyer, a faithful political adherent, thoroughly honest as a +judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there was nothing +admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did his +principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the +magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults +of others. His life was the triumph of steady determination +unaided by a single brilliant or attractive quality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his Autobiography, +Diary and Letters</i>, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881); +E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, <i>Select +Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter</i> (1867); +E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, <i>The Victorian +Chancellors</i>, vol. ii. (1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for libel +to prove <i>veritas</i>, and giving a right of action to the representatives of +persons killed through negligence, also deserve mention.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Greville in his <i>Memoirs</i> says that Campbell got this post on +condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the +bench; a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by +claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach. +Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both +promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> “There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of +it all, and persuaded Lord Grantley to urge it on for mere political +purposes.”—Greville, iii. 351.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See thereon J.B. Atlay, <i>The Victorian Chancellors</i> (1908), vol. ii. +p. 174.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In 1842 he published the <i>Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar +and in the Home of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as +Lord Chancellor of Ireland</i> (Edin., Black).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to +its author, “and then there is my noble and biographical friend who +has added a new terror to death.” See <i>Misrepresentations in Campbell’s +“Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham” corrected by St Leonards</i> (London, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic +scholar, was born on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the +beautiful Isle of Islay, on the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this +inheritance he never became possessed, as the estate had to be +sold by his father, and he began life under greatly changed +conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh University, +he occupied at various times several minor government posts. +His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and +editing the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from +the lips of the natives. The results of his investigations were +published in four volumes under the title <i>Popular Tales of the +West Highlands</i> (1860-1862), and form a most important contribution +to the subject, the necessary precursor to the subsequent +Gaelic revival in Great Britain. Campbell was also +devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and he invented +the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British meteorological +stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1800-1872), Scottish divine, +son of the Rev. Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyllshire, +in 1800. Thanks to his father he was already a good +Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow University in 1811. +Finishing his course in 1817, he became a student at the Divinity +Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After +further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the +presbytery of Lorne in 1821. In 1825 he was appointed to the +parish of Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine +of Assurance of Faith powerfully influenced him. He began to +give so much prominence to the universality of the Atonement +that his parishioners went so far as to petition the presbytery in +1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a subsequent appeal +in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation followed by an +accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the charge +was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching +heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an +invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic +Church, he worked for two years as an evangelist in the Highlands. +Returning to Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for +sixteen years in a large chapel erected for him, but he never +attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he published his famous +book on <i>The Nature of the Atonement</i>, which has profoundly +influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim is to +view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine +mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God +and perfect brotherhood towards men. By the light of this +divine fact the Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally +and necessarily as an atonement; the penal element in the +sufferings of Christ is minimized. Subsequent critics have +pointed out that Campbell’s position was not self-consistent in +the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element in the +sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the principle +that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all righteousness +and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health gave way, +and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church, +where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published +<i>Thoughts on Revelation</i>. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D. +from Glasgow University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and +there began his <i>Reminiscences and Reflections</i>, an unfinished +work published after his death by his son. Campbell was greatly +loved and esteemed by a circle of friends, which included Thomas +Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander Ewing, F.D. +Maurice, D.J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and +honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried +great weight. In 1871 a testimonial and address were presented +to him by representatives of most of the religious bodies in +Scotland. He died on the 27th of February 1872, and was +buried in Roseneath churchyard.</p> +<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, LEWIS<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1830-1908), British classical scholar, +was born at Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His +father, Robert Campbell, R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas +Campbell, the poet. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy, +and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow and tutor +of Queen’s College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford, Hants +(1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the +university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected +an honorary fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by +his work on Sophocles and Plato. His published works include: +Sophocles (2nd ed., 1879); Plato, <i>Sophistes</i> and <i>Politicus</i> (1867), +<i>Theaetetus</i> (2nd ed., 1883), <i>Republic</i> (with Jowett, 1894); <i>Life +and Letters of Benjamin Jowett</i> (with E. Abbott, 1897), <i>Letters of +B. Jowett</i> (1899); <i>Life of James Clerk Maxwell</i> (with W. Garnett, +new ed., 1884); <i>A Guide to Greek Tragedy for English Readers</i> (1891); <i>Religion in Greek Literature</i> (1898); <i>On the Nationalisation +of the Old English Universities</i> (1901); Verse translations of the +plays of Aeschylus (1890); Sophocles (1896); <i>Tragic Drama in +Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare</i> (1904); <i>Paralipomena +Sophoclea</i> (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1867-  ), British Congregationalist +divine, son of a United Free Methodist minister of +Scottish descent, was born in London, and educated at schools in +Bolton and Nottingham, where his father successively removed, +and in Belfast, the home of his grandfather. At an early age he +taught in the high school at Ashton, Cheshire, and was already +married when in 1891 he went to Christchurch, Oxford, where +he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern history. +He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a clergyman +in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of +Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget +(afterwards bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Nonconformist +blood was too strong, and he abandoned the idea in order +to take up work in the Congregational ministry. He accepted a +call, on leaving Oxford, to the small Congregational church in +Union Street, Brighton, and quickly became famous there as a +preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker’s death he was chosen +as his successor (1903) at the City Temple, London. Here he +notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one +of the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end +of 1906 he attracted widespread attention by his vigorous +propagation of what was called the “New Theology,” a restatement +of Christian beliefs to harmonize with modern critical +views and beliefs, and published a book with this title which +gave rise to considerable discussion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, THOMAS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son +of Alexander Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> +July 1777. His father, who was a cadet of the family of Campbell +of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged to a Glasgow firm trading in +Virginia, and lost his money in consequence of the American +war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and +university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for +verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the +western Highlands. His poem “Glenara” and the ballad of +“Lord Ullin’s Daughter” owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In +May 1797 he went to Edinburgh to attend lectures on law. He +supported himself by private teaching and by writing, towards +which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor of the +<i>British Poets</i>. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were +Sir Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas +Brown, John Leyden and James Grahame. To these early +days in Edinburgh may be referred “The Wounded Hussar,” +“The Dirge of Wallace” and the “Epistle to Three Ladies.” +In 1799, six months after the publication of the <i>Lyrical Ballads</i> +of Wordsworth and Coleridge, <i>The Pleasures of Hope</i> was published. +It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his +time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to +men’s hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland +and with negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but +Campbell was deficient in energy and perseverance and did not +follow it up. He went abroad in June 1800 without any very +definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg, and made his way to +Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days after his +arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his +best lyrics, “Hohenlinden,” “Ye Mariners of England” and +“The Soldier’s Dream,” belong to his German tour. He spent +the winter in Altona, where he met an Irish exile, Anthony +McCann, whose history suggested “The Exile of Erin.”<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +He had at that time the intention of writing an epic on Edinburgh to +be entitled “The Queen of the North.” On the outbreak of war +between Denmark and England he hurried home, the “Battle of +the Baltic” being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was +introduced to the first Lord Minto, who took him in the next +year to London as occasional secretary. In June 1803 appeared +a new edition of the <i>Pleasures of Hope</i>, which some lyrics were +added.</p> + +<p>In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair, +and settled in London. He was well received in Whig society, +especially at Holland House. His prospects, however, were +slight when in 1805 he received a government pension of £200. +In that year the Campbells removed to Sydenham. Campbell +was at this time regularly employed on the <i>Star</i> newspaper, for +which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he published a +narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, “Gertrude of Wyoming,” +with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow and +fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from over-elaboration. +Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: “Your +timidity or fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will +not let you give your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful, +as they present themselves; but you must chasten, and refine, +and soften them, forsooth, till half their nature and grandeur is +chiselled away from them. Believe me, the world will never +know how truly you are a great and original poet till you venture +to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your fancy.” In +1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at the +Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to +become a candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh +University. In 1814 he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance +of the elder Schlegel, of Baron Cuvier and others. His +pecuniary anxieties were relieved in 1815 by a legacy of £4000. +He continued to occupy himself with his <i>Specimens of the British +Poets</i>, the design of which had been projected years before. The +work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole an +admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed +to it an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In +1820 he accepted the editorship of the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i>, +and in the same year made another tour in Germany. Four +years later appeared his “Theodric”, a not very successful poem +of domestic life. He took an active share in the foundation of +the university of London, visiting Berlin to inquire into the +German system of education, and making recommendations +which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord +rector of Glasgow University three times (1826-1829). In the +last election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell +retired from the editorship of the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i> in 1830, +and a year later made an unsuccessful venture with the <i>Metropolitan +Magazine</i>. He had championed the cause of the Poles +in <i>The Pleasures of Hope</i>, and the news of the capture of Warsaw +by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if it had been the deepest +of personal calamities. “Poland preys on my heart night and +day,” he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy found a +practical expression in the foundation in London of the Association +of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and +Algiers, where he wrote his <i>Letters from the South</i> (printed 1837).</p> + +<p>The small production of Campbell may be partly explained +by his domestic calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two +sons, one died in infancy and the other became insane. His own +health suffered, and he gradually withdrew from public life. +He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844, and was buried +in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Campbell’s other works include a <i>Life of Mrs Siddons</i> (1842), and +a narrative poem, “The Pilgrim of Glencoe” (1842). See <i>The Life +and Letters of Thomas Campbell</i> (3 vols., 1849), edited by William +Beattie, M.D.; <i>Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell</i> +(1860), by Cyrus Redding; <i>The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell</i> +(1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev. +W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet’s life by William Allingham; +and the “Oxford Edition” of the <i>Complete Works of Thomas Campbell</i> +(1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also <i>Thomas Campbell</i> in +the Famous Scots Series, by J.C. Hadden, and a selection by +Lewis Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned +to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell’s claim is established in <i>Literary +Remains of the United, Irishmen</i>, by R.R. Madden (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1836-1908), English +prime minister, was born on the 7th of September 1836, being the +second son of Sir James Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire, +lord provost of Glasgow. His elder brother James, who +just outlived him, was Conservative M.P. for Glasgow and +Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father and +his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an +important drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable +fortunes; and he assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in +compliance with the provisions of the will of his maternal uncle, +Henry Bannerman, from whom he inherited a large property in +Kent. He was educated at Glasgow University and at Trinity +College, Cambridge (senior optime, and classical honours); was +returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal in 1868 (after an +unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became financial +secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary +to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland +(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause +of Home Rule for Ireland, he “found salvation”, to use his own +phrase, and followed his leader. In Mr Gladstone’s 1886 ministry +he was secretary for war, and filled the same office in the Liberal +ministry of 1892-1895. In the latter year he was knighted +(G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister to obtain the duke +of Cambridge’s resignation of the office of commander-in-chief; +but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff in substitution +for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the ministry. +It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and +therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of +small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June +1895 led to the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy, +popular and possessed of a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T. +Healy had said that he tried to govern Ireland with Scottish +jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the general respect of all +parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel retired, his +claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but +his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active +politics and Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent +member of the inner Liberal circle and a stanch party man, it +was not supposed by the public at this time that any ambition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> +for the highest place could be associated with Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman; +but the divisions among the Liberals, and the +rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made +the political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he +was apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined +with his honourable record and experience to make him a safe +man; and in December 1898, on Sir W. Harcourt’s formal +resignation of the leadership of the Opposition, he was elected +to fill the position in the House of Commons with the general +assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary impotence, +and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir +Henry had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted +his duty as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the +Radical party together in the midst of its pronounced differences. +In this he was successful, although the advent of the Boer War +of 1899-1902 created new difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists. +The leader of the Opposition from the first denounced the +diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and Mr Chamberlain, +and objected to all armed intervention or even preparation for +hostilities. Sir Henry’s own tendency to favour the anti-war +section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and +his allusion to “methods of barbarism” in connexion with the +conduct of the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the +crisis within the party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists, +who looked to Lord Rosebery (<i>q.v.</i>) and Mr Asquith (<i>q.v.</i>) for +their political inspiration, showed pronounced signs of restiveness. +But a party meeting was called on the 9th of July, and Sir Henry +was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.</p> + +<p>The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency +throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The +political conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the +first time since 1892. The blunders of the government were open +to a united attack, and Mr Chamberlain’s tariff-reform movement +in 1903 provided a new rallying point in defence of the existing +fiscal system. In the Liberal campaign on behalf of free trade +the real leader, however, was Mr Asquith. Sir Henry’s own +principal contribution to the discussion was rather unfortunate, +for while insisting on the blessings derived by England from its +free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical admission +(at Bolton in 1903) that “12,000,000 British citizens were underfed +and on the verge of hunger.” But Lord Salisbury’s retirement, +Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the +accumulating opposition in the country to the Education Act of +1902 and to the continued weight of taxation, together with the +growth of the Labour movement, and the antagonism to the +introduction of Chinese coolies (1904) into South Africa under +conditions represented by Radical spokesmen as those of +“slavery,” made the political pendulum swing back. A Liberal +majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at +by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only +a question of time (see the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balfour</a></span>, A.J., and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamberlain</a></span>, J.). On the 4th of December 1905 the Unionist +government resigned, and the king sent for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, +who in a few days formed his cabinet. Lord +Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to +co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd +of November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately +flouted his well-known susceptibilities by once more writing +Home Rule in large letters on the party programme, and he +declared at Bodmin that he would “never serve under that +banner.” Sir Henry’s actual words, which undoubtedly influenced +the Irish vote, were that he “desired to see the effective management +of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative Irish +assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered +to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise +the Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led +up to their larger policy.” But if Lord Rosebery once more +separated himself from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen +in the Liberal League were included in the cabinet, Mr +Asquith becoming chancellor of the exchequer, Sir Edward Grey +foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war minister. Other sections +of the party were strongly represented by Mr John Morley as +secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at +Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord +Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education +minister (afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as +president of the Board of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home +secretary, and Mr John Burns—a notable rise for a Labour +leader—as president of the Local Government Board. Lord +Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin +(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen +(lord lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the +duchy of Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general), +Mr L.V. Harcourt (first commissioner of works), and Captain +John Sinclair (secretary for Scotland) completed the ministry, +a place of prominence outside the cabinet being found for Mr +Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the colonies. In 1907 +Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as education +minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there +was a decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to +keep his seat in the Commons.</p> + +<p>At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming +Liberal majority was returned, irrespective of the Labour and +Nationalist vote, and Sir Henry himself was again elected for +Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379, the Labour members 51, +the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157. His premiership +was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his party; it +may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime +ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather +than that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or +his commanding personality, nor any positive programme, that +brought the Liberals back to power, but the country’s weariness +of their predecessors and the successful employment at the +elections of a number of miscellaneous issues. But as the man +who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the gap in the days +of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously criticized by +the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly marked +out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance; +and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the +demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all +sections. Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved +to be a powerful unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous +party; and though the illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his +wife (daughter of General Sir Charles Bruce), whom he had married +in 1860, made his constant attendance in the House of Commons +impossible, his domestic sorrow excited widespread sympathy +and appealed afresh to the affection of his political followers. +This became all the more apparent as his own health failed during +1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the leadership +in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the +premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November, +when it became clear that his health was not equal to active work, +four or five months elapsed before the necessary change became a +<i>fait accompli</i>. Personal affection and political devotion had in +these two years made him appear indispensable to the party, +although nobody ever regarded him as in the front line of English +statesmen so far as originality of ideas or brilliance of debating +power were concerned. It is not the fortune of many more +brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character. From +the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that +Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would +before long succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of +April Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s resignation was formally +announced. He died on the 22nd of the same month. He had +spoken in the House of Commons on the 13th of February, but +since then had been prostrated and unable to transact business, +his illness dating really from a serious heart attack in the night +of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the Colston +banquet.</p> + +<p>From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman’s premiership was chiefly marked by the +continued controversies remaining from the general election of +1906,—tariff reform and free trade, the South African question +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span> +and the allied Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the +administration of Ireland, and the amendment of the Education +Act of 1902 so as to remove its supposed denominational character. +In his speech at the Albert Hall on the 21st of December 1905 it +was noticeable that, before the elections, the prime minister laid +stress on only one subject which could be regarded as part of a +constructive programme—the necessity of doing something for +canals, which was soon shelved to a royal commission. But in +spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill (1907), the struggles +over education (Mr Birrell’s bill of 1906 being dropped on account +of the Lords’ amendments), the rejection by the peers of the +Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due +to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation +Bill (1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be +a period of bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming +measures of some moment were carried. A new Small +Holdings Act (1907) for England was passed; the Trades +Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades unions from +the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr Lloyd-George’s +Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906) +were welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own +policy; a long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the +Deceased Wife’s Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a +public trustee, a court of criminal appeal, a system of probation +for juvenile offenders, and a census of production, were passed in +1907. Meanwhile, though the Colonial Conference (re-named +Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a wide difference of +opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade government +and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the ministry +took a decided step—in the establishment of a self-governing +constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies—which, +for good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane’s +new army scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain. +In foreign affairs, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for +delimiting the British and Russian spheres of influence in the +Middle East laid the foundations of entirely new relations between +the British and Russian governments. On the other hand, so +far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal party, Sir +Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s premiership can only be regarded +as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a +conciliator of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator, +ready to sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his +following, that he kept the party together, while his colleagues +went their own ways in their own departments. His own special +“leads” were few, owing to the personal reasons given above; +his declaration at the Queen’s Hall, London, early in 1907, in +favour of drastic land reform, served only to encourage a number +of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the House of +Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education Bill +and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when +his method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons +was disclosed in 1907. The House passed by an enormous +majority a resolution (introduced on June 25) “that in order to +give effect to the will of the people, as expressed by their representatives, +it is necessary that the power of the other House to alter +or reject bills passed by this House should be so restricted by law +as to secure that within the limits of a single parliament the final +decision of the Commons shall prevail”; but the prime minister’s +explanation that statutory provision should be made for two or +three successive private conferences between the two Houses as +to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that, +only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by +the Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form +it would become law over their heads, was obviously not what was +wanted by enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The +problem still remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a +“law” to restrict their own powers. After the passing of this +resolution the cry against the House of Lords rapidly weakened, +since it became clear at the by-elections (culminating at Peckham +in March 1908) that the “will of the people” was by no means +unanimously on the side of the bills which had failed to pass.</p> + +<p>The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the +confidence of the Opposition, who found that they had outlived +the criticisms of the general election, and both on the question +of tariff reform and on matters of general politics were again +holding their own. The failure of the government in Ireland +(where the only success was Mr Birrell’s introduction of the +Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal divisions as regards +socialistic legislation, their variance from the views of the self-governing +colonies on Imperial administration, the admission +after the general election that the alleged “slavery” of the +Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill’s phrase, +a “terminological inexactitude,” and the introduction of extreme +measures such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent +opportunities of electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal +promises of economy had been largely falsified, the reductions +in the navy estimates being dangerous in themselves, while the +income tax still remained at practically the war level. For +much of all this the prime minister’s colleagues were primarily +responsible; but he himself had given a lead to the anti-militarist +section by prominently advocating international disarmament, +and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague +conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical +ideal and the general inadequacy of the prime minister’s policy +of pacificism. Sir Henry’s rather petulant intolerance of Unionist +opposition, shown at the opening of the 1906 session in his +dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour with the words “Enough +of this foolery!” gradually gave way before the signs of Unionist +reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment when +the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive +under their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration +against an Opposition no longer divided and making +marked headway in the country, and the ministry had to +be reconstituted under a successor, Mr Asquith, towards +whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal devotion as +had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s +leadership.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELTOWN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and +seaport of Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is +situated on a fine bay, towards the S.E. extremity of the +peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of the Mull and 83 m. +S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad +monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined +when the capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial +of its antiquity has survived, but the finely sculptured granite +cross standing on a pedestal in the market-place belongs to the +12th century, and there are ruins of some venerable chapels and +churches. Through the interest of the Campbells, who are still +the overlords and from whom it takes its name, it became a +royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr +Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the +churches (one of which occupies the site of a castle of the +Macdonalds), the town house, the Academy and the Athenaeum. +The staple industry is whisky distilling, of which the annual +output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than half for export. The +port is the head of a fishery district and does a thriving trade. +Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen manufacturing +are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity. There are +three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called +Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth. +At its entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar. +On the Atlantic shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish, +5 m. distant. Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown +by a light railway. Near the village of Southend is Machrireoch, +the duke of Argyll’s shooting-lodge, an old structure modernized, +commanding superb views of the Firth of Clyde and its islands, +and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood the castle of +Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the Campbells +in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647 +General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the +Macdonalds to be slain after their surrender. Of the ancient +church founded here by Columba, only the walls remain. +Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray, Irvine and Oban in +sending one member (for the “Ayr Burghs”) to parliament.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1746-1818), German educationist, +was born at Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied +theology at the university of Halle, and after acting for some +time as chaplain at Potsdam, he accepted a post as director of +studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basedow</a></span>). He +soon after set up an educational establishment of his own at +Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one +of his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble +health. In 1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of +education, and purchased the <i>Schulbuchhandlung</i>, which under +his direction became a most prosperous business. He died in +1818. His numerous educational works were widely used +throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the +<i>Kleine Kinderbibliothek</i> (11th ed., 1815); <i>Robinson der Jüngere</i> +(59th ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every +European language; and <i>Sämmtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften</i>, +37 vols.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPECHE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Campeachy</span>), a southern state of Mexico, comprising +the western part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded +N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and +N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico designated on English +maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264; (1900) +86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m. +The name of the state is derived from its principal forest product, +<i>palo de campeche</i> (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan, +consists of a vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations +in the north, heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts +in the north adapted to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently +watered, the rains filtering quickly through the soil. +In the south, however, there are some large rivers, and the +forest region is very humid. The climate is hot and unhealthy. +In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de Términos, +a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the +southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood, +fustic, lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell +and <i>chicle</i>, the last extracted from the <i>zapote chico</i> trees +(<i>Achras sapota</i>, L.). Stock-raising engages some attention. +One railway crosses the state from the capital, Campeche, to +Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means of transportation +except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen (pop. in +1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Términos +and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest +products, and owing to its inland water communications with +the forest areas of the interior is the principal port of the state +and of Tabasco.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPECHE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Campeche de Baranda</span>, a fortified city and +port of Mexico, and capital of a state of the same name, situated +on the Bay of Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and +90 m. S.W. of Merida, in lat. 20° 5′ N., long. 90° 16′ W. +Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche was one of the three open ports +of this coast under the Spanish régime, and its walls, general +plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and comfortable stone +residences are evidence of the wealth it once possessed. It is +still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf coast of Mexico. +It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed large +profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely +lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a +part of Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to +Laguna de Términos is now the chief shipping port for logwood +and other forest products, and a considerable part of the trade +of Campeche has been transferred to Progreso, the port of +Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow roadstead defended +by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf 160 ft. long, +but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie outside +and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood, +cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture. +The principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old +churches, the town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and +market. The streets are traversed by tramways, and a railway +runs north-eastward to Merida. Campeche stands on the site +of an old native town, of which there are interesting remains in +the vicinity, and which was first visited by Hernández de +Córdoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and +was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678 +and 1685. During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the +scene of many engagements between the Mexicans and people +of Yucatan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was +born at Milan of a noble Bolognese family. At first he followed +a legal career at Pavia and Bologna, and when in 1499 he took +his doctorate he was esteemed the most learned canonist in +Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de’ Gualtavillani, by +whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro, born in +1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista, +became bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went +into the church; on account of his services during the rebellion +of Bologna, he was made by Julius II. auditor of the Rota in +1511, and sent to Maximilian and to Vienna as nuncio. Raised +to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on another embassy to +Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest of San +Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a +subsidy from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England +on the ostensible business of arranging a crusade against the +Turks. Wolsey, then engaged in beginning his reform of the +English church, procured that he himself should be joined to +the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who arrived in +England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position +and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio’s +mission failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome, +where he was received in Consistory on the 28th of November +1519, with the gift from the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano +Castellesi (<i>q.v.</i>), who had been deposed, and large gifts of money +and furniture. He was made protector of England in the +Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave him the rich see +of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of Bologna. After +attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity of +Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to +restore peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England +as co-legate with Wolsey in the matter of Henry’s divorce. He +brought with him a secret document, the Decretal, which defined +the law and left the legates to decide the question of fact; but +this important letter was to be shown only to Henry and Wolsey. +“Owing to recent events,” that is, the loss of the temporal power, +Clement was in no way inclined to offend the victorious Charles V., +Catherine’s nephew, and Campeggio had already received (16th +of September 1528) distinct instructions “not to proceed to +sentence under any pretext without express commission, but +protract the matter as long as possible.” After using all means +of persuasion to restore peace between the king and queen, +Campeggio had to resist the pressure brought upon him to give +sentence. The legatine court opened at Blackfriars on the 18th +of June 1529, but the final result was certain. Campeggio could +not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his only +escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea +of the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he +left England on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had +been searched at Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had +been burnt. Returning to Bologna, the cardinal assisted at +the coronation of Charles V. on the 24th of February 1530, and +went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was deprived by +Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was +finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the +see of Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament +(11th of March 1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish +dominions made ample amends. In 1537 he became cardinal +bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on the 25th of July 1539. +His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in Trastevere.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPER, PETER<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist, +was born at Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was +educated at the university there, and in 1746 graduated in +philosophy and medicine. After the death of his father in 1748 +he spent more than a year in England, and then visited Paris, +Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he +had been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span> +and surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in +1755 he was called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the +Athenaeum in Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six +years, and retired to his country house near Franeker, in order +uninterruptedly to carry on his studies. In 1763, however, he +accepted the professorship of medicine, surgery and anatomy at +Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten years. He then +returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in 1776 +spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned +as one of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland, +and the latter years of his life were much occupied with +political affairs. In 1787 he was nominated to a seat in the +council of state, and took up his residence at the Hague, where +he died on the 7th of April 1789.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Camper’s works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very +numerous; the most important of those bearing on comparative +anatomy were published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title +<i>Oeuvres de P. Camper qui ont pour objet l’histoire naturelle, la +physiologie, et l’anatomie comparée</i>. His <i>Dissertation physique sur +les différences réelles que présentent les traits du visage chez les hommes +de différents pays et de différents âges; sur le beau qui caractérise +les statues antiques et les pièces gravées</i>, &c., which was published in +1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial +angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1812-1896), Prussian statesman, +was born at Hünshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of +October 1812. Having studied jurisprudence and political +economy at the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg, Munich and +Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne, and immediately +devoted his attention to financial and commercial questions. +Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this +capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor +in the ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of +the second chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate +Liberal party. In 1869 he was appointed minister of finance. +On taking office, he was confronted with a deficit in the revenue, +which he successfully cleared off by effecting a conversion of a +greater part of the state loans. The French war indemnity +enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the state debt +and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm +adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either +of the Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism +to the tobacco monopoly and the general economic policy of +the latter brought about his retirement. Camphausen’s great +services to Prussia were recognized by his sovereign in the +bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a dignity +carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the +18th of May 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1818-1885), German painter, +was born at Düsseldorf, and studied under A. Rethel and F.W. +von Schadow. As an historical and battle painter he rapidly +became popular, and in 1859 was made professor of painting +at the Düsseldorf academy, together with other later distinctions. +His “Flight of Tilly” (1841), “Prince Eugene at the Battle of +Belgrade” (1843; in the Cologne museum), “Flight of Charles II. +after the Battle of Worcester” (Berlin National Gallery), +“Cromwell’s Cavalry” (Munich Pinakothek), are his principal +earlier pictures; and his “Frederick the Great at Potsdam,” +“Frederick II. and the Bayreuth Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg,” +and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein campaign and the war of +1866 (notably “Lines of Düppel after the Battle,” at the Berlin +National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as a representative +of patriotic historical art. He also painted many portraits +of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He +died at Düsseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPHORS,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and +ketones of the hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring +associated with volatile oils in many plants. They are extracted +together with volatile oils by distilling certain plants with steam, +the volatile oils being subsequently separated by fractional +distillation. The term “camphor” is generally applied to the +solid products so obtained, and hence includes the “stearoptenes,” +or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are mostly +white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they +are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol +and ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two +main groups, according to the nature of the corresponding +hydrocarbon or terpene. In this article only the camphors of +commercial importance will be treated; details as to the chemical +structure, syntheses and relations will be found in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terpenes</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor</i>, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">19</span>OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl +hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs +in the volatile oils of <i>Mentha piperita</i> and <i>M. arvensis</i> (var. +<i>piperascens</i> and <i>glabrata</i>), from which it is obtained by cooling +and subsequently pressing the separated crystals; or by fractional +distillation. It crystallizes in prisms, having the odour +and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42° and boils at 212°. It is +very slightly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol +and ether. It is optically active, being laevo-rotatory. Menthol +is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in rheumatism, neuralgia, +throat affections and toothache. It acts also as a local anaesthetic, +vascular stimulant and disinfectant.</p> + +<p><i>Thymol, thyme camphor</i>, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">13</span>OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl +phenol, an oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan, +<i>Carum ajowan</i>, garden thyme, <i>Thymus vulgaris</i>, wild thyme, +<i>T. Serpyllum</i> and horse mint, <i>Monarda punctata</i>. Thymol +crystallizes in large colourless plates which melt at 44° and boil +at 230°. It has the odour of thyme, is sparingly soluble in water, +but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in alkaline solutions. In +medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more active than +phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol, which +has been introduced in surgery under the names <i>aristol</i> and +<i>annidalin</i>, as a substitute for iodoform.</p> + +<p><i>Borneol, Borneo camphor</i> or camphol, also known as Malayan, +Barus or Dryobalanops camphor, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">17</span>OH, occurs in fissures in +the wood of <i>Dryobalanops aromatica</i>, a majestic tree flourishing +in the East Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo +and inactive modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic +camphor. Borneol melts at 203° and boils at 212°. It is very +similar to common or Japan camphor, but has a somewhat +peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce common camphor +to a mixture of <i>d</i>- and <i>l</i>-borneol.</p> + +<p><i>Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor</i>, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O, which +constitutes the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product +of the camphor laurel, <i>Cinnamonum camphora</i>, a tree flourishing +in Japan, Formosa and central China. It also occurs in various +volatile oils, <i>e.g.</i> lavender, rosemary, sage and spike. To extract +the camphor, chips of the tree are steamed, and the mixed +vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are conducted to a +condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates out. +This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total, +which is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation +and cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained +is exported from Japan in two grades—Samuel A and Samuel B. +It is purified by mixing with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings +or quicklime and subliming, by steam distillation or by crystallization. +Common camphor forms a translucent mass of hexagonal +prisms, melting at 175° and boiling at 204°. It sublimes very +readily. In alcoholic solution it is dextro-rotatory; the laevo +form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil of <i>Matricaria parthenium</i> +and closely resembles the <i>d</i> form. Camphor is chiefly used +in the celluloid industry. The so-called “artificial camphor” +is pinene hydrochloride (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terpenes</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant, +and, in some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite +antiseptic. It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the +relief of myalgia, sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform, +thymol or carbolic acid, it is a valuable local application +for neuralgia and for toothache due to dental caries. Taken +internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a diaphoretic and a +feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as various +substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg). +In large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration +being followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions, +coma and death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> +in such conditions as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is +a popular remedy for “cold in the head,” but it is not to be +relied upon as a prophylactic against infection either by an +ordinary cold or true influenza.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1586-1627), Dutch +painter, poet and theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. +As he manifested great artistic talent, his brother, in whose +charge he was left on the death of his parents, placed him under +the painter Govaerts. But at that time there was intense +interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the prevailing +enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a private +tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616). +As, however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with +fervour, he was deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). +His chief solace was poetry; and he has left a translation of the +Psalms, and a number of short pieces, remarkable for their freshness +and depth of poetic feeling. He is also the author of several +theological works of fair merit, among which is a <i>Compendium +Doctrinae Sociniorum</i>; but his fame chiefly rests on his pictures, +which, like his poems, are mostly small, but of great beauty; the +colouring, though thin, is pure; the composition and pencilling +are exquisite, and the perspective above criticism. The best of +his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and his views of +the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent at +Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered +to have been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; +and his son Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul +Potter, is similarly credited.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPI, GIULIO<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1500-1572), the founder of a school of +Italian painters, was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, +Galeazzo Campi (1475-1536), under whom he took his first +lessons in art. He was then taught by Giulio Romano; and +he made a special study of Titian, Correggio and Raphael. His +works are remarkable for their correctness, vigour and loftiness +of style. They are very numerous, and the church of St Margaret +in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among the +earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the +latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as +historian of Cremona.</p> + +<p>Giulio’s pupil, <span class="sc">Bernardino Campi</span> (1522-1592), in some +respects superior to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After +an education under Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained +such skill that when he added another to the eleven Caesars of +Titian, it was impossible to say which was the master’s and +which the imitator’s. He was also much influenced by Correggio +and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the frescoes of the +cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was +of very obscure origin. From his own account of his youth, +written to Antonio de Mier in 1726, we only know that he was +born in “a house equally poor and honest,” that he studied +Latin by his own wish, that he entered the service of Don +Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Córdoba, who wished +apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take +orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then +eighteen years of age. In 1715 he became “page” to D. Francisco +de Ocio, superintendent general of customs, who doubtless +employed him as a clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable +notice of Patiño, the head of the newly-organized navy, and was +by him transferred to the naval department. Under the protection +of Patiño, who became prime minister in 1726, Campillo +was constantly employed on naval administrative work both at +home and in America. It was Patiño’s policy to build up a navy +quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much +attention abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo +proved an industrious and honest subordinate. Part of his +experience was to be present at a shipwreck in Central America +in which he was credited with showing spirit and practical +ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he was denounced +to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden books. +The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the +incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the +Holy Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence +in damping all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, +when Spain was entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war +with England, that Campillo was summoned by the king to take +the place of prime minister. He had to find the means of carrying +on a policy out of all proportion to the resources of Spain, with +an empty treasury. His short tenure of power was chiefly +notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the system of +farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of contractors +and financiers. Campillo’s predecessors were constantly +compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the +demands of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A +whole year’s revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo +persuaded the king to allow him to establish a system of direct +collection, by which waste and pilfering would be avoided. +Some progress was made towards putting the national finances +on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent the king +from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money +needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of +April 1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a <i>New +System of Government for America</i> printed at Madrid 1789. He also +left a MS. treatise with the curious title, <i>What is superfluous +and is wanting in Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to +be, and not what it is.</i></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, <i>Patiño y Campillo</i> (Madrid, 1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPINAS,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an inland city of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, +65 m. by rail N.W. of the city of São Paulo and 114 m. from the +port of Santos, with which it is connected by the Paulista & São +Paulo railway. Pop. (1890) of the city and municipality, +33,921. Campinas is the commercial centre of one of the oldest +coffee-producing districts of the state and the outlet for a rich +and extensive agricultural region lying farther inland. The +Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to +Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west +into new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple +production, though Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced +largely for local consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like +depression of the great central plateau, and the drainage +from the surrounding hillsides has produced a dangerously +insanitary condition, from which one or two virulent fever +epidemics have resulted.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPING OUT.<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and +living in tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately +developed in modern times, and a considerable literature +has been devoted to it, to which the curious may be referred.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell’s <i>Camping-out</i> (1892) and <i>Voyages +on German Rivers</i> (1890); G.R. Lowndes, <i>Gipsy Tents</i> (1890).</p> + +<p>For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, <i>Shifts and Expedients of +Camp Life</i> (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the <i>Big Game +Shooting</i> volume of the “Badminton Library”; the articles on +“Camping out” in <i>The Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; +F.C. Selous, <i>A Hunter’s Wanderings in Africa</i> (1881), +and <i>Travel and Adventure in South Africa</i> (1893); +A.W. Chanler, <i>Through Jungle and Desert</i> (1896); +A.B. Rathbone, <i>Camping and Tramping in Malaya</i> (1898).</p> + +<p>For America, G.O. Shields, <i>Camping and Camp Outfits</i> (1890); +W.W. Pascoe, <i>Canoe and Camp Cookery</i> (1893); +<i>Woodcraft</i>, by “Nessmuk” (1895); +W.S. Rainsford, <i>Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone</i> (1896); +S.E. White, <i>The Forest</i> (1903), and <i>The Mountains</i> (1904); +<i>Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping</i> (1904), +published by “The Appalachian Mountain Club,” Boston. +Valuable information will be found in the sporting periodicals, +and in the catalogues of outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPION, EDMUND<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in +London, received his early education at Christ’s Hospital, and, as +the best of the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make +the complimentary speech when Queen Mary visited the city on +the 3rd of August 1553. He went to Oxford and became fellow +of St John’s College in 1557, taking the oath of supremacy on the +occasion of his degree in 1564, in which year he was orator in the +schools. He had already shown his talents as a speaker at the +funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas White, +the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration +fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen +Elizabeth to the university, and won a regard, which the queen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> +preserved until the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset +him; but at the persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of +Gloucester, although holding Catholic doctrines, he took deacon’s +orders in the English Church. Inwardly “he took a remorse of +conscience and detestation of mind.” Rumours of his opinions +began to spread and, giving up the office of proctor, he left Oxford +in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a proposed restoration +of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry followed +him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three +months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying +himself by writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed’s +<i>Chronicles</i>), a superficial work of no real value. At last he +escaped to Douai, where he joined William Allen (<i>q.v.</i>) and was +reconciled to the Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon, +he went to Rome and became a Jesuit in 1573, spending +some years at Brünn, Vienna and Prague. In 1580 the Jesuit +mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert +Parsons (<i>q.v.</i>) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance +Campion’s fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in +the characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London +on the 24th of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His +presence became known to the authorities and an indiscreet +declaration, “Campion Brag,” made the position more difficult. +The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth he led a hunted +life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in Berkshire, +Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this time he +was writing his <i>Decem Rationes</i>, a rhetorical display of reasons +against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private +press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the +benches of St Mary’s, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th +of June 1581. The sensation was immense, and the pursuit +became keener. On his way to Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in +Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th of July and the following +day, yielding to the foolish importunity of some pious women. +Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London, bearing on +his hat a paper with the inscription, “Campion, the Seditious +Jesuit.” Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the +presence of Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to +be really queen of England, and on his replying straightly in the +affirmative, she made him offers, not only of life but of wealth and +dignities, on conditions which his conscience could not allow. He +was kept a long time in prison, twice racked by order of the +council, and every effort was made to shake his constancy. +Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a forged +confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four +public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and +although still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for +preparation, he bore himself so easily and readily that he won the +admiration of most of the audience. Racked again on the 31st +of October, he was indicted at Westminster that he with others +had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise a sedition in the +realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November he was +brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply +to him said: “If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to +be condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects +as ever the queen had.” He received the sentence of the traitor’s +death with the <i>Te Deum laudamus</i>, and, after spending his last +days in pious exercises, was led with two companions to Tyburn +(1st of December 1581) and suffered the barbarous penalty. Of +all the Jesuit missionaries who suffered for their allegiance to the +ancient religion, Campion stands the highest. His life and his +aspirations were pure, his zeal true and his loyalty unquestionable. +He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson’s +<i>Edmund Campion</i>(1867); and a complete list of his works in +De Backer’s <i>Bibliothèque de la compagnie de Jésus</i>. (E.TN.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPION, THOMAS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1567-1620), English poet and musician, +was born in London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened +at St Andrew’s, Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of +the Middle Temple, who was by profession one of the cursitors of +the chancery court, the clerks “of course,” whose duties were to +draft the various writs and legal instruments in correct form. His +mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of Laurence Searle, one of the +queen’s serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of Campion’s father +in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died herself +soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the +orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his +stepson by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to +Peterhouse, Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied +at Cambridge for four years, and left the university, it would +appear, without a degree, but strongly imbued with those tastes +for classical literature which exercised such powerful influence +upon his subsequent work. In April 1587 he was admitted to +Gray’s Inn, possibly with the intention of adopting a legal +profession, but he had little sympathy with legal studies and does +not appear to have been called to the bar. His subsequent +movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have taken +part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance +of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears +with the degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records +does not permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The +rest of his life was probably spent in London, where he practised +as a physician until his death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving +behind him, it would appear, neither wife nor issue. He was +buried the same day at St Dunstan’s-in-the-West, Fleet Street.</p> + +<p>The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being +a group of five anonymous poems included in the <i>Songs of Divers +Noblemen and Gentlemen</i>, appended to Newman’s surreptitious +edition of Sidney’s <i>Astrophel and Stella</i>, which appeared in 1591. +In 1595 appeared under his own name the <i>Poemata</i>, a collection +of Latin panegyrics, elegies and epigrams, which evince much +skill in handling, and won him considerable reputation. This was +followed in 1601 by <i>A Booke of Ayres</i>, one of the song-books so +fashionable in his day, the music of which was contributed in equal +proportions by himself and Philip Rosseter, while the words were +almost certainly all written by him. The following year he +published his <i>Observations in the Art of English Poesie</i>, “against +the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming,” in favour of rhymeless +verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry. Its +appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of +the crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped +champions, but the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by +Daniel, who in his <i>Defence of Ryme</i>, published the same year, +finally demolished the movement.</p> + +<p>In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of +the marriage of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of +<i>Songs of Mourning</i> (set to music by Coperario or John Cooper) +for the loss of Prince Henry, which was sincerely lamented by the +whole English nation. The same year he wrote and arranged +three masques, the <i>Lords’ Masque</i> for the marriage of Princess +Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of Queen Anne +at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl of +Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex. +If, moreover, as appears quite likely, his <i>Two Bookes of Ayres</i> +(both words and music written by himself) belongs also to this +year, it was indeed his <i>annus mirabilis</i>.</p> + +<p>Some time in or after 1617 appeared his <i>Third and Fourth +Booke of Ayres</i>; while to that year probably also belongs his +<i>New Way of making Foure Parts in Counter-point</i>, a technical +treatise which was for many years the standard text-book on +the subject. It was included, with annotations by Christopher +Sympson, in Playfair’s <i>Brief Introduction to the Skill of Musick</i>, +and two editions appear to have been bought up by 1660. In +1618 appeared <i>The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham +Castle</i> on the occasion of the king’s entertainment there, the +music by Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost +certainly by Campion; and in 1619 he published his <i>Epigrammatum +Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber unus</i>, a reprint of his +1595 collection with considerable omissions, additions (in the +form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.</p> + +<p>While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in +his own day, in the years that followed his death his works sank +into complete oblivion. No doubt this was due to the nature +of the media in which he mainly worked, the masque and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> +song-book. The masque was an amusement at any time too +costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was practically +extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more +ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan +ascendancy, with its distaste for all secular music, effectively +put an end to the madrigal. Its loss involved that of many +hundreds of dainty lyrics, including those of Campion, and it +is due to the enthusiastic efforts of Mr A.H. Bullen, who first +published a collection of the poet’s works in 1889, that his genius +has been recognized and his place among the foremost rank of +Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.</p> + +<p>Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to +him “the superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies,” but we +may thank the fates that his precepts of rhymeless versification +so little affected his practice. His rhymeless experiments are +certainly better conceived than many others, but they lack the +spontaneous grace and freshness of his other poetry, while the +whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must have possessed +a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is unmusical; +moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave +rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic +features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they +frequently shift from line to line. His range was very great both +in feeling and expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate +epithalamium or a simple country ditty, the result is always full +of unstudied freshness and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred +pieces he is particularly successful, combining real poetry with +genuine religious fervour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—<i>Works</i>, &c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding +<i>A New Way</i>, &c.; <i>Songs and Masques</i>, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with +an introduction on Campion’s music by Janet Dodge; <i>Poems</i>, &c. +(in English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); <i>Complete Works</i>, ed. P. Vivian +(Clarendon Press, 1908). The “Observations in the Art of English +Poesie” are also published in Haslewood’s <i>Ancient Critical Essays</i> +and Gregory Smith’s <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i>, vol. ii. (1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. Vn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1656-1723), French +dramatist, was born at Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the +age of seventeen he was wounded in a duel and sent to Paris. +Here he became an ardent disciple of Racine. If he copied his +master’s methods of construction with some success, in the +execution of his plans he never advanced beyond mediocrity, +nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of <i>Athalie</i> +and <i>Phèdre</i>. He secured the patronage of the influential duchesse +de Bouillon by dedicating <i>Arminius</i> to her, and in 1685 he scored +his first success with <i>Andronic</i>, which disguised under other +names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. +The piece made a great sensation, but Campistron’s treatment +is weak, and he failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent +in his subject. Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de +Vendôme, to write the book of an opera to be performed at a +fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He handed on the commission +to Campistron, who produced <i>Acis et Galathée</i> for Lulli’s +music. Campistron had another success in <i>Tiridate</i> (1691), in +which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story +of Amnon’s passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other +tragedies and two comedies, one of which, <i>Le Jaloux désabusé</i>, +has been considered by some judges to be his best work. In +1686 he had been made intendant to the duc de Vendôme and +followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him on all his +campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man +under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. +Many honours were conferred on him. The king of Spain +bestowed on him the order of St James of the Sword; the duke +of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in Montferrat; and +in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty years +of service with Vendôme he retired to his native place, where +he died on the 11th of May 1723.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1817-1901), +Spanish poet, was born at Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of +September 1817. Abandoning his first intention of entering the +Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid, found an opening in +politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and, after occupying +several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellón de la +Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies +grew more pronounced with time, and his <i>Polémicas con la +Democracia</i>(1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of +his political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from +1840, when he published his <i>Ternezas y flores</i>, a collection of +idyllic verses, remarkable for their technical excellence. His +<i>Ayes del Alma</i>(1842) and his <i>Fábulas morales y políticas</i>(1842) +sustained his reputation, but showed no perceptible increase of +power or skill. An epic poem in sixteen cantos, <i>Colón</i> (1853), is +no more successful than modern epics usually are. Campoamor’s +theatrical pieces, such as <i>El Palacio de la Verdad</i>(1871), <i>Dies +Irae</i>(1873), <i>El Honor</i>(1874) and <i>Glorias Humanas</i>(1885), are +interesting experiments; but they are totally lacking in dramatic +spirit. He always showed a keen interest in metaphysical and +philosophic questions, and defined his position in <i>La Filosofía +de las leyes</i>(1846), <i>El Personalismo</i>(1855), <i>Lo Absoluto</i>(1865) +and <i>El Ideísmo</i>(1883). These studies are chiefly valuable as +embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to +the composition of those <i>doloras, humoradas</i> and <i>pequeños +poemas</i>, which the poet’s admirers consider as a new poetic +species. The first collection of <i>Doloras</i> was printed in 1846, and +from that date onwards new specimens were added to each +succeeding edition. It is difficult to define a <i>dolora</i>. One critic +has described it as a didactic, symbolic stanza which combines +the lightness and grace of the epigram, the melancholy of the +<i>endecha</i>, the concise narrative of the ballad, and the philosophic +intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared that a +<i>dolora</i> is a dramatic <i>humorada</i>, and that a <i>pequeño poema</i>is a +<i>dolora</i> on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory. +The humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form +to which Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes +no further. It cannot be denied that in the <i>Doloras</i> Campoamor’s +special gifts of irony, grace and pathos find their best expression. +Taking a commonplace theme, he presents in four, eight or twelve +lines a perfect miniature of condensed emotion. By his choice +of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal facility and copiousness +which have led many Spanish poets to destruction. It pleased +him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this affectation has been +reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the impression of +insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using mysticism +as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of +the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching +morality by satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism +of a genial, epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether +for good. His formula is too easily mastered, and to his +example is due a plague of <i>doloras</i> and <i>humoradas</i> by poetasters +who have caricatured their model. Campoamor, as he himself +said, did not practise art for art’s sake; he used art as the +medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are poor. He died +at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a deep +silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge +him with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming +bulk of his work will perish; we may even say that +it is already dead. His pretensions, or the pretensions put +forward in his name, that he discovered a new poetic <i>genre</i> will +be rejected later, as they are rejected now by all competent +judges. The title of a philosophic poet will be denied to him. +But he will certainly survive, at least in extract, as a distinguished +humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and sententious aphorism, +an artist of extremely finished execution.</p> +<div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPOBASSO,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the +province of Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated +2132 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune +14,491. The town itself contains no buildings of antiquarian +interest, but it has some fine modern edifices. Its chief industry +is the manufacture of arms and cutlery. Above the town are +the picturesque ruins of a castle of the 15th century. The date +of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The town, with +the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of counts +until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in consideration +of a payment of 108,000 ducats.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPODEA,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible +antennae and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known +species (<i>Campodea staphylinus</i>) has a wide distribution +and is equally at home in the warm valleys of south Europe, +in the subarctic conditions of mountain tops, in caves and in +woods and gardens in England. It lives in damp places under +stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves. Although +blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into +the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with +its antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling +that of a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or +thysanurous insects of the order Aptera (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Conde de</span> (1723-1802), +Spanish statesman and writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de +Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793 +he was president of the council of Castile; but on the accession +of Charles IV. he was removed from his office, and retired from +public life, regretted by the true friends of his country. His first +literary work was <i>Antiquidad maritima de la republica de +Cartago</i>, with an appendix containing a translation of the <i>Voyage +of Hanno</i> the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared +in a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable +essays, <i>Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular</i>, +1774, and <i>Discurso sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos +y su fomento</i>, 1775. As a supplement to the last, he published +four appendices, each considerably larger than the original essay. +The first contains reflections on the origin of the decay of arts +and manufactures in Spain during the last century. The second +points out the steps necessary for improving or re-establishing +the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection of royal +ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts +and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials. +The third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with +the results of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances +of towns. The fourth contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez +de Mata on national commerce, with some observations adapted +to present circumstances. These were all printed at Madrid in +1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count Campomanes died on the +3rd of February 1802.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes +as an introduction to the first edition of his <i>Cartas +politico-economicas</i>, published in 1878.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1831-1900), Spanish +marshal, senator and knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at +Segovia on the 14th of December 1831. He graduated as a +lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was attached to the staff +college as an assistant professor. He took part in the Morocco +campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen +actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of +lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a +professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under +Prim. In 1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to +the rank of general in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the +Federal Republican government in 1873 confided to General +Campos several high commands, in which he again distinguished +himself against the Cantonal Republicans and the Carlists. +About that time he began to conspire with a view to restore the +son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his +designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command +of a division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of +May of that year, and in the operations around Estella in June. +On both occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the +other commanders to proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected +to hold aloof, and would have been arrested, had not the minister +of war, Ceballos, answered for his good behaviour, and quartered +him in Avila under surveillance. He managed to escape, and +after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at Sagunto on the +29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII. king +of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great +influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as +a sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso, +and later by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important +political crisis, and on every international or colonial question, +especially when other generals or the army itself became +troublesome. He took an important part in the military operations +against the Carlists, and in the negotiations with their leaders, +which put an end to the civil war in 1876. In the same way he +brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878. On his return +from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet for a +few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever +afterwards treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In +1881, with other discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in +obtaining office. After the death of King Alphonso, Campos +steadily supported the regency of Queen Christina, and held high +commands, though declining to take office. In 1893 he was +selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla, and went to +the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of peace, +which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed +a serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of +Canovas to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as +well as in his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he +was not allowed to give them local self-government, as he wished. +Subsequently he remained aloof from politics, and only spoke +in the senate to defend his Cuban administration and on army +questions. After the war with America, and the loss of the +colonies in 1899, when Señor Silvela formed a new Conservative +party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency of +the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this +post up to the time of his death. This took place in the summer +recess of 1900 at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa, +where he was buried.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMPOS,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, +on the Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m. +N.E. of the city of Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city, +22,518; of the municipality, 78,036. The river is navigable for +small steamers above and below the city, but is closed to +coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at its mouth. The +shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahé), 60 m. +south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water +communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes +united by canals. Campos has indirect railway communication +with Rio de Janeiro by way of Macahé, and is the starting point +for several small independent lines. The elevation of the city is +only 69 ft. above sea level, and it stands near the western margin +of a highly fertile alluvial plain devoted to the production of +sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and many kinds of tropical +fruit are produced in abundance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÂMPULUNG<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung), +the capital of the department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat +of a suffragan bishop; situated among the outlying hills of the +Carpathian Mountains, at the head of a long well-wooded glen +traversed by the river Tirgului, a tributary of the Argesh. Pop. +(1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine scenery render Câmpulung +a popular summer resort. In the town are more than twenty +churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both claim +to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first +prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for +several paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July +and the 24th of October; and there is a considerable traffic with +Transylvania, over the Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the +south by a branch railway to Ploesci. Near Câmpulung are the +remains of a Roman camp; and, just beyond the gates, vestiges +of a Roman colony, variously identified with Romula, Stepenium +and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1773-1844), Italian historical +painter, was born at Rome. He was educated by his brother +Pietro, a picture-restorer, and Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to +the age of thirty, attempted nothing higher than copies of the +great masters, his especial study being Raphael. As an original +painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the French artist +David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness and +patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was +essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both +personally, and as an artist, and received many honours and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> +preferments from the papal and other Italian courts. He was +appointed director of the Academy of San Luca and of the +Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of the pictures +of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all the +orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief +works are the classical paintings of the “Assassination of Caesar,” +the “Death of Virginia,” the “Devotion of the Roman Women,” +“Young Romulus and Remus,” “Horatius Cocles,” the “St +Thomas,” which was copied in mosaic for St Peter’s, the “Presentation +of Christ in the Temple” and a number of excellent +portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection of +pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including +Raphael’s “Madonna with the Pink”) being bought by the duke +of Northumberland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMULODUNUM,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> also written <span class="sc">Camalodūnum</span> (mod. Colchester, +<i>q.v.</i>), a British and Roman town. It was the capital of +the British chief Cunobelin and is named on his coins: after his +death and the Roman conquest of south Britain, the Romans +established (about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 48) a <i>colonia</i> or municipality peopled +with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve both as an +informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It was +stormed and burnt <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 61 in the rising of Boadicéa (<i>q.v.</i>), but +soon recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman +Britain. Its walls and some other buildings still stand and +abundant Roman remains enrich the local museum. The name +denotes “the fortress of Camulos,” the Celtic Mars.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1740-1804), French revolutionist, +was a successful advocate before the Revolution. In +1789 he was elected by the third estate of Paris to the states +general, and attracted attention by his speeches against social +inequalities. Elected to the National Convention by the department +of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee of +general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged +with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered +with his colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he +was exchanged for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November +1795. He played an inconspicuous rôle in the council of the Five +Hundred. On the 14th of August 1789 the Constituent Assembly +made Camus its archivist, and in that capacity he organized the +national archives, classified the papers of the different assemblies +of the Revolution and drew up analytical tables of the <i>procès-verbaux</i>. +He was restored to the office in 1796 and became +absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican, +refusing to take part in the Napoleonic régime.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMUS, CHARLES ÉTIENNE LOUIS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1699-1768), French +mathematician and mechanician, was born at Crécy-en-Brie, +near Meaux, on the 25th of August 1699. He studied mathematics, +civil and military architecture, and astronomy, and +became associate of the Académie des Sciences, professor of +geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and fellow +of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied +Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the +expedition to Lapland for the measurement of a degree of the +meridian. He died on the 2nd of February 1768. He was the +author of a <i>Cours de mathématiques</i> (Paris, 1766), and a number +of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects (see Poggendorff, +<i>Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMUS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH DES<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1672-1732), French +mechanician, was born near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September +1672. After studying for the church, he devoted himself to +mechanical inventions, a number of which he described in his +<i>Traité des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des arts et métiers</i>, +Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAMUS DE MÉZIÈRES, NICOLAS LE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1721-1789), French +architect, was born at Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died +it the same city on the 27th of July 1789. He published several +works on architectural and related subjects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANA,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the +home of Nathanael, and the scene of Christ’s “beginning of +miracles” (John ii. I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it +is evident from the biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood +of, and higher than, Capernaum. Opinion as to identification +is fairly divided between Kefr Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil. +The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth, contains a +ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter +is an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no +remains but a few cisterns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANAAN, CANAANITES.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> These geographical and ethnic +terms have a shifting reference, which doubtless arises out of the +migrations of the tribes to which the term “Canaanites” +belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems to be applied to a +population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in Josh. xi. 3, +Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these, but to a +people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be used +of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is +disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively +to the population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish +inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the +writer called the Yahwist (J); see <i>e.g.</i> Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18; +Ex. xv. 15; Num. xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38, +and elsewhere. It was also, as Augustine tells us,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a usage of the +Phoenicians to call their land “Canaan.” This is confirmed by +coins of the city of Laodicea by the Lebanon, which bear the +legend, “Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan”; these coins are +dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and his successors, Greek +writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest, viz. that the original +name of Phoenicia was <span class="grk" title="Chna">χνα</span>, <i>i.e.</i> Kĕna, a short, collateral form of +Kena‘an or Kan‘an The form Kan‘an is favoured by the Egyptian +usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or Arabian +nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Shūr?) to “the Ka-n-‘-na,” +and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in “the +Ka-n-‘-na.” By this geographical name is probably meant all +western Syria and Palestine with Raphia—“the (first) city of the +Ka-n-‘-na”—for the south-west boundary towards the desert.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +In the letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their +Egyptian overlord<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a>—commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna +tablets—we find the two forms Kinaḥḥi and Kinahna, corresponding +to Kena‘ and Kena‘an respectively, and standing, as +Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its widest extent.</p> + +<p>On the name “Canaan” Winckler remarks,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> “There is at +present no prospect of an etymological explanation.” From the +fact that Egyptian (though not Hebrew) scribes constantly +prefix the article, we may suppose that it originally meant +“the country of the Canaanites,” just as the Hebrew phrase +“the Lebanon” may originally have meant “the highlands of +the Libnites”; and we are thus permitted to group the term +“Canaan” with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan, +Anak (generally with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor +are scholars more unanimous with regard to the region where the +terms “Canaanite” and “Canaan” arose. It may be true that +the term Kinaḥḥi in the Amarna letters corresponds to Syria and +Palestine in their entirety. But this does not prove that the +terms “Canaanite” and “Canaan” arose in that region, for +they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let +us refer at this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps +hardly estimated at its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples +in Gen. x. Here we find “Canaan” included among the four +sons of Ham. If Cush in <i>v</i>. 6 really means Ethiopia, and M-ṣ-r-i-m +Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is really a Hebraized +form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t (black),<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the +passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has recently been +suggested,<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Cush, M-ṣ-r-i-m, and Put are in north Arabia, and +Ḥam is the short for Yarḥam or Yeraḥme’el (see i Chr. ii. 25-27, +42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all +becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an +Arabian name. Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +from about 4000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span><a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> a wave of Semitic migration poured out of +Arabia, and flooded Babylonia certainly, and possibly, more or +less, Syria and Palestine also. Also that between 2800 and 2600 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span> a second wave from Arabia took the same course, covering +not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and probably +also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet with +the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213), +the first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the +first part of his name is identical with the name of the father of +Canaan in Genesis (Ḥam or Kham), indicating his Arabian +origin.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> It was he, too, who restored the ancient supremacy of +Babylonia over Syria and Palestine, and so prevented the +Babylonizing of these countries from coming to an abrupt end.</p> + +<p>We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors +arrived in the second Semitic migration, came to call their land +“Canaan.” They had in fact the best right to do so. The first of +the Canaanite immigrants were driven seawards by the masses +which followed them. They settled in Phoenicia, and in after +times became so great in commerce that “Canaanite” became a +common Hebrew term for “merchant” (<i>e.g.</i> Isa. xxiii. 8). It is +a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their +inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious +phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and +belonged properly to the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +For their own traditions as to their origin see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phoenicia</a></span>; we +cannot venture to reject these altogether. The masses of immigrants +which followed them may have borne the name of +Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be given. +Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.</p> + +<p>First, as regards the Old Testament. We find “the Amorite” +(a collective term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x. +16-18a) among other tribal names, the exact original reference of +which had probably been forgotten. No one in fact would +gather from this and parallel passages how important a part was +played by the Amorites in the early history of Palestine. In +Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we find them +located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi. 13, +21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &c. we hear of two great Amorite +kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the +east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in +Gen. xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &c., +where the name of Amorite is synonymous with “Canaanite,” +except that “Amorite” is never used for the population on the +coast. Next, as to the extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian +inscriptions and in the Amarna tablets Amar and Amurru have a +more limited meaning, being applied to the mountain-region +east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later on, Amurru +became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as +north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term “the +land of Hatti” (conventionally = Hittites) displaced “Amurru” +so far as north Palestine is concerned (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first +stage of the second great Arabian migration. In the interval +preceding the second stage Syria with Palestine became an +Egyptian dependency, though the links with the sovereign +power were not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions. +Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of a strong +hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the +Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not +quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs +began to seek their opportunities, though as a rule they did not +find them because they could not obtain the help of a neighbouring +king.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The boldest of the disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta, +a prince of Amurru, who even before the death, of Amen-hotep +III. endeavoured to extend his power into the plain of +Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or Hamath), +reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the +attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused +infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor +of Gubla (Gebal).</p> + +<p>It was, first, the advance of the Ḫatti (Hittites) into Syria, +which began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more +threatening in that of his successor, and next, the resumption of +the second Arabian migration, which most seriously undermined +the Egyptian power in Asia. Of the former we cannot speak +here (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>), except so far as to remark the Abd-Ashirta +and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the Hatti, was afterwards +clever enough to make a treaty with their king, and, with +other external powers, to attack the districts which remained +loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals +for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in +his religious innovations to attend to such messages. What most +interests us is the mention of troublesome invaders called some times +<i>sa-gas</i> (a Babylonian ideogram meaning “robber”), sometimes +Ḫabiri. Who are these Ḫabiri? Not, as was at first thought by +some, specially the Israelites, but all those tribes of land-hungry +nomads (“Hebrews”) who were attracted by the wealth and +luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it for +themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites +or tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites, +Ammonites and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north +Syria. Itakkama writes thus to the Pharaoh,<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> “Behold, +Namyawaza has surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord, +to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in Ubi. But I will go, +and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the +cities to the king, my lord, from the Ḫabiri, to show myself +subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS.” Similarly Zimrida, +king of Sidon, declares, “All my cities which the king has given +into my hand, have come into the hand of the Ḫabiri.”<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Nor +had Palestine any immunity from the Arabian invaders. The +king of <i>Jerusalem</i>, Abd-Ḫiba, the second part of whose name has +been thought to represent the Hebrew Yahweh,<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> reports thus to +the Pharaoh, “If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and +princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not, +these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my <span class="correction" title="quotes added">lord.”</span><a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a> +Abd-Ḫiba’s chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and +the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable +league with the Ḫabiri. Apparently this restless warrior +found his death at the siege of Gina.<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> All these princes, however, +malign each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest +their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for +instance, whom Itakkama (see above) accuses of disloyalty, +writes thus to the Pharaoh, “Behold, I and my warriors and my +chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS, and my Suti<a name="fa16d" id="fa16d" href="#ft16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go whithersoever the king, +my lord, commands.”<a name="fa17d" id="fa17d" href="#ft17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a> This petty prince, therefore, sees no harm +in having a band of Arabians for his garrison, as indeed Hezekiah +long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against Sennacherib.</p> + +<p>From the same period we have recently derived fresh and +important evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as +the material gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified +and critically examined, a true history of early Palestine will be +within measurable distance. At present, there are five places +whence the new evidence has been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy, +generally identified with the Lachish of the Old Testament. +Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders Petrie +and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I Kings +ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902. +3. Tell-eṣ-Ṣafy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from +Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> +some discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the +site, however, was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near +Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio). Schumacher began working here in +1903 for the German Palestine Society. 5. Taannek, on the +south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst Sellin of +Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may +be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform +tablet belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer, +a deed of sale; at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian +stele, three seals, and three cylinders with Babylonian mythological +representations; at Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a +Babylonian legend, and at Taannek, twelve tablets and fragments +of tablets were found near the fragments of the terracotta +box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact +that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used +Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence. +But much beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive +sanctuaries, for instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths +at Gezer is described in detail in <i>P.E.F. Quart. Statement</i>, +January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903, p. 219. There is reason, +as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the result of a gradual +development, beginning with two small pillars, and gradually +enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at Tell-eṣ-Ṣafy. +The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved +to be of great antiquity; Sellin’s discoveries at Taannek and those +of Bliss at Tell-e#7779;-Ṣafy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars +have also been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx. +25, 26, and numerous jars with the skeletons of infants. We +cannot doubt that the sacrificing of children was practised on a +large scale among the Canaanites. Their chief deity was Ashtart +(Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous images of her have +been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of the divine +form vary in the different places. The other images which have +been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however, +infer that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish +Pantheon. What the images do prove is the large amount of +intercourse between Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of +Egyptians in the subject country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Tell-el-Amarna Letters</i>, ed. by Winckler, with translation +(1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements +from 1903 onwards; Sellin’s report of excavations at Tell Ta’annek; +also H.W. Hogg, “Recent Assyriology,” &c., in <i>Inaugural Lectures</i> +ed. by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical +questions, see Dillmann’s commentaries and the Bible dictionaries. +See further articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. K. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Enarralio in Psalm civ.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> W.M. Müller, <i>Asien und Europa,</i> p. 205.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The letters are written in the official and diplomatic language—Babylonian, +though “Canaanitish” words and idioms are not +wanting.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,</i> p. 181.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> These explanations are endorsed by Driver (<i>Genesis, on</i> Gen. x.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See the relevant articles in <i>Ency. Bib.</i> and Cheyne’s <i>Genesis +and Exodus.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, <i>Gesch. Isr.</i> i. 127 f.; +Paton, <i>Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine</i> (1902), pp. 6-8, 25-28.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name +differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), <i>kimta rapashtum</i>, “wide family.” That, +however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism +or Arabism.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Cheyne, <i>Genesis and Exodus</i> (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A. +Cooke, <i>N. Sem. Inscriptions</i> (<i>e.g.</i> pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar’s inscription).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Amarna Letters</i>, Winckler’s edition, No. 7.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> No. 146.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> No. 147.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Johns, <i>Assyrian Deeds</i>, iii. p. 16.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Amarna Letters</i>, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).</p> + +<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> No. 164 (xi. 15-18).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16d" id="ft16d" href="#fa16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Nomads of the Syrian desert.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17d" id="ft17d" href="#fa17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Amarna Letters</i>, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANACHUS,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part +of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was especially noted as the author +of two great statues of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple +at Miletus, and one in cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins +of Miletus furnish us with copies of the former and show the god +to have held a stag in, one hand and a bow in the other. The +rigidity of these works naturally impressed later critics.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANADA.<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern +half of the continent of North America and its adjacent islands, +excepting Alaska, which belongs to the United States, and +Newfoundland, still a separate colony of the British empire. +Its boundary on the south is the parallel of latitude 49°, between +the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods, then a chain of small +lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon river on the +north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with +their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From +this eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial +line nearly corresponding to lat. 45°; then an irregular line +partly determined by watersheds and rivers divides Canada +from Maine, coming out on the Bay of Fundy. The western +boundary is the Pacific on the south, an irregular line a few miles +inland from the coast along the “pan handle” of Alaska to +Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141° to the Arctic Ocean. +A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the +Atlantic on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging +to Newfoundland.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>—In spite of these restrictions of its +natural coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada +is admirably provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf +of St Lawrence with its much indented shores and the coast of +Nova Scotia and New Brunswick supply endless harbours, the +northern ones closed by ice in the winter, but the southern ones +open all the year round; and on the Pacific British Columbia +is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with well-sheltered +harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken +shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of +sheltered navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of +Newfoundland to Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British +Columbian coast, are of great advantage for the coasting trade. +The greatly varied Arctic coast line of Canada with its large +islands, inlets and channels is too much clogged with ice to be of +much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a mediterranean sea 850 m. +long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with its outlet Hudson +Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and whalers, +and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada, +though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of +the nine provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt +water, Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may +soon be extended to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only +on Hudson Bay’s southern extension, James Bay, and there is +no probability that the shallow harbours of the latter bay +will ever be of much importance for shipping, though Churchill +Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an important +grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation +is, however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great +Lakes.</p> + +<p>The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple, +and drawn on a large scale, more than half of its surface sloping +gently inwards towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with +higher margins to the south-east and south-west. In the main +it is a broad trough, wider towards the north than towards the +south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay occupying much of its +north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains rise gradually +to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern member +of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America. +The physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with +its geology that at least an outline of the geological factors +involved in its history is necessary to understand the present +physiography. The mountain structures originated in three +great orogenic periods, the earliest in the Archean, the second at +the end of the Palaeozoic and the third at the end of the Mesozoic. +<span class="sidenote">Geology.</span> +The Archean mountain chains, which enclosed the +present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that +they had already been worn down almost to a plain before the +early Palaeozoic sediments were laid down. This ruling geological +and physical feature of the North American continent has been +named by E. Suess the “Canadian Shield.” Round it the +Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from its own waste, +were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places still +almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east +of this “protaxis,” or nucleus of the continent, were pushed +against its edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, +which, however, extends only a short distance into Canada. +The Mesozoic sediments were almost entirely laid down to the +west and south-west of the protaxis, upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic +rocks, and in the prairie region they are still almost horizontal; +but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up into the +series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast region. +The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest, +and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights +deserving the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric +development of North America the main structural watershed +is towards its western side, on the south coinciding with the +Rocky Mountains proper, but to the northward falling back to +ranges situated further west in the same mountain region. The +great central area of Canada is drained towards Hudson Bay, +but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the Mackenzie +flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence +north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and +the other to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +these ancient events shaped the topography in a broad way, its +final development was comparatively recent, during the glacial +period, when the loose materials were scoured from some regions +and spread out as boulder clay, or piled up as moraines in others; +and the original water-ways were blocked in many places. The +retreat of the ice left Canada much in its present condition +except for certain post-glacial changes of level which seem to be +still in progress. For this reason the region has a very youthful +topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence +that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving +down of the older mountain systems, especially that of the +Archean pro taxis, and the disorderly scattering of glacial material +provide most of the lake basins so characteristic of Canada.</p> + +<p><i>Lakes and Rivers.</i>—As a result of the geological causes just +mentioned many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes +of all sizes and shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles +long and a thousand feet deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest. +Thousands of these lakes have been mapped more or less carefully, +and every new survey brings to light small lakes hitherto unknown +to the white man. For numbers they can be compared +only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for +size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of +lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it +will be noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes +occur within five hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay, +and belong to the Archean protaxis or project beyond its edges +into the Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks which lean against it. +The most famous of the lakes are those of the St Lawrence +system, which form part of the southern boundary of Canada +and are shared with the United States; but many others have +the right to be called “Great Lakes” from their magnitude. +There are nine others which have a length of more than 100 m., +and thirty-five which are more than 50 m. long. Within the +Archean protaxis they are of the most varied shapes, since they +represent merely portions of the irregular surface inundated by +some morainic dam at the lowest point. Comparatively few +have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water, the great +majority running into long irregular bays and containing many +islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian +Bay and Lake-of-the-Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the +other hand the lakes are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections +of mountain valleys occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords +of the adjoining coast are valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes +of the different regions present the same features as the nearest +sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The majority of the lakes have +rocky shores and islands and great variety of depth, many of the +smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and are slowly +filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat bogs, +the <i>muskegs</i> of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered +that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few +small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, <i>e.g.</i> the Quill and Old +Wives lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In +such cases the waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in +solution which are deposited as a white rim round the basin +towards the end of the summer when the amount of water has +been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is interesting to find +maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on their shores +a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet +above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over +at the lowest point from one basin into the next below, making +chains of lakes with no long or well-defined channels between, +since in so young a country there has not yet been time for the +rivers to have carved wide valleys. Thus canoe navigation may +be carried on for hundreds of miles, with here and there a waterfall +or a rapid requiring a portage of a few hundred yards or at +most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore in many +cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive +connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The +best example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which +may be said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St +Mary’s, St Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing +from Lake Ontario to the sea under its proper name. As these +lakes are great reservoirs and settling basins, the rivers which +empty them are unusually steady in level and contain beautifully +clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a few feet in the year +and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while the Mississippi, +whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of the Great +Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and is +loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important +Canadian river from the historic and economic points of view, +since it provided the main artery of exploration in early days, and +with its canals past rapids and between lakes still serves as a +great highway of trade between the interior of the continent and +the seaports of Montreal and Quebec. It is probable that +politically Canada would have followed the course of the States +to the south but for the planting of a French colony with widely +extended trading posts along the easily ascended channel of the +St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was the +ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire.</p> + +<p>North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and +Hudson Bay there are many large rivers converging on that +inland sea, such as Whale river, Big river, East Main, Rupert +and Nottaway rivers coming in from Ungava and northern +Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important tributaries +from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill +rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow, +affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them, +Nelson river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg, +Winnipegosis and Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers, +and receive the waters of Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and +many others emptying into Winnipeg river from Ontario; of +Red river coming in from the United States to the south; and +of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western +prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The +parallel of 49° approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters +from the streams going south to the Missouri, though a few +small tributaries of the latter river begin on Canadian territory.</p> + +<p>The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of +northern British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca +and Peace rivers, first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake, +then north through Slave river to Great Slave Lake, and finally +north-west through Mackenzie river to the Arctic Ocean. If +measured to the head of Peace river the Mackenzie has a length +of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than 1000 m. of +navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like other +northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented +sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading +posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in +lat. 69°, and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their +torrents before the thick ice of the lower part with its severer +climate has yet given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and +giving rise to widespread floods along the lower reaches. Similar +flooding takes place in several other important northward-flowing +rivers in Canada, the St Lawrence at Montreal affording the +best-known instance. Second among the great north-western +rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about 18 m. +from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea +and just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north, +then to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into +Alaska, and then south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward +projection of the Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of +its course 1800 m. are continuously navigable for suitable +steamers, so that most of the traffic connected with the rich +Klondike gold-fields passes over its waters. The rest of the +rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through British Columbia +and are much shorter, though the two southern ones carry a +great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow +and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest, +but after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m., +it passes into the United States. With its expansions, the +narrow and deep Arrow lakes, it is an important waterway in the +Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in size but farther north, +follows a similar course, entering the sea at Vancouver; while +the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> +shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and +Liard rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory. +All of these rivers are waterways of some importance in their +lower course, and are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats +supplying the posts and mining camps of the interior with their +requirements. In most cases they reach the coast through deep +valleys or profound canyons, and the transcontinental railways +find their way beside them, the Canadian Pacific following at +first tributaries of the Columbia near its great bend, and afterwards +Thompson river and the Fraser; while the Grand Trunk +Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries. +The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing +east and north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains, +but there are two lakes, the Committee’s Punch Bowl and +Fortress Lake, right astride of it, sending their waters both east +and west; and there is a mountain somewhat south of Fortress +Lake whose melting snows drain in three directions into tributaries +of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca, +so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the Atlantic +(Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the +St Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents +one or two lakes draining each way, but in a much less striking +position, since the water-parting is flat and boggy instead of +being a lofty range of mountains. The rivers of Canada, except +the St Lawrence, are losing their importance as means of communication +from year to year, as railways spread over the +interior and cross the mountains to the Pacific; but from the +point of view of the physical geographer there are few things +more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in +which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers +have waterfalls on their course, they must become of more +and more importance as sources of power. The St Lawrence +system, for instance, generates many thousand horse-power at +Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine rapids. All the +larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this way, and +many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern +Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the +Rocky Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they +will some day find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland.</p> + +<p><i>The Archean Protaxis.</i>—The broad geological and geographical +relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the +more important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more +detail, and for that purpose five areas may be distinguished, +much the largest being the Archean protaxis, covering about +2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador, Ungava and most of +Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south; and the +western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to +the Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The +southern parts of the Arctic islands, especially Banksland, +belong to it also. This vast area, shaped like a broad-limbed +V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre, is made up chiefly of +monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and granite; but +scattered through it are important stretches of Keewatin and +Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as +suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The +Keewatin and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and +more or less metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special +interest for their ore deposits, which include most of the important +metals, particularly iron, nickel, copper and silver. The southern +portion of the protaxis is now being opened up by railways, but +the far greater northern part is known only along the lakes and +rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though once consisting +of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty elevations +in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador, +where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach +6000 ft. or more. In every other part the surface is hilly or +mammilated, the harder rocks, such as granite or greenstone, +rising as rounded knobs, or in the case of schists forming narrow +ridges, while the softer parts form valleys generally floored with +lakes. From the summit of any of the higher hills one sees that +the region is really a somewhat dissected plain, for all the hills +rise to about the same level with a uniform skyline at the horizon. +The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as a plateau, but +probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part includes +from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and +extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake +Winnipeg. Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an +average of about 1500 ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at +a few points near Lake Superior and on the eastern coast of +Labrador. In most parts the Laurentian hills are bare <i>roches +moutonnées</i> scoured by the glaciers of the Ice Age, but a broad +band of clay land extends across northern Quebec and Ontario +just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis are in general +its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often have a +descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great +Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they +have cut back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The +waterfalls are utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp +the forests of spruce which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and +Ontario. Most of the pine that formerly grew on the Archean +at the northern fringe of the settlements has been cut, but the +lumberman is still advancing northwards and approaching the +northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine forests, beyond +which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the prevalent +trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and +includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is +reached, near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and +somewhat farther south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to +the north are the “barren grounds” on which herds of caribou +(reindeer) and musk ox pasture, migrating from north to south +according to the season. There are no permanent ice sheets +known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but some of +the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are +partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless +by its mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known, +the barren grounds can never support a white population and +have little to tempt even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it +occasionally in summer to hunt the deer in their migrations.</p> + +<p><i>The Acadian Region.</i>—The “maritime provinces” of eastern +Canada, including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince +Edward Island, may be considered together; and to these +provinces as politically bounded may be added, from a physical +point of view, the analogous south-eastern part of Quebec—the +entire area being designated the Acadian region. Taken as a +whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and +extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic, +may be regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian +mountain system that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the +United States. The rocks underlying it have been subjected +to successive foldings and crumplings by forces acting chiefly +from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with alternating prolonged +periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of +disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the +south-eastern part of Quebec, forming the Notre Dame Mountains, +and terminates in the Gaspé peninsula as the Shickshock +Mountains. The first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height, +but the Shickshocks rise above 3000 ft. The province of New +Brunswick exhibits approximately parallel but subordinate +ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly flat Silurian and +Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia, connected +by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still another +and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on +all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates +referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important +veins of auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern +side, while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and +on parts of its shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New +Brunswick the Carboniferous rocks occupy a large area, but +the coal seams so far developed are thin and unimportant. +Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova Scotia +and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already +mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important +industries. Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral +products of that part of Quebec included in the region now under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span> +description, although many other minerals are known and +already worked to some extent. Extensive tracts of good arable +land exist in many parts of the Acadian region. Its surface was +originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of the +forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward +Island, the smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating, +based on Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording +a red and very fertile soil, much of which is under cultivation.</p> + +<p><i>The St Lawrence Plain.</i>—As the St Lawrence invited the +earliest settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication +with the Old World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest +and most populous part of the country on its shores and near the +Great Lakes which it leads up to; and this early development +was greatly helped by the flat and fertile plain which follows +it inland for over 600 m. from the city of Quebec to Lake Huron. +This affords the largest stretch of arable land in eastern Canada, +including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec with an +area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south +of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal +to the mountains of the “Eastern Townships,” while in Ontario +it extends from the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence +and Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. The whole region is +underlain by nearly horizontal and undisturbed rocks of the +Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward. Superimposed on +these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and sand +deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of +St Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-west +peninsula of Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and +the real wealth of this district lies in its soil and climate, which +permit the growth of all the products of temperate regions. +Georgian Bay and the northern part of Lake Huron with the +whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the foot of the +Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes; so +that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous +cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an +elevated, rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean +from the newer and far more extensive farm lands of the west. +For many years this southern projection of the northern wilderness +was spanned by only one railway, and offered a serious +hindrance to the development of the regions beyond; but +settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly filling +up the gap between east and west.</p> + +<p><i>The Interior Continental Plain.</i>—Passing westward by rail +from the forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills, +the flat prairie of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of +flowers comes as a very striking contrast, introducing the Interior +Continental plain in its most typical development. This great +plain runs north-westward between the border of the Archean +protaxis and the line of the Rocky Mountains, including most +of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan and most of +Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 49° it is 800 m. +wide, but in lat. 56° it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and to +the north of lat. 62° it is still narrower and somewhat interrupted, +but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic Ocean +about the mouth of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the +continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was +occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards +the north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed limestones +and other rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon +the downward slope of the Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains +are underlain by Cretaceous and early Tertiary shales and +sandstones lying nearly unaltered and undisturbed where they +were deposited, although now raised far above sea-level, particularly +along the border of the Rocky Mountains where they +were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised. +These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing +to their comparatively soft character this has been, in the main, +nearly uniform, and has produced no very bold features of +relief, Coal and lignitic coal are the principal economic minerals +met with in this central plain, though natural gas occurs and is +put to use near Medicine Hat, and “tar sands” along the north-eastern +edge of the Cretaceous indicate the presence of petroleum. +Its chief value lies in its vast tracts of fertile soil, now rapidly +filling up with settlers from all parts of the world, and the grassy +uplands in the foot-hill region affording perennial pasturage for +the cattle, horses and sheep of the rancher. Though the region +is spoken of as a plain there are really great differences of level +between the highest parts in south-western Alberta, 4500 ft. +above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake Winnipeg, +where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very +flat and rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial +Lake Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently +rolling character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the +plain, the most westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri +Coteau. The first step represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the +second to 3000 ft. on an average. In so flat a country any elevation +of a few hundred feet is remarkable and is called a mountain, +so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding mountains. More +important than the hills are the narrow and often rather deep +river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks +of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When +not too deep the river channels may be traced from afar across +the prairie by the winding band of trees growing beside the water. +The treeless part of the plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular +shape with an area twice as large as that of Great Britain. North +of the Saskatchewan river groves or “bluffs” of trees begin, +and somewhat farther north the plains are generally wooded, +because of the slightly more humid climate. It has been proved, +however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow also +on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older farm-steads. +In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough +to permit of “alkaline” ponds and lakes, which may completely +dry up in summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often +hard to obtain, though the land itself is fertile.</p> + +<p><i>The Cordilleran Belt.</i>—The Rocky Mountain region as a whole, +best named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several +parallel ranges of mountains of different structures and ages, +the eastern one constituting the Rocky Mountains proper. +This band of mountains 400 m. wide covers towards the south +almost all of British Columbia and a strip of Alberta east of the +watershed, and towards the north forms the whole of the Yukon +Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous +country, very complicated in its orographic features and interlocking +river systems, two principal mountain axes form its +ruling features—the Rocky Mountains proper, above referred +to, and the Coast Ranges. Between them are many other +ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as the Selkirk +Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains. +There is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau, +once probably a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected +by river valleys, which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a +width of about 100 m. and affords the largest areas of arable +and pasture land in British Columbia. Similar wide tracts of +less broken country occur, after a mountainous interruption, in +northern British Columbia and to some extent in the Yukon +Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills alternate with +short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific border +of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and +channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland +between mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and +there is also a bordering mountain system partly submerged +forming Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands. +The highest mountains of the Cordillera in Canada are near the +southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from the Yukon +Territory, the meridian of 141°, and they include Mount Logan +(19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest +peak in North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far +to the north-west in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains, +with Mount Fairweather and some others, all snowy and glacier-clad +for almost their whole height, are quite isolated from the +highest points of the Rocky Mountains proper, which are 1000 m. +to the south-east. Near the height of land between British +Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which rise from +10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> +carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next +range to the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach +10,000 ft. or over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond +9000 ft. The snow line in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft. +above sea-level, being lower on the Pacific side where the heaviest +snowfall comes in winter than on the drier north-eastern side. +The snow line gradually sinks as one advances north-west, +reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The +Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not +very large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All +the glaciers are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines, +hundreds or thousands of feet lower down the valley. The +timber line is at about 7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and +4000 ft. in the interior of the Yukon Territory. On the westward +slopes, especially of the Selkirks and Coast Ranges, vegetation is +almost tropical in its density and luxuriance, the giant cedar +and the Douglas fir sometimes having diameters of 10 ft. or more +and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the eastern flanks of the +ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the interior plateau +and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open grass land. +The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different types of +structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with +their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming +first, then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated +in Cretaceous times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of +granite and diorite as batholiths along the margin of the continent +and sedimentary rocks lying as remnants on their flanks; and +finally the Rocky Mountains in the Laramie or early Eocene, +after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest and also highest +range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific side, +crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run +from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along +overturned folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually +the form of tilted blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east +and a gentler slope, corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards +the south-west. Near the centre of the range there are broader +foldings, carved into castle and cathedral shapes. The most +easterly range has been shown to have been actually pushed +7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains proper no +eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of +importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous synclines +which they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a +bituminous and also semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best +mined on the Pacific slope of the continent, the coking coals of +the Fernie region supplying the fuel of the great metal mining +districts of the Kootenays in British Columbia, and of Montana +and other states to the south. The Selkirks and Gold Ranges +west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive rocks, +both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines +of gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its +leadership among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals. +In early days the placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser +and Caribou attracted miners from everywhere, but these have +declined, and lode mines supply most of the gold as well as the +other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also include many +mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less value +than those inland. Most of the mining development is in +southern British Columbia, where a network of railways and +waterways gives easy access; but as means of communication +improve to the north a similar development may be looked for +there. The Atlin and White Horse regions in northern British +Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much attention, +and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished +many millions of dollars’ worth of gold. Summing up the +economic features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of +the best coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold, +copper, lead and zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and +iron Ontario takes the lead. When its vast area stretching from +the international boundary to beyond the Arctic circle is opened +up, it may be expected to prove the counterpart of the great +mining region of the Cordillera in the United States to the +south.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42° +to the Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must +be great variations of climate. If placed upon Europe it would +extend from Rome to the North Cape, but latitude is of course +only one of the factors influencing climate, the arrangement of +the ocean currents and of the areas of high and low pressure +making a very wide difference between the climates of the two +sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada, +rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western +Europe, the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48° +to 50°, having a climate very similar to the southern coast of +England. In Canada the isotherms by no means follow parallels +of latitude, especially in summer when in the western half of the +country they run nearly north-west and south-east; so that the +average temperature of 55° is found about on the Arctic circle +in the Mackenzie river valley, in lat. 50° near the Lake-of-the-Woods, +in lat. 55° at the northern end of James Bay, and in +lat. 49° on Anticosti in the Gulf of St Lawrence. The proximity +of the sea or of great lakes, the elevation and the direction of +mountain chains, the usual path of storms and of prevalent +winds, and the relative length of day and amount of sunshine in +summer and winter all have their effect on different parts of +Canada. One cannot even describe the climate of a single +province, like Ontario or British Columbia, as a unit, as it varies +so greatly in different parts. Details should therefore be sought +in articles on the separate provinces. In eastern Canada Ungava +and Labrador are very chill and inhospitable, owing largely +to the iceberg-laden current sweeping down the coast from +Davis Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters and a +temperature for the year much below the freezing-point. South +of the Gulf of St Lawrence, however, the maritime provinces +have much more genial temperatures, averaging 40° F. for the +year and over 60° for the summer months. The amount of rain +is naturally high so near the sea, 40 to 56 in., but the snowfall +is not usually excessive. In Quebec and northern Ontario the +rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40 in., while the snows +of winter are deep and generally cover the ground from the beginning +of December to the end of March. The winters are brilliant +but cold, and the summers average from 60° to 65° F., with +generally clear skies and a bracing atmosphere which makes +these regions favourite summer resorts for the people of the +cities to the south. The winter storms often sweep a little to +the north of southern Ontario, so that what falls as snow in the +north is rain in the south, giving a much more variable winter, +often with too little snow for sleighing. The summers are warm, +with an average temperature of 65° and an occasional rise to 90°. +As one goes westward the precipitation diminishes to 17.34 in. +in Manitoba and 13.35 for the other two prairie provinces, most +of this, however, coming opportunely from May to August, the +months when the growing grain most requires moisture. There +is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in northern Ontario +and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow +and the frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing +moisture to start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in +southern Saskatchewan and Alberta is much more variable than +farther east and north, so that in some seasons crops have been +a failure through drought, but large areas are now being brought +under irrigation to avoid such losses. The prairie provinces +have in most parts a distinctly continental climate with comparatively +short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but +with much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta, +however, the winter cold is often interrupted by chinooks, +westerly winds which have lost their moisture by crossing the +mountains and become warmed by plunging down to the plains, +where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and raising the +temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20° to 40° F. +In this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the grass +of the ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there +may be heavy losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent +and the winter’s cold increases, but the coming of spring is not +much later, and the summer temperatures, with sunshine for +twenty hours out of twenty-four in June, are almost the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +as for hundreds of miles to the south, so that most kinds of grain +and vegetables ripen far to the north in the Peace river valley. +Though the climate of the plains is one of extremes and often +of rather sudden changes, it is brisk and invigorating and of +particular value for persons affected with lung troubles.</p> + +<p>The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more +variety than that of the other provinces because of the ranges +of mountains which run parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast +itself the climate is insular, with little frost in winter and mild +heat in summer, and with a very heavy rainfall amounting to +100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver Island and near +Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast Range +the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario, +comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the +south, but with keen winters farther north. The interior +plateau may be described as arid, so that irrigation is required +if crops are to be raised. The Selkirk Mountains have a heavy +rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on their western flanks, but +very much less precipitation on their eastern side. The Rocky +Mountains have the same relationships but the whole precipitation +is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends +largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from +perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist +climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire. +In the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and +Ungava the climate has been little studied, as the region is uninhabited +by white men except at a few fur-trading posts. +North-west and north-east of Hudson Bay it becomes too severe +for the growth of trees as seen on the “barren grounds,” and +there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of moss which +serves as a non-conducting covering for the “tundras.” There +is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate +on the surface to form glaciers, the summer’s sun having warmth +enough to thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the maritime +provinces, southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the +Pacific coast region on the one hand, and the Arctic north, +particularly near Hudson Bay, on the other, Canada has snowy +and severe winters, a very short spring with a sudden rise of +temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn +with its “Indian summer.” There is much sunshine, and the +atmosphere is bracing and exhilarating.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec +and Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova +Scotia a number of species are found common also to Newfoundland +that are not apparent inland. Professor Macoun gives +us a few notable species—<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>, Salisb., <i>Alchemilla +vulgaris</i>, L., <i>Rhododendron maximum</i>, L., <i>Ilex glabia</i>, Gray, +<i>Hudsonia ericoides</i>, L., <i>Gaylussacia dumosa</i>, F. and G., and +<i>Schezaea pusilla</i>, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western flora +begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while +in the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies considerably. +In the lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf +many Arctic and sub-Arctic species are found. On the shores +of the lower reaches <i>Thalictrum alpinum</i>, L., <i>Vesicaria arctica</i>, +Richards, <i>Arapis alpina</i>, L., <i>Saxifraga oppositifolia</i>, L., <i>Cerastium +alpinum</i>, L., <i>Saxifraga caespitosa</i>, L. and S. have been +gathered, and on the Shickshock Mountains of Eastern Canada +<i>Silene acaulis</i>, L., <i>Lychnis alpina</i>, L., <i>Cassiope hypnoides</i>, Don., +<i>Rhododendron laponicum</i>, Wahl, and many others. On the +summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected <i>Aspidium +aculeatum</i>, Swartz var., <i>Scopulinum</i>, D.C. Eaton, <i>Pellaea densa</i>, +Hook, <i>Gallium kamtschaticum</i>, Sletten. From the city of +Quebec westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of +southern forms, and when the mountain (so called) at Montreal +is reached the representative Ontario flora begins. In Ontario +the flora of the northern part is much the same as that of the +Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the Ottawa and +St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect, and +trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern +parts of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions +north of the lakes the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie +requires a high winter temperature, while the east and north +shores of Lake Superior have a boreal vegetation that shows +the summer temperature of this enormous water-stretch to be +quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come the +prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the +ravines the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then +disappearing gives place to that of the prairie, which is found +everywhere between the Red river and the Rocky Mountains +except in wooded and damp localities. Northwards, in the +Saskatchewan country, the flora of the forest and that of the +prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the foot-hills of the +Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found, several +years’ collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of +the best hay and pasture grasses, <i>Agropyrum Elymus, Stipa, +Bromus, Agrostis, Calamagrostes</i> and <i>Poa</i>, there are 59 species. +Besides the grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for +pasture—<i>Astragalus, Vicia</i> (wild vetch), <i>Lathyrus</i> (wild pea) of +which there are many species. The rose family is represented +by <i>Prunus, Potentilla, Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus</i> and <i>Amelanchier</i>.</p> + +<p>About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are +found <i>Ruppia maritima</i>, L., <i>Heliotropium curassavicum</i>, L., +natives of the Atlantic coast, and numerous species of <i>Chenopodium, +Atriplex</i> and allied genera. The flora of the forest belt +of the North-West Territories differs little from that of northern +Ontario. At the beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains +there is a luxurious growth of herbaceous plants, including +a number of rare umbellifers. At the higher levels the vegetation +becomes more Arctic. Northwards the valleys of the Peace and +other rivers differ little from those of Quebec and the northern +prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that is, the +Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or +Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp +instead of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the +south the flora is partly peculiar to the American desert, and +such species as <i>Purshia tridentata</i>, D.C., and <i>Artemisia tridentata</i>, +Nutt., and species of <i>Gilia, Aster</i> and <i>Erigonum</i> are found that +are not met with elsewhere. Above Yale, in the drier part of the +Fraser valley, the absence of rain results in the same character +of flora, while in the rainy districts of the lower Fraser the +vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that of the tropics. +So in various parts of the mountainous country of British +Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions. +Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled +with flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant, +including <i>Erythoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritillarias, +Siliums, Camassias</i> and others.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and +the caribou of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the +far north; the caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces +except in Prince Edward Island; the moose, with an equally +wide range in the wooded country; the Virginia deer, in one or +other of its varietal forms, common to all the southern parts; +the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on the western +edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn +antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful +bison found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called +“wood buffalo.” The wapiti or American elk at one time +abounded from Quebec to the Pacific, and as far north as the +Peace river, but is now found only in small numbers from +Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the +grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear +is also common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear +everywhere along the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf +is found in the wooded districts of all the provinces, and on the +plains there is also a smaller wolf called the coyote. In British +Columbia the puma or cougar, sometimes called the panther +and the American lion, still frequently occurs; and in all parts the +common fox and the silver fox, the lynx, beaver, otter, marten, +fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other fur-bearing animals. +Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are plentiful +or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other circumstances. +In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or Rocky +Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> +saddleback and white mountain sheep have recently been discovered +in the northern Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly +migratory, and are those common to the northern and central +states of the United States. The wildfowl are, particularly in +the west, in great numbers; their breeding-grounds extending +from Manitoba and the western prairies up to Hudson Bay, the +barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of geese— +including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the +laughing goose, the brant and others—all breed in the northern +regions, but are found in great numbers throughout the several +provinces, passing north in the spring and south in the autumn. +There are several varieties of grouse, the largest of which is the +grouse of British Columbia and the pennated grouse and the +prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains, besides the so-called +partridge and willow partridge, both of which are grouse. While +the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada) has +always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a +more recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which +it had come from Illinois and the south as settlement and accompanying +wheatfields extended north. In certain parts of Ontario +the wild turkey is occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but +in British Columbia is found the California quail, and a larger bird +much resembling it called the mountain partridge. The golden +eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and a large variety of hawks +are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the horned owl +and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently +remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these, +with the Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting, +being the principal birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts +in that season. The rook is not found, but the common crow +and one or two other kinds are there during the summer. Song-birds +are plentiful, especially in wooded regions, and include the +American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird and various +sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago, +has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns. +The smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is +found everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains. +The sea-birds include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cormorants, +albatrosses (four species), fulmars and petrels, and in +the Gulf of St Lawrence the gannet is very abundant. Nearly +all the sea-birds of Great Britain are found in Canadian waters +or are represented by closely allied species.</p> +<div class="author">(A. P. C.)</div> + +<p><i>Area and Population.</i>—The following table shows the division +of the Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital, +population and estimated area of each.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">Area in sq. mi.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Official Capital.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provinces—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Ontario</td> <td class="tcr rb">260,862</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,926,922</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,182,947</td> <td class="tcl rb">Toronto</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Quebec</td> <td class="tcr rb">351,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,359,027</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,648,898</td> <td class="tcl rb">Quebec</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Nova Scotia</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,428</td> <td class="tcr rb">440,572</td> <td class="tcr rb">459,574</td> <td class="tcl rb">Halifax</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> New Brunswick</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,985</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,233</td> <td class="tcr rb">331,120</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fredericton</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Manitoba</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,260</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,211<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">Winnipeg</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> British Columbia</td> <td class="tcr rb">372,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,459</td> <td class="tcr rb">178,657</td> <td class="tcl rb">Victoria</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Prince Edward Island</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,184</td> <td class="tcr rb">108,891</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,259</td> <td class="tcl rb">Charlottetown</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Saskatchewan</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,650</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">}</span>25,515</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,460<a href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">Regina</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Alberta</td> <td class="tcr rb">253,540</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,841<a href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">Edmonton</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Districts—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Keewatin</td> <td class="tcr rb">516,571</td> <td class="tcr rb" rowspan="5"><span style="font-size: 7em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">}</span>30,931</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,800</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Yukon</td> <td class="tcr rb">196,976</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,219</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dawson City</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Mackenzie</td> <td class="tcr rb">562,182</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,216</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Ungava</td> <td class="tcr rb">354,961</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,113</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Franklin</td> <td class="tcr rb">500,000</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl allb"> The Dominion</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,745,574<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr allb">4,324,810</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,371,315</td> <td class="tcl allb">Ottawa</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces +of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and +Ontario (Upper Canada). In 1869 the North-west Territories +were purchased from the Hudson’s Bay Company, from a corner +of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In 1871 British +Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion.</p> + +<p>The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became +a portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British possessions +in North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its +dependency, the Labrador coast, and the Bermuda islands, +were annexed to Canada. West of the province of Ontario, then +inaccurately defined, the provinces of Manitoba and British +Columbia were the only organized divisions of the western +territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia, +Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving +the remainder of the north-west as unorganized territories, a +certain portion of the north-east, called Keewatin, having +previously been placed under the lieutenant-governor of Manitoba. +In 1905 these four districts were formed into the two +provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin was +placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing +to the influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted +and granted a limited measure of self-government. The unorganized +territories are sparsely inhabited by Indians, the +people of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts and a few +missionaries.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—The growth of population is shown by the +following figures:—1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891, +4,833,239; 1901, 5,371,315. Since 1901 the increase has been +more rapid, and in 1905 alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada, +of whom about two-fifths were from Great Britain and one-third +from the United States.</p> + +<p>The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island, +where it is 51.6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22.3; New +Brunswick, 11.8; Ontario, 9.9; Manitoba, 4.9; Quebec, 4.8; +Saskatchewan, 1.01; Alberta, 0.72; British Columbia, 0.4; +the Dominion, 1.8. This is not an indication of the density in +settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and the western provinces +there are large unpopulated districts, the area of which enters +into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of +English- or French-speaking people, but there are German +settlements of some extent in Ontario, and of late years there +has been a large immigration into the western provinces and +territories from other parts of Europe, including Russians, +Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and Scandinavians. These +foreign elements have been assimilated +more slowly than in the United States, +but the process is being hastened by +the growth of a national consciousness. +English, Irish and Scots and their +descendants form the bulk of the population +of Ontario, French-Canadians of +Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish +of a large proportion of New Brunswick. +In the other provinces the latter race +tends to confine itself to the cities. +Manitoba is largely peopled from Ontario, +together with a decreasing number +of half-breeds—<i>i.e.</i> children of white +fathers (chiefly French or Scottish) and +Indian mothers—who originally formed +the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and +Saskatchewan, particularly the ranching +districts, are chiefly peopled by English +immigrants, though since 1900 there has +also been a large influx from the United States. British +Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the +mining districts a large proportion is American. Since 1871 +a great change has taken place throughout the west, +<i>i.e.</i> from Lake Superior to the Pacific. Then Manitoba was +principally inhabited by English and French half-breeds (or +Métis), descendants of Hudson’s Bay Company’s employes, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers, +descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (<i>q.v.</i>), some +English army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigration +that shortly followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba +buffalo were still running on the plains, and British Columbia +having lost its mining population of 1859 and 1860 was largely +inhabited by Indians, its white population which centred in the +city of Victoria being principally English.</p> + +<p>French is the language of the province of Quebec, though +English is much spoken in the cities; both languages are officially +recognized in that province, and in the federal courts and parliament. +Elsewhere, English is exclusively used, save by the +newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex is slightly the more +numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the greatest +discrepancy existing in British Columbia.</p> + +<p>The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families +of twelve to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in +Ontario. In spite of the growth of manufactures since 1878, +there are few large cities, and the proportion of the urban +population to the rural is small. Herein it differs noticeably +from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of farmers +in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and +there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a +manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large +tracts in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for +cultivation and are being opened up.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—There is no established church in Canada, but in +the province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the +Roman Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that +province about 87% of the population belongs to this church, +which is strong in the others also, embracing over two-fifths of +the population of the Dominion. The Protestants have shown +a tendency to subdivision, and many curious and ephemeral +sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the various sections +of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united, and a +working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians, +Methodists and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the +strongest, and in Ontario form over 30% of the population. +Next come the Presbyterians, the backbone of the maritime +provinces. The Church of England is strong in the cities, +especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief +in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them +90% are nominally Christian.</p> + +<p><i>Indians</i>.—The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and +has slightly increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia +and the unorganized territories, nearly all of these are on reservations, +where they are under government supervision, receiving +an annuity in money and a certain amount of provisions; and +where, by means of industrial schools and other methods, +civilized habits are slowly superseding their former mode of life. +British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along the +coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in +the interior. An almost equal number are found in the three +prairie provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000, +are more civilized than those of the west, many of them being +good farmers. In all the provinces they are under the control +of the federal government which acts as their trustee, investing +the money which they derive chiefly from the sale of lands and +timber, and making a large annual appropriation for the payment +of their annuities, schools and other expenses. While +unable to alienate their reservations, save to the federal government, +they are not confined to them, but wander at pleasure. +As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are given +the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario. +A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make +incomparable guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties, +on which they will cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships, +though tending to shrink from regular employment in cities or +on farms.</p> + +<p><i>Orientals</i>.—The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1906 about +20,000, of whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though +they were spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as +laundrymen. They are as a rule frugal, industrious and law-abiding, +and are feared rather for their virtues than for their +vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on all Chinese entering +Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to £100 ($500). British +Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the +Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature.</p> + +<p><i>Finance</i>.—Since 1871 the decimal system of coinage, corresponding +to that of the United States, has been the only one +employed. One dollar is divided into one hundred cents +(£1 = $4.86<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>). The money in circulation consists of a limited +number of notes issued by the federal government, and the +notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and +copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England, +but in that year a branch of the royal mint was established at +Ottawa. Though the whole financial system rests on the maintenance +of the gold standard, gold coin plays a much smaller +part in daily business than in England, France or Germany. +United States’ notes and silver are usually received at par; those +of other nations are subject to a varying rate of exchange.</p> + +<p>The banking system, which retains many features of the +Scotch system, on which it was originally modelled, combines +security for the note-holders and depositors with prompt increase +and diminution of the circulation in accordance with the varying +conditions of trade. This is especially important in a country +where the large wheat crop renders an additional quantity of +money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and +winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the +“wild cat” banking, which had such disastrous effects in the early +days of the western states. Since federation no chartered bank +has been compelled to liquidate without paying its note-holders +in full. The larger banks are chartered by the federal government; +in the smaller towns a number of private banks remain, +but their importance is small, owing to the great facilities given +to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906 there +were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from +619 in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has +rapidly increased. The banks are required by law to furnish +to the finance minister detailed monthly statements which are +published in the official gazette. Once in every ten years the +banking act is revised and weaknesses amended. Clearing-houses +have been established in the chief commercial centres. +In October 1906 the chartered banks had an aggregate paid-up +capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of $83,000,000 +and deposits of over $553,000,000.</p> + +<p>There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada:—(1) the +post-office savings banks; (2) the government savings banks +of the Maritime provinces taken over at federation and being +gradually merged with the former; (3) two special savings banks +in the cities of Montreal and Quebec; (4) the savings bank +departments of the chartered banks. The rate of interest +allowed by the government is now 3%, and the chartered banks +usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in +the first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546 +in October 1906. The returns from the chartered banks do not +specify the deposits in these special accounts.</p> + +<p>The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain +banking privileges.</p> + +<p>The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and +excise duties, with subsidiary amounts from mining licences, +timber dues, post-office, &c. Both the revenue and the expenditure +have in recent years increased greatly, the revenue rising +from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in 1905 and the expenditure +keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion in 1873 +and in 1905 was:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1873.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gross debt</td> <td class="tcr rb">$129,743,432</td> <td class="tcr rb">$377,678,580</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Assets</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,894,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,454,413</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Net debt</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">98,848,462</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">266,224,413</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>While the debt had thus increased faster than the population, +it weighed less heavily on the people, not only on account of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> +great increase in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower +rate of interest paid, and of the increasing revenue derived from +assets. Whereas in 1867 the rate of interest was over 4%, and +interest was being paid on former provincial loans of over 6%, +Canada could in 1906 borrow at 3%.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the +debts of the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure +on canals and assistance given to railways. It does not include +the debts incurred by certain provinces since federation, a +matter which concerns themselves alone. A strong prejudice +against direct taxation exists, and none is imposed by the +federal government, though it has been tentatively introduced +in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor +licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &c. British +Columbia has a direct tax on property and on income. The +cities, towns and municipalities resort to it to supply their local +needs, and there is a tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario +on account of the excellence of her municipal system, to devolve +the burden of educational payments, and others more properly +provincial, upon the municipal authorities on the plea of +decentralization.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce and Manufactures.</i>—Since 1867 the opening up of +the fertile lands in the north-west, the increase of population, +the discovery of new mineral fields, the construction of railways +and the great improvement of the canal system have changed +the conditions, methods and channels of trade. The great +extension during the same period of the use of water-power has +been of immense importance to Canada, most of the provinces +possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls, capable +of generating a practically unlimited supply of power.</p> + +<p>In 1878 the introduction of the so-called “National Policy” +of protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection +still remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a +preference accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most +of the British colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared +with that of the United States, amounted in 1907 to about 28% +on dutiable imports and to about 16% on total imports. +Tentative attempts at export duties have also been made. +Inter-provincial +commerce is free, and the home market is greatly +increasing in importance. The power to make commercial +treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great +Britain, but in most cases the official consent of Canada is +required, and for many years no treaty repugnant to her interests +has been signed. The denunciation by the British government +in 1897 of commercial treaties with Belgium and Germany, at +the request of Canada, was a striking proof of her increasing +importance, and attempts have at various times been made to +obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government. +The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is +with the United States and Great Britain. From the former +come most of the manufactured goods imported and large +quantities of raw materials; to the latter are sent food-stuffs. +Farm products are the most important export, and with the +extension of this industry in the north-west provinces and in +northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold, silver, +copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an +unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The +exports of lumber are about equally divided between the two. +Formerly, the logs were shipped as square timber, but now +almost always in the form of deals, planks or laths; such square +timber as is still shipped goes almost entirely to Great Britain. +Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper is exported chiefly to +the United States. To that country fresh fish is sent in large +quantities, and there is an important trade in canned salmon +between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the +manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an +increasing share of the home market. In this they have won +increased success, at least five-sixths of the manufactured goods +used being produced within the country, but a desire for further +protection is loudly expressed. Though the chief foreign +commerce is with Great Britain and the United States, the +Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of the +world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her +total foreign trade (import and export) was in 1906 over +£100,000,000.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping</i>.—The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax, +N.S., Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal +on the Atlantic; and Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C., +on the Pacific. Halifax is the ocean terminus of the Intercolonial +railway; St John, Halifax and Vancouver of the Canadian +Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western terminus of the +Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an uninhabited +harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing city. +Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the +winter trade eastwards is done through American harbours, +especially Portland, Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey. +Esquimalt, Halifax, Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-equipped +graving-docks. The coast, both of the ocean and of +the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected. The decay of the +wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the comparative +importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a great +increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon +inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada +and Great Britain; direct communication exists with France, +and the steamers of the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly +to Japan and to Australia.</p> + +<p><i>Internal Communications</i>.—Her splendid lakes and rivers, +the development of her canal system, and the growth of railways +have made the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than +her foreign, and the portfolio of railways and canals is one of +the most important in the cabinet. There are, nominally, about +200 railways, but about one-half of these, comprising five-sixths +of the mileage, have been amalgamated into four great systems: +the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian Northern +and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or less +consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected +the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across +Prince Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal +government. Originally built chiefly as a military road, and +often the victim of political exigencies, it has not been a commercial +success. With the completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific +(planned for 1911) and the Canadian Northern, the country +would possess three trans-continental railways, and be free from +the reproach, so long hurled at it, of possessing length without +breadth.</p> + +<p>At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made +with the railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given +by the federal, provincial and municipal governments to the +construction of railways, amounting often to more than half +the cost of the road. The government of Ontario has constructed +a line to open up the agricultural and mining districts +of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of a +commission. Practically all the cities<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and large towns have +electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power +on many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding +towns and villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government +has instituted a railway commission of three members with +large powers of control over freight and passenger rates and +other such matters. Telephone and express companies are also +subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an appeal may +be made to the governor-general in council, <i>i.e.</i> to the federal +cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways +and has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a somewhat +similar commission, appointed by the local government, +exercises extensive powers of control over railways solely +within the province, especially over the electric lines.</p> + +<p>Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain +important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers +ply on lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far +northern districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary +obstacles are surmounted by canals, on which over £22,000,000 +have been spent, chiefly since federation. The St Lawrence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +river canal system from Lake Superior to tide water overcomes +a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large quantities of +grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer navigation +on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft. +on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels +on equal terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most +modern character. So great, however, is the desire to shorten +the time and distance necessary for the transportation of grain +from Lake Superior to Montreal that an increasing quantity +is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron and Georgian Bay +ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller canals +bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the +Hudson river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn +lumber of Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick find their +destination. It has long been a Canadian ideal to shorten the +distance from Lake Superior to the sea. With this object +in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been built, +connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of +Lake Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently +surveys were made with a view to connecting the Georgian +Bay through the intervening water stretches, with the Ottawa +river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903 all tolls were +taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of trade.</p> + +<p><i>Mining</i>.—The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton +to the islands in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova +Scotia, British Columbia and the Yukon are still the most +productive, but the northern parts of Ontario are proving +rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly bituminous, occurs +in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia and in +various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the +anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater +part of the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus +of federal bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel, +chiefly from imported ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on +certain minerals and metals are also given by some of the +provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though still valuable, +show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the centre +of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly +in American hands, and the product exported to the United +States. Of the less important minerals, Canada is the world’s +chief producer of asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver +and all the important metals are mined in the Rocky Mountain +district. From Quebec westwards, vast regions are still partly, +or completely, unexplored.</p> + +<p><i>Lumber</i>.—In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by +fire, the forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the +world. Measures have been taken, both by the provincial and +the federal governments, for its preservation, and for re-forestation +of depleted areas. Certain provinces prohibit the exportation +of logs to the United States, in order to promote the growth +of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware within the +country, and the latter have of late years developed with great +rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered +from lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the +greater demand from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. +A great development has also taken place in Ontario and the +eastern provinces, through the use of spruce and other trees, +long considered comparatively useless, in the manufacture of +wood-pulp for paper-making.</p> + +<p><i>Crown Lands</i>.—Large areas of unoccupied land remain in +all the provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba, +Saskatchewan, Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British +Columbia and the territories, these crown lands are chiefly +owned by the federal parliament; in the other provinces, by +the local legislatures. So great is their extent that, in spite +of the immigration of recent years, the Dominion government +gives a freehold of 160 acres to every <i>bona fide</i> settler, subject +to certain conditions of residence and the erection of buildings +during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold +or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by +the provinces must be paid for, save in certain districts of +Ontario, where free grants are given, but the price charged is +low. The Canadian Pacific railway controls large land areas +in the two new provinces; and large tracts in these provinces +are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion and the +provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be +preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of +these the most extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff, +Alberta, owned by the Dominion government, and the “Algonquin +National Park,” north-east of Lake Simcoe, the property +of Ontario.</p> + +<p><i>Fisheries</i>.—The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic +coast, carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, +Prince Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec. +Cod, herring, mackerel and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught, +though halibut, salmon, anchovies and so-called sardines are +also exported. Bounties to encourage deep-sea fishing have +been given by the federal government since 1882. In British +Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in addition to +which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and shellfish. +The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish, +sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find +more or less permanent employment in the fishing industry, +including the majority of the Indians of British Columbia.</p> + +<p>The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent +in the North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria, +but the returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as +one causing friction with the United States. Indeed, no department +of national life has caused more continual trouble between +the two peoples than the fisheries, owing to different laws +regarding fish protection, and the constant invasion by each +of the territorial waters of the other.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—The British North America Act imposes on the +provincial legislatures the duty of legislating on educational +matters, the privileges of the denominational and separate +schools in Ontario and Quebec being specially safeguarded. In +1871, the New Brunswick legislature abolished the separate +school system, and a contest arose which was finally settled by +the authority of the legislature being sustained, though certain +concessions were made to the Roman Catholic dissentients. +Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where the +legislature in 1890 abolished the system of separate schools +which had been established in 1871. After years of bitter +controversy, in which a federal ministry was overthrown, a +compromise was arranged in 1897, in which the Roman Catholic +leaders have never fully acquiesced. In the provinces of Alberta +and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain educational privileges, +(though not amounting to a separate school system) were +granted to the Roman Catholics.</p> + +<p>All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of +education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read +and write, and 86% of those over five years of age. These +percentages have gradually risen ever since federation, especially +in the province of Quebec, which was long in a backward state. +The school systems of all the provinces are, in spite of certain +imperfections, efficient and well-equipped, that of Ontario +being especially celebrated. A fuller account of their special +features will be found under the articles on the different +provinces.</p> + +<p>Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in +number with the growth of the country in wealth and culture. +In Quebec are a number of so-called classical colleges, most of +them affiliated with Laval University.</p> + +<p>Higher education was originally organized by the various +religious bodies, each of which retains at least one university +in more or less integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick, +Ontario and Manitoba support provincial universities at +Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg. Those of most importance<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +are:—Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. (1818); the University +of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800); McGill +University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec, +and Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont. +(1841); the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> +Trinity University, Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria University, +Toronto, Ont. (1836); the University of Ottawa, +Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, +Man. (1877).</p> + +<p>Of these McGill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montreal</a></span>) is especially noted for the +excellence of its training in practical and applied science. Many +of the students, especially in the departments of medicine and +theology, complete their education in the United States, Britain +or Europe.</p> + +<p>Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries, +that of Toronto being especially well-equipped.</p> + +<p>Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is +the Royal Society of Canada, founded in 1881.</p> + +<p><i>Defence</i>.—The command in chief of all naval and military +forces is vested in the king, but their control rests with the +federal parliament. The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries +protection service, are under the minister of marine and fisheries, +the land forces under the minister of militia and defence. Prior +to 1903, command of the latter was vested in a British officer, +but since then has been entrusted to a militia council, of which +the minister is president. The fortified harbours of Halifax +(N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905 maintained and +garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since been +taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the +permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had numbered +about 1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in +various schools, chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In +this all able-bodied citizens between the ages of 18 and 60 are +nominally enrolled, but the active militia consists of about +45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying state of efficiency. These +cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion, though +special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was done +during the war in South Africa (1899-1902). At Quebec is a +Dominion arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps +flourish in most of the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the +Royal Military College, to the successful graduates of which a +certain number of commissions in the British service is annually +awarded.</p> + +<p><i>Justice and Crime</i>.—Justice is well administered throughout +the country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has +been little of the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia +and the United States. For this great credit is due to the +“North-west mounted police,” the “Riders of the Plains,” +a highly efficient body of about seven hundred men, under the +control of the federal government. Judges are appointed for +life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed save by +impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never +attempted since federation, though more than once threatened. +From the decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be +made to the judicial committee of the imperial privy council.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The Canadian Geological Survey has published +(Ottawa, since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number +of subjects. Several provinces have bureaus or departments of +mines, also issuing reports. The various departments of the federal +and the provincial governments publish annual reports and frequent +special reports, such as the decennial report on the census, from +which a vast quantity of information may be obtained. Most of this is +summed up in the annual <i>Statistical Year Book of Canada</i> and in the +<i>Official Handbook of the Dominion of Canada</i>, issued at frequent +intervals by the Department of the Interior. See also J.W. White +(the Dominion geographer), <i>Atlas of Canada</i> (1906); J. Castell +Hopkins, <i>Canada: an Encyclopaedia</i> (6 vols., 1898-1900); <i>The +Canadian Annual Review</i> (yearly since 1902), replacing H.J. +Morgan’s <i>Canadian Annual Register</i> (1878-1886); Sir J.W. Dawson, +<i>Handbook of Canadian Geology</i> (1889); George Johnson, <i>Alphabet +of First Things in Canada</i> (3rd ed., 1898); A.G. Bradley, <i>Canada +in the Twentieth Century</i> (1903); <i>Transactions of the Royal Society +of Canada</i> (yearly since 1883); R.C. Breckenridge, <i>The Canadian +Banking System</i> (1895); A. Shortt, <i>History of Canadian Banking</i> +(1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, <i>The Intercolonial</i> (1876); John +Davidson, “Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces” +(<i>Economic Journal,</i> June 1905); <i>Transactions of the Royal Society +of Canada, passim</i>, for valuable papers by H.M. Ami, A.P. Coleman, +G.M. Dawson, W.F. Ganong, B.J. Harrington and others; also +articles in <i>Canadian Economics</i> and in the <i>Handbook of Canada,</i> +published on the occasion of visits of the British Association.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L. G.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Agriculture</p> + +<p>Canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of the +total population (estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are +directly engaged in practical agriculture. In addition large +numbers are engaged in industries arising out of agriculture; +among these are manufacturers of agricultural implements, +millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and packers of meat, makers +of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in the transportation +and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats, butter, cheese, +milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. The country is +splendidly formed for the production of food. Across the +continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or +wider than France, with (over a large part of this area) a climate +adapted to the production of foods of superior quality. Since +the opening of the 20th century, great progress has been made +in the settlement and agricultural development of the western +territories between the provinces of Manitoba and British +Columbia. The three “North-West Provinces” (Manitoba, +Saskatchewan, Alberta) have a total area of 369,869,898 acres, +of which 12,853,120 acres are water. In 1906 their population +was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1901. The land in +this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are +very rich in the constituents of plant food. Chemical analyses +made by Mr F.T. Shutt have proved that soils from the North-West +Provinces contain an average of 18,000 ℔ of nitrogen, +15,580 ℔ of potash and 6,700 ℔ of phosphoric acid per acre, +these important elements of plant food being therefore present +in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary cultivated +European soils of good quality. The prairie lands of Manitoba +and Saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. Horse +and cattle ranching is practised in Alberta, where the milder +winters allow of the outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater +degree than is possible in the colder parts of Canada. The +freezing of the soil in winter, which at first sight seems a drawback, +retains the soluble nitrates which might otherwise be drained out. +The copious snowfall protects vegetation, supplies moisture, and +contributes nitrogen to the soil. The geographical position of +Canada, its railway systems and steamship service for freight +across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, are favourable to the +extension of the export trade in farm products to European and +oriental countries. Great progress has been made in the development +of the railway systems of Canada, and the new transcontinental +line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, passing through +Saskatchewan via Saskatoon, and Alberta via Edmonton, +renders possible of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing +soil. The canal system of Canada, linking together the great +natural waterways, is also of much present and prospective +importance in cheapening the transportation of agricultural +produce.</p> + +<p>Of <i>wheat</i> many varieties are grown. The methods of cultivation +do not involve the application of so much hand labour per +acre as in Europe. The average yield of wheat for the +whole of Canada is nearly 20 bushels per acre. In +<span class="sidenote">Crops</span> +1901 the total production of wheat in Canada was 55½ million +bushels. In 1906 the estimated total production was 136 +million bushels. The total wheat acreage, which at the census +of 1901 was 4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of +nearly two million acres in five years.</p> + +<p>Up to the close of the 19th century, Ontario was the largest +wheat-growing province in Canada. In 1900 the wheat acreage +in Ontario was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an +average yield of 19.10 bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of +this production was of fall or winter wheat, the average yield +of which in Ontario over a series of years since 1883 had been +about 20 bushels per acre. But the predominance in wheat-growing +has now shifted to the new prairie regions of the west. +A census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of wheat in +the North-West Provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824 +bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21.84 bushels +per acre. Of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in +Manitoba, 2,117,484 acres in Saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +in Alberta, with average yields per acre at the rates of 20.02 +bushels in Manitoba, 23.70 in Saskatchewan and 26.49 in Alberta. +In these provinces spring wheat is almost universally sown, +except in Alberta where fall or winter wheat is also sown to a +considerable extent. Summer fallowing for wheat is a practice +that has gained ground in the North-West Provinces. Land +ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the +summer, is sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring. +Wheat on summer fallow land yielded, according to the North-West +census of 1906, from 2 to 8 bushels per acre more than that +sown on other land. Summer fallowing is, however, subject to +one drawback: the strong growth which it induces is apt to +retard the ripening of the grain. Canada is clearly destined to +rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries of +the world. The northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have +not been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat +were grown in 1907 at Fort Vermilion on the Peace river, nearly +600 m. north of Winnipeg in lat. 58.34 and at Fort Simpson on +the Mackenzie river in lat. 61.52, more than 800 m. north of +Winnipeg and about 1000 m. north of the United States +boundary. As a rule the weather during the harvesting period +permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage from +sprouting. Occasionally in certain localities in the north-west +the grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as +the proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate +becomes modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less. +The loss from this cause is also less than formerly, because +any grain unfit for export is now readily purchased for the +feeding of animals in Ontario and other parts of eastern +Canada.</p> + +<p>Suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in +general use, so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat +is ground. This gives Canadian wheat excellent milling properties, +and enables the millers to turn out flour uniform in +quality and of high grade as to keeping properties. Canadian +flour has a high reputation in European markets. It is known +as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread, +and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albuminoids +being greater in Canadian flour than in the best brands of +European. Owing to its possession of this characteristic of what +millers term “strength,” <i>i.e.</i> the relative capacity of flour to +make large loaves of good quality, Canadian flour is largely in +demand for blending with the flour of the softer English wheats. +For this reason some of the strong Canadian wheats have commanded +in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter more than +English-grown wheat. At the general census of 1901 the number +of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five +persons and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes +being 4251 and the value of products $31,835,873. A special +census of manufactures in 1906 shows that these figures had +grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619 employes and +$56,703,269 value of the products. There is room for a great +extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and +exportation of flour.</p> + +<p>In the twelve months of 1907 Canada exported 37,503,057 +bushels of wheat of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485 +barrels of flour of the value of $7,626,408. The corresponding +figures in 1900 were—wheat, 16,844,650 bushels, value, $11,995,488, +and flour, 768,162 bushels, value, $2,791,885.</p> + +<p>Oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from Prince +Edward Island on the Atlantic coast to Vancouver Island on the +Pacific coast. Over large areas the Canadian soil and climate +are admirably adapted for producing oats of heavy weight per +bushel. In all the provinces of eastern Canada the acreage under +oats greatly exceeds that under wheat. The annual average +oat crop in all Canada is estimated at about 248 million bushels. +As the total annual export of oats is now less than three million +bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an advantage +in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In 1907 the area under +oats in Ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301 +bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage +under hay and larger than the combined total of the other +principal cereals grown in the province. Canadian oatmeal is +equal in quality to the best. It is prepared in different forms, +and in various degrees of fineness.</p> + +<p>Barley was formerly grown for export to the United States +for malting purposes. After the raising of the duty on barley +under the McKinley and Dingley tariffs that trade was practically +destroyed and Canadian farmers were obliged to find other uses +for this crop. Owing to the development of the trade with the +mother-country in dairying and meat products, barley as a home +feeding material has become more indispensable than ever. +Before the adoption of the McKinley tariff about nine million +bushels of barley were exported annually, involving the loss of +immense stores of plant food. In 1907, with an annual production +of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage was +exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of +produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. The +preparation of pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry.</p> + +<p>Rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human +food. Flour from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from Indian +corn are preferred.</p> + +<p>Buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some +districts for the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple +syrup. These two make an excellent breakfast dish, characteristic +of Canada and some of the New England states. There are +also numerous forms of preparations from cereals, sold as breakfast +foods, which, owing to the high quality of the grains grown +in Canada and the care exercised in their manufacture, compare +favourably with similar products in other countries.</p> + +<p>Peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with +insect pests. Split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and +sweet peas for canning are obtained of good quality.</p> + +<p>Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of +the diet of the people. There is a comparatively small export, +except in the case of turnips and potatoes and of vegetables +which have been canned or dried. Besides potatoes, which +thrive well and yield large quantities of excellent quality, there +are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. The cultivation of +sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been established +in Ontario and in southern Alberta, where in 1906 an acreage +under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of +8.13 tons per acre. Among the common vegetables used in the +green state are peas, beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus, +Indian corn, onions, leeks, tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery, +parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash and rhubarb. Hay, of +good quality of timothy (<i>Phleum pratense</i>), and also of timothy +and clover, is grown over extensive areas. For export it is put +up in bales of about 150 ℔ each. Since 1899 a new form of +pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to +stow in about 70 cub. ft. per ton. This has been a means of +reducing the ocean freight per ton. The compact condition +permits the hay to be kept with less deterioration of quality +than under the old system of more loose baling. Austrian brome +grass (<i>Bromus inermis</i>) and western rye grass (<i>Agropyrum +tenerum</i>) are both extensively grown for hay in the North-West +Provinces.</p> + +<p>The almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns +has not led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to +the extent that was at one time anticipated. Heavy +draught horses are reared in Ontario, and to a less +<span class="sidenote">Live stock.</span> +but increasing extent in the North-West Provinces, +the breeds being mainly the Clydesdale and the Shire. +Percherons are also bred in different parts of Canada, and a +few Belgian draught horses have been introduced. Good +horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs, omnibuses, +and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local +markets and for export. Thoroughbred and pure bred hackney +stallions are maintained in private studs and by agricultural +associations throughout the Dominion, and animals for cavalry +and mounted infantry remounts are produced in all the provinces +including those of the North-West. Useful carriage horses +and saddle horses are bred in many localities. Horse ranching +is practised largely in Alberta. There are no government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> +stud farms. The total number of horses in the Dominion was +estimated on the basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the +year 1907, an increase of 609,309 since 1901.</p> + +<p>Cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance. +The bracing weather of Canadian winters is followed by the +warmth and humidity of genial summers, under which crops +grow in almost tropical luxuriance, while the cool evenings and +nights give the plants a robustness of quality which is not +to be found in tropical regions, and also make life for the various +domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. In the North-West +Provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which +cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks +are shipped annually. Throughout other parts bullocks are +fed on pasture land, and also in stables on nourishing and +succulent feed such as hay, Indian corn fodder, Indian corn +silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats, barley, peas, +Indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. The breeding +of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of +dairy cows for the production of milk, butter and cheese, +has received much attention. There is government control of +the spaces on the steamships in which the cattle are carried, +and veterinary inspection prevents the exportation of diseased +animals.</p> + +<p>A considerable trade has been established in the exportation +of dressed beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation +of meat and other foods in hermetically sealed receptacles. +By the Meat and Canned Foods Act of 1907 of the Dominion +parliament and regulations thereunder, the trade is carried +on under the strictest government supervision, and no canned +articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely +wholesome and officially marked as such by government +inspectors. There is a considerable trade in “lunch tongues.”</p> + +<p>The cattle breeds are principally those of British origin. +For beef, shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways and Aberdeen-Angus +cattle are bred largely, whilst for dairying purposes, +shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys, Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians +prevail. The French-Canadian cattle are highly esteemed in +eastern Canada, especially by the farmers of the French provinces. +They are a distinct breed of Jersey and Brittany type, and +are stated to be descended from animals imported from France +by the early settlers. The estimated number of cattle in Canada +in 1907 was 7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures +of the census of 1901.</p> + +<p>All parts of the Dominion are well adapted for sheep; but +various causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity +of other branches of agriculture, including wheat-growing and +dairying, have in several of the provinces contributed to prevent +that attention to this branch which its importance deserves, +though there are large areas of rolling, rugged yet nutritious +pastures well suited to sheep-farming. In the maritime provinces +and in Prince Edward Island sheep and lambs are reared in large +numbers. In Ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree +of perfection, and other parts of the American continent draw +their supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province. +All the leading British varieties are reared, the Shropshire, +Oxford Down, Leicester and Cotswold breeds being most +numerous. There are also excellent flocks of Lincolns and Southdowns. +The number of sheep and lambs in Canada was estimated +for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565 +in 1901.</p> + +<p>Pigs, mostly of the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth +breeds, are reared and fattened in large numbers, and there +is a valuable export trade in bacon. Canadian hogs are fed, +as a rule, on feeds suited for the production of what are known +as “fleshy sides.” Bacon with an excess of fat is not wanted, +except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers of +Canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having +plenty of lean and firm flesh. The great extension of the dairy +business has fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of +swine. Experimental work has shown that swine fattened with +a ration partly of skim-milk were lustier and of a more healthy +appearance than swine fattened wholly on grains. Slaughtering +and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing houses. The +use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork +has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a +small percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered +in European markets. Regular supplies are exported during +every week of the year. Large quantities of lard, brawn and +pigs’ feet are exported. In 1907 the number of pigs in Canada +was estimated at 3,530,060, an increase of 1,237,385 over the +census record of 1901. Turkeys thrive well, grow to a fine +size and have flesh of tender quality. Chickens are raised +in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly +since the opening of the 20th century. Canadian eggs are +usually packed in cases containing thirty dozens each. Cardboard +fillers are used which provide a separate compartment +for each egg. There are cold storage warehouses at various +points in Canada, at which the eggs are collected, sorted and +packed before shipment. These permit the eggs to be landed +in Europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with +the shells quite full.</p> + +<p>Canada has been called the land of milk and honey. Milk +is plentiful, and enters largely into the diet of the people. +With a climate which produces healthy, vigorous animals, +notably free from epizootic diseases, with a fertile +<span class="sidenote">Dairy products.</span> +soil for the growth of fodder crops and pasture, with +abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful supply +of ice, the conditions in Canada are ideal for the dairying +industry. Large quantities of condensed milk, put up in +hermetically sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and +on board steamships. The cheese is chiefly of the variety known +as “Canadian Cheddar.” It is essentially a food cheese rather +than a mere condiment, and 1 ℔ of it will furnish as much +nourishing material as 2¼ ℔ of the best beefsteak. The industry +is largely carried on by co-operative associations of farmers. +The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864, +and from that time the production and exportation of cheese +grew rapidly. Legislation was passed to protect Canadian +dairy produce from dishonest manipulation, and soon Canadian +cheese obtained a deservedly high reputation in the British +markets. In 1891 cheese factories and creameries numbered +1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. In 1908 there were 4355 +of these factories, of which 1284 were in Ontario, 2806 in +Quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of Canada. +Those in Ontario are the largest in size. Amongst the British +imports of cheese the Canadian product ranks first in quality, +whilst in quantity it represents about 72% of the total value +of the cheese imports, and 84% of the total value of the imports +of that kind of cheese which is classed as Cheddar. In 1906 +the total exports of cheese to all countries from Canada reached +215,834,543 ℔ of the value of $24,433,169.</p> + +<p>Butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk, +cream and butter are handled by skilled makers. The creameries +are provided with special cold storage rooms, into which the +butter is placed on the same day in which it is made. From them +it is carried in refrigerator railway cars and in cold storage +chambers on steamships to its ultimate destination. For the +export trade it is packed in square boxes made of spruce or +some other odourless wood. These are lined with parchment +paper, and contain each 56 ℔ net of butter. The total export of +butter from Canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 ℔., of the value +of $7,075,539. According to a census of manufactures taken +in 1906, the total value of factory cheese and butter made in +Canada during that year was $32,402,265.</p> + +<p>There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes +and westward of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine +quality can be grown; and there are other smaller +areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are grown +<span class="sidenote">Fruits.</span> +in quantities in the open air. The climate is favourable to the +growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants, +gooseberries, etc. There are many localities in which cranberries +are successfully grown, and in which blueberries also +grow wild in great profusion.</p> + +<p>Apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> +high flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities +of the Canadian apples are their chief merits. Apples are +exported in barrels and also in boxes containing about one +bushel each. Large quantities are also evaporated and exported. +Establishments for evaporating fruit are now found in most +of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning factories and +jam factories have been established in many parts of Canada, and +are conducted with advantage and profit.</p> + +<p>The chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern +and western Ontario and in Nova Scotia; but recently much +attention has been devoted to fruit-growing in British Columbia, +where large areas of suitable land are available for the cultivation +of apples, pears and other fruits. In some parts of the semi-arid +districts in the interior of the province irrigation is being +successfully practised for the purpose of bringing land under +profitable cultivation for fruit. Collections of fruit grown in +British Columbia have received premier honours at the competitive +exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in London, +where their high quality and fine colour have been greatly +appreciated.</p> + +<p>Wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal +vine-growing districts, and in several localities large vineyards +have been planted for this purpose. An abundance of cider +is also made in all the large apple-growing districts.</p> + +<p>Honey is one of the minor food-products of Canada, and +in many localities bees have abundance of pasturage. Canadian +honey for colour, flavour and substance is unsurpassed. Maple +sugar and syrup are made in those areas of the country where +the sugar-maple tree flourishes. The syrup is used chiefly +as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and the sugar is +used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes +and for the making of confectionery. The processes of manufacture +have been improved by the introduction of specially +constructed evaporators, and quantities of maple sugar and +syrup are annually exported.</p> + +<p>Tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in Canada +since 1904. Its cultivation promises to be successful in parts +of Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia.</p> + +<p>The department of agriculture of the Dominion government +renders aid to agriculture in many ways, maintaining the +experimental farms and various effective organizations +for assisting the live-stock, dairying and fruit-growing +<span class="sidenote">State aid.</span> +industries, for testing the germination and purity of +agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in +agricultural and dairy produce. The health of animals branch, +through which are administered the laws relating to the +contagious diseases of animals, and the control of quarantine +and inspection stations for imported animals, undertakes also +valuable experiments on the diseases of farm livestock, including +glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &c. The policy of +slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been successfully +initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts +of the country indicating a considerable decrease from the +previous year in the number of horses destroyed and the amount +of compensation paid. A disease of cattle in Nova Scotia, +known as the Pictou cattle disease, long treated as contagious, +has now been demonstrated by the veterinary officers of the +department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the ragwort, +<i>Senecio Jacobea</i>. Hog cholera or swine fever has been almost +eradicated. A laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and +pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive +vaccines. Canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia +and foot-and-mouth disease.</p> + +<p>The work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the +improvement of the stock-raising industry, and is carried on +through the agencies of expert teachers and stock judges, the +systematic distribution of pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly +testing of pure-bred dairy herds, the supervision of the accuracy +of the registration of pure-bred animals and the nationalization +of live-stock records. The last two objects are secured by act +of the Dominion parliament passed in 1905. Under this act +a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud, +herd and flock book associations of Canada, perform the duties +of accepting the entries of pure-bred animals for the respective +pedigree registers, and are provided with an office and with +stationery and franking privileges by the government. Pedigree +certificates are certified as correct by an officer of the department +of agriculture, so that in Canada there exist national registration +and government authority for the accuracy of pedigree livestock +certificates. The government promotes the extension +of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the +United Kingdom who make reports from time to time on the +condition in which Canadian goods are delivered from the steamships, +and also on what they can learn from importing and +distributing merchants regarding the preferences of the market +for different qualities of farm goods and different sorts of packages. +Through this branch of the public service a complete chain of +cold-storage accommodation between various points in Canada +and markets in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, has been +arranged. The government offered a bonus to those owners of +creameries who would provide cold-storage accommodation at +them and keep the room in use for a period of three years. It also +arranged with the various railway companies to run refrigerator +cars weekly on the main lines leading to Montreal and other +export points. The food-products from any shippers are received +into these cars at the various railway stations at the usual +rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service. +The government offered subventions to those who would provide +cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were +necessary, and also arranged with the owners of ocean steamships +to provide cold-storage chambers on them by means of +mechanical refrigerators. The policy of encouraging the provision +of ample cold-storage accommodation has been developed +still further by the Cold Storage Act of the Dominion parliament +passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part payment +of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage warehouses +in Canada for the preservation of perishable food-products.</p> + +<p>Besides furnishing technical and general information as to +the carrying on of dairying operations, the government has +established and maintained illustration cheese factories and +creameries in different places for the purpose of introducing the +best methods of co-operative dairying in both the manufacturing +and shipping of butter and cheese. Inspectors are employed +to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to +see to the enforcement of the Fruit Marks Acts, which prohibit +the marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any +fraudulent manner.</p> + +<p>The seed branch of the department of agriculture was established +in 1900 for the purpose of encouraging the production and +use of seeds of superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of +field and garden crops grown in Canada. Seeds are tested in +the laboratory for purity and germination on behalf of farmers +and seed merchants, and scientific investigations relating to +seeds are conducted and reported upon. In the year 1906-1907 +6676 samples of seeds were tested. Encouragement to seed-growing +is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are +issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against +smut and on other subjects. Collections of weed seeds are +issued to merchants and others to enable them readily to identify +noxious weed seeds. The Seed Control Act of 1905 brings under +strict regulations the trade in agricultural seeds, prohibiting +the sale for seeding of cereals, grasses, clovers or forage plants +unless free from weeds specified, and imposing severe penalties +for infringements.</p> + +<p>The census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the +department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census +of population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the +natural products of the Dominion every ten years, a census of +the population and agriculture of the three North-West Provinces +every five years, and various supplemental statistical inquiries +at shorter intervals.</p> + +<p>Experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts +of the Dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> +to the farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the +same time to cover the varied climatic and other conditions +which influence agriculture in Canada. The central experimental +<span class="sidenote">Experimental farms.</span> +farm is situated at Ottawa, near the boundary line +between Quebec and Ontario, where it serves as an aid +to agriculture in these two important provinces. One +of the four branch farms then established is at Nappan, +Nova Scotia, near the boundary between that province and New +Brunswick, where it serves the farmers of the three maritime +provinces. A second branch experimental farm is at Brandon +in Manitoba, a third is at Indian Head in Saskatchewan and +the fourth is at Agassiz in the coast climate of British Columbia. +In 1906-1907 two new branch farms were established. One is +situated at Lethbridge, southern Alberta, where problems will +be investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and +dry farming under conditions of a scanty rainfall. The other +is at Lacombe, northern Alberta, about 70 m. south of Edmonton, +in the centre of a good agricultural district on the Canadian +Pacific railway. Additional branch farms in different parts of +the Dominion are in process of establishment. At all these +farms experiments are conducted to gain information as to the +best methods of preparing the land for crop and of maintaining +its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow, and +how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest +advantage. To this end experiments are conducted in the +feeding of cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows +for the production of milk, and Of poultry both for flesh and eggs. +Experiments are also conducted to test the merits of new or +untried varieties of cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage +plants, fruits, vegetables, plants and trees; and samples, +particularly of the most promising cereals, are distributed +freely among farmers for trial, so that those which promise to +be most profitable may be rapidly brought into general cultivation. +Annual reports and occasional bulletins are published +and widely distributed, giving the results of this work. Farmers +are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large correspondence +is conducted with those interested in agriculture in +all parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and +information from the officers of the farms.</p> + +<p>The governments of the several provinces each have a department +of agriculture. Among other provincial agencies for +imparting information there are farmers’ institutes, +travelling dairies, live-stock associations, farmers’, +<span class="sidenote">Agricultural organizations and education.</span> +dairymen’s, seed-growers’, and fruit-growers’ associations, +and agricultural and horticultural societies. +These are all maintained or assisted by the several +provinces. Parts of the proceedings and many of the addresses +and papers presented at the more important meetings of +these associations are published by the provincial governments, +and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them. There +are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important +character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural +and horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &c., are +shown in competition. The Dominion government makes in +turn to one of the chief local agricultural exhibition societies a +grant of $50,000 for the purposes of the national representation +of agriculture and live-stock. The exhibition receiving the grant +loses its local character, and thus becomes the Dominion exhibition +or fair for that year.</p> + +<p>There are several important agricultural colleges for the +practical education of young men in farming, foremost amongst +them being the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. Agricultural +colleges are also maintained at Truro, Nova Scotia, +and Winnipeg, Manitoba. In most of the provinces are dairy +schools where practical instruction and training are given. +Since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education +and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by +the munificence of Sir William C. Macdonald of Montreal. A +donation by him of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on +Canadian farms for prizes in a competition for the selection of +seed grain, as recommended by Professor J.W. Robertson, led +to the Macdonald-Robertson Seed Growers’ Association. This +soon assumed national proportions in the Canadian Seed Growers’ +Association, which, with the seed branch of the department of +agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a +uniform standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas +of the Canadian wheat-fields. The Macdonald Institute at +Guelph, Ontario, the buildings and equipment of which Sir +William provided at a cost of $182,500, and the Macdonald +College at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. west of Montreal, have +been established to promote the cause of rural education upon +the lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training +domestic science, &c., which on both sides of the Atlantic are +now being found so effective in the hands of properly trained +and enthusiastic teachers. The property of the Macdonald +College at Ste Anne de Bellevue comprises 561 acres, of which +74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research plots, 100 acres +to a <i>petite culture</i> farm and 387 acres to a live-stock and +grain farm. The college includes a school for teachers, a school +of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of household +science for the training of young women. The land, buildings +and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were +presented by Sir William Macdonald, who in addition has provided +for the future maintenance of the work by a trust fund of +over $2,000,000. In connexion with the public elementary schools +throughout Canada, where the principles of agriculture are taught +to some extent, manual training centres, provided out of funds +supplied by the same public-spirited donor, are now maintained +by local and provincial public school authorities.</p> +<div class="author">(E. H. G.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">History</p> + +<p>About <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, led an expedition +from Greenland to the shores probably of what is now Canada, +but the first effective contact of Europeans with Canada +was not until the end of the 15th century. John +<span class="sidenote">Discovery.</span> +Cabot (<i>q.v.</i>), sailing from Bristol, reached the shores of Canada +in 1497. Soon after fishermen from Europe began to go in +considerable numbers to the Newfoundland banks, and in time +to the coasts of the mainland of America. In 1534 a French +expedition under Jacques Cartier, a seaman of St Malo, sent +out by Francis I., entered the Gulf of St Lawrence. In the +following year Cartier sailed up the river as far as the Lachine +Rapids, to the spot where Montreal now stands. During the +next sixty years the fisheries and the fur trade received some +attention, but no colonization was undertaken.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the 17th century we find the first great +name in Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (<i>q.v.</i>), who +had seen service under Henry IV. of France, was +employed in the interests of successive fur-trading +<span class="sidenote">French colony.</span> +monopolies and sailed up the St Lawrence in 1603. +In the next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share +in founding the first permanent French colony in North America—that +of Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia. In 1608 +he began the settlement which was named Quebec. From 1608 +to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to develop +Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore +the interior. He passed southward from the St Lawrence to +the beautiful lake which still bears his name and also westward, +up the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching +the shores of China. He reached Lake Huron and Lake Ontario, +but not the great lakes stretching still farther west.</p> + +<p>The era was that of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), and +during that great upheaval England was sometimes fighting +France. Already, in 1613, the English from Virginia had +almost completely wiped out the French settlement at Port +Royal, and when in 1629 a small English fleet appeared at +Quebec, Champlain was forced to surrender. But in 1632 +Canada was restored to France by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye. +Just at this time was formed under the aegis of Cardinal +Richelieu the “Company of New France,” known popularly +as “The Company of One Hundred Associates.” With 120 +members it was granted the whole St Lawrence valley; for +fifteen years from 1629 it was to have a complete monopoly +of trade; and products from its territory were to enter France +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span> +free of duty. In return the company was to take to New +France 300 colonists a year; only French Catholics might +go; and for each settlement the company was to provide +three priests. Until 1663 this company controlled New +France.</p> + +<p>It was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman Catholic church, +and Canada became the favourite mission. The Society of +Jesus was only one of several orders—Franciscans (Recollets), +Sulpicians, Ursulines, &c.—who worked in New France. The +Jesuits have attracted chief attention, not merely on account +of their superior zeal and numbers, but also because of the +tragic fate of some of their missionaries in Canada. In the +voluminous <i>Relations</i> of their doings the story has been preserved. +Among the Huron Indians, whose settlements bordered on the +lake of that name, they secured a great influence. But there was +relentless war between the Hurons and the Iroquois occupying +the southern shore of Lake Ontario, and when in 1649 the +Iroquois ruined and almost completely destroyed the Hurons, +the Jesuit missionaries also fell victims to the conquerors’ +rage. Missionaries to the Iroquois themselves met with a similar +fate and the missions failed. Commercial life also languished. +The company planned by Richelieu was not a success. It did +little to colonize New France, and in 1660, after more than thirty +years of its monopoly, there were not more than 2000 French +in the whole country. In 1663 the charter of the company +was revoked. No longer was a trading company to discharge +the duties of a sovereign. New France now became a royal +province, with governor, intendant, &c., on the model of the +provinces of France.</p> + +<p>In 1664 a new “Company of the West Indies” (<i>Compagnie +des Indes Occidentales</i>) was organized to control French trade +and colonization not only in Canada but also in West Africa, +South America and the West Indies. At first it promised well. +In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent to Canada; the +European population was soon doubled, and Louis XIV. began +to take a personal interest in the colony. But once more, +in contrast with English experience, the great trading company +proved a failure in French hands as a colonizing agent, and in +1674 its charter was summarily revoked by Louis XIV. Henceforth +in name, if not in fact, monopoly is ended in Canada.</p> + +<p>By this time French explorers were pressing forward to +unravel the mystery of the interior. By 1659 two Frenchmen, +Radisson and Groseillers, had penetrated beyond the great +lakes to the prairies of the far West; they were probably the +first Europeans to see the Mississippi. By 1666 a French +mission was established on the shores of Lake Superior, and +in 1673 Joliet and Marquette, explorers from Canada, reached +and for some distance descended the Mississippi. Five years +later Cavelier de la Salle was making his toilsome way westward +from Quebec to discover the true character of the great river +and to perform the feat, perilous in view of the probable hostility +of the natives, of descending it to the sea. In 1682 he accomplished +his task, took possession of the valley of the Mississippi +in the name of Louis XIV. and called it Louisiana. Thus +from Canada as her basis was France reaching out to grasp +a continent.</p> + +<p>There was a keen rivalry between church and state for +dominance in this new empire. In 1659 arrived at Quebec +a young prelate of noble birth, Francois Xavier de Laval-Montmorency, +who had come to rule the church in Canada. +An ascetic, who practised the whole cycle of medieval austerities, +he was determined that Canada should be ruled by the church, +and he desired for New France a Puritanism as strict as that +of New England. His especial zeal was directed towards the +welfare of the Indians. These people showed, to their own +ruin, a reckless liking for the brandy of the white man. Laval +insisted that the traders should not supply brandy to the natives. +He declared excommunicate any one who did so and for a +time he triumphed. More than once he drove from Canada +governors who tried to thwart him. In 1663 he was actually +invited to choose a governor after his own mind and did so, +but with no cessation of the old disputes. In 1672 Louis de +Buade, comte de Frontenac (<i>q.v.</i>), was named governor of New +France, and in him the church found her match. Yet not +at once; for, after a bitter struggle, he was recalled in 1682. +But Canada needed him. He knew how to control the ferocious +Iroquois, who had cut off France from access to Lake Ontario; +to check them he had built a fort where now stands the city +of Kingston. With Frontenac gone, these savages almost +strangled the colony. On a stormy August night in 1689 +1500 Iroquois burst in on the village of Lachine near Montreal, +butchered 200 of its people, and carried off more than 100 to +be tortured to death at their leisure. Then the strong man +Frontenac was recalled to face the crisis.</p> + +<p>It was a critical era. James II. had fallen in England, and +William III. was organizing Europe against French aggression. +France’s plan for a great empire in America was +now taking shape and there, as in Europe, a deadly +<span class="sidenote">Struggles with England.</span> +struggle with England was inevitable. Frontenac +planned attacks upon New England and encouraged +a ruthless border warfare that involved many horrors. Him, +in return, the English attacked. Sir William Phips sailed from +Boston in 1690, conquered Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and then +hazarded the greater task of leading a fleet up the St Lawrence +against Quebec. On the 16th of October 1690 thirty-four +English ships, some of them only fishing craft, appeared in +its basin and demanded the surrender of the town. When +Frontenac answered defiantly, Phips attacked the place; but +he was repulsed and in the end sailed away unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>Each side had now begun to see that the vital point was +control of the interior, which time was to prove the most +extensive fertile area in the world. La Salle’s expedition had +aroused the French to the importance of the Mississippi, and +they soon had a bold plan to occupy it, to close in from the +rear on the English on the Atlantic coast, seize their colonies +and even deport the colonists. The plan was audacious, for +the English in America outnumbered the French by twenty +to one. But their colonies were democracies, disunited because +each was pursuing its own special interests, while the French +were united under despotic leadership. Frontenac attacked +the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these proud savages +to sue for peace. But in the next year was made the treaty +of Ryswick, which brought a pause in the conflict, and in 1698 +Frontenac died.</p> + +<p>After Frontenac the Iroquois, though still hostile to France, +are formidable no more, and the struggle for the continent is +frankly between the English and the French. The peace of +Ryswick proved but a truce, and when in 1701, on the death of +the exiled James II., Louis XIV. flouted the claims of William III. +to the throne of England by proclaiming as king James’s son, +renewed war was inevitable. In Europe it saw the brilliant +victories of Marlborough; in America it was less decisive, but +France lost heavily. Though the English, led by Sir Hovenden +Walker, made in 1711 an effort to take Quebec which proved +abortive, they seized Nova Scotia; and when the treaty of +Utrecht was made in 1713, France admitted defeat in America +by yielding to Britain her claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland +and Nova Scotia. But she still held the shores of the St Lawrence, +and she retained, too, the island of Cape Breton to command its +mouth. There she built speedily the fortress of Louisbourg, and +prepared once more to challenge British supremacy in America. +With a sound instinct that looked to future greatness, France +still aimed, more and more, at the control of the interior of the +Continent. The danger from the Iroquois on Lake Ontario had +long cut her off from the most direct access to the West, and from +the occupation of the Ohio valley leading to the Mississippi, but +now free from this savage scourge she could go where she would. +In 1701 she founded Detroit, commanding the route from Lake +Erie to Lake Huron. Her missionaries and leaders were already +at Sault Ste Marie commanding the approach to Lake Superior, +and at Michilimackinac commanding that to Lake Michigan. +They had also penetrated to what is now the Canadian West, and +it was a French Canadian, La Vérendrye, who, by the route +leading past the point where now stands the city of Winnipeg, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> +pressed on into the far West until in 1743, first recorded of +white men, he came in sight of the Rocky Mountains. In the +south of the continent France also crowned La Salle’s work by +founding early in the 18th century New Orleans at the mouth of +the Mississippi. It was a far cry from New Orleans to Quebec. +If France could link them by a chain of settlements and shut in +the English to their narrow strip of Atlantic seaboard there was +good promise that North America would be hers.</p> + +<p>The project was far-reaching, but France could do little to +make it effective. Louis XV. allowed her navy to decline and +her people showed little inclination for emigration to the colonies. +In 1744, when the war of the Austrian Succession broke out, the +New England colonies planned and in 1745 effected the capture +of Louisbourg, the stronghold of France in Cape Breton Island, +which menaced their commerce. But to their disgust, when the +peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was made in 1748, this conquest was +handed back to France. She continued her work of building a +line of forts on the great lakes—on the river Niagara, on the Ohio, +on the Mississippi; and the English colonies, with the enemy +thus in their rear, grew ever more restive. In 1753 Virginia +warned the French on the Ohio that they were encroaching on +British territory. The next year, in circumstances curiously +like those which were repeated when the French expedition under +Marchand menaced Britain in Egypt by seeking to establish a +post on the Upper Nile, George Washington, a young Virginian +officer, was sent to drive the French from their Fort Duquesne +on the Ohio river, where now stands Pittsburgh. The result was +sharp fighting between English and French in a time of nominal +peace. In 1755 the British took the stern step of deporting the +Acadian French from Nova Scotia. Though this province had +been ceded to Great Britain in 1713 many of the Acadians had +refused to accept British sovereignty. In 1749 the British +founded Halifax, began to colonize Nova Scotia, and, with war +imminent, deemed it prudent to disperse the Acadians, chiefly +along the Atlantic seaboard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nova Scotia</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In +1756 the Seven Years’ War definitely began. France had no +resources to cope with those of Britain in America, and the +British command of the sea proved decisive. On the 13th of +September 1759 Wolfe won his great victory before Quebec, +which involved the fall of that place, and a year later at +Montreal the French army in Canada surrendered. By the +peace of Paris, 1763, the whole of New France was finally ceded +to Great Britain.</p> + +<p>With only about 60,000 French in Canada at the time of the +conquest it might have seemed as if this population would soon +be absorbed by the incoming British. Some thought +that, under a Protestant sovereign, the Canadian +<span class="sidenote">English possesion.</span> +Catholics would be rapidly converted to Protestantism. +But the French type proved stubbornly persistent +and to this day dominates the older Canada. The first English +settlers in the conquered country were chiefly petty traders, not +of a character to lead in social or public affairs. The result was +that the government of the time co-operated rather with the +leaders among the French.</p> + +<p>After peace was concluded in 1763, Canada was governed +under the authority of a royal proclamation, but sooner or later +a constitution specially adapted to the needs of the country was +inevitable. In 1774 this was provided by the Quebec Act passed +by the Imperial parliament. Under this act the western territory +which France had claimed, extending as far as the Mississippi +and south to the Ohio, was included with Canada in what was +called the Province of Quebec. This vast territory was to be +governed despotically from Quebec; the Roman Catholic church +was given its old privileges in Canada; and the French civil law +was established permanently side by side with the English +criminal law. The act linked the land-owning class in Canada +and the church by ties of self-interest to the British cause. The +<i>habitant</i>, placed again under their authority, had less reason to be +content.</p> + +<p>In 1775 began the American Revolution. Its leaders tried to +make the revolt continental, and invaded Canada, hoping that +the French would join them. They took Montreal and besieged +Quebec during the winter of 1775-1776; but the prudent leadership +of Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, saved +Quebec and in 1776 the revolutionary army withdrew unsuccessful +from Canada. Since that time any prospect of Canada’s +union to the United States has been very remote.</p> + +<p>But the American Revolution profoundly influenced the life +of Canada. The country became the refuge of thousands of +American loyalists who would not desert Great Britain. To +Nova Scotia, to what are now New Brunswick (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ontario +(<i>q.v.</i>) they fled in numbers not easily estimated, but probably +reaching about 40,000. Until this time the present New Brunswick +and Ontario had contained few European settlers; now +they developed, largely under the influence of the loyalists of the +Revolution. This meant that the American type of colonial life +would be reproduced in Canada; but it meant also bitter +hostility on the part of these colonists to the United States, which +refused in any way to compensate the loyalists for their confiscated +property. Great Britain did something; the loyalists +received liberal grants of land and cash compensation amounting +to nearly £4,000,000.</p> + +<p>A prevailingly French type of government was now no longer +adequate in Canada, and in 1791 was passed by the British +parliament the Constitutional Act, separating Canada at the +Ottawa river into two parts, each with its own government; +Lower Canada, chiefly French, retaining the old system of laws, +with representative institutions now added, and Upper Canada, +on the purely British model. (For the history of Lower and +Upper Canada, now Quebec and Ontario, the separate articles +must be consulted.) Each province had special problems; the +French in Lower Canada aimed at securing political power for +their own race, while in Upper Canada there was no race problem, +and the great struggle was for independence of official control +and in all essential matters for government by the people. It +may be doubted whether at this time it would have been safe to +give these small communities complete self-government. But +this a clamorous radical element demanded insistently, and the +issue was the chief one in Canada for half a century.</p> + +<p>But before this issue matured war broke out between Great +Britain and the United States in 1812 from causes due chiefly to +Napoleon’s continental policy. The war seemed to furnish a +renewed opportunity to annex Canada to the American Union, +and Canada became the chief theatre of conflict. The struggle +was most vigorous on the Niagara frontier. But in the end the +American invasion failed and the treaty made at Ghent in 1814 +left the previous status unaltered.</p> + +<p>In 1837 a few French Canadians in Lower Canada, led by Louis +Joseph Papineau (<i>q.v.</i>), took up arms with the wild idea of +establishing a French republic on the St Lawrence. In the same +year William Lyon Mackenzie (<i>q.v.</i>) led a similar armed revolt in +Upper Canada against the domination of the ruling officialdom +called, with little reason, the “Family Compact.” Happening, +as these revolts did, just at the time of Queen Victoria’s accession, +<span class="sidenote">Lord Durham.</span> +they attracted wide attention, and in 1838 the earl of +Durham (<i>q.v.</i>) was sent to govern Canada and report on +the affairs of British North America. Clothed as he was +with large powers, he undertook in the interests of leniency and +reconciliation to banish, without trial, some leaders of the +rebellion in Lower Canada. For this reason he was censured at +home and he promptly resigned, after spending only five months +in the country. But his <i>Report</i>, published in the following year, +is a masterly survey of the situation and included recommendations +that profoundly influenced the later history of Canada. He +recommended the union of the two Canadian provinces at once, +the ultimate union of all British North America and the granting +to this large state of full self-government. The French element +he thought a menace to Canada’s future, and partly for this +reason he desired all the provinces to unite so that the British +element should be dominant.</p> + +<p>To carry out Lord Durham’s policy the British government +passed in 1840 an Act of Union joining Upper and Lower +Canada, and sent out as governor Charles Poulett Thompson, +who was made Baron Sydenham and Toronto In the single +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> +parliament each province was equally represented. By this +time there was more than a million people in Canada, and the +country was becoming important. Lord Sydenham died in +1841 before his work was completed, and he left Canada still +in a troubled condition. The French were suspicious of the +Union, aimed avowedly at checking their influence, and the +complete self-government for which the “Reformers” in +English-speaking Canada had clamoured was not yet conceded +by the colonial office. But rapidly it became obvious that +the provinces united had become too important to be held +in leading strings. The issue was finally settled in 1849 when +the earl of Elgin was governor and the Canadian legislature, +sitting at Montreal, passed by a large majority the Rebellion +Losses Bill, compensating citizens, some of them French, in +Lower Canada, for losses incurred at the hands of the loyal +party during the rebellion a decade earlier. The cry was easily +raised by the Conservative minority that this was to vote +reward for rebellion. They appealed to London for intervention. +The mob in Montreal burned the parliament buildings +and stoned Lord Elgin himself because he gave the royal assent +to the bill. He did so in the face of this fierce opposition, on +the ground that, in Canadian domestic affairs, the Canadian +parliament must be supreme.</p> + +<p>The union of the two provinces did not work well. Each +was jealous of the other and deadlocks frequently occurred. +Commercially, after 1849, Canada was prosperous. In 1854 +Lord Elgin negotiated a reciprocity treaty with the United +States which gave Canadian natural products free entrance +to the American market. The outbreak of the Civil War in +the United States in 1861 increased the demand for such products, +and Canada enjoyed an extensive trade with her neighbour. +But, owing largely to the unfriendly attitude of Great Britain +to the northern side during the war, the United States cancelled +the treaty, when its first term of ten years ended in 1865, and +it has never been renewed.</p> + +<p>Under the party system in Canada cabinets changed as +often as, until recently, they did in France, and the union of +the two provinces did not give political stability. The French +and English were sufficiently equal in strength to make the +task of government well nigh impossible. In 1864 came the +opportunity for change, when New Brunswick, Nova Scotia +and Prince Edward Island were considering a federal union. +Canada suggested a wider plan to include herself and, in October +1864, a conference was held at Quebec. The conference outlined +a plan of federation which subsequently, with slight +modifications, passed the imperial parliament as “The British +North America Act,” and on the 1st of July 1867, the Dominion +of Canada came into existence. It was born during the era +of the American Civil War, and was planned to correct defects +which time had revealed in the American federation. The +provinces in Canada were conceded less power than have the +states in the American union; the federal government retaining +the residuum of power not conceded.</p> +<div class="author">(G. M. W.)</div> + +<p>When federation was accomplished in 1867 the Dominion +of Canada comprised only the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec, +New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Lord Monck was +appointed the first governor-general, and at his +<span class="sidenote">Canada since federation.</span> +request the Hon. John Alexander Macdonald undertook +the formation of an administration. A coalition +cabinet was formed, including the foremost Liberals and Conservatives +drawn from the different provinces. Under a +proclamation issued from Windsor Castle by Queen Victoria on +the 22nd of May the new constitution came into effect on the +1st of July. This birthday of the Dominion has been fixed +by statute as a public holiday, and is annually observed under +the name of “Dominion Day.” Seventy-two senators—half +Conservatives and half Liberals—were appointed, and lieutenant-governors +were named for the four provinces. The prime +minister was created a K.C.B., and minor honours were conferred +on other ministers in recognition of their services in +bringing about the union.</p> + +<p>The first general election for the Dominion House of Commons +was held during the month of August, and except in the province +of Nova Scotia was favourable to the administration, +which entered upon its parliamentary work with a +<span class="sidenote">Nova Scotia question.</span> +majority of thirty-two. The first session of parliament +was opened on the 8th of November, but adjourned +on the 21st of December till the 12th of March 1868, chiefly +on account of the fact that members of the Dominion parliament +were allowed, in Ontario and Quebec, to hold seats in the local +legislatures, so that it was difficult for the different bodies +to be in session simultaneously. It was not till 1873 that an +act was passed making members of the local legislatures ineligible +for seats in the House of Commons. Immediately after the +completion of federation a serious agitation for repeal of the +union arose in Nova Scotia, which had been brought into the +federal system by a vote of the existing legislature, without +any direct preliminary appeal to the people. Headed by Joseph +Howe (<i>q.v.</i>), the advocates of repeal swept the province at the +Dominion election. Out of 19 members then elected 18 were +pledged to repeal, Dr Tupper, the minister responsible for +carrying the Act of Union, alone among the supporters of +federation securing a seat. The local assembly, in which 36 +out of 38 members were committed to repeal, passed an address +to Her Majesty praying her not to “reduce this free, happy +and hitherto self-governed province to the degraded condition +of a servile dependency of Canada,” and sent Howe with a +delegation to London to lay the petition at the foot of the +throne. Howe enlisted the support of John Bright and other +members of parliament, but the imperial government was +firm, and the duke of Buckingham, as colonial secretary, soon +informed the governor-general in a despatch that consent could +not be given for the withdrawal of Nova Scotia from the +Dominion. Meanwhile Howe, convinced of the impossibility +of effecting separation, and fearing disloyal tendencies which +had manifested themselves in some of its advocates, entered +into negotiations with Dr Tupper in London, and later with +the Dominion government, for better financial terms than those +originally arranged for Nova Scotia in the federal system. +The estimated amount of provincial debt assumed by the general +government was increased by $1,186,756, and a special annual +subsidy of $82,698 was granted for a period of ten years. These +terms having been agreed to, Howe, as a pledge of his approval +and support, accepted a seat as secretary of state in the Dominion +cabinet. By taking this course he sacrificed much of his remarkable +popularity in his native province, but confirmed the work +of consolidating the Dominion. It was many years before +the bitterness of feeling aroused by the repeal agitation entirely +subsided in Nova Scotia.</p> + +<p>A gloom was cast over the first parliament of the Dominion +by the assassination in 1868 of one of the most brilliant figures +in the politics of the time, D’Arcy McGee (<i>q.v.</i>) His murderer, +a Fenian acting under the instructions of the secret society to +which he belonged, was discovered, and executed in 1869.</p> + +<p>The reorganization of the various departments of state, +in view of the wider interests with which they had to deal, +occupied much of the attention of the first parliament of the +Dominion. In 1867 the postal rates were reduced and unified. +In 1868 a militia system for the whole Dominion was organized, +the tariff altered and systematized, and a Civil Service Act +passed. The banking system of the country was put on a sound +footing by a series of acts culminating in 1871, and in the same +year a uniform system of decimal currency was established for +the whole Dominion. While the new machinery of state was +thus being put in operation other large questions presented +themselves.</p> + +<p>The construction of the Inter-Colonial railway as a connecting +link between the provinces on the seaboard and those along +the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes was a part +of the federation compact, a clause of the British +<span class="sidenote">Inter-Colonial railway.</span> +North America Act providing that it should be begun +within six months after the date of union. The +guarantee of the imperial government made easy the provision +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> +of the necessary capital, but as this was coupled with a voice +in the decision of the route, it complicated the latter question, +about which a keen contest arose. The most direct and therefore +commercially most promising line of construction passed near +the boundary of the United States. Recent friction with that +country made this route objected to by the imperial and many +Canadian authorities. Ultimately the longer, more expensive, +but more isolated route along the shores of the Gulf of +St Lawrence was adopted. The work was taken in hand at once, +and pressed steadily forward to completion. It has since been +supplemented by other lines built for more distinctly commercial +ends. Though not for many years a financial success, +the Inter-Colonial railway, which was opened in 1876, has +in a marked way fulfilled its object by binding together socially +and industrially widely separated portions of the Dominion.</p> + +<p>Within a month of the meeting of the first parliament of the +Dominion a question of vast importance to the future of the +country was brought forward by the Hon. W. McDougall +in a series of resolutions which were adopted, and on +<span class="sidenote">Hudson’s Bay Company territories.</span> +which was based an address to the queen praying that +Majesty would unite Rupert’s Land and the North-West +Territories to Canada. A delegation consisting +of Sir G.E. Cartier and the Hon. W. McDougall was in 1868 sent +to England to negotiate with the Hudson’s Bay Company (<i>q.v.</i>) +for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the imperial +government for the transfer of the territory. After prolonged +discussions the company agreed to surrender to the crown, in +consideration of a payment of £300,000, the rights and interests +in the north-west guaranteed by its charter, with the exception +of a reservation of one-twentieth part of the fertile belt, and +45,000 acres of land adjacent to the trading posts of the company. +For the purposes of this agreement the “fertile belt” was to be +bounded as follows:—“On the south by the U.S. boundary, +on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on the north by the +northern branch of the Saskatchewan river, on the east by +Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connecting +them.” An act authorizing the change of control was passed +by the imperial parliament in July 1868; the arrangement made +with the Hudson’s Bay Company was accepted by the Canadian +parliament in June 1869; and the deed of surrender from the +Hudson’s Bay Company to Her Majesty is dated November 19th, +1869. In anticipation of the formal transfer to the Dominion +an act was passed by the Canadian parliament in the same month +providing for the temporary government of Rupert’s Land and +the North-West Territories. On the 28th of September the Hon. +W. McDougall was appointed the first governor, and left at once +to assume control on the 1st of December, when it had been +understood that the formal change of possession would take place.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile a serious condition of affairs was developing in the +Red river settlement, the most considerable centre of population +in the newly acquired territory. The half-breeds +regarded with suspicion a transfer of control concerning +<span class="sidenote">Red river rebellion.</span> +which they had not been consulted. They resented the +presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads +and townships, and the tactless way in which some of these +did their work increased the suspicion that long-established +rights to the soil would not be respected. A population largely +Roman Catholic in creed, and partly French in origin and +language, feared that an influx of new settlers would overthrow +cherished traditions. Some were afraid of increased taxation. +A group of immigrants from the United States fomented disturbance +in the hope that it would lead to annexation. Louis Riel, +a fanatical half-breed, placed himself at the head of the movement. +His followers established what they called a “provisional +government” of which he was chosen president, and when the +newly appointed governor reached the boundary line he was +prevented from entering the territory. Several of the white +settlers who resisted this rebellious movement were arrested and +kept in confinement. One of these, a young man named Thomas +Scott, having treated Riel with defiance, was court-martialled +for treason to the provisional government, condemned, and on +the 4th of March 1870, shot in cold blood under the walls of Fort +Garry. This crime aroused intense excitement throughout the country, and +the Orange body, particularly, to which Scott belonged, demanded the +immediate punishment of his murderer and the suppression of the +rebellion. An armed force, composed partly of British regulars and +partly of Canadian volunteers, was made ready and placed under the +command of Colonel Garnet Wolseley, afterwards Lord Wolseley. As a +military force could not pass through the United States, the expedition +was compelled to take the route up Lake Superior, and from the head of +that lake through 500 m. of unbroken and difficult wilderness. In August +1870, the force reached Fort Garry, to find the rebels scattered and +their leader, Riel, a fugitive in the neighbouring states. Meanwhile, +during the progress of the expedition, an act had been passed creating +Manitoba a province, with full powers of self-government, and the +arrival of the military was closely followed by that of the first +governor, Mr (later Sir) Adams G. Archibald, who succeeded in organizing +the administration on a satisfactory basis. Fort Garry became Winnipeg, +and there were soon indications that it was destined to be a great city, +and the commercial doorway to the vast prairies that lay beyond. +Meanwhile, till adequate means of transportation were provided, it was +seen that city and prairie alike must wait for any large inflow of +population.</p> + +<p>Provision was made in the British North America Act to receive new +provinces into the Dominion. Manitoba was the first to be constituted; +in 1871 British Columbia, which had hitherto held aloof, determined, +under the persuasion of a sympathetic governor, Mr (later Sir) Antony +<span class="sidenote">New provinces.</span> +Musgrave, to throw in its lot with the Dominion. Popular feeling in +British Columbia itself was not strongly in favour of union, and the +terms under which the new province was to be received were the subject +of much negotiation with the provincial authorities, and were keenly +debated in parliament before the bill in which they were embodied was +finally carried. The clause on which there was the widest divergence of +opinion was one providing that a trans-continental railway, connecting +the Pacific province with the eastern part of the Dominion, should be +begun within two, and completed within ten years. To a province which at +the time contained a population of only 36,000, and but half of this +white, the inducement thus held out was immense. The Opposition in +parliament claimed that the contract was one impossible for the Dominion +to fulfil. The government of Sir John Macdonald felt, however, that the +future of the Dominion depended upon linking together the Atlantic and +the Pacific, and in view of the vast unoccupied spaces lying between the +Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, open to immigration from the United +States, their audacity in undertaking the work was doubtless justified. +The construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, thus inaugurated, +became for several years the chief subject of political contention +between opposing parties.</p> + +<p>Anticipating the order of chronology slightly, it may be mentioned here +that in 1873 Prince Edward Island (<i>q.v.</i>), which had in 1865 decisively +rejected proposals of the Quebec conference and had in the following +year repeated its rejection of federation by a resolution of the +legislature affirming that no terms Canada could offer would be +acceptable, now decided to throw in its lot with the Dominion. The +island had become involved in heavy railway expenditure, and financial +necessities led the electors to take a broader view of the question. In +the end the federal government assumed the railway debt, arrangements +were made for extinguishing certain proprietary rights which had long +been a source of discontent, and on the 1st of July 1873 the Dominion +was rounded off by the accession of the new province.</p> + +<p>Finally in 1878, in order to remove all doubts about unoccupied +territory, an imperial order in council was passed in response to an +address of the Canadian parliament, annexing to the Dominion all British +possessions in North America, except Newfoundland. That small colony, +which had been represented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the proposals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span> +of 1865, and, in spite of various efforts to arrange satisfactory +terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has proved the only +obstacle to the complete political unification of British North +America.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:595px; height:850px" src="images/img160a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:598px; height:850px" src="images/img160b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img160a1.jpg">(Click to enlarge left section.)</a><br /> +<a href="images/img160b1.jpg">(Click to enlarge right section.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2">A signal proof was soon furnished of the new standing in +the empire which federation had given to the Canadian provinces. +A heritage of differences and difficulties had been +left to be settled between England, Canada and the +<span class="sidenote">Difficulties with the United States.</span> +American Union as the result of the Civil War. In +retaliation for the supposed sympathy of Canadians +with the South in this struggle the victorious North +took steps to abrogate in 1866 the reciprocity treaty of +1854, which had conferred such great advantages on both +countries. It followed that the citizens of the United States +lost the right which they had received under the treaty to +share in the fisheries of Canada. American fishermen, however, +showed so little inclination to give up what they had +enjoyed so long, that it was found necessary to take vigorous +steps to protect Canadian fishing rights, and frequent causes +of friction consequently arose. During the progress of the +Civil War American feeling had been greatly exasperated by +the losses inflicted on commerce by the cruiser “Alabama,” +which, it was claimed, was allowed to leave a British port in, +violation of international law. On the other hand, Canadian +feeling had been equally exasperated by the Fenian raids, +organized on American soil, which had cost Canada much +expenditure of money and some loss of life. In, addition to +these causes of difference there was an unsettled boundary +dispute in British Columbia, and questions about the navigation +of rivers common to the United States and Canada. In 1869 +the government of Canada sent a deputation to England to +press upon the imperial government the necessity of asserting +Canada’s position in regard to the fisheries, and the desirability +of settling other questions in dispute with the republic. The +outcome of this application was the appointment of a commission +to consider and if possible settle outstanding differences between +the three countries. The prime minister of the Dominion, +Sir John Macdonald, was asked to act as one of the imperial +commissioners in carrying on these negotiations. This was +the first time that a colonist had been called upon to assist +in the settlement of international disputes. The commission +assembled at the American capital in February 1871, and +after discussions extending over several weeks signed what +is known as the treaty of Washington. By the terms of this +treaty the “Alabama” claims and the San Juan boundary +were referred to arbitration; the free navigation of the St +Lawrence was granted to the United States in return for the +free use of Lake Michigan and certain Alaskan rivers; and +it was settled that a further commission should decide the +excess of value of the Canadian fisheries thrown open to the +United States over and above the reciprocal concessions made +to Canada. Much to the annoyance of the people of the +Dominion the claims for the Fenian raids were withdrawn +at the request of the British government, which undertook, to +make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To some of +these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous +opposition, and in finally signing the treaty stated that he +did so chiefly for imperial interests, although in these he +believed Canadian interests to be involved. The clauses relating +to the fisheries and the San Juan boundary were reserved for +the approval of the Canadian parliament, which, in spite of +much violent opposition, ratified them by a large majority. +Under the “Alabama” arbitration Great Britain paid to +the United States damages to the amount of $15,500,000, +while the German Emperor decided the San Juan boundary +in favour of the United States. The Fishery Commission, on +the other hand, which sat in Halifax, awarded Canada $5,500,000 +as the excess value of its fisheries for twelve years, and after +much hesitation this sum was paid by the United States into +the Canadian treasury. An imperial guarantee of a loan for +the construction of railways was the only compensation Canada +received for the Fenian raids.</p> + +<p>The second general election for the Dominion took place +in 1872. It was marked by the complete defeat of the Anti-Unionist +party in Nova Scotia, only one member of +which secured his election, thus exactly reversing the +<span class="sidenote"><i>Canadian Pacific railway question</i>.</span> +vote of 1867. While Sir John Macdonald’s administration +was supported in Nova Scotia, it was weakened +in Ontario on account of the clemency shown to Riel, and in +Quebec by the refusal to grant a general amnesty to all who had +taken part in the rebellion. Two important members of the +cabinet, Sir G. Cartier and Sir F. Hincks, were defeated. +Opposition to the Washington treaty and dread of the bold +railway policy of the government also contributed to weaken +its position. But a graver blow, ending in the complete overthrow +of the administration, was soon to fall as the result of +the election. In 1872 two companies had been formed and +received charters to build the Canadian Pacific railway. Sir +Hugh Allan of Montreal was at the head of the one, and the +Hon. David Macpherson of Toronto was president of the other. +The government endeavoured to bring about an amalgamation +of these rival companies, believing that the united energies +and financial ability of the whole country were required for +so vast an undertaking. While negotiations to this end were +still proceeding the election of 1872 came on with the result +already mentioned. Soon after the meeting of parliament, +a Liberal member of the House, Mr L.S. Huntingdon, formally +charged certain members of the cabinet with having received +large sums of money, for use in the election, from Sir Hugh Allan, +on condition, as it was claimed, that the Canadian Pacific +contract should be given to the new company, of which he +became the head on the failure of the plan for amalgamation. +These charges were investigated by a royal commission, which +was appointed after it had been decided that the parliamentary +committee named for that purpose could not legally take +evidence under oath. Parliament met in October 1873, to receive +the report of the commission. While members of the government +were exonerated by the report from the charge of personal +corruption, the payment of large sums of money by Sir Hugh +Allan was fully established, and public feeling on the matter +was so strong that Sir J. Macdonald, while asserting his own +innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the +vote, of parliament. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord +Lisgar as governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the +leader of the Opposition, Mr Alexander Mackenzie (<i>q.v.</i>), +who succeeded in forming a Liberal administration which, +on appealing to the constituencies, was supported by an overwhelming +majority, and held power for the five following years.</p> + +<p>On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy +was adopted for the construction of the trans-continental +railway. It was proposed to lessen the cost of construction by +utilizing the water stretches along the route, while, on the ground +that the contract made was impossible of fulfilment, the period +of completion was postponed indefinitely. Meanwhile the +surveys and construction were carried forward not by a company, +but as a government work. Under this arrangement British +Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the Dominion +to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the +union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir +James) Edgar, sent out to conciliate the province by some +new agreement, failed to accomplish his object, and all the +influence of the governor-general, Lord Dufferin, who paid +a visit at this time to the Pacific coast, was required to quiet +the public excitement, which had shown itself in a resolution +passed by the legislature for separation from the Dominion +unless the terms of union were fulfilled.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile a policy destined to affect profoundly the future +of the Dominion had, along with that of the construction +of the Canadian Pacific railway, become a subject +of burning political discussion and party division. +<span class="sidenote">Economic “national policy.”</span> +During the period of Mr Mackenzie’s administration +a profound business depression affected the whole +continent of America. The Dominion revenue showed a series +of deficits for several years in succession. The factories of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> +the United States, unduly developed by an extreme system +of protection, sought in Canada a slaughter market for their +surplus products, to the detriment or destruction of Canadian +industries. Meanwhile the republic, which had for many +years drained Canada of hundreds of thousands of artisans to +work its factories, steadily declined to consider any suggestion +for improving trade relations between the two countries. In +these circumstances Sir J. Macdonald brought forward a proposal +to adopt what was called a “national policy,” or, in other +words, a system of protection for Canadian industries. Mr +Mackenzie and his chief followers, whose inclinations were +towards free trade, pinned their political fortunes to the maintenance +of a tariff for revenue only. After some years of fierce +discussion in parliament and throughout the country the question +was brought to an issue in 1878, when, with a large majority +of followers pledged to carry out protection, Sir John Macdonald +was restored to power. The new system was laid before parliament +in 1879 by the finance minister, Sir Leonard Tilley; +and the tariff then agreed upon, although it received considerable +modification from time to time, remained, under both Conservative +and Liberal administrations, the basis of Canadian +finance, and, as Canadians generally believed, the bulwark of +their industry. It had almost immediately the effect of lessening +the exodus of artisans to the United States, and of improving +the revenue and so restoring the national credit.</p> + +<p>In October 1878 Lord Dufferin’s term of office expired, and +his place as governor-general was taken by the marquess of Lorne, +whose welcome to the Dominion was accentuated by the fact +that he was the son-in-law of the queen, and that his viceroyalty +was shared by the princess Louise. The election of 1878 marked +the beginning of a long period of Conservative rule—the premiership +of Sir J. Macdonald continuing from that time without a +break until his death in 1891, while his party remained in power +till 1896. This long-continued Conservative supremacy was +apparently due to the policy of bold and rapid development +which it had adopted, and which appealed to a young and +ambitious country more strongly than the more cautious proposals +of the Liberal leaders. As soon as the government had +redeemed its pledge to establish a system of protection a vigorous +<span class="sidenote">Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. </span> +railway policy was inaugurated. A contract was made +with a new company to complete the Canadian Pacific +railway within ten years, on condition of receiving a +grant of $25,000,000 and 25,000,000 acres of land, +together with those parts of the line already finished +under government direction. After fierce debate in parliament +these terms were ratified in the session of 1881. The financial +difficulties encountered by the company in carrying out their +gigantic task were very great, and in 1884 they were compelled +to obtain from the Dominion government a loan of $20,000,000 +secured on the company’s property. This loan was repaid by +1887. Meanwhile the work was carried forward with so much +energy that, five years before the stipulated period of completion, +on the 7th of November 1886, the last spike was driven by Mr +Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), whose fortune had been +largely pledged to the undertaking, along with those of other +prominent Canadian business men, especially Mr George Stephen +(Lord Mountstephen), Mr Duncan McIntyre, and Mr R.B. +Angus. Under the energetic management of Mr (later Sir) +W.C. Van Home, who was appointed president of the company +in 1888, the new railway soon became the most prominent +feature in the development of the country; lines of steamships +were established on the great lakes and the Pacific; a stream of +immigration began to flow into the prairie region; and the +increasing prosperity of the railway had a poverful influence in +improving the public credit.</p> + +<p>Even before the Canadian Pacific railway was fully completed, +it proved of great service in a national emergency which suddenly +arose in the north-west. With the organization of Manitoba +and the opening of improved communication immigrants began +to move rapidly westward, and government surveyors were soon +busy laying off lands in the Saskatchewan valley. The numbers +of the half-breed settlers of this district had been increased by +the migration of many of those who had taken part in the first +uprising at Fort Garry. Influenced by somewhat similar motives, +<span class="sidenote">Riel’s rebellion.</span> +fearing from the advance of civilization the destruction +of the buffalo, on which they chiefly depended for food, +with some real grievances and others imaginary, the +discontented population sent for Riel, who had been living, +since his flight from Fort Garry, in the United States. He +returned to put himself at the head of a second rebellion. At +first he seemed inclined to act with moderation and on lines of +constitutional agitation, but soon, carried away by fanaticism, +ambition and vanity, he turned to armed organization against +the government. To half-breed rebellion was added the imminent +danger of an Indian uprising, to which Riel looked for support. +The authorities at Ottawa were at first careless or sceptical in +regard to the danger, the reality of which was only brought home +to them when a body of mounted police, advancing to regain a +small post at Duck Lake, of which the rebels had taken possession, +was attacked and twelve of their number killed. Volunteers +and militia were at once called out in all the old provinces of +Canada, and were quickly conveyed by the newly constructed +line of railway to the neighbourhood of the point of disturbance. +Major-general Middleton, of the imperial army, who was then in +command of the Canadian militia, led the expedition. Several +minor engagements with half-breeds or Indians preceded the +final struggle at Batoche, where Gabriel Dumont, Riel’s military +lieutenant, had skilfully entrenched his forces. After a cautious +advance the eagerness of the troops finally overcame the hesitation +of the commander in exposing his men, the rifle pits were +carried with a rush, and the rebellion crushed at a single stroke. +Dumont succeeded in escaping across the United States boundary; +Riel was captured, imprisoned, and in due course tried for +treason. This second rebellion carried on under his leadership +had lasted about three months, had cost the country many +valuable lives, and in money about five millions of dollars. Clear +as was his guilt, Riel’s trial, condemnation and execution on the +16th of November 1885, provoked a violent political storm which +at one time threatened to overthrow the Conservative government. +The balance of power between parties in parliament was +held by the province of Quebec, and there racial and religious +feeling evoked no slight sympathy for Riel. But while a section +of Quebec was eager to secure the rebel’s pardon, Ontario was +equally bent on the execution of justice, so that in the final vote +on the question in parliament the defection of French Conservatives +was compensated for by the support of Ontario Liberals. +In the end 25 out of 53 French members voted in justification +of Kiel’s punishment. With him were executed several Indian +chiefs who had been concerned in a massacre of whites. Painful +as were the circumstances connected with this rebellion, it is +certain that the united action of the different provinces in +suppressing it tended to consolidate Canadian sentiment, and +the short military campaign had the effect of fixing public +attention upon the immense fertile territory then being opened +up.</p> + +<p>The general election of 1882 turned chiefly upon endorsement +of the national policy of protection; in that of 1887 the electoral +test was again applied to the same issue, while Sir John +Macdonald also asked for approval of the government’s +<span class="sidenote">Macdonald’s fiscal policy.</span> +action in exacting from Riel the full penalty of his +guilt. On both issues the Conservative policy was +upheld by the electors, and Macdonald was continued in power +with a large parliamentary majority. From the election of 1887 +the Riel agitation ceased to seriously influence politics, but the +fiscal controversy continued under new forms. Between 1887 +and 1891 a vigorous agitation was kept up under Liberal auspices +in favour of closer trade relations with the United States, at +first under the name of Commercial Union and later under that +of Unrestricted Reciprocity. The object in both cases was to +break down tariff barriers between the United States and Canada, +even though that should be at the expense of discrimination +against Great Britain. The Conservative party took the position +that commercial union, involving as it would a common protective +tariff against all other countries, including the motherland, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> +would inevitably lead to political unification with the United +States. The question after long and vehement discussion was +brought to a final issue in the election of 1891, and Sir John +Macdonald’s government was again sustained. From that time +protection became the settled policy of the country. On their +accession to power in 1896 it was adopted by the Liberals, who +joined to it a preference for the products of the mother country. +Under the protective policy thus repeatedly confirmed, Canada +gradually became more independent of the American market +than in earlier times, and enjoyed great commercial prosperity. +Soon after the election of 1891 Sir John Macdonald (<i>q.v.</i>) died, +after an active political career of more than forty years. Under +his direction the great lines of policy which have governed the +development of Canada as a confederated state within the +empire were inaugurated and carried forward with great success, +so that his name has become indissolubly connected with the +history of the Dominion at its most critical stage.</p> + +<p>During the years which succeeded the death of Sir John +Macdonald a succession of losses weakened the position of +the Conservative party which had held power so long. +The Hon. J.C.C. Abbott, leader of the party in the +<span class="sidenote">Macdonald’s successors.</span> +Senate, became prime minister on Macdonald’s death in +1891, but in 1892 was compelled by ill-health to resign, +and in 1893 he died. His successor, Sir John Thompson, after +a successful leadership of about two years, died suddenly of +heart disease at Windsor Castle, immediately after being sworn +of the imperial privy council. Charges of corruption in the +administration of the department of public works, which led +to the expulsion of one member of parliament, involved also +the resignation from the cabinet of Sir Hector Langevin, leader +of the French Conservatives, against whom carelessness at least +in administration had been established. The brief premiership +of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, between 1894 and 1896, was marked +by much dissension in the Conservative ranks, ending finally +in a reconstruction of the government in 1896 under Sir Charles +Tupper. Breaks had been made in the Liberal ranks also by the +death in 1892 of the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie and the withdrawal +of the Hon. Edward Blake from Canadian politics to +accept a seat in the British parliament as a member of the +Home Rule party. But the appeal made to the electors in +1896 resulted in a decisive victory for the Liberal party, and +marked the beginning of a long period of Liberal rule.</p> + +<p>Sir Wilfrid Laurier (<i>q.v.</i>) became prime minister, and +strengthened the cabinet which he formed by drawing into +it from provincial politics the premiers of Ontario, +New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The administration +<span class="sidenote">Laurier.</span> +thus established underwent many changes, but after winning +three general elections it was still in power in 1909. The period +of Sir Wilfrid Laurier’s rule was one of striking progress in +material growth, and a marked development of national feeling. +While the federation of the provinces favoured the growth +of a strong sentiment of Canadian individuality, the result +of unification had been to strengthen decidedly the ties that +bind the country to the empire. This was as true under Liberal +as under Conservative auspices—as Canadians understood the +meaning of these party names. The outbreak of the South +African war in 1899 furnished an occasion for a practical display +of Canadian loyalty to imperial interests. Three contingents +of troops were despatched to the seat of war and took an active +part in the events which finally secured the triumph of the +British arms. These forces were supplemented by a regiment +of Canadian horse raised and equipped at the sole expense +of Lord Strathcona, the high commissioner of the Dominion +in London. The same spirit was illustrated in other ways. In +bringing about a system of penny postage throughout the empire; +in forwarding the construction of the Pacific cable to secure close +and safe imperial telegraphic connexion; in creating rapid and +efficient lines of steamship communication with the motherland +and all the colonies; in granting tariff preference to British +goods and in striving for preferential treatment of inter-imperial +trade; in assuming responsibility for imperial defence at the two +important stations of Halifax and Esquimalt,—Canada, under the +guidance of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and his party, took a leading +part and showed a truly national spirit.</p> + +<p>The opening years of the 20th century were marked by a +prolonged period of great prosperity. A steady stream of +emigrants from Europe and the United States, sometimes +rising in number to 300,000 in a single year, +<span class="sidenote">Canadian expansion.</span> +began to occupy the vast western prairies. So +considerable was the growth of this section of the Dominion +that in 1905 it was found necessary to form two new provinces, +Alberta and Saskatchewan, from the North-West Territories, +the area of each being 275,000 sq. m. Each province has a +lieutenant-governor and a single legislative chamber, with a +representation of four members in the Senate and five in the +House of Commons of the Dominion parliament. The control of +the public lands is retained by the general government on the +ground that it has been responsible for the development of the +country by railway construction and emigration. With the +rapid increase of population, production in Canada also greatly +increased; exports, imports and revenue constantly expanded, +and capital, finding abundant and profitable employment, +began to flow freely into the country for further industrial +development. New and great railway undertakings were a +marked feature of this period. The Canadian Pacific system +was extended until it included 12,000 m. of line. The Canadian +Northern railway, already constructed from the Great Lakes +westward to the neighbourhood of the Rockies, and with water +and rail connexions reaching eastward to Quebec, began to +transform itself into a complete transcontinental system, with +an extension to the Hudson Bay. That this line owed its +inception and construction chiefly to the joint enterprise of +two private individuals, Messrs Mackenzie and Mann, was a +striking proof of the industrial capacities of the country. To +a still more ambitious line, the Grand Trunk Pacific, extending +from the Atlantic to the Pacific, aiming at extensive steamship +connexion on both oceans, and closely associated with the +Grand Trunk system of Ontario and Quebec, the government +of Canada gave liberal support as a national undertaking. +The eastern section of 1875 m., extending from Winnipeg to +Moncton, where connexion is secured with the winter ports +of Halifax and St John, was, under the act of incorporation, +to be built by the government, and then leased for fifty years, +under certain conditions, to the Grand Trunk Pacific Company. +The western portion, of 1480 m., from Winnipeg to the Pacific, +was to be built, owned and operated by the company itself, +the government guaranteeing bonds to the extent of 75% +of the whole cost of construction. The discovery of large +deposits of nickel at Sudbury; of extremely rich gold mines +on the head-waters of the Yukon, in a region previously considered +well-nigh worthless for human habitation; of extensive +areas of gold, copper and silver ores in the mountain regions of +British Columbia; of immense coal deposits in the Crow’s +Nest Pass of the same province and on the prairies; of veins +of silver and cobalt of extraordinary richness in northern Ontario—all +deeply affected the industrial condition of the country +and illustrated the vastness of its undeveloped resources. The +use of wood-pulp in the manufacture of paper gave a greatly +enhanced value to many millions of acres of northern forest +country. The application of electricity to purposes of manufacture +and transportation made the waterfalls and rapids +in which the country abounds the source of an almost unlimited +supply of energy capable of easy distribution for industrial +purposes over wide areas.</p> + +<p>Since confederation a series of attempts has been made with +varying degrees of success to settle the questions in dispute +between the Dominion and the United States, naturally +arising from the fact that they divide between them +<span class="sidenote">Relations with the United States.</span> +the control of nearly the whole of a large continent and +its adjoining waters. Considering the vastness of the +interests involved, there is much cause for satisfaction in the fact +that these differences have been settled by peaceful arbitrament +rather than by that recourse to force which has so often marked +the delimitation of rights and territory on other continents +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> +The Washington Treaty of 1871 has already been referred to. +Its clauses dealing with the fisheries and trade lasted for fourteen +years, and were then abrogated by the action of the United +States. Various proposals on the part of Canada for a renewal +of the reciprocity were not entertained. After 1885 Canada was +therefore compelled to fall back upon the treaty of 1818 as the +guarantee of her fishing rights. It became necessary to enforce +the terms of that convention, under which the fishermen of the +United States could not pursue their avocations within the three +miles’ limit, tranship cargoes of fish in Canadian ports, or enter +them except for shelter, water, wood or repairs. On account of +infractions of the treaty many vessels were seized and some were +condemned. In 1887 a special commission was appointed to +deal with the question. On this commission Mr Joseph Chamberlain, +Sir Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper represented +British and Canadian interests; Secretary T.F. Bayard, Mr +W. le B. Putnam and Mr James B. Angell acted for the United +States. The commission succeeded in agreeing to the terms of +a treaty, which was recommended to Congress by President +Cleveland as supplying “a satisfactory, practical and final +adjustment, upon a basis honourable and just to both parties, +of the difficult and vexed questions to which it relates.” This +agreement, known as the Chamberlain-Bayard treaty, was +rejected by the Senate, and as a consequence it became necessary +to carry on the fisheries under a <i>modus vivendi</i> renewed annually.</p> + +<p>In 1886 a difference about international rights on the high seas +arose on the Pacific coast in connexion with the seal fisheries +of Bering Sea. In that year several schooners, fitted out in +British Columbia for the capture of seals in the North Pacific, +were seized by a United States cutter at a distance of 60 m. +from the nearest land, the officers were imprisoned and fined, +and the vessels themselves subjected to forfeiture. The British +government at once protested against this infraction of international +right, and through long and troublesome negotiations +firmly upheld Canada’s claims in the matter. The dispute was +finally referred to a court of arbitration, on which Sir John +Thompson, premier of the Dominion, sat as one of the British +arbitrators. It was decided that the United States had no +jurisdiction in the Bering Sea beyond the three miles’ limit, but +the court also made regulations to prevent the wholesale slaughter +of fur-bearing seals. The sum of $463,454 was finally awarded +as compensation to the Canadian sealers who had been unlawfully +seized and punished. This sum was paid by the United States +in 1898.</p> + +<p>As the result of communications during 1897 between Sir +Wilfrid Laurier and Secretary Sherman, the governments of +Great Britain and the United States agreed to the appointment +of a joint high commission, with a view of settling all outstanding +differences between the United States and Canada. The commission, +which included three members of the Canadian cabinet +and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord +Herschell was appointed chairman, met at Quebec on the 23rd +of August 1898. The sessions continued in Quebec at intervals +until the 10th of October, when the commission adjourned to +meet in Washington on the 1st of November, where the discussions +were renewed for some weeks. Mr Nelson Dingley, an American +member of the commission, died during the month of January, +as did the chairman, Lord Herschell, in March, as the result of +an accident, soon after the close of the sittings of the commission. +The Alaskan boundary, the Atlantic and inland fisheries, the +alien labour law, the bonding privilege, the seal fishery in the +Bering Sea and reciprocity of trade in certain products were +among the subjects considered by the commission. On several +of these points much progress was made towards a settlement, +but a divergence of opinion as to the methods by which the +Alaskan boundary should be determined put an end for the time +to the negotiations.</p> + +<p>In 1903 an agreement was reached by which the question of +this boundary, which depended on the interpretation put upon +the treaty of 1825 between Russia and England, should be +submitted to a commission consisting of “six impartial jurists +of repute,” three British and three American. The British +commissioners appointed were: Lord Alverstone, lord chief +justice of England; Sir Louis Jette, K.C., of Quebec; and A.B. +Aylesworth, K.C., of Toronto. On the American side were +appointed: the Hon. Henry C. Lodge, senator for Massachusetts; +the Hon. Elihu Root, secretary of war for the United States +government; and Senator George Turner. Canadians could not +be persuaded that the American members fulfilled the condition +of being “impartial jurists,” and protest was made, but, though +the imperial government also expressed surprise, no change +in the appointments was effected. The commission met in +London, and announced its decision in October. This was +distinctly unfavourable to Canada’s claims, since it excluded +Canadians from all ocean inlets as far south as the Portland +Channel, and in that channel gave to Canada only two of the +four islands claimed. A statement made by the Canadian +commissioners, who refused to sign the report, of an unexplained +change of opinion on the part of Lord Alverstone, produced a +widespread impression for a time that his decision in favour +of American claims was diplomatic rather than judicial. Later +Canadian opinion, however, came to regard the decision of the +commission as a reasonable compromise. The irritation caused +by the decision gradually subsided, but at the moment it led +to strong expressions on the part of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and +others in favour of securing for Canada a fuller power of making +her own treaties. While the power of making treaties must +rest ultimately in the hands that can enforce them, the tendency +to give the colonies chiefly interested a larger voice in international +arrangements had become inevitable. The mission +of a Canadian cabinet minister, the Hon. R. Lemieux, to Japan +in 1907, to settle Canadian difficulties with that country, illustrated +the change of diplomatic system in progress.</p> + +<p>Under the British North American Act the control of education +was reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation +that all rights enjoyed by denominational schools at +the time of confederation should be respected. Provincial +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +control has caused some diversity of management; the +interpretation of the denominational agreement has led to acute +differences of opinion which have invaded the field of politics. +In all the provinces elementary, and in some cases secondary, +education is free, the funds for its support being derived from +local taxation and from government grants. The highly organized +school system of Ontario is directed by a minister of education, +who is a member of the provincial cabinet. The other provinces +have boards of education, and superintendents who act under +the direction of the provincial legislatures. In Quebec the +Roman Catholic schools, which constitute the majority, are +chiefly controlled by the local clergy of that church. The +Protestant schools are managed by a separate board. In +Ontario as well as in Quebec separate schools are allowed to +Roman Catholics. In Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince +Edward Island, Manitoba and British Columbia the public +schools are strictly undenominational. This position was only +established in New Brunswick and Manitoba after violent +political struggles, and frequent appeals to the highest courts of +the empire for decisions on questions of federal or provincial jurisdiction. +The right of having separate schools has been extended +to the newly constituted provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.</p> + +<p>Secondary education is provided for by high schools and +collegiate institutes in all towns and cities, and by large residential +institutions at various centres, conducted on the principle +of the English public schools. The largest of these is Upper +Canada College at Toronto. Each province has a number of +normal and model schools for the training of teachers. For +higher education there are also abundant facilities. M‘Gill +University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly endowed +by the munificence of a few private individuals, Toronto +University by the provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen’s +University at Kingston largely by the support of its own graduates +and friends. University work in the maritime provinces, instead +of being concentrated, as it might well be, in one powerful +institution, is distributed among five small, but within their +range efficient universities. The agricultural college at Guelph and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span> +the experimental farms maintained by the federal government +give excellent training and scientific assistance to farmers. +Sir William Macdonald in 1908 built and endowed, at an expenditure +of at least £700,000, an agricultural college and normal +school at St Anne’s, near Montreal. While the older universities +have increased greatly in influence and efficiency, the following +new foundations have been made since confederation:—University +of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1877; Presbyterian College, +Winnipeg, 1870; Methodist College, Winnipeg, 1888; Wesleyan +College, Montreal, 1873; Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868; +School of Practical Science, Toronto, 1877; Royal Military +College, Kingston, 1875; M‘Master University, Toronto, 1888. +All the larger universities have schools of medicine in affiliation, +and have the power of conferring medical degrees. Since 1877 +Canadian degrees have been recognized by the Medical Council +of Great Britain.</p> + +<p>In her treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country +(numbering 93,318 in 1901) Canada has met with conspicuous +success. Since the advance of civilization and indiscriminate +slaughter have deprived them of the bison, +<span class="sidenote">Indian tribes.</span> +so long their natural means of subsistence, the north-west +tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of +the country. As a result of the great care now used in watching +over them there has been a small but steady increase in their +numbers. Industrial and boarding schools, established in +several of the provinces, by separating the children from the +degrading influences of their home life, have proved more +effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and +ideas of a higher civilization. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt +made to adapt British principles and methods of government +to a federal system. The chief executive authority +is vested in the sovereign, as is the supreme command +<span class="sidenote">Constitution.</span> +of the military and naval forces. The governor-general +represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown, +which appoints him. He holds office for five years, and his +powers are strictly limited, as in the case of the sovereign, +all executive acts being done on the advice of his cabinet, the +members of which hold office only so long as they retain the +confidence of the people as expressed by their representatives +in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the independent +right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers +in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-general +have represented the crown since the federation of the +provinces, with the year of their appointment: Viscount Monck, +1867; Sir John Young (afterwards Baron Lisgar), 1868; the +earl of Dufferin, 1872; the marquess of Lome (afterwards duke +of Argyll), 1878; the marquess of Lansdowne, 1883; Lord +Stanley of Preston (afterwards earl of Derby), 1888; the earl +of Aberdeen, 1893; the earl of Minto, 1898; Earl Grey, 1904. +The upper house, or Senate, is composed of members who hold +office for life and are nominated by the governor-general in +council. It originally consisted of 72 members, 24 from Quebec, +24 from Ontario, and 24 from the maritime provinces, but this +number has been from time to time slightly increased as new +provinces have been added. The House of Commons consists +of representatives elected directly by the people. The number +of members, originally 196, is subject to change after each +decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North +America Act is that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives, +and each of the other provinces such a number as will give +the same proportion of members to its population as the number +65 bears to the population of Quebec at each census. In 1908 +the number of members was 218.</p> + +<p>Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive +an annual indemnity of $2500, with a travelling allowance. +Legislation brought forward in 1906 introduced an innovation +in assigning a salary of $7000 to the recognized leader of the +Opposition, and pensions amounting to half their official income +to ex-cabinet ministers who have occupied their posts for +five consecutive years. This pension clause has since been +repealed. One principal object of the framers of the Canadian +constitution was to establish a strong central government. An +opposite plan was therefore adopted to that employed in the +system of the United States, where the federal government +enjoys only the powers granted to it by the sovereign states. +The British North America Act assigns to the different provinces, +as to the central parliament, their spheres of control, but all +residuary powers are given to the general government. Within +these limitations the provincial assemblies have a wide range of +legislative power. In Nova Scotia and Quebec the bicameral +system of an upper and lower house is retained; in the other +provinces legislation is left to a single representative assembly. +For purely local matters municipal institutions are organized +to cover counties and townships, cities and towns, all based +on an exceedingly democratic franchise.</p> + +<p>The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of +Sir John Macdonald in the early years after federation, but +was only finally accomplished in 1876, during the premiership +of Alexander Mackenzie. This court is presided over by a chief +justice, with five puisne judges, and has appellate civil and +criminal jurisdiction for the Dominion. By an act passed in +1891 the government has power to refer to the supreme court +any important question of law affecting the public interest. +The right of appeal from the supreme court, thus constituted, +to the judicial committee of the privy council marks, in questions +judicial, Canada’s place as a part of the British empire.</p> + +<p>The appointment, first made in 1897, of the chief justice +of Canada, along with the chief justices of Cape Colony and +South Australia, as colonial members of the judicial committee +still further established the position of that body as the final +court of appeal for the British people. The grave questions +of respective jurisdiction which have from time to time arisen +between the federal and provincial governments have for the +most part been settled by appeal to one or both of these judicial +bodies. Some of these questions have played a considerable +part in Canadian politics, but are of too complicated a nature +to be dealt with in the present brief sketch. They have +generally consisted in the assertion of provincial rights against +federal authority. The decision of the courts has always been +accepted as authoritative and final.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An excellent bibliography of Canadian history will be found in the +volume <i>Literature of American History</i>, published by the American +Library Association. The annual <i>Review of Historical Publications +Relating to Canada</i>, published by the University of Toronto, gives +a critical survey of the works on Canadian topics appearing from +year to year.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. R. P.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Literature</p> + +<p>1. <i>English-Canadian Literature</i> is marked by the weaknesses +as well as the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence, +the conquering of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad +culture or scholarship, and the very fact that Canada is a colony, +however free to control her own affairs, has stood in the way +of the creation of anything like a national literature. And yet, +while Canada’s intellectual product is essentially an offshoot +of the parent literature of England, it is not entirely devoid of +originality, either in manner or matter. There is in much of +it a spirit of freedom and youthful vigour characteristic of the +country. It is marked by the wholesomeness of Canadian life +and Canadian ideals, and the optimism of a land of limitless +potentialities.</p> + +<p>The first few decades of the period of British rule were lean +years indeed so far as native literature is concerned. This +period of unrest gave birth to little beyond a flood of political +pamphlets, of no present value save as material for the historian. +We may perhaps except the able though thoroughly partisan +writings of Sir John Beverley Robinson and Bishop Strachan +on the one side, and Robert Fleming Gourlay and William +Lyon Mackenzie on the other. In the far West, however, a +little group of adventurous fur-traders, of whom Sir Alexander +Mackenzie, David Thompson, Alexander Henry and Daniel +Williams Harmon may be taken as conspicuous types, were +unfolding the vast expanse of the future dominion. They were +men of action, not of words, and had no thought of literary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> +fame, but their absorbingly interesting journals are none the +less an essential part of the literature of the country.</p> + +<p>Barring the work of Francis Parkman, who was not a Canadian, +no history of the first rank has yet been written in or of Canada. +Canadian historians have not merely lacked so far the genius +for really great historical work, but they have lacked the point +of view; they have stood too close to their subject to get the +true perspective. At the same time they have brought together +invaluable material for the great historian of the future. Robert +Christie’s <i>History of Lower Canada</i> (1848-1854) was the first +serious attempt to deal with the period of British rule. William +Kingsford’s (1819-1898) ambitious work, in ten volumes, comes +down like Christie’s to the Union of 1841, but goes back to the +very beginnings of Canadian history. In the main it is impartial +and accurate, but the style is heavy and sometimes slovenly. +J.C. Dent’s (1841-1888) <i>Last Forty Years</i> (1880) is practically +a continuation of Kingsford. Dent also wrote an interesting +though one-sided account of the rebellion of 1837. Histories +of the maritime provinces have been written by Thomas Chandler +Haliburton, Beamish Murdoch and James Hannay. Haliburton’s +is much the best of the three. The brief but stirring +history of western Canada has been told by Alexander Begg +(1840-1898); and George Bryce (b. 1844) and Beckles Willson +(b. 1869) have written the story of the Hudson’s Bay Company. +Much scholarship and research have been devoted to local and +special historical subjects, a notable example of which is Arthur +Doughty’s exhaustive work on the siege of Quebec. J. McMullen +(b. 1820), Charles Roberts (b. 1860) and Sir John Bourinot +(1837-1902) have written brief and popular histories, covering +the whole field of Canadian history more or less adequately. +Alpheus Todd’s (1821-1884) <i>Parliamentary Government in +England</i> (1867-1869) and <i>Parliamentary Government in the +British Colonies</i> (1880) are standard works, as is also Bourinot’s +<i>Parliamentary Procedure and Practice</i> (1884).</p> + +<p>Biography has been devoted mainly to political subjects. +The best of these are Joseph Pope’s <i>Memoirs of Sir John +Macdonald</i> (1894), W.D. le Sueur’s <i>Frontenac</i> (1906), Sir John +Bourinot’s <i>Lord Elgin</i> (1905), Jean McIlwraith’s <i>Sir Frederick +Haldimand</i> (1904), D.C. Scott’s <i>John Graves Simcoe</i> (1905), +A.D. de Celles’ <i>Papineau and Cartier</i>(1904), Charles Lindsey’s +<i>William Lyon Mackenzie</i> (1862), J.W. Longley’s <i>Joseph Howe</i> +(1905) and J.S. Willison’s <i>Sir Wilfrid Laurier</i> (1903).</p> + +<p>In <i>belles lettres</i> very little has been accomplished, unless we +may count Goldwin Smith (<i>q.v.</i>) as a Canadian. As a scholar, +a thinker, and a master of pure English he has exerted a marked +influence upon Canadian literature and Canadian life.</p> + +<p>While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most +of what passes for poetry in Canada, a few writers have risen +to a higher level. The conditions of Canadian life have not been +favourable to the birth of great poets, but within the limits +of their song such men as Archibald Lampman (1861-1891), +William Wilfred Campbell (b. 1861), Charles Roberts, Bliss +Carman (b. 1861) and George Frederick Cameron have written +lines that are well worth remembering. Lampman’s poetry is +the most finished and musical. He fell short of being a truly +great poet, inasmuch as great poetry must, which his does not, +touch life at many points, but his verses are marked by the +qualities that belonged to the man—sincerity, purity, seriousness. +Campbell’s poetry, in spite of a certain lack of compression, is +full of dramatic vigour: Roberts has put some of his best work +into sonnets and short lyrics, while Carman has been very +successful with the ballad, the untrammelled swing and sweep +of which he has finely caught; the simplicity and severity of +Cameron’s style won the commendation of even so exacting a +critic as Matthew Arnold. One remarkable drama—Charles +Heavysege’s (1816-1876) <i>Saul</i> (1857)—belongs to Canadian +literature. Though unequal in execution, it contains passages +of exceptional beauty and power. The sweetness and maturity +of Isabella Valency Crawford’s (1851-1887) verse are also very +worthy of remembrance. The <i>habitant</i> poems of Dr W.H. +Drummond (1854-1907) stand in a class by themselves, +between English and French Canadian literature, presenting +the simple life of the <i>habitant</i> with unique humour and +picturesqueness.</p> + +<p>The first distinctively Canadian novel was John Richardson’s +(1796-1852) <i>Wacousta</i> (1832), a stirring tale of the war of 1812. +Richardson afterwards wrote half a dozen other romances, +dealing chiefly with incidents in Canadian history. Susanna +Moodie (1803-1885) and Katharine Parr Traill (1802-1899), +sisters of Agnes Strickland, contributed novels and tales to one +of the earliest and best of Canadian magazines, the <i>Literary +Garland</i> (1838-1847). <i>The Golden Dog</i>, William Kirby’s (1817-1906) +fascinating romance of old Quebec, appeared in 1877, +in a pirated edition. Twenty years later the first authorized +edition was published. James de Mille (1833-1880) was the +author of some thirty novels, the best of which is <i>Helena’s +Household</i> (1868), a story of Rome in the 1st century. <i>The +Dodge Club</i> (1869), a humorous book of travel, appeared, curiously +enough, a few months before <i>Innocents Abroad</i>. De Mille’s +posthumous novel, <i>A Strange Manuscript found in a Copper +Cylinder</i> (1888), describes a singular race whose cardinal doctrine +is that poverty is honourable and wealth the reverse. Sir Gilbert +Parker (b. 1862) stands first among contemporary Canadian +novelists. He has made admirable use in many of his novels +of the inexhaustible stores of romantic and dramatic material +that lie buried in forgotten pages of Canadian history. Of +later Canadian novelists mention may be made of Sara Jeannette +Duncan (Mrs Everard Cotes, b. 1862), Ralph Connor (Charles +W. Gordon, b. 1866), Agnes C. Laut (b. 1872), W.A. Fraser +(b. 1859) and Ernest Thompson Seton (b. 1860). Thomas +Chandler Haliburton (<i>q.v.</i>) stands in a class by himself. In many +respects his is the most striking figure in Canadian literature. +He is best known as a humorist, and as a humorist he ranks +with the creators of “My Uncle Toby” and “Pickwick.” But +there is more than humour in Haliburton’s books. He lacked, +in fact, but one thing to make him a great novelist: he had no +conception of how to construct a plot. But he knew human +nature, and knew it intimately in all its phases; he could +construct a character and endow it with life; his people talk +naturally and to the point; and many of his descriptive +passages are admirable. Those who read Haliburton’s books +only for the sake of the humour will miss much of their value. +His inimitable <i>Clockmaker</i> (1837), as well as the later books, +<i>The Old Judge</i> (1849), <i>The Attaché</i> (1843), <i>Wise Saws and +Modern Instances</i> (1853) and <i>Nature and Human Nature</i> (1855), +are mirrors of colonial life and character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For general treatment of English-Canadian literature, reference +may be made to Sir John Bourinot’s <i>Intellectual Development of the +Canadian People</i> (1881); G. Mercer Adam’s <i>Outline History of +Canadian Literature</i> (1887); “Native Thought and Literature,” +in J.E. Collins’s <i>Life of Sir John A. Macdonald</i> (1883); “Canadian +Literature,” by J.M. Oxley, in the <i>Encyclopaedia Americana</i>, vol. ix. +(1904); A. MacMurchy’s <i>Handbook of Canadian Literature</i> (1906); +and articles by J. Castell Hopkins, John Reade, A.B. de Mille and +Thomas O’Hagan, in vol. v. of <i>Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the +Country</i> (1898-1900); also to Henry J. Morgan’s <i>Bibliotheca Canadensis</i> +(1867) and <i>Canadian Men and Women of the Time</i> (1898); +W.D. Lighthall, <i>Songs of the Great Dominion</i>; Theodore Rand’s +<i>Treasury of Canadian Verse</i> (1900); C.C. James’s <i>Bibliography of +Canadian Verse</i> (1898); L.E. Horning’s and L.J. Burpee’s <i>Bibliography +of Canadian Fiction</i> (1904); S.E. Dawson’s <i>Prose Writers of +Canada</i> (1901); “Canadian Poetry,” by J.A. Cooper, in <i>The +National</i>, 29, p. 364; “Recent Canadian Fiction,” by L.J. Burpee, +in <i>The Forum</i>, August 1899. For individual authors, see Haliburton’s +<i>A Centenary Chaplet</i> (1897), with a bibliography; “Haliburton,” +by F. Blake Crofton, in <i>Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the +Country</i>; C.H. Farnham’s <i>Life of Francis Parkman</i> and H.D. +Sedgwick’s <i>Francis Parkman</i> (1901); and articles on “Parkman,” +by E.L. Godkin, in <i>The Nation</i>, 71, p. 441; by Justin Winsor in +<i>The Atlantic</i>, 73, p. 660; by W.D. Howells, <i>The Atlantic</i>, 34, p. 602; +by John Fiske, <i>The Atlantic</i>, 73, p. 664; by J.B. Gilder in <i>The +Critic</i>, 23, p. 322; “Goldwin Smith as a Critic,” by H. Spencer, +<i>Contemp. Review</i>, 41, p. 519; “Goldwin Smith’s Historical Works,” +by C.E. Norton, <i>North American Review</i>, 99, p. 523; “Poetry of +Charles Heavysege,” by Bayard Taylor, <i>Atlantic</i>, 16, p. 412; +“Charles Heavysege,” by L.J. Burpee, in <i>Trans. Royal Society of +Canada</i>, 1901; “Archibald Lampman,” by W.D. Howells, <i>Literature</i> +(N.Y.), 4, p. 217; “Archibald Lampman,” by L.J. Burpee, in +<i>North American Notes and Queries</i> (Quebec), August and September +1900; “Poetry of Bliss Carman,” by J.P. Mowbray, <i>Critic</i>, 41, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> +p. 308; “Isabella Valency Crawford,” in <i>Poet-Lore</i> (Boston), xiii. No. +4; <i>Roberts and the Influences of his Time</i> (1906), by James Cappon; +“William Wilfred Campbell,” <i>Sewanee Review</i>, October 1900; +“Kingsford’s History of Canada,” by G.M. Wrong, <i>N.A. Review</i>, +I p. 550; “Books of Gilbert Parker,” by C.A. Pratt, <i>Critic</i>, 33, +p. 271.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. J. B.)</div> + +<p>2. <i>French-Canadian Literature</i> at the opening of the 20th +century might be described as entirely the work of two generations, +and it was separated from the old régime by three more +generations whose racial sentiment only found expression in +the traditional songs and tales which their forefathers of the +17th century had brought over from the <i>mère patrie</i>. Folk-lore +has always been the most essentially French of all imaginative +influences in Canadian life; and the songs are the quintessence +of the lore. Not that the folk-songs have no local variants. +Indian words, like <i>moccasin</i> and <i>toboggan</i>, are often introduced. +French forms are freely turned into pure Canadianisms, like +<i>cageux</i>, raftsman, <i>boucane</i>, brushwood smoke, <i>portage</i>, &c. +New characters, which appeal more directly to the local audience, +sometimes supplant old ones, like the <i>quatre vieux sauvages</i> +who have ousted the time-honoured <i>quatre-z-officiers</i> from the +Canadian version of <i>Malbrouk</i>. There are even a few entire +songs of transatlantic origin. But all these variants together +are mere stray curios among the crowding souvenirs of the +old home over sea. No other bridge can rival <i>le Pont d’Avignon</i>. +“<i>Ici</i>” in <i>C’est le ban vin qui danse ici</i> can be nowhere else but +in old France—<i>le ban vin</i> alone proves this. And the Canadian +folk-singer, though in a land of myriad springs, still goes <i>à la +claire fontaine</i> of his ancestral fancy; while the lullabies his +mother sang him, like the love-songs with which he serenades +his <i>blonde</i>, were nearly all sung throughout the Normandy of +<i>le Grand Monarque</i>. The <i>habitant</i> was separated from old-world +changes two centuries ago by difference of place and +circumstances, while he has hitherto been safeguarded from +many new-world changes by the segregative influences of race, +religion, language and custom; and so his folk-lore still remains +the intimate <i>alter et idem</i> of what it was in the days of the great +pioneers. It is no longer a living spirit among the people at +large; but in secluded villages and “back concessions” one +can still hear some charming melodies as old and pure as the +verses to which they are sung, and even a few quaint survivals +of Gregorian tunes. The best collection, more particularly +from the musical point of view, is <i>Les Chansons populaires +du Canada</i>, started by Ernest Gagnon (1st ed. 1865).</p> + +<p>Race-patriotism is the distinguishing characteristic of French-Canadian +literature, which is so deeply rooted in national +politics that L.J. Papineau, the most insistent demagogue +of 1837, must certainly be named among the founders, for +the sake of speeches which came before written works both +in point of time and popular esteem. Only 360 volumes had +been published during 80 years, when, in 1845, the first famous +book appeared—François Xavier Garneau’s (1809-1866) <i>Histoire +du Canada</i>. It had immense success in Canada, was favourably +noticed in France, and has influenced all succeeding men of +letters. Unfortunately, the imperfect data on which it is based, +and the too exclusively patriotic spirit in which it is written, +prevent it from being an authoritative history: the author +himself declares “<i>Vous verrez si la défaite de nos ancêtres ne +vaut pas toutes las victoires</i>.” But it is of far-reaching importance +as the first great literary stimulus to racial self-respect. “<i>Le +Canada français avait perdu ses Ictlres de noblesse; Garneau +les lui a rendues</i>.” F.X. Garneau is also remembered for his +poems, and he was followed by his son Alfred Garneau (1836-1904).</p> + +<p>A. Gérin-Lajoie was a mere lad when the exile of some compatriots +inspired <i>Le Canadien errant</i>, which immediately became +a universal folk-song. Many years later he wrote discriminatingly +about those <i>Dix ans au Canada</i> (1888) that saw the +establishment of responsible government. But his fame rests +on <i>Jean Rivard</i> (1874), the prose bucolic of the <i>habitant</i>. The +hero, left at the head of a fatherless family of twelve when +nearly through college, turns from the glut of graduates swarming +round the prospects of professional city-bred careers, steadfastly +wrests a home from the wilderness, helps his brothers and +sisters, marries a <i>habitante</i> fit for the wife of a pioneer, brings +up a large family, and founds a settlement which grows into +several parishes and finally becomes the centre of the electoral +district of “Rivardville,” which returns him to parliament. +These simple and earnest <i>Scènes de la vie réelle</i> are an appealing +revelation of that eternal secret of the soil which every people +wishing to have a country of its own must early lay to heart; +and <i>Jean Rivard, le défricheur</i>, will always remain the eponym +of the new <i>colons</i> of the 19th century.</p> + +<p>Philippe de Gaspé’s historical novel, <i>Les Anciens Canadiens</i> +(1863), is the complement of Garneau and Gérin-Lajoie. Everything +about the author’s life helped him to write this book. +Born in 1784, and brought up among reminiscent eye-witnesses +of the old régime, he was an eager listener, with a wonderful +memory and whole-hearted pride in the glories of his race and +family, a kindly <i>seigneur</i>, who loved and was loved by all his +<i>censitaires</i>, a keen observer of many changing systems, down +to the final Confederation of 1867, and a man who had felt +both extremes of fortune (<i>Mémoires</i>, 1866). The story rambles +rather far from its well-worn plot. But these very digressions +give the book its intimate and abiding charm; for they keep +the reader in close personal touch with every side of Canadian +life, with songs and tales and homely forms of speech, with +the best features of seigniorial times and the strong guidance +of an ardent church, with <i>voyageurs, coureurs de bois</i>, Indians, +soldiers, sailors and all the strenuous adventurers of a wild, +new, giant world. The poet of this little band of authors was +Octave Crémazie, a Quebec bookseller, who failed in business +and spent his last years as a penniless exile in France. He +is usually rather too derivative, he lacks the saving grace of +style, and even his best Canadian poems hardly rise above +fervent occasional verse. Yet he became a national poet, +because he was the first to celebrate occasions of deeply felt +popular emotion in acceptable rhyme, and he will always remain +one because each occasion touched some lasting aspiration +of his race. He sings what Garneau recounts—the love of +mother country, mother church and Canada. The <i>Guerre de +Crimée, Guerre d’ltalie</i>, even <i>Castel-fidardo</i>, are duly chronicled. +An ode on <i>Mgr. de Montmorency-Laval</i>, first bishop of Quebec, +brings him nearer to his proper themes, which are found in full +perfection in the <i>Chant du vieux soldat canadien</i>, composed in +1856 to honour the first French man-of-war that visited British +Quebec, and <i>Le Drapeau de Carillon</i> (1858), a centennial paean +for Montcalm’s Canadians at Ticonderoga. Much of the mature +work of this first generation, and of the juvenilia of the second, +appeared in <i>Les Soirées canadiennes</i> and <i>Le Foyer canadien</i>, +founded in 1862 and 1863 respectively. The abbé Ferland was +an enthusiastic editor and historian, and Etienne Parent should +be remembered as the first Canadian philosopher.</p> + +<p>At Confederation many eager followers began to take up the +work which the founders were laying down. The abbé Casgrain +devoted a life-time to making the French-Canadians appear as +the chosen people of new-world history; but, though an able +advocate, he spoilt a really good case by trying to prove too +much. His <i>Pèlerinage au pays d’Evangéline</i> (1888) is a splendid +defence of the unfortunate Acadians; and all his books attract +the reader by their charm of style and personality. But his +<i>Montcalm et Lévis</i> (1891) and other works on the conquest, are +all warped by a strong bias against both Wolfe and Montcalm, +and in favour of Vandreuil, the Canadian-born governor; while +they show an inadequate grasp of military problems, and +practically ignore the vast determining factor of sea-power +altogether. Benjamin Sulte’s comprehensive <i>Histoire des +Canadiens-français</i> (1882) is a well-written, many-sided work. +Thomas Chapais’ monographs are as firmly grounded as they +are finely expressed; his <i>Jean Talon</i> (1904) is of prime importance; +and his <i>Montcalm</i> (1901) is the generous <i>amende +honorable</i> paid by French-Canadian literature to a much misrepresented, +but admirably wrought, career. A. Gérin-Lajoie’s +cry of “back to the land” was successfully adapted to modern +developments in <i>Le Saguenay</i> (1896) and <i>L’Outaouais supérieur</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> +(1889) by Arthur Buies, who showed what immense inland +breadths of country lay open to suitable “Jean Rivards” from +the older settlements along the St Lawrence. In oratory, +which most French-Canadians admire beyond all other forms +of verbal art, Sir Wilfrid Laurier has greatly surpassed L.J. +Papineau, by dealing with more complex questions, taking a +higher point of view, and expressing himself with a much apter +flexibility of style.</p> + +<p>Among later poets may be mentioned Pierre Chauveau (1820-1890), +Louis Fiset, (b. 1827), and Adolphe Poisson (b. 1849). +Louis Fréchette (1830-1908) has, however, long been the only poet +with a reputation outside of Canada. In 1879 <i>Les Fleurs boréales</i> +won the Prix Monthyon from the French Academy. In 1887 +<i>La Légende d’un peuple</i> became the acknowledged epic of a race. +He occasionally nods; is rather strident in the patriotic vein; +and too often answers the untoward call of rhetoric when his +subject is about to soar into the heights of poetry. But a rich +vocabulary, a mastery of verse-forms quite beyond the range +of Crémazie, real originality of conception, individual distinction +of style, deep insight into the soul of his people, and, still more, +the glow of warm-blooded life pulsing through the whole poem, +all combine to give him the greatest place at home and an important +one in the world at large. <i>Les Vengeances</i> (1875), +by Leon Pamphile Le May, and <i>Les Aspirations</i> (1904), by W. +Chapman, worthily represent the older and younger contemporaries. +Dr Nérée Beauchemin keeps within somewhat narrow limits +in <i>Les Floraisons matutinales</i> (1897); but within them +he shows true poetic genius, a fine sense of rhythm, rhyme and +verbal melody, a <i>curiosa felicitas</i> of epithet and phrase, and +so sure an eye for local colour that a stranger could choose no +better guide to the imaginative life of Canada.</p> + +<p>A Canadian drama hardly exists; among its best works are +the pleasantly epigrammatic plays of F.G. Marchand. Novels +are not yet much in vogue; though Madame Conan’s <i>L’Oublié</i> +(1902) has been crowned by the Academy; while Dr Choquette’s +<i>Les Ribaud</i> (1898) is a good dramatic story, and his <i>Claude +Paysan</i> (1899) is an admirably simple idyllic tale of the hopeless +love of a soil-bound <i>habitant</i>, told with intense natural feeling +and fine artistic reserve. Chief-Justice Routhier, a most accomplished +occasional writer, is very French-Canadian when arraigning +<i>Les Grands Drames</i> of the classics (1889) before his +ecclesiastical court and finding them guilty of Paganism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best bibliographies are Philéas Gagnon’s <i>Essai de bibliographie +canadienne</i> (1895), and Dr N.E. Dionne’s list of publications +from the earliest times in the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of +Canada</i> for 1905.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Wo.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The census is taken every ten years, save in these three provinces, +where it is taken every five. Their population in 1906 was:— +Manitoba, 360,000; Saskatchewan, 257,000; Alberta, 184,000.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The areas assigned to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New +Brunswick and British Columbia are exclusive of the territorial +seas, that to Quebec is exclusive of the Gulf of St Lawrence (though +including the islands lying within it), and that to Ontario is exclusive +of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes. About 500,000 sq. m. +belong to the Arctic region and 125,755 sq. m. are water.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In Canada a city must have over 10,000 inhabitants, a town +over 2000.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The date of foundation is given in brackets.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANAL<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>canalis</i>, “channel” and “kennel” being +doublets of the word), an artificial water course used for the +drainage of low lands, for irrigation (<i>q.v.</i>), or more especially +for the purpose of navigation by boats, barges or ships. Probably +the first canals were made for irrigation, but in very early times +they came also to be used for navigation, as in Assyria and Egypt. +The Romans constructed various works of the kind, and Charlemagne +projected a system of waterways connecting the Main +and the Rhine with the Danube, while in China the Grand Canal, +joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in the +13th century, formed an important artery of commerce, serving +also for irrigation. But although it appears from Marco Polo +that inclines were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways +suffered in general from the defect that no method being known +of conveniently transferring boats from one level to another +they were only practicable between points that lay on nearly +the same level; and inland navigation could not become +generally useful and applicable until this defect had been remedied +by the employment of locks. Great doubts exist as to the person, +and even the nation, that first introduced locks. Some writers +attribute their invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a +century earlier than in Italy locks were used in Holland where +canals are very numerous, owing to the favourable physical +conditions. On the other hand, the contrivance has been claimed +for engineers of the Italian school, and it is said that two brothers +Domenico of Viterbo constructed a lock-chamber enclosed by +a pair of gates in 1481, and that in 1487 Leonardo da Vinci +completed six locks uniting the canals of Milan. Be that as it +may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th +century gave a new character to inland navigation and laid the +basis of its successful extension.</p> + +<p>The Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as +the pioneer of the canals of modern Europe. Joining the Bay +of Biscay and the Mediterranean it is 148 m. long and rises +620 ft. above sea-level with 119 locks, its depth being about +6½ ft. It was designed by Baron Paul Riquet de Bonrepos +(1604-1680) and was finished in 1681. With it and the still +earlier Briare canal (1605-1642) France began that policy of +canal construction which has provided her with over 3000 m. +of canals, in addition to over 4600 m. of navigable rivers. In +Russia Peter the Great undertook the construction of a system +of canals about the beginning of the 18th century, and in Sweden +a canal with locks, connecting Eskilstuna with Lake Malar, +was finished in 1606. In England the oldest artificial canal +is the Foss Dyke, a relic of the Roman occupation. It extends +from Lincoln to the river Trent near Torksey (11 m.), and +formed a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin +but now filled up, which ran from Lincoln to Peterborough +(40 m.). Camden in his <i>Britannia</i> says that the Foss Dyke was +deepened and to some extent rendered navigable in 1121. Little, +however, was done in making canals in Great Britain until the +middle of the 18th century, though before that date some +progress had been made in rendering some of the larger rivers +navigable. In 1759 the duke of Bridgewater obtained powers +to construct a canal between Manchester and his collieries at +Worsley, and this work, of which James Brindley was the +engineer, and which was opened for traffic in 1761, was followed by +a period of great activity in canal construction, which, however, +came to an end with the introduction of railways. According +to evidence given before the royal commission on canals in 1906 +the total mileage of existing canals in the United Kingdom was +3901. In the United States the first canal was made in 1792-1796 +at South Hadley, Massachusetts, and the canal-system, +though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has +attained a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New +York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The splendid inland navigation +system of Canada mainly consists of natural lakes and rivers, +and the artificial waterways are largely “lateral” canals, cut +in order to enable vessels to avoid rapids in the rivers. (See +the articles on the various countries for accounts of the canal-systems +they possess.)</p> + +<p>The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construction +were mostly of the class known as <i>barge</i> or <i>boat canals</i>, +and owing to their limited depth and breadth were only available +for vessels of small size. But with the growth of commerce +the advantage was seen of cutting canals of such dimensions +as to enable them to accommodate sea-going ships. Such +<i>ship-canals</i>, which from an engineering point of view chiefly +differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they +involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the +voyage between two seas by cutting through an intervening +isthmus, or to convert important inland places into seaports. +An early example of the first class is afforded by the Caledonian +Canal (<i>q.v.</i>), while among later ones may be mentioned the +Suez Canal (<i>q.v.</i>), the Kaiser Wilhelm, Nord-Ostsee or Kiel +Canal, connecting Brunsbüttel at the mouth of the Elbe with +Kiel (<i>q.v.</i>) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have +been proposed across the isthmus that joins North and South +America (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panama Canal</a></span>). Examples of the second class +are the Manchester Ship Canal and the canal that runs from +Zeebrugge on the North Sea to Bruges (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Construction.</i>—In laying out a line of canal the engineer is +more restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway. +Since water runs downhill, gradients are inadmissible, and the +canal must either be made on one uniform level or must be +adapted to the general rise or fall of the country through which +it passes by being constructed in a series of level reaches at +varying heights above a chosen datum line, each closed by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +lock or some equivalent device to enable vessels to be transferred +from one to another. To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the +reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings +of valleys, but from time to time it will become necessary to +cross a sudden depression by the aid of an embankment or +aqueduct, while a piece of rising ground or a hill may involve +a cutting or a tunnel. Brindley took the Bridgewater canal +over the Irwell at Barton by means of an aqueduct of three +stone arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft., and T. +Telford arranged that the Ellesmere canal should cross the Dee +valley at Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly +by aqueduct. The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft. +above the ground, when it was succeeded by an aqueduct, 1000 ft. +long and 127 ft. above the river, consisting of a cast iron trough +supported on iron arches with stone piers. Occasionally when +a navigable stream has to be crossed, a swing viaduct is necessary +to allow shipping to pass. The first was that built by Sir E. +Leader Williams to replace Brindley’s aqueduct at Barton, +which was only high enough to give room for barges (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchester +Ship Canal</a></span>). One of the earliest canal tunnels was +made in 1766-1777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and +Mersey canal; it is 2880 yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide, +and has no tow-path, the boats being propelled by men lying +on their backs and pushing with their feet against the tunnel +walls (“leggers”). A second tunnel, parallel to this but 16 ft. +high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by Telford in +1827. Standedge tunnel, on the Huddersfield canal, is over 3 m. +long, and is also worked by leggers.</p> + +<p>The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of +water-supply, are regulated by the size of the vessels which +are to be used on it. According to J.M. Rankine, the depth of +<span class="sidenote">Dimensions.</span> +water and sectional area of waterway should be such +as not to cause any material increase of the resistance +to the motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered +in open water, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling +these conditions:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Least breadth of bottom</td> <td class="tcl">= 2 × greatest breadth of boat.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Least depth of water</td> <td class="tcl">= 1½ ft. + greatest draught of boat.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Least area of waterway</td> <td class="tcl">= 6 × greatest midship section of boat.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="noind">The ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide +at the bottom, which is flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water +level, with a depth of 4 or 5 ft., the angle of slope of the sides +varying with the nature of the soil. To retain the water in porous +ground, and especially on embankments, a strong watertight +lining of puddle or tempered clay must be provided on the bed +and sides of the channel. Puddle is made of clay which has been +finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being supplied +until it is in a semi-plastic state. It is used in thin layers, each +of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the lower +stratum. The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft. To prevent +the erosion of the sides at the water-line by the wash from the +boats, it may be necessary to pitch them with stones or face +them with brushwood. In some of the old canals the slopes have +been cut away and vertical walls built to retain the towing-paths, +with the result of adding materially to the sectional area +of the waterway.</p> + +<p>A canal cannot be properly worked without a supply of +water calculated to last over the driest season of the year. +If there be no natural lake available in the district for +storage and supply, or if the engineer cannot draw upon +<span class="sidenote">Water supply.</span> +some stream of sufficient size, he must form artificial +reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must +be attended to in selecting the positions of these and in +constructing them are the same as those for drinking-water supply, +except that the purity of the water is not a matter of moment. +They must be situated at such an elevation that the water from +them may flow to the summit-level of the canal, and if the +expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command a +sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the +canal by evaporation from the surface, percolation through the +bed, and lockage. If the supply be inadequate, the draught of +the boats plying on the canal may have to be reduced in a dry +season, and the consequent decrease in the size of their cargoes +will both lessen the carrying capacity of the canal and increase +the working expenses in relation to the tonnage handled. Again, +since the consumption of water in lockage increases both with +the size of the locks and the frequency with which they are used, +the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may put a +limit to the density of traffic possible on a canal or may prohibit +its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the +size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under +modern conditions. It may be pointed out that the up consumes +more water than the down traffic. An ascending boat +on entering a lock displaces a volume of water equal to its +submerged capacity. The water so displaced flows into the lower +reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through the lock is +replaced by water flowing from the upper reach. A descending +boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its +submerged capacity, but in this case the water flows back into +the higher reach where it is retained when the gates are +closed.</p> + +<p>An essential adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of +waste-weirs to discharge surplus water accumulating during +floods, which, if not provided with an exit, may +overflow the tow-path, and cause a breach in the banks, +<span class="sidenote">Waste-weirs and stop-gates.</span> +stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining +lands. The number and positions of these waste-weirs +must depend on the nature of the country through which the +canal passes. Wherever the canal crosses a stream a waste-weir +should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently +of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes +of water may be apprehended, and must at such places form not +only waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but +also artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams. +These waste-weirs are placed at the top water-level of the +canal, so that when a flood occurs the water flows over them +and thus relieves the banks.</p> + +<p>Stop-gates are necessary at short intervals of a few miles +for the purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches, +so that in the event of a breach the gates may be shut, and +the discharge of water confined to the small reach intercepted +between two of them, instead of extending throughout the +whole line of canal. In broad canals these stop-gates may be +formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates being made +to shut in opposite directions. In small works they may be +made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow +points of the canal under road bridges, or at contractions made +at intermediate points to receive them. Self-acting stop-gates +have been tried, but have not proved trustworthy. When +repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of the water being +run off by “off-lets” from a short reach, and afterwards restored +with but little interruption of the traffic. These off-lets are pipes +placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided +with valves which can be opened when required. They are +generally formed at aqueducts or bridges crossing rivers, where +the contents of the canal between the stop-gates can be run +off into the stream.</p> + +<p>Locks are chambers, constructed of wood, brickwork, masonry +or concrete, and provided with gates at each end, by the aid +of which vessels are transferred from one reach of +the canal to another. To enable a boat to ascend, +<span class="sidenote">Locks.</span> +the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of +water from the upper reach are closed. The sluices at the lower +end of the lock are then opened, and when the level of the water +in the lock has fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes +in to the lock. The lower gates and sluices being then closed, +the upper sluices are opened, and when the water rising in +the lock has floated the boat up the level of the upper reach +the upper gates are opened and it passes out. For a descending +boat the procedure is reversed. The sluices by which the lock is +filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks, +or consist of openings in the gates in small ones. The gates +are generally of oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when +open, and closing against sills in the lock bottom when shut. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span> +In small narrow locks single gates only are necessary; in large +locks pairs of gates are required, fitting together at the head +or “mitre-post” when closed. The vertical timber at the +end of the gate is known as the “heel-post,” and at its foot is +a casting that admits an iron pivot which is fixed in the lock +bottom, and on which the gate turns. Iron straps round the +head of the heel-post are let into the lock-coping to support +the gate. The gates are opened and closed by balance beams +projecting over the lock side, by gearing or in cases where +they are very large and heavy by the direct action of a hydraulic +ram. In order to economize water canal locks are made only +a few inches wider than the vessels they have to accommodate. +The English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or 8 ft. +in beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft. +in width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit +two of the narrower canal boats side by side. In general canal +locks are just long enough to accommodate the longest vessels +using the navigation. In some cases, however, provision is +made for admitting a train of barges; such long locks have +sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective length +is reduced when a single vessel is passing. The lift of canal +locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining +reaches, is in general about 8 or 10 ft., but sometimes is as +little as 1½ ft. On the Canal du Centre (Belgium) there are locks +with a lift of 17 ft., and on the St Denis canal near La Villette +basins in Paris there is one with a lift of 32½ ft. In cases where +a considerable difference of level has to be surmounted the +locks are placed close together in a series or “flight,” so that +the lower gates of one serve also as the upper gates of the next +below. To save water, expecially where the lift is considerable, +side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs into +which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead +of being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards +used for partially filling the chamber again. Double locks, +that is, two locks placed side by side and communicating by +a passage which can be opened or closed at will, also tend to +save water, since each serves as a side pond to the other. The +same advantage is gained with double flights of locks, and time +also is saved since vessels can pass up and down simultaneously.</p> + +<p>A still greater economy of water can be effected by the use +of inclined planes or vertical lifts in place of locks. In +China rude inclines appear to have been used at an early +date, vessels being carried down a sloping plane of +<span class="sidenote">Inclines.</span> +stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up it by +capstans. On the Bude canal (England) this plan was adopted +in an improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed +being fitted with wheels to facilitate their course over the +inclines. Another variant, often adopted as an adjunct to +locks where many small pleasure boats have to be dealt with, +is to fit the incline itself with rollers, upon which the boats +travel. In some cases the boats are conveyed on a wheeled +trolley or cradle running on rails; this plan was adopted on +the Morris canal, built in 1825-1831, in the case of 23 inclines +having gradients of about 1 in 10, the rise of each varying +from 44 to 100 ft. Between the Ourcq canal and the Marne, +near Meaux, the difference of level is about 40 ft., and barges +weighing about 70 tons are taken from the one to the other on +a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a wire rope over an incline +nearly 500 yards long. But heavy barges are apt to be strained +by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this +objection they are sometimes drawn up the inclines floating +in a tank or caisson filled with water and running on wheels. +This arrangement was utilized about 1840 on the Chard canal +(England), and 10 years later it was adapted at Blackhill on +the Monkland canal (Scotland) to replace a double flight of +locks, in consequence of the traffic having been interrupted +by insufficiency of water. There the height to be overcome +was 96 ft. Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. gauge, were laid down +on a gradient of 1 in 10, and on these ran two carriages having +wrought iron, water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each +end, in which the barges floated partially but not wholly +supported by water. The carriages, with the barge and water, +weighed about 80 tons each, and were arranged to counterbalance +each other, one going up as the other was going down. +The power required was provided by two high pressure steam +engines of 25 h.p., driving two large drums round which was +coiled, in opposite directions, the 2-inch wire rope that hauled +the caissons. An incline constructed on the Union canal at +Foxton (England) to replace 10 locks giving a total rise of +75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two canal boats +of 33 tons. It is in some respects like the Monkland canal +incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails +on an incline of 1 in 14, broadside on, and the boats are entirely +waterborne. Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic +accumulator which enables hydraulic power to be used in +keeping the caisson in position at the top of the incline while +the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight joint being +maintained with the final portion of the canal during the +operation. The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked +by hydraulic power. The incline is capable of passing 200 canal +boats in 12 hours, and the whole plant is worked by three men.</p> + +<p>Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage +at places where the difference in level occurs in a short length +of canal, since otherwise long embankments or +aqueducts would be necessary to obtain sites for +<span class="sidenote">Lifts.</span> +their construction. An early example was built in 1809 at +Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham canal. It +consisted of a timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when full of +water, counterpoised by heavy weights carried on timber +platforms. The lift of 12 ft. was effected in about three minutes +by two men working winches. Seven lifts, erected on the Grand +Western canal between Wellington and Tiverton about 1835, +consisted of two chambers with a masonry pier between them. +In each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended +at either end of a chain hung over large pulleys above. As +one caisson descended the other rose, and the apparatus was +worked by putting about a ton more water in the descending +caisson than in the ascending one. At Anderton a lift was +erected in 1875 to connect the Weaver navigation with the +Trent and Mersey canal, which at that point is 50 ft. higher than +the river. The lift is a double one, and can deal with barges +up to 100 tons. The change is made while the vessels are +floating in 5 ft. of water contained in a wrought iron caisson, +75 ft. long and 15½ ft. wide. An hydraulic ram 3 ft. in diameter +supports each caisson, the bottom of which is strengthened +so as to transfer the weight to the side girders. The descending +caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater depth +of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240 +tons) being otherwise constant, since the barge displaces its +own weight of water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to overcome +the loss of weight in the descending caisson when it begins +to be immersed in the lower level of the river. The two presses +in which the rams work are connected by a 5-in. pipe, so that +the descent of one caisson effects the raising of the other. A +similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the Neuffossé +canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total +weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example +on the Canal du Centre at La Louvière in Belgium has a rise +of 50 ft., with caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons, +the total weight lifted amounting to over 1000 tons. This lift, +with three others of the same character, overcomes the rise +of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in the course of 4<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m.</p> + +<p><i>Haulage.</i>—The horse or mule walking along a tow-path +and drawing or “tracking” a boat or barge by means of a +towing rope, still remains the typical method of +conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on ship-canals +<span class="sidenote">Animal power.</span> +vessels proceed under their own steam or are +aided by tugs. Horse traction is very slow. The maximum +speed on a narrow canal is about 3½ m. an hour, and the +average speed, which, of course, depends largely on the number +of locks to be passed through, very much less. It has been +calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls +one narrow canal boat about 2 m. an hour loaded or 3 m. +empty, or two narrow canal boats 1½ m. loaded and 2½ m. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +empty. Efforts have accordingly been made not only to quicken +the rate of transit, but also to move heavier loads, thus increasing +the carrying capacity of the waterways. But at speeds exceeding +about 3½ m. an hour the “wash” of the boat begins to cause +erosion of the banks, and thus necessitates the employment +of special protective measures, such as building side walls +of masonry or concrete. For a canal of given depth there is +a particular speed at which a boat can be hauled with a smaller +expenditure of energy than at a higher or a lower speed, this +maximum being the speed of free propagation of the primary +wave raised by the motion of the boat (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wave</a></span>). About +1830 when, in the absence of railways, canals could still aspire +to act as carriers of passengers, advantage was taken of this +fact on the Glasgow and Ardrossan canal, and subsequently +on some others, to run fast passenger boats, made lightly of +wrought iron and measuring 60 ft. in length by about 6 ft. +in breadth. Provided with two horses they started at a low speed +behind the wave, and then on a given signal were jerked on the +top of the wave, when their speed was maintained at 7 or 8 m. +an hour, the depth of the canal being 3 or 4 ft. This method, +however, is obviously inapplicable to heavy barges, and in their +case improved conditions of transport had to be sought in other +directions.</p> + +<p>Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and Clyde +canal in 1802, when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by +W. Symington drew two barges for a distance of +19½ m. in 6 hours in the teeth of a strong headwind. +<span class="sidenote">Mechanical power.</span> +As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed +to employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the +project fell through owing to the death of the duke of +Bridgewater, and the directors of the Forth and Clyde canal also +decided against this method because they feared damage to +the banks. Steam tugs are only practicable on navigations on +which there are either no locks or they are large enough to admit +the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the +advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at +locks. On the Bridgewater canal, which has an average width +of 50 ft. with a depth of 5½ ft., is provided with vertical stone +walls in place of sloping banks, and has no locks for its entire +length of 40 m. except at Runcorn, where it joins the Mersey, +tugs of 50 i.h.p., with a draught of 4 ft., tow four barges, each +weighing 60 tons, at a rate of nearly 3 m. an hour. On the +Aire and Calder navigation, where the locks have a minimum +length of 215 ft., a large coal traffic is carried in trains of +boat-compartments on a system designed by W.H. Bartholomew. +The boats are nearly square in shape, except the leading one +which has an ordinary bow; they are coupled together by +knuckle-joints fitted into hollow stern-posts, so that they can +move both laterally and vertically, and a wire rope in tension +on each side enables the train to be steered. No boat crews are +required, the crew of the steamer regulating the train. If the +number of boats does not exceed 11 they can be pushed, but +beyond that number they are towed. Each compartment +carries 35 tons, and the total weight in a train varies from +700 to 900 tons. On the arrival of a train at Goole the boats +are detached and are taken over submerged cradles under +hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle sufficiently +high to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole +cargo at once into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers. +Another method of utilizing steam-power, which was also first +tried on the Forth and Clyde canal by Symington in 1789, +is to provide each vessel with a separate steam engine, and +many barges are now running fitted in this way. Experiments +have also been made with internal combustion engines in place +of steam engines. In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a +strong current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain +passed round a drum on a tug: this drum is rotated by steam +power and thus the tug is hauled up against the current. To +obviate the inconvenience of passing several turns of the chain +round the drum in order to get sufficient grip, the plan was +introduced on the Seine and Oise in 1893 of passing the chain +round a pulley which could be magnetized at will, the necessary +adhesion being thus obtained by the magnetic attraction +exercised on the iron chain; and it was also adopted about +the same time in combination with electrical haulage on a small +portion of the Bourgogne canal, electricity being employed +to drive the motor that worked the pulley. Small locomotives +running on rails along the towpath were tried on the Shropshire +Union canal, where they were abandoned on account of practical +difficulties in working, and also on certain canals in France +and Germany, where, however, the financial results were not +satisfactory. On portions of the Teltow canal, joining the +Havel and the Spree, electrical tractors run on rails along +both banks, taking their power from an overhead wire; they +attain a speed of 2½ m. an hour when hauling two 600-ton +barges. The electrical supply is also utilized for working the +lock gates and for various other purposes along the route of +the canal. In the Mont-de-Rilly tunnel, at the summit level of the +Aisne-Marne canal, a system of cable-traction was established +in 1894, the boats being taken through by being attached to +an endless travelling wire rope supported by pulleys on the +towpath.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>When railways were being carried out in England some canal +companies were alarmed for their future, and sold their canals to +the railway companies, who in 1906 owned 1138 m. of canals out +of a total length in the United Kingdom of 3901 m. As some of these +canals are links in the chain of internal water communication +complaints have frequently arisen on the question of through traffic +and tolls. The great improvements carried out in America and on +the continent of Europe by state aid enable manufacturers to get +the raw material they use and goods they export to and from their +ports at much cheaper rates than those charged on British canals. +The association of chambers of commerce and other bodies having +taken up the matter, a royal commission was appointed in 1906 to +report on the canals and water-ways of the kingdom, with a view to +considering how they could be more profitably used for national +purposes. Its Report was published in December 1909.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—L.F. Vernon-Harcourt, <i>Rivers and Canals</i> (2nd +ed., 1896); Chapman, <i>Canal Navigation</i>; Firisi, <i>On Canals</i>; +R. Fulton, <i>Canal Navigation</i>; +Tatham, <i>Economy of Inland Navigation</i>; +Valancy, <i>Treatise on Inland Navigation</i>; +D. Stevenson, <i>Canal and River Engineering</i>; +John Phillips, <i>History of Inland Navigation</i>; J. Priestley, +<i>History of Navigable Rivers, Canals, &c. in Great Britain</i> (1831); +T. Telford, <i>Life</i> (1838); +John Smeaton, <i>Reports</i> (1837); +<i>Reports of the International Congresses on Interior Navigation</i>; +<i>Report and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Canals</i> +(<i>Great Britain</i>), 1906-9.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. L. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANAL DOVER,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a city of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A., +on the Tuscarawas river, about 70 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. +Pop. (1890) 3470; (1900) 5422 (930 foreign-born); (1910) 6621. +It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania +railways, and by the Ohio canal, and is connected with Cleveland +by an inter-urban electric line. It lies on a plateau about 880 ft. +above sea-level and commands pleasant views of diversified +scenery. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and the city +manufactures iron, steel, tin plate, electrical and telephone +supplies, shovels, boilers, leather, flour, brick and tile, salt, +furniture and several kinds of vehicles. The municipality owns +and operates its water-works. Canal Dover was laid out as a +town in 1807, and was incorporated as a village in 1842, but its +charter was soon allowed to lapse and was not revived until 1867. +Canal Dover became a city under the Ohio municipal code of 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANALE<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Canaletto</span>), <span class="bold">ANTONIO</span> (1697-1768), Venetian +painter, born on the 18th of October 1697, was educated under +his father Bernard, a scene-painter of Venice, and for some +time followed his father’s line of art. In 1719 he went to Rome, +where he employed himself chiefly in delineating ancient ruins, +and particularly studied effects of light and shade, in which he +became an adept. He was the first painter who made practical +use of the camera lucida. On returning home he devoted his +powers to views in his native city, which he painted with a clear +and firm touch and the most facile mastery of colour in a deep +tone, introducing groups of figures with much effect. In his +latter days he resided some time in England. His pictures, in +their particular range, still remain unrivalled for their magnificent +perspective. The National Gallery, London, has five pictures +by him, notably the “View on the Grand Canal, Venice,” and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> +the “Regatta on the Grand Canal.” He died on the 20th of +August 1768. Bellotto (commonly named Bernardo), who is +also sometimes called <span class="sc">Canaletto</span> (1724-1780), was his nephew +and pupil, and painted with deceptive resemblance to the style +of the more celebrated master.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANALIS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (also “canal” and “channel”; from the Latin), +in architecture, the sinking between the fillets of the volute of +the Ionic capital: in the earliest examples, though sunk below +the fillets, it is slightly convex in section.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANANDAIGUA,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Ontario +county, New York, U.S.A., 30 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. +(1890) 5868; (1900) 6151; (1910) 7217. It is served +by the New York Central and Hudson River, and the Northern +Central (Pennsylvania system) railways, and is connected +with Rochester by an inter-urban electric line. Among +the manufactures are pressed bricks, tile, beer, ploughs, flour, +agate and tin-ware. The village, picturesquely situated at the +north end of Canandaigua Lake, a beautiful sheet of water about +15 m. long with a breadth varying from a mile to a mile and a +half, is a summer resort. It has a county court house; the +Canandaigua hospital of physicians and surgeons; the Frederick +Ferris Thompson memorial hospital, with a bacteriological +laboratory supported by the county; the Clark Manor House +(a county home for the aged), given by Mrs Frederick Ferris +Thompson in memory of her mother and of her father, Myron +Holley Clark (1806-1892), president of the village of Canandaigua +in 1850-1851 and governor of New York in 1855-1857; the +Ontario Orphan Asylum; Canandaigua Academy; Granger Place +school for girls; Brigham Hall (a private sanatorium for nervous +and mental diseases); Young Men’s Christian Association +building (1905); and two libraries, the Wood (public) library +and the Union School library, founded in 1795. There is a +public playground in the village with free instruction by a +physical director; and a swimming school, endowed by Mrs +F.F. Thompson, gives free lessons in swimming. The village +owns its water-supply system. A village of the Seneca Indians, +near the present Canandaigua, bearing the same name, which +means “a settlement was formerly there” (not, as Lewis +Morgan thought, “chosen spot”), was destroyed by Gen. John +Sullivan in 1779. There are boulder memorials of Sullivan’s +expedition and of the treaty signed here on the 11th of November +1794 by Timothy Pickering, on behalf of the United States with +the Six Nations—a treaty never ratified by the Senate. Canandaigua +was settled in 1789 and was first incorporated in +1812.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANARD<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (the Fr. for “duck”), a sensational or extravagant +story, a hoax or false report, especially one circulated by newspapers. +This use of the word in France dates from the 17th +century, and is supposed by Littré to have originated in the +old expression, “<i>vendre un canard à moitié</i>” (to half-sell a duck); +as it is impossible to “half-sell a duck,” the phrase came to +signify to take in, or to cheat.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANARY<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>Serinus canarius</i>), a well-known species of passerine +bird, belonging to the family <i>Fringillidae</i> or finches (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finch</a></span>). +It is a native of the Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs +abundantly in the wild state, and is of a greyish-brown colour, +slightly varied with brighter hues, although never attaining +the beautiful plumage of the domestic bird. It was first domesticated +in Italy during the 16th century, and soon spread over +Europe, where it is now the most common of cage-birds. During +the years of its domestication, the canary has been the subject +of careful artificial selection, the result being the production +of a bird differing widely in the colour of its plumage, and in a +few of its varieties even in size and form, from the original wild +species. The prevailing colour of the most admired varieties +of the canary is yellow, approaching in some cases to orange, +and in others to white; while the most robust birds are those +which, in the dusky green of the upper surface of their plumage, +show a distinct approach to the wild forms. The least prized +are those in which the plumage is irregularly spotted and speckled. +In one of the most esteemed varieties, the wing and tail feathers +are at first black—a peculiarity, however, which disappears +after the first moulting. Size and form have also been modified +by domestication, the wild canary being not more than 5½ in. +in length, while a well-known Belgian variety usually measures +8 in. There are also hooped or bowed canaries, feather-footed +forms and top-knots, the latter having a distinct crest on the +head; but the offspring of two such top-knotted canaries, +instead of showing an increased development of crest, as might +be expected, are apt to be bald on the crown. Most of the +varieties, however, of which no fewer than twenty-seven were +recognized by French breeders so early as the beginning of the +18th century, differ merely in the colour and the markings of +the plumage. Hybrids are also common, the canary breeding +freely with the siskin, goldfinch, citril, greenfinch and linnet. +The hybrids thus produced are almost invariably sterile. It is +the female canary which is almost invariably employed in +crossing, as it is difficult to get the females of the allied species +to sit on the artificial nest used by breeders. In a state of +nature canaries pair, but under domestication the male bird +has been rendered polygamous, being often put with four or +five females; still he is said to show a distinct preference for the +female with which he was first mated. It is from the others, +however, that the best birds are usually obtained. The canary +is very prolific, producing eggs, not exceeding six in number, +three or four times a year; and in a state of nature it is said to +breed still oftener. The work of building the nest, and of incubation, +falls chiefly on the female, while the duty of feeding +the young rests mainly with the cock bird. The natural song +of the canary is loud and clear; and in their native groves the +males, especially during the pairing season, pour forth their +song with such ardour as sometimes to burst the delicate vessels +of the throat. The males appear to compete with each other +in the brilliancy of their melody, in order to attract the +females, which, according to the German naturalist Johann +Matthaus Bechstein (1757-1822) always select the best singers +for their mates. The canary readily imitates the notes of +other birds, and in Germany and especially Tirol, where the +breeding of canaries gives employment to a large number of +people, they are usually placed for this purpose beside the +nightingale.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANARY ISLANDS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (<i>Canarias</i>), a Spanish archipelago in the +Atlantic Ocean; about 60 m. W. of the African coast, between +27° 40′ and 29° 30′ N., and between 13° 20′ and 18° 10′ W. Pop. +(1900) 358,564; area 2807 sq. m. The Canary Islands resemble +a roughly-drawn semicircle, with its convex side facing south-wards, +and with the island of Hierro detached on the south-west. +More precisely, they may be considered as two groups, one of +which, including Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Palma, Hierro and +Gomera, consists of mountain peaks, isolated and rising directly +from an ocean of great depth; while the other, comprising +Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and six uninhabited islets, is based +on a single submarine plateau, of far less depth. Teneriffe and +Gomera, the only members of the principal group which have +a common base, may be regarded as the twin peaks of one great +volcanic mass. Ever since the researches of Leopold von Buch +the Canary Islands have been classical ground to the student of +volcanic action. Buch considered them to be representative +of his “craters of elevation.” In common with the other West +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +African islands they are of volcanic origin. The lavas consist +chiefly of trachytes and basalts.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:514px; height:286px" src="images/img172.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Climate</i>.—From April to October a north or north-east wind +blows upon the islands, beginning about 10 A.M. and continuing +until 5 or 6 P.M. In summer this wind produces a dense stratum +of sea-cloud (<i>cumuloni</i>), 500 ft. thick, whose lower surface is +about 2500 ft. above the sea at Teneriffe. This does not reach up +to the mountains, which have on every side a stratum of their +own, about 1000 ft. thick, the lower surface being about 3500 ft. +above the level of the sea. Between these two distinct strata +there is a gap, through which persons on a vessel near the island +may obtain a glimpse of the peak. The sea-cloud conceals from +view the other islands, except those whose mountains pierce +through it. On the south-west coasts there is no regular sea or +land breeze. In winter they are occasionally visited by a hot +south-east wind from Africa, which is called the <i>Levante</i>, and +produces various disagreeable consequences on the exposed +parts of the person, besides injuring the vegetation, especially +on the higher grounds. Locusts have sometimes been brought +by this wind. In 1812 it is said that locusts covered some +fields in Fuerteventura to the depth of 4 ft. Hurricanes, accompanied +by waterspouts, sometimes cause much devastation; +but, on the whole, the islands are singularly free from such +visitations. The climate generally is mild, dry and healthy. +On the lower grounds the temperature is equable, the daily +range seldom exceeding 6° Fahr. At Santa Cruz the mean for +the year is about 71°. The rainy season occurs at the same +period as in southern Europe. The dry season is at the time of +the trade-winds, which extend a few degrees farther north than +this latitude.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The indigenous mammals of the Canary Islands +are very few in number. The dog, swine, goat and sheep were +alone found upon the island by the Spanish conquerors: The +race of large dogs which is supposed to have given a name to the +islands has been long extinct. A single skeleton has been found, +which is deposited in one of the museums at Paris. The ferret, +rabbit, cat, rat, mouse and two kinds of bat have become +naturalized. The ornithology is more interesting, on account +at once of the birds native to the islands, and the stragglers +from the African coast, which are chiefly brought over in winter, +when the wind has blown for some time from the east. Among +the indigenous birds are some birds of prey, as the African +vulture, the falcon, the buzzard, the sparrow-hawk and the kite. +There are also two species of owl, three species of sea-mew, the +stockdove, quail, raven, magpie, chaffinch, goldfinch, blackcap, +canary, titmouse, blackbird, house-swallow, &c. As to the +insects, mention may be made of a species of gnat or mosquito +which is sometimes troublesome, especially to strangers. The +list of reptiles is limited to three varieties of lizard and one +species of frog. The only fresh-water fish is the eel. Marine +fishes are not numerous, the reason perhaps being that the +steepness of the coast does not allow seaweed to grow in sufficient +quantity to support the lower forms of marine animal life. +Whales and seals are occasionally seen. The cuttle-fish is +abundant, and is sought for as an article of food.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The position of mountainous islands like the Canaries, +in the subtropical division of the temperate zone, is highly +favourable to the development, within a small space, of plants +characteristic of both warm and cold climates. Von Buch +refers to five regions of vegetation in Teneriffe:—(1) From the +sea to the height of 1300 ft. This he styles the African region. +The climate in the hottest parts is similar to that of Egypt. +Here grow, among the introduced plants, the coffee tree, the +date-palm, the sugar-cane, the banana, the orange tree, the +American agave and two species of cactus; and among indigenous +plants, the dragon tree on the north-west of Teneriffe. +A leafless and fantastic euphorbia, <i>E. canariensis</i>, and a shrubby +composite plant, <i>Cacalia kleinia</i>, give a character to the landscape +about Santa Cruz. (2) Between 1300 ft. and 2800 ft. This +is the region of south European vegetation, the climate answering +to that of southern France and central Italy. Here nourish +vines and cereals. (3) The region of indigenous trees, including +various species of laurel, an <i>Ardisia, Ilex, Rhamnus, Olea, Myrica</i>, +and other trees found wild also at Madeira. The clouds rest on +this region during the day, and by their humidity support a +vegetation amongst the trees, partly of shrubs, and partly of +ferns. It extends to the height of 4000 ft. (4) The region of the +beautiful <i>Pinus canariensis</i>, extending to the height of 6400 ft.; +here the broad-leaved trees have ceased to grow, but arborescent +heaths are found throughout its whole extent, and specimens of +<i>Juniperus oxycedrus</i> may be met with. (5) The region of Retama +(<i>Cytisus nubigenus</i>), a species of white-flowering and sweet-scented +broom, which is found as high as 11,000 ft. At the upper +edge of this region a lilac-coloured violet clings to the soil, and +above there is nothing but a little lichen. The number of wild +flowering plants may be estimated at 900, upwards of 270 of +which are peculiar to the Canaries. The forms of vegetation +must in the main be considered North African. The character +of the vegetation in Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, islands composed +of extensive plains and low hills, with few springs, is +different from that of the other islands, which are more elevated +and have many springs. The wood is less abundant, and the +vegetation less luxuriant.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.—The Guanches (<i>q.v.</i>), who occupied the Canaries +at the time of the Spanish invasion, no longer exist as a separate +race, for the majority were exterminated, and the remainder +intermarried with their conquerors. The present inhabitants are +slightly darker than the people of Spain, but in other respects +are scarcely distinguishable from them. The men are of middle +height, well-made and strong; the women are not striking +in respect of beauty, but they have good eyes and hair. Spanish +is the only language in use. The birth-rate is uniformly high +and the death-rate low; and, despite the emigration of many +families to South America and the United States, the census of +1900 showed that the population had increased by over 75,000 +since 1877. The excess of females over males, which in 1900 +amounted to upwards of 22,000, is partly explained by the fact +that few women emigrate. Fully 80% of the inhabitants could +neither read nor write in 1900; but education progresses more +rapidly than in many other Spanish provinces. Good schools +are numerous, and the return of emigrants and their children +who have been educated in the United States, tends to raise +the standard of civilization. The sustenance of the poorer +classes is chiefly composed of fish, potatoes and <i>gofio</i>, which is +merely Indian corn or wheat roasted, ground and kneaded +with water or milk. The land is, in great part, strictly +entailed.</p> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—The archipelago forms one Spanish province, +of which the capital is Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the residence +of the civil governor, who has under his command one of the +two districts into which the archipelago is divided, this first +district comprising Teneriffe, Palma, Gomera and Hierro. +The other district includes Grand Canary, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, +and has at its head a sub-governor, residing in Las +Palmas, on Grand Canary, who is independent of the governor +except in regard to elections and municipal administration. +The chief finance office is at Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The +court of appeal, created in 1526, is in Las Palmas. The captain-general +and second commandant of the archipelago reside in +Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and there is a brigadier-governor of +Grand Canary, residing in Las Palmas, besides eight inferior +military commandants. The province furnishes no men for +the Spanish peninsular army, but its annual conscription provides +men for the local territorial militia, composed of regiments of +infantry, squadrons of mounted rifles and companies of garrison +artillery—about 5000 men all told. The archipelago is divided +into two naval districts, commanded by royal navy captains. +Roman Catholicism is the official religion, and ecclesiastical +law is the same as in other Spanish provinces. The convents +have been suppressed, and in many cases converted to secular +uses. Laguna and Las Palmas are episcopal sees, in the archbishopric +of Seville.</p> + +<p><i>Industry and Commerce.</i>—Owing to the richness of the volcanic +soil, agriculture in the Canaries is usually very profitable. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> +Land varies in value according to the amount of water available, +but as a rule commands an extraordinarily high price. In the +<i>Terrenos de secano</i>, or non-irrigable districts, the average price +of an acre ranges from £7 to £17; in the <i>Terrenes de riego</i>, +or irrigable land, it ranges from £100 to £250. Until 1853 +wine was the staple product, and although even the finest brand +(known as <i>Vidonia</i>) never equalled the best Madeira vintages, +it was largely consumed abroad, especially in England. The +annual value of the wine exported often exceeded £500,000. +In 1853, however, the grape disease attacked the vineyards; +and thenceforward the production of cochineal, which had +been introduced in 1825, took the place of viticulture so completely +that, twenty years later, the exports of cochineal were +worth £556,000. France and England were the chief purchasers. +This industry declined in the later years of the 19th century, +and was supplanted by the cultivation of sugar-cane, and +afterwards of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and onions. Bananas +are the most important crop. Other fruits grown in +smaller quantities include oranges, figs, dates, pineapples, +guavas, custard-apples and prickly pears. Tobacco-planting +is encouraged by the Spanish government, and the sugar trade +is maintained, despite severe competition. The grain harvest +does not supply the needs of the islanders. Pigs and sheep of a +small, coarse-woolled breed, are numerous; and large herds +of goats wander in an almost wild state over the higher hills. +Fishing is a very important industry, employing over 10,000 +hands. The fleet of about 2200 boats operates along some +600 m. of the African coast, between Cape Cantin and the +Arguin Bank. Shipbuilding is carried on at Las Palmas; +and the minor industries include the manufacture of cloth, +drawn-linen (<i>calado</i>) work, silk, baskets, hats, &c. A group +of Indian merchants, who employ coolie labour, produce silken, +jute and cotton goods, Oriental embroideries, wrought silver, +brass-ware, porcelain, carved sandal-wood, &c. The United +Kingdom heads the import trade in coal, textiles, hardware, +iron, soap, candles and colonial products. Timber comes chiefly +from North America and Scandinavia, alcohol from Cuba and +the United States, wheat and flour from various British +possessions, maize from Morocco and Argentina. Large +quantities of miscellaneous imports are sent by Germany, +Spain, France and Italy. Bananas, tomatoes, potatoes, sugar +and wine are exported. The total value of the foreign trade +fluctuates very greatly, and the difficulty of forming an estimate +is enhanced in many years by the absence of official statistics; +but imports and exports together probably amount in a normal +year to about £1,000,000. The chief ports are Las Palmas +and Santa Cruz, which annually accommodate about 7000 +vessels of over 8,000,000 tons. In 1854 all the ports of the +Canaries were practically declared free; but on the 1st of +November 1904 a royal order prohibited foreign vessels from +trading between one island and another. This decree deprived +the outlying islands of their usual means of communication, and, +in answer to a protest by the inhabitants, its operation was +postponed.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—There is ground for supposing that the Phoenicians +were not ignorant of the Canaries. The Romans learned of +their existence through Juba, king of Mauretania, whose account +of an expedition to the islands, made about 40 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, was preserved +by the elder Pliny. He mentions “Canaria, so called from +the multitude of dogs of great size,” and “Nivaria, taking +its name from perpetual snow, and covered with clouds,” +doubtless Teneriffe. Canaria was said to abound in palms +and pine trees. Both Plutarch and Ptolemy speak of the +Fortunate Islands, but from their description it is not clear +whether the Canaries or one of the other island groups in the +western Atlantic are meant; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isles Of The Blest</a></span>. In +the 12th century the Canaries were visited by Arab navigators, +and in 1334 they were rediscovered by a French vessel driven +among them by a gale. A Portuguese expedition, undertaken +about the same time, failed to find the archipelago, and want +of means frustrated the project of conquest entertained by a +grandson of Alphonso X. of Castile, named Juan de la Cerda, +who had obtained a grant of the islands and had been crowned +king of them at Avignon, by Pope Clement VI. Two or possibly +more Spanish expeditions followed, and a monastic mission +was established, but at the close of the 14th century the Guanches +remained unconquered and unconverted. In 1402, however, +Gadifer de la Salle and Jean de Béthencourt (<i>q.v.</i>) sailed with +two vessels from Rochelle, and landed early in July on Lanzarote. +The relations between these two leaders, and their respective +shares in the work of conquest and exploration, have been +the subject of much controversy. Between 1402 and 1404 +La Salle conquered Lanzarote and part of Fuerteventura, +besides exploring other islands; Béthencourt meanwhile sailed +to Cadiz for reinforcements. He returned in 1404 with the +title of king, which he had secured from Henry III. of Castile. +La Salle, thus placed in a position of inferiority, left the islands +and appealed unsuccessfully for redress at the court of Castile. +In 1405 Béthencourt visited Normandy, and returned with fresh +colonists who conquered Hierro. In December 1406 he left the +Canaries, entrusting their government to his nephew Maciot +de Béthencourt, and reserving for himself a share in any profits +obtained, and the royal title. Eight years of misrule followed +before Queen Catherine of Castile intervened. Maciot thereupon +sold his office to her envoy, Pedro Barba de Campos; +sailed to Lisbon and resold it to Prince Henry the Navigator; +and a few years afterwards resold it once more to Enrique de +Guzman, count of Niebla. Jean de Béthencourt, who died +in 1422, bequeathed the islands to his brother Reynaud; Guzman +sold them to another Spaniard named Paraza, who was forced +to re-sell to Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile in 1476; and +Prince Henry twice endeavoured to enforce his own claims. +Meanwhile the Guanches remained unconquered throughout +the greater part of the archipelago. In 1479 the sovereignty +of Ferdinand and Isabella over the Canaries was established +by the treaty of Alcaçova, between Portugal and Castile. After +much bloodshed, and with reinforcements from the mother +country, the Spaniards, under Pedro de Vera, became masters +of Grand Canary in 1483. Palma was conquered in 1491, and +Teneriffe in 1495, by Alonzo de Lugo. The archipelago was +included for administrative purposes in the captaincy-general +of Andalusia until 1833, when it was made a separate province. +In 1902 a movement in favour of local autonomy was repressed +by Spanish troops.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For a general description of the islands, see <i>Les +Îles Canaries</i>, by J. Pitard and L. Proust (Paris, 1909); <i>Madeira and +the Canary Islands</i>, by A. Samler Brown, a guide for travellers and +invalids, with coloured maps and plates (London, 1901); <i>A Guide +to the Canary Islands</i>, by J.H.T. Ellerbeck (London, 1892); <i>The +Canary Islands as a Winter Resort</i>, by J. Whitford (London, 1890, +with maps and illustrations); <i>De la Tierra Canaria</i>, by L. and A. +Millares Cubas (Madrid, 1894); and <i>Physikalische Beschreibung der +kanarischen Inseln</i>, by L. von Buch (Berlin, 1825). Besides the interesting +folio atlas of von Buch (Paris, 1836), good modern maps have +been published by E. Stanford (London, 1891, 12½ English m. to +1 in.), and M. Perez y Rodriquez (Madrid, 1896-1898, 4 sheets). See +also <i>Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries</i>, by P. Barker-Webb and S. +Berthelot (Paris, 1835-1849); and “Les Îles Canaries et les parages +de pêche canariens,” by Dr. A. Taquin, in the <i>B.S.R. Beige G. 26</i> +(1902), and 27 (1903); and, for history and antiquities, the <i>Historia +general de las islas Canarias</i>, by A. Millares Cubas, in 10 vols. (Las +Palmas, 1893-1895), and <i>Historia de la Inquisicion en las islas Canarias</i>, +by the same author (Las Palmas, 1874); <i>Antiquités canariennes</i>, +by S. Berthelot (Paris, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCALE,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a fishing port of north-western France in the department +of Ille-et-Vilaine on the Bay of Cancale, 9 m. E.N.E. of +St Malo by road. Pop. (1906) town 3827, commune 7061. +It exports oysters, which are found in its bay in large numbers +and of excellent quality, and equips a fleet for the Newfoundland +cod-fisheries. The harbour is protected by the rocks known +as the Rochers de Cancale. In 1758 an English army under +the duke of Marlborough landed here for the purpose of attacking +St Malo and pillaged the town. It was again bombarded by the +English in 1779.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCEL<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>cancelli</i>, a plural diminutive of <i>cancer</i>, +a grating or lattice, from which are also derived “chancel” +and “chancellor”), a word meaning to cross out, from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> +crossed latticed lines drawn across a legal document to annul it, +hence to delete or destroy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCELLI<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (plural of Lat. <i>cancellus</i>, dim. of <i>cancer</i>, a crossing +bar), in architecture, the term given to barriers which correspond +to the modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing +the body of a church from the part occupied by the ministers; +hence “chancel” (<i>q.v.</i>). By the Romans <i>cancelli</i> were similarly +employed to divide off portions of the courts of law (cf. the +English “bar”).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCER, LUIS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (d. 1549), Spanish missionary to Central +America, was born at Barbastro near Saragossa. After working +for some time in Dominica and Haiti, he crossed to the mainland, +where he had great success in pacifying the Indians whom more +violent methods had failed to subdue. He upheld the cause +of the natives at an ecclesiastical assembly held in Mexico in +1546, and three years later, on the 26th of June, met his death +at their hands on the west coast of Florida.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCER<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (“<span class="sc">The Crab</span>”), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the +zodiac, denoted by the symbol <img style="width:17px; height:20px" src="images/img357.jpg" alt="" />. Its name may be possibly +derived from the fact that when the sun arrives at this part of +the ecliptic it apparently retraces its path, resembling in some +manner the sidelong motion of a crab. It is also a constellation, +mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and Aratus (3rd +century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>); Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in it, Tycho Brahe +15 and Hevelius 29. Its most interesting objects are: a large +loose cluster of stars, known as <i>Praesepe</i> or the Beehive, visible +as a nebulous patch to the naked eye, and ζ <i>Cancri</i>, a remarkable +multiple star, composed of two stars, of magnitudes 5 and 5.7, +revolving about each other in 60 years, and a third star of magnitude +5.5 which revolves about these two in an opposite direction +in a period of 17½ years; from irregularities in the motion of this +star, it is supposed to be a satellite of an invisible body which +itself revolves about the two stars previously mentioned, in a +period of 600 to 700 years.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCER,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Carcinoma</span> (from Lat. <i>cancer</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="karkiuoma">καρκίνωμα</span>, +an eating ulcer), the name given to a class of morbid growths +or tumours which occur in man, and also in most or all vertebrate +animals. The term “malignant disease” is commonly used +as synonymous with “cancer.” For the general pathology, &c., +of tumours see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tumour</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Cancer exists in various forms, which, although differing from +each other in many points, have yet certain common characters +to which they owe their special significance.</p> + +<p>1. In structure such growths are composed of nucleated cells +and free nuclei together with a milky fluid called cancer juice, +all contained within a more or less dense fibrous stroma or +framework.</p> + +<p>2. They have no well-defined limits, and they involve all +textures in their vicinity, while they also tend to spread by the +lymphatics and veins, and to cause similar growths in distant +parts or organs called “secondary cancerous growths.”</p> + +<p>3. They are undergoing constant increase, and their progress +is usually rapid.</p> + +<p>4. Pain is a frequent symptom. When present it is generally +of a severe and agonizing character, and together with the local +effects of the disease and the resulting condition of ill health or +“cachexia,” hastens the fatal termination to which all cancerous +growths tend.</p> + +<p>5. When such growths are removed by the surgeon they are +apt to return either at the same or at some other part.</p> + +<p>The chief varieties of cancer are <i>Scirrhus</i> or hard cancer, +<i>Encephaloid</i> or soft cancer and <i>Epithelial cancer</i>.</p> + +<p>Scirrhus is remarkable for its hardness, which is due to the +large amount of its fibrous, and relatively small proportion of +its cell elements. It is of comparatively slow growth, but it +tends to spread and to ulcerate. Its most common seat by far +is the female breast, though it sometimes affects internal organs.</p> + +<p>Encephaloid is in structure the reverse of the last, its softness +depending on the preponderance of its cell over its fibrous elements. +Its appearance and consistence resemble brain substance +(hence its name), and it is of such rapid growth as to have given +rise to its being occasionally termed <i>acute cancer</i>. Its most +frequent seats are internal organs or the limbs. Ulceration and +haemorrhage are common accompaniments of this form of cancer.</p> + +<p>Epithelial cancer is largely composed of cells resembling the +natural epithelium of the body. It occurs most frequently +in those parts provided with epithelium, such as the skin and +mucous membranes, or where those adjoin, as in the lips. This +form of cancer does not spread so rapidly nor produce secondary +growths in other organs to the same extent as the two other +varieties, but it tends equally with them to involve the neighbouring +lymphatic glands, and to recur after removal.</p> + +<p>Cancer affects all parts of the body, but is much more frequent +in some tissues than in others. According to recent statistics +prepared by the registrar-general for England and Wales (sixty-seventh +annual report) the most frequent seats are, in numerical +order, as follows:—<i>males</i>—stomach, liver, rectum, intestines, +aesophagus, tongue; <i>females</i>—uterus, breast, stomach, liver, +intestines, rectum. Other statistics give similar, though not +identical results. It may be said, broadly, that the most frequent +seats are the female sexual organs and after them the digestive +tract in both sexes. In children, in whom cancer is rare, the +most frequent seats appear to be—under five, the kidneys +and supra-renal bodies; five to ten, the brain; ten to twenty, +the arm and leg bones.</p> + +<p>Cancer tends to advance steadily to a fatal termination, +but its duration varies in different cases according to the part +affected and according to the variety of the disease. Soft +cancer affecting important organs of the body often proves +fatal in a few months, while, on the other hand, cases of hard +or epithelial cancer may sometimes last for several years; +but no precise limit can be assigned for any form of the disease. +In some rare instances growths exhibiting all the signs of cancer +may exist for a great length of time without making any progress, +and may even dwindle and disappear altogether. This is called +“spontaneous cure.”</p> + +<p>Cancer has been the subject of observation from time +immemorial, and of the most elaborate investigation by innumerable +workers in recent years; but the problems of its +origin and character have hitherto baffled inquiry. +<span class="sidenote">Cancer research.</span> +Modern scientific study of them may be said to have +begun with J. Müller’s microscopic work in the structure of +cancerous tissue early in the 19th century. A great impetus +to this line of investigation was given by the cellular theory +of R. Virchow and the pathological researches of Sir J. Paget, +and general attention was directed to the microscopic examination +of the cells of which cancer is composed. This led to a +classification, on which much reliance was once placed, of +different kinds of cancer, based on the character of the cells, +and particularly to a distinction between <i>carcinoma</i>, in which the +cells are of the epithelial type, and <i>sarcoma</i>, in which they are +of the connective tissue type. The distinction, though still +maintained, has proved barren; it never had any real significance, +either clinical or pathological, and the tendency in +recent research is to ignore it. The increased knowledge gained +in numerous other branches of biological science has also been +brought to bear on the problem of cancer and has led to a number +of theories; and at the same time the apparently increasing +prevalence of the disease recorded by the vital statistics of +many countries has drawn more and more public attention +to it. Two results have followed. One is the establishment +of special endowed institutions devoted to cancer research; +the other is the publication and discussion of innumerable +theories and proposed methods of treatment. Popular interest +has been constantly fanned by the announcement of some +pretended discovery or cure, in which the public is invited to +place its trust. Such announcements have no scientific value +whatever. In the rare cases in which they are not pure quackery, +they are always premature and based on inadequate data.</p> + +<p>Organized cancer research stands on a different footing. +It may be regarded as the revival at the end of the 19th century +of what was unsuccessfully attempted at the beginning. As +early as 1792, at the suggestion of Mr. John Howard, surgeon, +a ward was opened at the Middlesex hospital in London for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> +the special benefit of persons suffering from cancer. It was +fitted up and endowed anonymously by Mr. Samuel Whitbread, +M.P. for Bedford, and according to the terms of the benefaction +at least six patients were to be continually maintained in it +until relieved by art or released by death. The purpose was +both philanthropic and scientific, as Mr. Howard explained in +bringing forward the suggestion. Two principal objects, he +said, presented themselves to his mind, “namely, the relief of +persons suffering under this disease and the investigation of +a complaint which, although extremely common, is both with +regard to its natural history and cure but imperfectly known.” +This benefaction was the origin of one of the most complete +institutions for the scientific study of cancer that exists to-day.</p> + +<p>In 1804 a Society for Investigating the Nature of Cancer +was formed by a number of medical men in London, Edinburgh +and other towns at the instigation of John Hunter. The aim +was collective investigation, and an attempt was made to carry +it out by issuing forms of inquiry; but the imperfect means +of communication then existing caused the scheme to be abandoned +in a short time. Subsequent attempts at collective +investigation also failed until recently. About 1900 a movement, +which had been for some time gathering force, began to take +visible shape simultaneously in different countries. The cancer +ward at the Middlesex hospital had then developed into a +cancer wing, and to it were added special laboratories for the +investigation of cancer, which were opened on the 1st of March +1900. In this establishment the fully equipped means of clinical +and laboratory research were united under one roof and manned +by a staff of investigators under the direction of Dr W.S. +Lazarus Barlow. In the same year the <i>Deutsche Comité fur +Krebsforschung</i> was organized in Berlin, receiving an annual +subsidy of 5000 marks (£250) from the imperial exchequer. +This body devoted its energies to making a census of cancer +patients in Germany on a definite date. A special ward for +cancer was also set apart at the Charité hospital in Berlin, +with a state endowment of 53,000 marks (£2560) per annum, +and a laboratory for cancer research was attached to the first +medical clinique under Professor Ernst von Leyden at the +same hospital. A third institution in Germany is a special cancer +department at the Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental +Therapeutics at Frankfort-on-Main, which has been supported, +like the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in England, by private +contributions on a generous scale. The fund just mentioned +was initiated in October 1901, and its operations took definite +shape a year later, when Dr. E.F. Bashford was appointed +general superintendent of research. The patron of the foundation +was King Edward VII., and the president was the prince of +Wales. It had in 1908 a capital endowment of about £120,000, +subscribed by private munificence and producing an income +of about £7000 a year. The central laboratory is situated +in the examination building of the Royal Colleges of Physicians +and Surgeons in London, and the work is conducted under the +superintendence of an executive committee formed by representatives +of those bodies. In the United States a cancer +laboratory, which had been established in Buffalo in 1899 +under Dr Roswell Park, was formally placed under the control +of New York state in June 1901, and is supported by an annual +grant of $15,000 (£3000). There are other provisions in the +United States connected with Harvard and Cornell universities. +At the former the “Caroline Brewer Croft Fund for Cancer +Research” started special investigations in the surgical department +of the Harvard Medical School in 1900 or the previous +year, and in connexion with the Cornell University Medical +School there is a small endowment called the “Huntingdon +Cancer Research Fund.” There appear to be institutions of +a similar character in other countries, in addition to innumerable +investigators at universities and other ordinary seats of scientific +research.</p> + +<p>Some attempt has been made to co-ordinate the work thus +carried on in different countries. An international cancer +congress was held at Heidelberg and Frankfort in 1906, and +a proposal was put forward by German representatives that a +permanent international conference on cancer should be established, +with headquarters in Berlin. The committee of the +Imperial Cancer Research Fund did not fall in with the proposal, +being of opinion that more was to be gained in the existing +stage of knowledge by individual intercourse and exchange +of material between actual laboratory workers.</p> + +<p>In spite of the immense concentration of effort indicated +by the simultaneous establishment of so many centres of endowed +research, and in spite of the light thrown upon +the problem from many sides by modern biological +<span class="sidenote">Theories of cancer.</span> +science, our knowledge of the origin of cancer is +still in such a tentative state that a detailed account of +the theories put forward is not called for; it will suffice to +indicate their general drift. The actual pathological process +of cancer is extremely simple. Certain cells, which are apparently +of a normal character and have previously performed normal +functions, begin to grow and multiply in an abnormal way +in some part of the body. They continue this process so persistently +that they first invade and then destroy the surrounding +tissues; nothing can withstand their march. They are moreover +carried to other parts of the body, where they establish themselves +and grow in the same way. Their activity is carried on +with relentless determination, though at a varying pace, until +the patient dies, unless they are bodily removed. Hence the +word “malignant.” The problem is—what are these cells, +or why do they behave in this way? The principal answers +put forward may be summarized:—(1) they are epithelial cells +which grow without ceasing because the connective tissue has +lost the capacity to hold their proliferative powers in check +(H. Freund, following K. Thiersch and W. Waldeyer); (2) they +are embryonic cells accidentally shut off (J.F. Cohnheim); +(3) they are epithelial cells with a latent power of unlimited +proliferation which becomes active on their being dislocated +from the normal association (M.W.H. Ribbert and Borrmann); +(4) they are stimulated to unlimited growth by the presence +of a parasite (Plimmer, Sanfelice, Roncali and others); (5) they +are fragments of reproductive tissue (G.T. Beatson); (6) they +are cells which have lost their differentiated character and +assumed elementary properties (von Hausemann, O. Hertwig). +The very number and variety of hypotheses show that none +is established. Most of them attempt to explain the growth +but not the origin of the disease. The hypothesis of a parasitic +origin, suggested by recent discoveries in relation to other +diseases, has attracted much attention; but the observed +phenomena of cancerous growths are not in keeping with those +of all known parasitic diseases, and the theory is now somewhat +discredited. A more recent theory that cancer is due to failure +of the normal secretions of the pancreas has not met with +much acceptance.</p> + +<p>Some generalizations bearing on the problem have been +drawn from the work done in the laboratories of the Imperial +Cancer Research Fund. They may be summarily stated thus. +Cancer has been shown to be an identical process in all vertebrates +(including fishes), and to develop at a time which conforms in +a striking manner to the limits imposed by the long or short +compass of life in different animals. Cancerous tissue can be +artificially propagated in the short-lived mouse by actual +transference to another individual, but only to one of the same +species. Cancerous tissue thus propagated presents all the +characteristic features of the malignant growth of sporadic +tumours; it infiltrates and produces extensive secondary +growths. Under suitable experimental conditions the aggregate +growth of a cancer is undefined, of enormous and, so far as we +can judge, of limitless amount. This extraordinary growth is due +to the continued proliferation of cancerous cells when transplanted. +The processes by which growing cancer cells are transferred +to a new individual are easily distinguishable and fundamentally +different from all known processes of infection. The +artificial propagation of cancer causes no specific symptoms of +illness in the animal in which it proceeds. Under artificial +propagation cancer maintains all the characters of the original +tumours of the primary hosts. <i>Carcinoma</i> and <i>sarcoma</i> agree +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +in possessing all the pathological and cellular features of malignant +new growths.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously with the active pursuit of laboratory research +much statistical work has been devoted to establishing the broad +<span class="sidenote">Statistics of cancer.</span> +facts of the prevalence and incidence of cancer on a +firm basis. The point of most general interest is the +apparently steady increase of the disease in all countries +possessing fairly trustworthy records. It will be sufficient to +give the figures for England and Wales as an example.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Annual Death-rates from Cancer to a Million Living</span>.<br /> +<i>England and Wales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb f80">1871-1875.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1881-1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1886-1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1891-1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1896-1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1901-1904.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">445</td> <td class="tcc allb">493</td> <td class="tcc allb">547</td> <td class="tcc allb">631</td> <td class="tcc allb">711</td> <td class="tcc allb">800</td> <td class="tcc allb">861</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In forty years the recorded rate had risen from 403 to 861. +The question how far these and similar statistics represent a +real increase cannot be satisfactorily resolved, because it is +impossible to ascertain how much of the apparent increase is +due to more accurate diagnosis and improved registration. +Some of it is certainly due to those causes, so that the recorded +figures cannot be taken to represent the facts as they stand. +At the same time it is certain that some increase has taken place +in consequence of the increased average length of life; a larger +proportion of persons now reach the ages at which cancer is +most frequent. Increase due to this fact, though it is a real +increase, does not indicate that the cause of cancer is more rife +or more potent; it only means that the condition of the population +in regard to age is more favourable to its activity. On the +whole it seems probable that, when allowance has been made +for this factor and for errors due to improved registration, a real +increase due to other causes has taken place, though it is not so +great as the recorded statistics would indicate.</p> + +<p>The long-established conclusions concerning the incidence of +the disease in regard to age and sex have been confirmed and +rendered more precise by modern statistics. Cancer is a disease +of old age; the incidence at the ages of sixty-five to seventy-five +is ten times greater than at the ages thirty-five to forty-five. +This fact is the source of frequent fallacies when different countries +or districts and different periods are compared with each other, +unless account is taken of the differences in age and constitution. +With regard to sex females are far more liable than males; the +respective death-rates per million living for England and Wales +in 1904 were—males 740; females 1006. But the two rates +show a tendency to approximate; the increase shown over +a series of years has been considerably more rapid among males +than among females. One result of more careful examination +of statistics has been to discredit, though perhaps somewhat +hastily, certain observations regarding the prevalence of cancer +in special districts and special houses. On the other hand the +fuller statistics now available concerning the relative frequency +of cancer in the several organs and parts of the body, of which +some account is given above, go to confirm the old observation +that cancer commonly begins at the seat of some local irritation. +By far the most frequent seats of disease are the uterus and +breast in women and the digestive tract in both sexes, and these +are all particularly subject to such irritation. With regard to +the influence of heredity the trend of modern research is to +minimize or deny its importance in cancer, as in phthisis, and +to explain family histories by other considerations. At most +heredity is only thought to confer a predisposition.</p> + +<p>The only “cure” for cancer remains removal by operation; +but improved methods of diagnosis enable this to be done in +many cases at an earlier stage of the disease than +formerly; and modern methods of surgery permit not +<span class="sidenote">Treatment.</span> +only of operation in parts of the body formerly inaccessible, +but also more complete removal of the affected tissues. +Numerous forms of treatment by modern therapeutic means, +both internal and external, have been advocated and tried; +but they are all of an experimental nature and have failed to +meet with general acceptance. One of the most recent is treatment +by trypsin, a pancreatic ferment. This has been suggested +by Dr John Beard of Edinburgh in conformity with the theory, +mentioned above, that failure of the pancreatic secretions is +the cause of cancer. It has been claimed that the drug exercises +a favourable influence in conjunction with operation and even +without it. The experience of different observers with regard +to results is contradictory; but clinical investigations conducted +at Middlesex hospital in a number of cases of undoubted cancer +in strict accordance with Dr Beard’s directions, and summarized +by Dr Walter Ball and Dr Fairfield Thomas in the <i>Sixth Report +from the Cancer Research Laboratories</i> (<i>Archives of Middlesex +Hospital</i>, vol. ix.) in May 1907, resulted in the conclusion “that +the course of cancer, considered both as a disease and as a +morbid process, is unaltered by the administration of trypsin +and amylopsin.” The same conclusion has been reached after +similar trials at the cancer hospital. Another experimental +method of treatment which has attracted much attention +is application of the X-rays. The results vary in a capricious +and inexplicable manner; in some cases marked benefit has +followed, in others the disease has been as markedly aggravated. +Until more is known both of cancer and of X-rays, their use must +be considered not only experimental but risky.</p> +<div class="author">(A. Sl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1738-1812), German +mineralogist and metallurgist, was born on the 21st of February +1738, at Breitenbach, Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1764 he entered +the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt at Hanau, becoming +professor of mathematics at the military academy, head +of the civil engineering department of the state, director of the +theatre and (1774) of the mint. A work on the copper mines of +Hesse (1767) earned him a European reputation, and in 1783 he +accepted from Catherine II. of Russia the directorship of the +famous Staraya salt-works, living thenceforth in Russia. In +1798 he became a councillor of state at St Petersburg. He published +many works on mineralogy and metallurgy, of which the +most important, the <i>Grundzüge der Berg- und Salzwerkskunde</i> +(13 vols., Frankfort, 1773-1791), has been translated into several +languages. His son, Count Georg von Cancrin, or Kankrin +(1774-1845), was the eminent Russian minister of finance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDELABRUM<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>candela</i>, a taper or candle), +the stand on which ancient lamps were placed. The most ancient +example is the bronze candelabrum made by Callimachus for the +Erechtheum at Athens, to carry the lamp sacred to Minerva. +In this case it is probable the lamp was suspended, as in the +example from Pompeii, now in the Naples museum; this consisted +of a stalk or reed, the upper part moulded with projecting +feature to carry the lamps, and a base resting on three lions’ or +griffins’ feet; sometimes there was a disk at the top to carry +a lamp, and sometimes there was a hollow cup, in which resinous +woods were burnt. The origin of the term suggests that on the +top of the disk was a spike to carry a wax or tallow candle (<i>candela</i> +or <i>funalia</i>). Besides these bronze candelabra, of which there are +many varieties in museums, the Romans used more ponderous +supports in stone or marble, of which many examples were found +in the Thermae. These consisted of a base, often triangular, +and of similar design to the small sacrificial altars, and a shaft +either richly moulded or carved with the acanthus plant and +crowned with a large cup or basin. There is a fine example of +the latter in the Vatican. The Roman examples seem to have +served as models for many of the candelabra in the churches in +Italy. The word “candelabrum” is also now used to describe +many different forms of lighting with multiple points, and is +often applied to hanging lights as well as to those which rise from +a stand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDIA,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> formerly the capital and still the most populous city +of Crete (<i>q.v.</i>), to which it has given its name. It is situated on +the northern shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western +end of the island, in 35° 20′ N. lat. and 25° 9′ E. long. It is still +surrounded by its extensive Venetian fortifications; but they +have fallen into disrepair, and a good part of the town is in a +dilapidated condition, mainly from the effects of earthquakes. +The principal buildings are the Venetian loggia (barbarously +mutilated by the new régime), the Konak (now Prefecture), +the mosques, which are fourteen in number, the new cathedral, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> +the two Greek churches, the Armenian church, the Capuchine +monastery, the bazaars and the baths. There are also some +beautiful Venetian fountains. The town is the seat of a Greek +archbishop. A highly interesting museum has been formed +here containing the antiquities found during the recent excavations. +The chief trade is in oil and soap, both of which are of +excellent quality. The coasting trade, which is of considerable +importance, is mainly carried on in Turkish vessels. The manufacture +of leather for home consumption is an extensive industry +and wine of good quality is produced in the neighbourhood. +The harbour, which had grown almost inaccessible, was deepened +by Mustapha Pasha between 1820 and 1840. It is formed for +the most part by the ancient moles, and was never deep enough +to admit the larger vessels even of the Venetians, which were +accustomed to anchor in the port of the neighbouring island +of Standia. A short distance from St George’s Gate there was +a small village exclusively inhabited by lepers, who numbered +about seventy families, but they have now been transported to +Spinalonga. The population of the town is estimated at from +15,000 to 18,000, about half being Mahommedan Greeks. The +site of Candia, or, as it was till lately locally known, Megalo +castro (the Great Fortress), has been supposed to correspond +with that of the ancient <i>Heracleion</i>, the seaport of Cnossus, +and this appellation has now been officially revived by its Greek +inhabitants. The ruins of Cnossus are situated at the distance +of about 3 m. to the south-east at the village of Makryteichos +or Long Wall. Founded by the Saracens in the 9th century, +Candia was fortified by the Genoese in the 12th, and was greatly +extended and strengthened by the Venetians in the 13th, 14th +and 15th centuries. It was besieged by the Turks under the +vizier Achmet in 1667; and, in spite of a most heroic defence, +in which the Venetians lost 30,000 in killed and wounded, it +was forced to surrender in 1669. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDIDATE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> one who offers himself or is selected by others +for an office or place, particularly one who puts up for election +to parliament or to any public body. The word is derived +from the Latin <i>candidatus</i>, clad in white (<i>candidus</i>). In Rome, +candidates for election to the higher magistracies appeared in +the Campus Martius, the Forum and other public places, during +their canvass, in togas with the white of the natural wool +brightened by chalk.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDLE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Lat. <i>candela</i>, from <i>candere</i>, to glow), a cylindrical +rod of solid fatty or waxy matter, enclosing a central fibrous +wick, and designed to be burnt for giving light. The oldest +materials employed for making candles are beeswax and tallow, +while among those of more recent introduction are spermaceti, +stearine and paraffin wax. Waxlights (<i>cereus</i>, sc. <i>funis</i>) were +known to the Romans. In the midlde ages wax candles were +little used, owing to their expense, except for the ceremonies +of the church and other religious purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lights, Ceremonial +Use of</a></span>), but in the 15th century, with the cheapening of +wax, they began to find wider employment. The tallow candle, +mentioned by Apuleius as <i>sebaceus</i>, was long an article of domestic +manufacture. The tallow was melted and strained, and then +lengths of cotton or flax fibre, or rushes from which most of the +external skin had been stripped, only sufficient being left to +support the pith (“rushlights”), were dipped into it, the operation +being repeated until the desired thickness had been attained. +In Paris, in the 13th century, there was a gild of candlemakers +who went from house to house to make tallow candles, the +manufacture of wax candles being in the hands of another gild. +This separation of the two branches of the trade is also exemplified +by the existence of two distinct livery companies in the +city of London—the Waxchandlers and the Tallowchandlers; +the French <i>chandelle</i> properly means tallow candle, candles made +of materials less fusible than tallow being called <i>bougies</i>, a term +said to be derived from the town of Bougie in Algeria, either +because wax was produced there or because the Venetians +imported wax candles thence into Europe. The old tallow +“dips” gave a poor light, and tallow itself is now used only +to a limited extent, except as a source of “stearine.” This is +the trade name for a mixture of solid fatty acids—mainly +stearic and palmitic—manufactured not only from tallow and +other animal fats, but also from such vegetable fats as palm-oil. +Paraffin wax, a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained from +crude North American and Rangoon petroleum, and also yielded +in large quantities by the Scotch shale oil industry, is, at least +in Great Britain, a still more important material of candle-manufacture, +which came into use about 1854. Spermaceti, +a crystalline fatty substance obtained from the sperm whale +(<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>), was introduced as a material for +candles about a century earlier. In practice the candlemaker +mostly uses mixtures of these materials. For instance, 5-10% +of stearine, which is used alone for candles that have to be burnt +in hot climates, is mixed with paraffin wax, to counteract the +tendency to bend with heat exhibited by the latter substance. +Again, the brittleness of spermaceti is corrected by the addition +of beeswax, stearine, paraffin wax or ceresin (obtained from the +mineral wax ozocerite). In some “composite” candles stearine +is mixed with the hard fat (“cocoa-nut stearine”) expressed from +cocoa-nut oil by hydraulic pressure; and this cocoa-nut stearine +is also used for night-lights, which are short thick candles with +a thin wick, calculated to burn from six to ten hours.</p> + +<p>The stearine or stearic acid industry originated in the discovery +made by M.E. Chevreul about 1815, that fats are glycerides +or compounds of glycerin with fatty acids, mostly palmitic, +stearic and oleic. The object of the candlemaker is to remove +this glycerin, not only because it is a valuable product in itself, +but also because it is an objectionable constituent of a candle; +the vapours of acrolein formed by its decomposition in the +flame are the cause of the unpleasant odours produced by +tallow “dips.” He also removes the oleic acid, which is liquid +at ordinary temperatures, from the palmitic and stearic acids, +mixtures of which solidify at temperatures varying from about +130° to 155° F., according to the percentage of each present. +Several methods are in use for the decomposition of the fats. +In the autoclave process the fat, whether tallow, palm-oil or a +mixture of the two, mixed with 25 or 30% of water and about +3% of lime, is subjected in an autoclave to steam at a pressure +of about 120 ℔ per square inch for eight or ten hours, when +nearly all of it is saponified. On standing the product separates +into two layers—“sweet water” containing glycerin below, +and the fatty acids with a certain amount of lime soap above. +The upper layer is then boiled and treated with enough sulphuric +acid to decompose the lime soap, the calcium sulphate formed +is allowed to subside, and the fatty acids are run off into shallow +boxes to be crystallized or “seeded” prior to the separation +of the oleic acid, which is effected by pressing the solid blocks +from the boxes, first cold and then hot, by hydraulic machinery. +In another process saponification is effected by means of concentrated +sulphuric acid. The fat is mixed with 4-6% of the +acid and treated with steam in boiling water till the hydrolysis +is complete, when on standing the glycerin and sulphuric acid +sink to the bottom and the fatty acids rise to the top. Owing +to the darkness of their colour, when this process is employed, +the latter usually have to be distilled before being crystallized. +The autoclave process yields about 45% of stearine, one-third +of which is recovered from the expressed oleic acid, but with +sulphuric acid saponification the amount of stearine is higher— +over 60%—and that of oleic acid less, part of it being converted +into solid material by the action of the acid. The yield of +glycerin is also less. In a combination of the two processes the +fat may first be treated by the autoclave process, so as to obtain +a full yield (about 10%) of glycerin, and the resulting fatty +acids then subjected to acid saponification, so as to get the higher +amount of stearine. At the best, however, some 30% of oleic +acid remains, and though often sought, no satisfactory method +of converting this residue into solid has been discovered. It +constitutes “red oil,” and is used in soap-making and in woollen +manufacture. In the process patented by Ernst Twitchell +in 1898, decomposition is effected by boiling the fat with half +its bulk of water in presence of a reagent obtained by the action +of sulphuric acid on oleic acid and an aromatic hydrocarbon such +as benzene.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span></p> + +<p>The wick is a most important part of a candle, and unless +it is of proper size and texture either too much or too little +fuel will be supplied to the flame, and the candle will gutter +or be otherwise unsatisfactory. The material generally employed +is cotton yarn, plaited or “braided” by machinery, and treated +or “pickled” with a solution of boracic acid, ammonium or +potassium nitrate, or other salt. The tightness of the plaiting +varies with the material used for the candle, wicks for stearine +being looser than for paraffin, but tighter than for wax or +spermaceti. The plaited wick is flat and curls over as the +candle burns, and thus the end is kept projecting into the +outer part of the flame where it is consumed, complete combustion +being aided by the pickling process it has undergone. +In the old tallow dips the strands of cotton were merely twisted +together, instead of being plaited; wicks made in this way +had no determinate bias towards the outside of the flame, +and thus were not wholly consumed, the result being that there +was apt to be an accumulation of charred matter, which choked +the flame unless removed by periodical “snuffing.”</p> + +<p>Four ways of making candles may be distinguished—dipping, +pouring, drawing and moulding, the last being that most commonly +employed. <i>Dipping</i> is essentially the same as the domestic +process already described, but the rate of production is increased +by mounting a number of wicks in a series of frames, each of +which in turn is brought over the tallow bath so that its wicks +can be dipped. <i>Pouring</i>, used in the case of wax, which cannot +well be moulded because it contracts in cooling and also has +a tendency to stick to the moulds, consists in ladling molten +wax upon the wicks suspended from an iron ring. When of +the desired thickness the candles are rolled under a plate on +a marble slab. In <i>drawing</i>, used for small tapers, the wick, +rolled on a drum, is passed through the molten wax or paraffin, +drawn through a circular hole and slowly wound on a second +drum; it is then passed again through the molten material +and through a somewhat larger hole, and reeled back on the +first drum, this process being repeated with larger and larger +holes until the coating is of the required thickness. In <i>moulding</i>, +a number of slightly conical moulds are fixed by the larger +extremity to a kind of trough, with their tapered ends projecting +downwards and with wicks arranged down their centres. The +molten material is poured into the trough and fills the moulds, +from which the candles are withdrawn when solidified. Modern +candle-moulding machines are continuous in their operation; +long lengths of wick are coiled on bobbins, one for each mould, +and the act of removing one set of candles from their moulds +draws in a fresh set of wicks. “Self-fitting ends,” which were +invented by J.L. Field in 1864, and being shaped like a truncated +cone enable the candles to be fixed in candlesticks of any +diameter, are formed by means of an attachment to the tops +of the moulds; spirally twisted candles are, as it were, unscrewed +from their moulds. It is necessary to be able to regulate the +temperature of the moulds accurately, else the candles will +not come out freely and will not be of good appearance. For +stearine candles the moulds are immersed in tepid water and +the cooling must be slow, else the material will crystallize, +though if it be too slow cracking will occur. For paraffin, on +the other hand, the moulds must be rather hotter than the molten +material (about 200° F.), and must be quickly cooled to prevent +the candles from sticking.</p> + +<p>A candle-power, as a unit of light in photometry, was defined +by the (London) Metropolis Gas Act of 1860 as the light given +by a sperm candle, of which six weighed 1 ℔ and each burned +120 grains an hour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Lant Carpenter, <i>Soaps and Candles</i> (London, 1895); +C.E. Groves and W. Thorp, <i>Chemical Technology</i>, vol. ii. “Lighting” +(London, 1895); L.L. Lamborn, <i>Soaps, Candles and Glycerine</i> (New +York, 1906); J. Lewkowitsch, <i>Oils, Fats, and Waxes</i> (London, 1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDLEMAS<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Lat. <i>festum candelarum sive luminum</i>), the +name for the ancient church festival, celebrated annually on +the 2nd of February, in commemoration of the presentation +of Christ in the Temple. In the Greek Church it is known as +<span class="grk" title="Upapantê tou Kuriou">Ύπαπάντη τοῦ Κυρίου</span> (“the meeting of the Lord,” <i>i.e.</i> with +Simeon and Anna), in the West as the Purification of the Blessed +Virgin. It is the most ancient of all the festivals in honour of the +Virgin Mary. A description is given of its celebration at Jerusalem +in the <i>Peregrinatio</i> of Etheria (Silvia), in the second half +of the 4th century. It was then kept on the 14th of February, +forty days after Epiphany, the celebration of the Nativity +(Christmas) not having been as yet introduced; the Armenians +still keep it on this day, as “the Coming of the Son of God into +the Temple.” The celebration gradually spread to other parts +of the church, being moved to the 2nd of February, forty days +after the newly established feast of Christmas. In 542 it was +established throughout the entire East Roman empire by +Justinian. Its introduction in the West is somewhat obscure. +The 8th-century <i>Gelasian Sacramentary</i>, which embodies a +much older tradition, mentions it under the title of Purification +of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which has led some to suppose that +it was ordained by Pope Gelasius I. in 492<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as a counter-attraction +to the heathen Lupercalia; but for this there is no warrant. +The procession on this day was introduced by Pope Sergius I. +(687-701). The custom of blessing the candles for the whole +year on this day, whence the name Candlemas is derived, did not +come into common use until the 11th century.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Quadragesimae de Epiphania</i> as described by Etheria +there is, as Monsignor Duchesne points out (<i>Christian Worship</i>, +p. 272), no indication of a special association with the Blessed +Virgin; and the distinction between the festival as celebrated in +the East and West is that in the former it is a festival of Christ, +in the latter a festival pre-eminently of the Virgin Mother.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Duchesne, <i>Christian Worship</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1904); +art. <i>s.v.</i> by F.G. Holweck in the <i>Catholic Encyclopaedia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Baronius, <i>Ann. ad ann.</i> 544.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDLESTICK,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the receptacle for holding a candle, nowadays +made in various art-forms. The word was formerly +used for any form of support on which lights, whether candles +or lamps, were fixed; thus a candelabrum (<i>q.v.</i>) is sometimes +spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, <i>e.g.</i> as when Moses +was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of +hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting of a base +with a shaft rising out of it and six arms, and with seven lamps +supported on the summits of the six arms and central shaft. +When Solomon built the temple, he placed in it ten golden +candlesticks, five on the north and five on the south side of the +Holy Place; but after the Babylonish captivity the golden +candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it had been +before in the tabernacle by Moses. On the destruction of +Jerusalem by Titus, it was carried with other spoils to Rome. +Representations of the seven-branched candlestick, as it is called, +occur on the arch of Titus at Rome, and on antiquities found +in the Catacombs at Rome. The primitive form of candlestick +was a torch made of slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped +in wax or tallow, tied together and held in the hand by the +lower end, such as are frequently figured on ancient painted +vases. The next step was to attach to them a cup (<i>discus</i>) +to catch the dripping wax or tallow.</p> + +<p>A candlestick may be either “flat” or “tall.” The former +has a short stem, rising from a dish, and is usually furnished +with an extinguisher fitting into a socket; the latter has a pillar +which may be only a few inches in height or may rise to several +feet, and rarely has an extinguisher. The flat variety is sometimes +called a “bedroom candlestick.” The beginnings of this +interesting and often beautiful appliance are not exactly known, +but it dates certainly as far back as the 14th century and is +probably older. It is most usually of metal, earthenware or +china, but originally it was made of some hard wood and had +no socketed pillar, the candle fitting upon a metal spike, in the +fashion still familiar in the case of many church candlesticks. +It has been constantly influenced by mobiliary and architectural +fashions, and has varied, as it still varies, from the severest +simplicity of form and material to the most elaborate artistic +treatment and the costliest materials—gold and silver, crystal, +marble and enamel. Previous to the 17th century, iron, latten, +bronze and copper were chiefly used, but thenceforward the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> +most elegant examples were chiefly of silver, though in more +modern periods Sheffield plate, silver plate and china became +exceedingly popular. Sometimes the base and sconce are of one +material and the pillar of another, as when the former are of +silver and the pillar of marble or china. The choice and combination +of materials are, indeed, infinite. The golden age of the +candlestick lasted, roughly speaking, from the third quarter +of the 17th century to the end of the 18th. The later Jacobean, +Queen Anne and early Georgian forms were often extremely +elegant, with broad bases, round, oval or square and swelling +stems. Fine examples of these periods, especially when of silver, +are much sought after and command constantly augmenting +prices. As with most domestic appliances the history of the +candlestick is an unceasing tendency towards simplicity, the +most elaborate and fantastic forms, animals and reptiles, the +monstrous creatures of mythology, lions and men-at-arms, angels +and cupids, having gradually given place to architectural motives +such as the baluster stem and to the classic grace of the Adam +style. The candlestick in its modern form is, indeed, artistically +among the least unsatisfactory of household plenishings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1806-1873), Scottish divine, +was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of March 1806, and spent +his early years in Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. During +the years 1823-1826 he went through the prescribed course +at the divinity hall, then presided over by Dr Stevenson MacGill, +and on leaving, accompanied a pupil as private tutor to Eton, +where he stayed two years. In 1829 he entered upon his life’s +work, having been licensed to preach during the summer +vacation of the previous year. After short assistant pastorates at +St Andrew’s, Glasgow, and Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, he obtained +a settled charge as minister of the important parish of St George’s, +Edinburgh. Here he at once took the place he so long held +as one of the ablest preachers in Scotland. Destitute of natural +oratorical gifts and somewhat ungainly in his manner, he +attracted and even riveted the attention of his audience by +a rare combination of intellectual keenness, emotional fervour, +spiritual insight and power of dramatic representation of +character and life. His theology was that of the Scottish +Calvinistic school, but his sympathetic character combined +with strong conviction gathered round him one of the largest +and most intelligent congregations in the city.</p> + +<p>From the very commencement of his ministry in Edinburgh, +Candlish took the deepest interest in ecclesiastical questions, +and he soon became involved as one of the chief actors in the +struggle which was then agitating the Scottish church. His +first Assembly speech, delivered in 1839, placed him at once +among the leaders of the party that afterwards formed the +Free Church, and his influence in bringing about the Disruption +of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers. Great +as was his popularity as a preacher, it was in the arena of +ecclesiastical debate that his ability chiefly showed itself, and +probably no other single man had from first to last so large a +share in shaping the constitution and guiding the policy of +the Free Church. He took his stand on two principles: the +right of the people to choose their ministers, and the independence +of the church in things spiritual. On his advice Hugh Miller +was appointed editor of the <i>Witness</i>, the powerful Free Church +organ. He was actively engaged at one time or other in nearly +all the various schemes of the church, but special mention +should be made of his services on the education committee, +of which he was convener from 1846 to 1863, and in the unsuccessful +negotiations for union among the non-established +Presbyterian denominations of Scotland, which were carried +on during the years 1863-1873. In the Assembly of 1861 he +filled the moderator’s chair.</p> + +<p>As a theologian the position of Candlish was perhaps inferior +to that which he held as a preacher and ecclesiastic, but it was +not inconsiderable. So early as 1841 his reputation in this +department was sufficient to secure for him the government +nomination to the newly founded chair of Biblical criticism +in the university of Edinburgh. Owing to the opposition of +Lord Aberdeen, however, the presentation was cancelled. In +1847 Candlish, who had received the degree of D.D. from Princeton, +New Jersey, in 1841, was chosen by the Assembly of the +Free Church to succeed Chalmers in the chair of divinity in the +New College, Edinburgh. After partially fulfilling the duties +of the office for one session, he was led to resume the charge +of St George’s, the clergyman who had been chosen by the +congregation as his successor having died before entering on +his work. In 1862 he succeeded William Cunningham as principal +of New College with the understanding that he should still +retain his position as minister of St George’s. He died on the +19th of October 1873.</p> + +<p>Though his greatest power was not displayed through the +press, Candlish made a number of contributions to theological +literature. In 1842 he published the first volume of his +<i>Contributions towards the Exposition of the Book of Genesis</i>, +a work which was completed in three volumes several years later. +In 1854 he delivered, in Exeter Hall, London, a lecture on the +<i>Theological Essays</i> of the Rev. F.D. Maurice, which he +afterwards published, along with a fuller examination of the doctrine +of the essays. In this he defended the forensic aspect of the gospel. +A treatise entitled <i>The Atonement; its Reality, Completeness +and Extent</i> (1861) was based upon a smaller work +which first appeared in 1845. In 1864 he delivered the first series +of Cunningham lectures, taking for his subject <i>The Fatherhood +of God</i>. Published immediately afterwards, the lectures +excited considerable discussion on account of the peculiar views +they represented. Further illustrations of these views were +given in two works published about the same time as the +lectures, one a treatise <i>On the Sonship and Brotherhood of +Believers</i>, and the other an exposition of the first epistle of +St John.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William Wilson, <i>Memorials of R.S. Candlish, D.D.</i>, with a +chapter on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1778-1841), Swiss +botanist, was born at Geneva on the 4th of February 1778. He +was descended from one of the ancient families of Provence, +whence his ancestors had been expatriated for their religion +in the middle of the 16th century. Though a weakly boy he +showed great aptitude for study, and distinguished himself +at school by his rapid attainments in classical and general +literature, and specially by a faculty for writing elegant verse. +He began his scientific studies at the college of Geneva, where +the teaching of J.P.E. Vaucher first inspired him with the +determination to make botanical science the chief pursuit of +his life. In 1796 he removed to Paris. His first productions, +<i>Historia Plantarum Succulentarum</i> (4 vols., 1799) and +<i>Astragalogia</i> (1802), introduced him to the notice of Cuvier, +for whom he acted as deputy at the Collège de France in 1802, and to +J.B. Lamarck, who afterwards confided to him the publication of the +third edition of the <i>Flore française</i> (1803-1815). The +<i>Principes élémentaires de botanique</i>, printed as the introduction +to this work, contained the first exposition of his principle of +classification according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or +artificial method. In 1804 he was granted the degree of doctor +of medicine by the medical faculty of Paris, and published his +<i>Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes comparées avec leurs +formes extérieures et leur classification naturelle</i>, and soon after, +in 1806, his <i>Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum</i>. +At the desire of the French government he spent the summers +of the following six years in making a botanical and agricultural +survey of the whole kingdom, the results of which were published +in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of botany in the +medical faculty of the university of Montpellier, and in 1810 +he was transferred to the newly founded chair of botany of the +faculty of sciences in the same university. From Montpellier, where +he published his <i>Théorie élémentaire de la botanique</i> (1813), +he removed to Geneva in 1816, and in the following year was +invited by the now independent republic to fill the newly created +chair of natural history. The rest of his life was spent in an +attempt to elaborate and complete his “natural” system of +botanical classification. The results of his labours in this +department are to be found in his <i>Regni vegetabilis systema +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span> +naturale</i>, of which two volumes only were completed (1821) +when he found that it would be impossible for him to execute +the whole work on so extensive a scale. Accordingly in 1824 +he began a less extensive work of the same kind—his <i>Prodromus +systematis regni vegetabilis</i>—but even of this he was able to +finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. He had been +for several years in delicate health when he died on the 9th of +September 1841 at Geneva.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyrame de Candolle</span>, +born at Paris on the 28th of October 1806, at first devoted +himself to the study of law, but gradually drifted to botany +and finally succeeded to his father’s chair. He published a +number of botanical works, including continuations of the +<i>Prodromus</i> in collaboration with his son, Anne Casimir +Pyrame de Candolle. He died at Geneva on the 4th of April +1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDON,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of South Ilocos province, Luzon, Philippine +Islands, on the W. coast, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. +Pop. (1903) 18,828. Its climate is hot, though healthy. Candon +is surrounded by an extensive and fertile plain, and is defended by +a small fort. Its inhabitants are noted for their honesty and +industry, as well as for their regard for law and order. They carry +on an extensive traffic with the wild tribes of the neighbouring +mountains. Indigo is grown in considerable quantity, as are +rice and tobacco. The weaving of blankets, handkerchiefs, and +cotton and silk cloths constitutes quite an important industry. +The language is Ilocanc.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANDYTUFT<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>Iberis amara</i>, so called from Iberia, <i>i.e.</i> Spain, +where many species of the genus are native, and <i>amara</i>, bitter, +<i>i.e.</i> in taste), a small annual herb (natural order Cruciferae) with +white or purplish flowers, the outer petals of which are longer +than the rest. It is a native of western Europe and found wild +on dry soil in cultivated ground in the centre and east of England. +This and several other species of the genus are known as garden +plants, and are of easy culture in ordinary garden soil if well +exposed to sun and air. The common candytuft of gardens is +<i>I. umbellata</i>, a hardy annual, native of southern Europe, and +known in a number of varieties differing in colour of flowers. +<i>I. coronaria</i> (rocket candytuft) has long dense heads of white +flowers and is also an annual. Some species have a shrubby +growth and are evergreen perennials; the best-known is <i>I. +sempervirens</i>, a native of southern Europe, a much-branched +plant about a foot high with long racemes of white flowers. +<i>I. gibraltarica</i> is a showy, handsome half hardy evergreen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a name applied to many plants which have long, +slender, reed-like stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane, +the bamboo-cane or the reed-cane. From the use as walking-sticks +to which many of these plants have been applied, the +name “cane” is improperly given to sticks, irrespective of the +source from which they are derived. Properly it should be restricted +to a peculiar class of palms, known as rattans, included under the +two closely allied genera <i>Calamus</i> and <i>Daemonorops</i>, of +which there are a large number of species. The plants are found +widely extended throughout the islands of the Indian Archipelago, +the Malay Peninsula, China, India and Ceylon; and also +in Australia and Africa. They were described by Georg Eberhard +Rumpf or Rumphius (1627-1702), governor of Amboyna, and +author of the <i>Herbarium Amboynense</i> (6 vols. folio, Amsterdam, +1741-1755), under the name of Palmijunci, as inhabitants of +dense forests into which the rays of the sun scarce can penetrate, +where they form spiny bushes, obstructing the passage through +the jungle. The slender stems rarely exceed an inch in diameter +and are generally much smaller. They creep or trail to an +enormous length, often reaching 500 or 600 ft., and support +themselves on trees or bushes by recurved spines borne on the +stalk or back of the midrib of the leaf, or by stiff hooks replacing +the upper leaflets. In some cases the midrib is elongated beyond +the leaflets to form a long whip-like structure, bearing recurved +hooks at intervals. The natives, in preparing the canes for the +market, strip off the leaves by pulling the cut plant through a +notch made in a tree. The canes always present distinct rings +at the junction of the sheathing leaves with the stem. They +assume a yellow colour as they dry; and those imported from +Calcutta have a glossy surface, while the produce of the Eastern +Archipelago presents a dull exterior.</p> + +<p>Canes, on account of their lightness, length, strength and +flexibility, are used for a great variety of purposes by the inhabitants +of the countries in which they grow. Split into thin strips +they are twisted to form ropes and ships’ cables, an application +mentioned by Captain Dampier in his <i>Voyages</i>. A more important +application, however, is for basket-work, and for making +chairs, couches, pillows, &c., as the great strength and durability +of thin and easily prepared strips admit of such articles being +made at once airy, strong and flexible. Much of the beautiful +and elaborate basket-work of the Chinese and Japanese is made +from thin strips of cane, which are also used by the Chinese for +larger works, such as door-mats, houses and sheds.</p> + +<p>A very large trade with Western countries and the United +States is carried on in canes and rattans, the principal centres +of the trade being Batavia, Sarawak, Singapore, Penang and +Calcutta. In addition to the varieties used for walking-sticks, +whip and umbrella handles, &c., the common rattans are in +extensive demand for basket-making, the seats and backs of +chairs, the ribs of cheap umbrellas, saddles and other harness-work; +and generally for purposes where their strength and +flexibility make them efficient substitutes for whalebone. The +walking-stick “canes” of commerce include a great many +varieties, some of which, however, are not the produce of trailing +palms. The well-known Malacca canes are obtained from +<i>Calamus Scipionum</i>, the stems of which are much stouter than +is the case with the average species of <i>Calamus</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANEA,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Khania</span>, the principal seaport and since 1841 +the capital of Crete, finely situated on the northern coast of +the island, about 25 m. from its western extremity, on the +isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula, which lies between the Bay +of Canea and the Bay of Suda (latitude 35° 31′ N., longitude +24° 1′ E.). Surrounded by a massive Venetian wall, it forms +a closely built, irregular and overcrowded town, though of late +years a few of its streets have been widened. The ordinary +houses are of wood; but the more important buildings are of +more solid materials. The Turks have a number of mosques; +there are Greek churches and a Jewish synagogue; an old +Venetian structure serves as a military hospital; and the +prison is of substantial construction. The town is now the +principal seat of government; the seat of a Greek bishop, who +is suffragan to the metropolitan at Candia, and the official +residence of the European consuls. The harbour, formed by +an ancient transverse mole nearly 1200 ft. long, and protected +by a lighthouse and a fort, would admit vessels of considerable +tonnage; but it has been allowed to silt up until it shoals off +from 24 ft. to 10 or even 8, so that large vessels have to anchor +about 4 or 5 m. out. The principal articles of trade are oil and +soap, and there is a pretty extensive manufacture of leather. +The fosse is laid out in vegetable gardens; public gardens have +been constructed outside the walls; and artesian wells have +been bored by the government. To the east of the town a +large Arab village had grown up, inhabited for the most part +by natives of Egypt and Cyrenaica, who acted as boatmen, +porters and servants, but since the fall of the Turkish government +most of these have quitted the island; while about a +mile off on the rising ground is the village of Khalepa, where +the consuls and merchants reside. The population of the town +is estimated at 20,000. Canea probably occupies the site of +the ancient Cydonia, a city of very early foundation and no small +importance. During the Venetian rule it was one of the strongest +cities in the island, but it fell into the hands of the Turks in +1646, several years before the capture of Candia. In 1856 it +suffered from an earthquake. The neighbouring plain is famous +for its fruitfulness, and the quince is said to derive its name +<i>Cydonia</i> from the town. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANE-FENCING<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (the Fr. <i>canne</i>), the art of defending oneself +with a walking-stick. It may be considered to be single-stick +fencing without a guard for the hand, with the important +difference that in cane-fencing the thrust is as important as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span> +the cut, and thus <i>canne</i> approaches nearer to sabre-play. +The cuts are practically identical with those of the single-stick +(<i>q.v.</i>), but they are generally given after one or more rapid +preliminary flourishes (<i>moulinets</i>, circles) which the lightness +of the stick facilitates, and which serve to perplex and disconcert +an assailant. The thrusts are similar to those in foil-play, but +are often carried out with both hands grasping the stick, giving +greater force and enabling it to be used at very close quarters. +The canes used in French fencing schools are made of several +kinds of tough wood and are about 3 ft. long, tapering towards +the point. As very severe blows are exchanged, masks, gloves, +padded vests and shin-guards, similar to those used in football, +are worn.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Georges d’Amoric, <i>French Method of the Noble Art of Self-Defence</i> +(London, 1898); J. Charlemont, <i>L’Art de la Boxe française +et de la Canne</i> (Paris, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANEPHORAE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kaneon">κάνεον</span>, a basket, and <span class="grk" title="ferein">φέρειν</span>, to carry), +“basket-bearers,” the title given of old to Athenian maidens of +noble family, annually chosen to carry on their heads baskets +with sacrificial implements and apparatus at the Panathenaic +and other festivals. The term (also in the form <i>Canephori</i>) is +applied in architecture to figures of either sex carrying on +their heads baskets, containing edibles or material for sacrifices. +The term might well be applied to the Caryatide figures of the +Erechtheum. Those represented in the Panathenaic frieze of +the Parthenon carry vases on their shoulders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANES VENATICI<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (“The <span class="sc">Hounds</span>,” or “the <span class="sc">Greyhounds</span>”), +in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere named +by Hevelius in 1690, who compiled it from the stars between +the older asterisms Ursa Major, Boötes and Coma Berenices. +Interesting objects in this portion of the heavens are: the famous +spiral nebula first described by Lord Rosse; <i>a-Canum Venaticorum</i>, +a double star, of magnitudes 3 and 6; this star was +named <i>Cor Caroli</i>, or The Heart of Charles II., by Edmund +Halley, on the suggestion of Sir Charles Scarborough (1616-1694), +the court physician; a cluster of stars of the 11th magnitude +and fainter, extremely rich in variables, of the 900 stars examined +no less than 132 being regularly variable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSÉ<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1770-1843), Spanish statesman, +was born in 1770. He took an active part in the Spanish resistance +to Napoleon in a civil capacity and was an energetic +member of the cortes of 1812. On the return of the Bourbon +line in 1814, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile in the province +of Valencia. On the restoration in 1820 of the constitution of +1812, he was appointed minister of finance. He continued at +this post till the spring of 1821, distinguishing himself by the +zeal and ability with which he sought to reform the finances +of Spain. It was high time; for the annual deficit was greater +than the entire revenue itself, and landed and other property +was, to an unheard-of extent, monopolized by the priests. +The measures he proposed had been only partially enforced, +when the action of the king with regard to the ministry, of +which he was a member, obliged him to resign. Thereafter, +as a member of the Moderate Liberal party, Canga-Arguelles +advocated constitutional government and financial reform, till +the overthrow of the constitution in 1823, when he fled to +England. He did not return to Spain till 1829, and did not +again appear in public life, being appointed keeper of the archives +at Simancas. He died in 1843. Canga-Arguelles is the author +of three works: <i>Elementos de la Ciencia de Hacienda</i> (Elements +of the Science of Finance), London, 1825; <i>Diccionario de +Hacienda</i> (Dictionary of Finance), London, 1827; and <i>Observaciones +sobre la guerra de la Peninsula</i> (Observations on the +Peninsular War), in which he endeavoured to show that his +countrymen had taken a far more effective part in the national +struggle against the French than English historians were willing +to admit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANGAS DE ONÍS<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cangas</span>, a town of northern Spain, in +the province of Oviedo; situated on the right bank of the river +Sella, in a fertile, well-watered, partly wooded, undulating +region. Pop. (1900) 8537. The trade of Cangas de Onís is chiefly +in live-stock and coal from the neighbouring mines. A Latin +inscription on the town-hall records the fact that this place +was the residence of the first Spanish kings after the spread of +the Moors over the Peninsula. Here early in the 8th century +lived King Pelayo, who started the Christian reconquest of +Spain. His historic cave of Covadonga is only 8 m. distant +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asturias</a></span>). The church of the Assumption, rebuilt in the +19th century, is on the model and site of an older church of the +middle ages. Near Cangas are ruins and bridges of the Roman +period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANGAS DE TINÉO,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of northern Spain, in the province +of Oviedo, and on the river Narcea. Pop. (1900) 22,742. There +is no railway and the river is not navigable, but a good road +runs through Tinéo, Grado and the adjacent coal-fields, to the +ports of Cudillero and Avilés. The inhabitants have thus an +easily accessible market for the farm produce of the fertile hills +round Cangas de Tinéo, and for the cloth, leather, pottery, &c., +manufactured in the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANGUE,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cang</span>, the European name for the Chinese <i>Kia</i> +or <i>Kea</i>, a portable pillory, carried by offenders convicted of +petty offences. It consists of a square wooden collar weighing +from 20 to 60 ℔., through a hole in which the victim’s head +is thrust. It fits tight to the neck and must be worn day and +night for the period ordered. The offender is left exposed in +the street. Over the parts by which it fastens slips of paper +bearing the mandarin’s seal are pasted so that no one can liberate +the condemned. The length of the punishment is usually from +a fortnight to a month. As the cangue is 3 to 4 ft. across the +convict is unable to feed himself or to lie down, and thus, unless +fed by friends or passersby, often starves to death. As in the +English pillory, the name of the man and the nature of his +offence are inscribed on the cangue.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANINA, LUIGI<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1795-1856), Italian archaeologist and +architect, was born at Casale in Piedmont. He became professor +of architecture at Turin, and his most important works were +the excavation of Tusculum in 1829 and of the Appian Way in +1848, the results of which he embodied in a number of works +published in a costly form by his patroness, the queen of +Sardinia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1617-1666), Italian designer +and engraver, was born at Rome. He was a pupil of Domenichino +and afterwards of Antonio Barbalonga. He painted some +altar-pieces at Rome, including two admired pictures for the +church of San Martino a’ Monti, representing the martyrdom +of St Stephen and of St Bartholomew. Having accompanied +Cardinal Chigi to France, he was encouraged by the minister +Colbert to carry into execution his project of designing from +medals, antique gems and similar sources a series of portraits +of the most illustrious characters of antiquity, accompanied +with memoirs; but shortly after the commencement of the +undertaking Canini died at Rome. The work, however, was +prosecuted by his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance +of Picard and Valet, completed and published it in 1699, under +the title of <i>Iconografia di Gio. Ag. Canini</i>. It contains 150 +engravings. A reprint in Italian and French appeared at Amsterdam +in 1731.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANIS MAJOR<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (“Great Dog”), in astronomy, a constellation +placed south of the Zodiac, just below and behind the heels of +Orion. <i>Canis minor</i>, the “little dog,” is another constellation, +also following Orion and separated from Canis major by the +Milky Way. Both these constellations, or at least their principal +stars, Sirius in the Great Dog and Procyon in the Little Dog, +were named in very remote times, being referred to as the “dogs +of Orion” or in equivalent terms. Sirius is the brightest star +in the heavens; and the name is connected with the adjectives +<span class="grk" title="seirhos">σειρός</span> and <span class="grk" title="sehirios">σείριος</span>, scorching. It may possibly be related to +the Arabic <i>Sirāj</i>, thus meaning the “glittering one.” Hommel +has shown that Sirius and Procyon were “the two <i>Si’ray</i>” +or glitterers. It is doubtful whether Sirius is referred to in the +Old Testament. By some it has been identified with the Hebrew +<i>mazzaroth</i>, the <i>Lucifer</i> of the Vulgate; by others with <i>mazzaloth</i>, +the <i>duodecim signa</i> of the Vulgate; while Professor M.A. Stern +identifies it with the Hebrew <i>kimah</i>, which is rendered variously +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span> +in the Vulgate as Arcturus, Hyades and Pleiades.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The inhabitants +of the Euphrates valley included both constellations +in their stellar system; but considerable difficulty is encountered +in the allocation of the Babylonian names to the dominant +stars. The name <i>kak-ban</i>, which occurs on many tablets, has +been determined by Epping and Strassmaier, and also by +Jensen and Hommel, as equivalent to Sirius; etymologically +this word means “dog-star” (or, according to R. Brown, +<i>Primitive Constellations</i>, “bow-star”). On the other hand, +<i>Kaksidi</i> or <i>Kak-si-sa</i>, meaning the “leader,” has been identified +by Sayce and others with Sirius, while Hommel regards it as +Procyon. The question is mainly philological, and the arguments +seem inconclusive. We may notice, however, that connexions +were made between Kaksidi and the weather, which have +strong affinities with the ideas expressed at a later date by the +Greeks. For example, its appearance in the morning with the +sun heralded the “north winds,” the <span class="grk" title="boreai etaesiai">βορέαι ἐτησίαι</span> or +<i>aquilones etesiae</i>, the strong and dangerous north-westerly winds +of Greece which blow for forty days from the rising of the star; +again, when Sirius appeared misty the “locusts devour.” +Sirius also appears in the cosmogony of Zoroaster, for Plutarch +records that Ormuzd appointed this star to be a guard and +overseer in the heavens, and in the <i>Avesta</i> we find that Tistrya +(Sirius) is “the bright and happy star, that gives happy dwelling.” +With the Egyptians Sirius assumed great importance. Appearing +with the sun when the Nile was rising, Sirius was regarded as a +herald of the waters which would overspread the land, renewing +its fertility and promising good harvests for the coming season. +Hephaestion records that from its aspect the rise of the water +was foretold, and the Roman historian Florus adds that the +weather was predicted also. Its rising marked the commencement +of their new year, the <i>annus canarius</i> and <i>annus cynicus</i> +of the Romans. It was the star of Sept or Sothis, and, according +to one myth, was identified with the goddess Hathor—the +Aphrodite of the Greeks. It was the “second sun” of the +heavens, and according to Maspero (<i>Dawn of Civilization</i>, 1894) +“Sahu and Sopdit, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this +mysterious world of night and stars.”</p> + +<p>The Greeks, borrowing most of their astronomical knowledge +from the Babylonians, held similar myths and ideas as to the +constellations and stars. Sirius was named <span class="grk" title="Seirios, Kuon">Σείριος, Κύων</span> +(the dog) and <span class="grk" title="to astron">τὸ ἄστρον</span>, the star; and its heliacal rising was +associated with the coming of the dry, hot and sultry season. +Hesiod tells us that “Sirius parches head and knees”; Homer +speaks similarly, calling it <span class="grk" title="kakon saema">κακὸν σῆμα</span>, the evil star, and the +star of late summer (<span class="grk" title="opora">ὀπώρα</span>), the rainy and stormy season. +Procyon (<span class="grk" title="Prokuon">Προκύων</span>) was so named because it rose before <span class="grk" title="Kuon">Κύων</span>. +The Euphratean myth of the dogs has its parallel in Greece, +Sirius being the hound of the hunter Orion, and as recorded by +Aratus always chasing the Hare; Pindar refers to the chase +of Pleione, the mother of the Pleiads, by Orion and his dogs. +Similarly Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius, when +Boötes became Icarius, and Virgo his daughter Erigone.</p> + +<p>The Romans adopted the Greek ideas. They named the +constellation <i>Canis</i>, and Sirius was known as <i>Canis</i> also, and +as <i>Canicula</i>. Procyon became <i>Antecanem</i> and <i>Antecanis</i>, but +these names did not come into general use. They named the +hottest part of the year associated with the heliacal rising of +Sirius the <i>Dies caniculares</i>, a phrase which has survived in the +modern expression “dog-days”; and the pestilences which +then prevailed occasioned the offering of sacrifices to placate +this inimical star. Festus narrates, in this connexion, the sacrificing +of red dogs at the feast of Floralia, and Ovid of a dog +on the Robigalia. The experience of the ancient Greeks that +Sirius rose with the sun as the latter entered Leo, <i>i.e.</i> the hottest +part of the year, was accepted by the Romans with an entire +disregard of the intervening time and a different latitude. To +quote Sir Edward Sherburne (<i>Sphere of Manilius</i>, 1675), +“The greater part of the Antients assign the Dog Star rising +to the time of the Sun’s first entering into Leo, or, as Pliny +writes, 23 days after the summer solstice, as Varro 29, as +Columella 30.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> ...At this day with us, according to +Vulgar computation, the rising and setting of the said Star +is in a manner coincident with the Feasts of St Margaret +(which is about the 13th of our July) and St Lawrence (which +falls on the 10th of our August).”</p> + +<p>Sirius is the most conspicuous star in the sky; it sends to +the earth eleven times as much light as Aldebaran, the unit +standard adopted in the revised Harvard Photometry; numerically +its magnitude is -1.6. At the present time its colour is +white with a tinge of blue, but historical records show that this +colour has not always prevailed. Aratus designated it <span class="grk" title="poikilos">ποικίλος</span>, +many coloured; the Alexandrian Ptolemy classified it with +Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse as <span class="grk" title="upokirros">ὑπόκιρρος</span>, fiery red; +Seneca describes it as “redder than Mars”; while, in the +10th century, the Arabian Biruni termed it “shining red.” +On the other hand Sufi, who also flourished in the 10th century, +pointedly omits it from his list of coloured stars. The question +has been thoroughly discussed by T.J.J. See, who shows +that Sirius has shone white for the last 1000 to 1200 years.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The parallax has been determined by Sir David Gill and W.L. +Elkin to be 0.37″; it is therefore distant from the earth over +5 × 10^13 miles, and its light takes 8.6 years to traverse the intervening +space. If the sun were at the same distance Sirius would +outshine it 30 times, the sun appearing as a star of the second +magnitude. It has a large proper motion, which shows recurrent +undulations having a 50-year period. From this Bessel surmised +the existence of a satellite or companion, for which C.A.F. +Peters and A. Auwers computed the elements. T.H. Safford +determined its position for September 1861; and on the 31st +of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark, of Cambridgeport, Mass., +telescopically observed it as a barely visible, dull yellow star +of the 9th to 10th magnitude. The mean distance apart is +about 20 astronomical units; the total mass of the pair is 3.7 +times the mass of the sun, Sirius itself being twice as massive +as its companion, and, marvellously enough, forty thousand +times as bright. The spectrum of Sirius is characterized by +prominent absorption lines due to hydrogen, the metallic lines +being weak; other stars having the same spectra are said +to be of the “Sirian type.” Such stars are the most highly +heated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Procyon</i>, or a Canis minoris, is a star of the 2nd magnitude, +one-fifth as bright as Sirius, or numerically 0.47 when compared +with Aldebaran. It is more distant than Sirius, its parallax +being 0.33″; and its light is about six times that of the sun. +Its proper motion is large, 1.25″, and its velocity at right angles +to the line of sight is about 11 m. per second. Its proper motion +shows large irregularities, pointing to a relatively massive companion; +this satellite was discovered on the 13th of November +1896 by J.M. Schaeberle, with the great Lick telescope, as a +star of the 13th magnitude. Its mass is equal to about that +of the sun, but its light is only one twenty-thousandth.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See G. Schiaparelli, <i>Astronomy in the Old Testament</i> (1905).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For other values of the interval between the summer solstice +and the rising of Sirius, see Smith’s <i>Dict. of Greek and Roman +Antiquities</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Thomas Barker, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1760, 51, p. 498, for quotations +from classical authors; also T.J.J. See, <i>Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>. +vol. xi. p. 269.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr Von</span> +(1654-1699), German poet and diplomatist, was born at Berlin +on the 27th of November 1654. He attended the universities +of Leiden and Leipzig, travelled in England, France, Italy and +Holland, and on his return was appointed groom of the bedchamber +(Kammerjunker) to the elector Frederick William +of Brandenburg, whom he accompanied on his campaigns in +Pomerania and Sweden. In 1680 he became councillor of legation, +and he was employed on various embassies. In 1697 the +elector Frederick III. made him a privy councillor, and the +emperor Leopold I. created him a baron of the Empire. Having +fallen ill on an embassy to the Hague, he obtained his discharge +and died at Berlin in 1699. Canitz’s poems (<i>Nebenstunden +unterschiedener Gedichte</i>), which did not appear until after his +death (1700), are for the most part dry and stilted imitations +of French and Latin models, but they formed a healthy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> +contrast to the coarseness and bombast of the later Silesian +poets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of Canitz’s poems was published by U. König +in 1727; see also L. Fulda, <i>Die Gegner der zweiten schlesischen +Schule</i>, ii. (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAÑIZARES, JOSÉ DE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1676-1750), Spanish dramatist, was +born at Madrid on the 4th of July 1676, entered the army, and +retired with the rank of captain in 1702 to act as censor of the +Madrid theatres and steward to the duke of Osuna. In his +fourteenth year Cañizares recast a play by Lope de Vega under +the title of <i>Las Cuentas del Gran Capitán</i>, and he speedily became +a fashionable playwright. His originality, however, is slight, +and <i>El Dómine Lucas</i>, the only one of his pieces that is still read, +is an adaptation from Lope de Vega. Cañizares produced a +version of Racine’s <i>Iphigénie</i> shortly before 1716, and is to some +extent responsible for the destruction of the old Spanish drama. +He died on the 4th of September 1750, at Madrid.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNAE<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (mod. <i>Canne</i>), an ancient village of Apulia, near the +river Aufidus, situated on a hill on the right bank, 6 m. +S.W. from its mouth. It is celebrated for the disastrous defeat +which the Romans received there from Hannibal in 216 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>). There is a considerable controversy as to +whether the battle took place on the right or the left bank of the +river. In later times the place became a <i>municipium</i>, and unimportant +Roman remains still exist upon the hill known as +Monte di Canne. In the middle ages it became a bishopric, +but was destroyed in 1276.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O. Schwab, <i>Das Schlachtfeld von Canna</i> (Munich, 1898), and +authorities under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNANORE,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kananore</span>, a town of British India, in the +Malabar district of Madras, on the coast, 58 m. N. from Calicut +and 470 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 27,811. Cannanore +belonged to the Kalahasti or Cherakal rajas till the invasion of +Malabar by Hyder Ali. In 1498 it was visited by Vasco da +Gama; in 1501 a Portuguese factory was planted here by +Cabral; in 1502 da Gama made a treaty with the raja, and in +1505 a fort was built. In 1656 the Dutch effected a settlement +and built the present fort, which they sold to Ali Raja in 1771. +In 1783 Cannanore was captured by the British, and the reigning +princess became tributary to the East India Company. Here is +the residence of the Moplah chief, known as the Ali Raja, who +owns most of the Laccadive Islands. Cannanore was the military +headquarters of the British on the west coast until 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNES,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a seaport of France, in the department of the Alpes +Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 19 m. S.W. of Nice and 120 m. +E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop.(1906) 24,531. It enjoys a southern +exposure on a seaward slope, and is defended from the northern +winds by ranges of hills. Previous to 1831, when it first attracted +the attention of Lord Brougham, it mainly consisted of the old +quarter (named Sucquet), and had little to show except an +ancient castle, and a church on the top of Mont Chevalier, +dedicated in 1603 to Notre Dame du Mont Espérance; but +since that period it has become a large and important town, +and is now one of the most fashionable winter resorts in the +south of France, much frequented by English visitors, the +Americans preferring Nice. The neighbourhood is thickly studded +with magnificent villas, which are solidly built of a stone so soft +that it is sawn and not hewn. There is an excellent quay, and +a beautiful promenade runs along the beach; and numerous +sheltered roads stretch up the valleys amidst groves of olive +trees. On the north the modern town climbs up to Le Cannet +(2 m.), while on the east it practically extends along the coast +to Golfe Jouan (3½ m.), where Napoleon landed on the 1st of +March 1815, on his return from Elba. From Cannes a railway +runs north in 12½ m. to Grasse. On the top of the hill behind +the town are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant cemetery. +In the most prominent part of the latter is the grave of Lord +Brougham, distinguished by a massive stone cross standing on +a double basement, with the simple inscription—“Henricus +Brougham, Natus MDCCLXXVIII., Decessit MDCCCLXVIII.”; and +in the immediate vicinity lies James, fourth duke of Montrose, +who died December 1874. The country around is very beautiful +and highly fertile; orange and lemon trees are cultivated like +peach trees in England, while olives, almonds, figs, peaches, +grapes and other fruits are grown in abundance, and, along +with the produce of the fisheries, form the chief exports of the +town. Essences of various kinds are manufactured, and flowers +are extensively cultivated for the perfumers. The climate of +Cannes has been the subject of a considerable variety of opinion,—the +preponderance being, however, in its favour. According +to Dr de Valcourt, it is remarkable by reason of the elevation +and regularity of the temperature during the height of the day, +the clearness of the atmosphere and abundance of light, the +rarity of rain and the absence of fogs.</p> + +<p>Cannes is a place of great antiquity, but its earlier history +is very obscure. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the +8th and the 10th centuries; but it was afterwards repeopled +by a colony from Genoa. Opposite the town is the island of +Ste Marguerite (one of the Lérins), in the citadel of which the Man +with the Iron Mask was confined from 1686 to 1698, and which +acquired notoriety as the prison whence Marshal Bazaine escaped +in August 1874. On the other chief island (St Honorat) of the +Lérins is the famous monastery (5th century to 1788), in connexion +with which grew up the school of Lérins, which had a wide +influence upon piety and literature in the 5th and 6th centuries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Alliez, <i>Histoire du monastère de Lérins</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1862); +and <i>Les Îles de Lérins, Cannes, et les rivages environnants</i> (Paris, 1860); +<i>Cartulaire du monastère de Lérins</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1883 and 1905); de +Valcourt, <i>Cannes and its Climate</i> (London, 1873); Joanne, special +<i>Guide to Cannes</i>; J.R. Green, essay on Cannes and St Honorat, +in the first series of his <i>Stray Studies</i> (1st ed., 1876); A. Cooper-Marsdin, +<i>The School of Lérins</i> (Rochester, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNIBALISM,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the eating of human flesh by men (from a +Latinized form of Carib, the name of a tribe of South America, +formerly found also in the West Indies), also called “anthropophagy” +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="anthropos">ἄνθρωπος</span>, man, and <span class="grk" title="phagein">φαγεῖν</span>, to eat). Evidence +has been adduced from some of the palaeolithic cave-dwellings +in France to show that the inhabitants practised cannibalism, +at least occasionally. From Herodotus, Strabo and others we +hear of peoples like the Scythian Massagetae, a nomad race +north-east of the Caspian Sea, who killed old people and ate +them. In the middle ages reports, some of them probably untrustworthy, +by Marco Polo and others, attributed cannibalism +to the wild tribes of China, the Tibetans, &c. In our own days +cannibalism prevails, or prevailed until recently, over a great part +of West and Central Africa, New Guinea, Melanesia (especially +Fiji) and Australia. New Zealand and the Polynesian Islands +were great centres of the practice. It is extensively practised +by the Battas of Sumatra and in other East Indian islands and +in South America; in earlier days it was a common feature of +Indian wars in North America. Sporadic cannibalism occurs +among more civilized peoples as a result of necessity or as a +manifestation of disease (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lycanthropy</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—Cannibalistic practices may be classified from +two points of view: (1) the motives of the act; (2) the ceremonial +regulations. A third division of subordinate importance +is also possible, if we consider whether the victims are actually +killed for food or whether only such are eaten as have met their +death in battle or other ways.</p> + +<p>1. From a psychological point of view the term cannibalism +groups together a number of customs, whose only bond of union +is that they all involve eating of human flesh. (<i>a</i>) Food cannibalism, +where the object is the satisfaction of hunger, may occur +sporadically as a result of real necessity or may be kept up for +the simple gratification of a taste for human flesh in the absence +of any lack of food in general or even of animal food, (i.) Cannibalism +from necessity is found not only among the lower races, +such as the Fuegians or Red Indian tribes, but also among +civilized races, as the records of sieges and shipwrecks show. +(ii.) Simple food cannibalism is common in Africa; the Niam-Niam +and Monbuttu carry on wars for the sake of obtaining +human flesh; in West Africa human flesh could formerly be +seen exposed for sale in the market like any other article of +commerce; and among some tribes it is the practice to sell the +corpses of dead relatives for consumption as food. (<i>b</i>) In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +curious contrast to this latter custom is the practice of devouring +dead kinsfolk as the most respectful method of disposing of their +remains. In a small number of cases this practice is combined +with the custom of killing the old and sick, but in the great +majority of peoples it is simply a form of burial; it seems to +prevail in most parts of Australia, many parts of Melanesia, +Africa and South America, and less frequently in other parts +of the world. To this group belong the customs described by +Herodotus; we may perhaps regard as a variant form the custom +of using the skull of a dead man as a drinking-cup. This practice +is widely found, and the statement of Herodotus that the skull +was set in gold and preserved by the Issedones may point in +this direction; from the account given of the Tibetans some +seven hundred years ago by William of Ruysbruck (Rubruquis) +it appears that they had given up cannibalism but still preserved +the use of the skull as a drinking vessel. Another modification +of an original ritual cannibalism is the custom of drinking the +ashes of the dead, which is practised by some African and South +American tribes. The custom of holding burial feasts has also +been traced to the same origin. More incomprehensible to the +European than any other form of cannibalism is the custom of +partaking of the products of putrefaction as they run down from +the body. The Australians smoke-dry the bodies of tribesmen; +here, too, it is the custom to consume the portions of the body +which are rendered liquid by the heat. (<i>c</i>) The ritual cannibalism +just mentioned shades over into and may have been originally +derived from magical cannibalism, of which three sub-species +may be distinguished. (i.) Savages are accustomed, on the one +hand, to abstain from certain foods in order that they may not +acquire certain qualities; on the other hand other foods are +eagerly desired in order that they may by partaking of the flesh +also come to partake of the mental or bodily peculiarities of +the man or animal from which the meat is derived; thus, after +the birth of a child, especially the first-born, the parents are +frequently forbidden the flesh of slow-moving animals, because +that would prevent the child from learning to walk; conversely, +eating the heart of a lion is recommended for a warrior to make +him brave; from this point of view therefore we readily understand +the motives which lead to the eating of those slain in +battle, both friends and foes. (ii.) We may term protective an +entirely different kind of magical cannibalism, which consists in +the consumption of a small portion of the body of a murdered +man, in order that his ghost may not trouble the murderer; +according to Hans Egède, the Eskimo, when they kill a witch, +eat a portion of her heart, that she may not haunt them. (iii.) +The practice is also said to have the effect of causing the relatives +of the murdered man to lose heart or to prevent them from +exercising the right of revenge; in this case it may be brought +into relation with the ceremony of the blood covenant in one of +the forms of which the parties drink each other’s blood; or, it +may point to a reminiscence of a ritual eating of the dead kinsman. +The late survival of this idea in Europe is attested by its +mention by Dante in the <i>Purgatorio</i>. (<i>d</i>) The custom of eating +food offered to the gods is widespread, and we may trace to +this origin Mexican cannibalism, perhaps, too, that of Fiji. The +Aztec worship of the god of war, Huitzilopochtli, led to the +sacrifice of prisoners, and the custom of sacrifice to their frequent +wars. The priest took out the heart, offered it to the sun, and +then went through the ceremonies of feeding the idol with the +heart and blood; finally the bodies of the victims were consumed +by the worshippers. (<i>e</i>) We reach an entirely different set of +motives in penal and revenge cannibalism. For the origin of +these ideas we may perhaps look to that of protective magic, +dealt with above; but it seems possible that there is also some +idea of influencing the lot of the criminal in a future life; it +may be noted that the whole of the body is seldom eaten in +protective cannibalism; among the Battas, however, the +criminal, and in parts of Africa the debtor, are entirely consumed. +Other cases, especially where the victim is an enemy, may be due +to mere fury and bravado. (<i>f</i>) In the west of North America a +peculiar kind of cannibalism is found, which is confined to a +certain body of magicians termed “Hametzen” and a necessary +condition of admission to their order. Another kind of initiatory +cannibalism prevailed in the south of Australia, where a magician +had to eat a portion of a child’s body before he was admitted. +The meaning of these ceremonials is not clear.</p> + +<p>2. Most kinds of cannibalism are hedged round with ceremonial +regulations. Certain tribes, as we have seen above, go to war +to provide human flesh; in other cases it is only the nearest +relatives who may not partake of a body; in other cases again +it is precisely the nearest relatives on whom the duty falls. A +curious regulation in south-east New Guinea prescribes that the +killer of the victim shall not partake in the feast; in some cases +the whole of the clan to which belonged the man for whom +revenge is taken abstains also; in other cases this clan, together +with any others of the same intermarrying group, takes part in +the feast to the exclusion of (<i>a</i>) the clan or group with which +they intermarry and (<i>b</i>) all outside clans. Some peoples forbid +women to eat human flesh; in others certain classes, as the +Muri of the Bambala, a tribe in the Kassai, may be forbidden to +eat it. In Mindanao the only person who might eat of a slain +enemy was the priest who led the warriors, and he was not permitted +to escape this duty. In Grand Bassam all who had taken +part in a festival at the foundation of a new village were compelled +to eat of the human victim. But the variations are too +numerous for any general account to be given of ceremonial +limitations. S.R. Steinmetz has proposed a division into endo- +and exo-cannibalism; but these divisions are frequently of +minor importance, and he has failed to define satisfactorily the +limits of the groups on which his classification is based.</p> + +<p><i>Origin.</i>—It will probably never be possible to say how cannibalism +originated; in fact the multiplicity of forms and the +diversity of ceremonial rules—some prescribing that tribesmen +shall on no account be eaten, others that the bodies of none but +tribesmen shall provide the meal of human flesh—point to a +multiple origin. It has been maintained that the various forms +of endo-cannibalism (eating of tribesmen) spring from an original +practice of food cannibalism which the human race has in common +with many animals; but this leaves unexplained <i>inter alia</i> the +limitation of the right of participation in the funeral meal to the +relatives of the dead man; at the same time it is possible to +argue that the magical ideas now associated with cannibalism +are of later growth. Against the view put forward by Steinmetz +it may be urged that we have other instances of magical foods, +such as the eating of a lion’s heart, which do not point to an +original custom of eating the animal as food. We shall probably +be justified in referring all forms of endo-cannibalism to a ritual +origin; otherwise the limitation is inexplicable; on the other +hand exo-cannibalism, in some of its forms, and much of the +extension of endo-cannibalism must be referred to a desire for +human flesh, grown into a passion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Steinmetz, in <i>Mitt. Anthrop. Ges. Wien</i>, N.F. +xvi.; Andree, <i>Die Anthropophagie</i>; Bergmann, <i>Die Verbreitung +der Anthropophagie</i>; Schneider, <i>Die Naturvölker</i>, i. 121-200; Schaffhausen, +<i>Anthropologische Studien, Internat. Archiv</i> iii. 69-73; +xii. 78; E.S. Hartland, <i>Legend of Perseus</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Dictionnaire +des sci. méd., s.v.</i> “Anthropophagie”; Dr Seligmann in <i>Reports of +the Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNING, CHARLES JOHN,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl</span> (1812-1862), English statesman, +governor-general of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was +the youngest child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton, +near London, on the 14th of December 1812. He was educated +at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1833, as +first class in classics and second class in mathematics. In 1836 +he entered parliament, being returned as member for the town +of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not, however, +sit long in the House of Commons; for, on the death of his +mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage which had been +conferred on her with remainder to her only surviving son, +and as Viscount Canning took his seat in the House of Lords. +His first official appointment was that of under-secretary of +state for foreign affairs, in the administration formed by Sir +Robert Peel in 1841—his chief being the earl of Aberdeen. +This post he held till January 1846; and from January to July +of that year, when the Peel administration was broken up, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> +Lord Canning filled the post of commissioner of woods and +forests. He declined to accept office under the earl of Derby; +but on the formation of the coalition ministry under the earl +of Aberdeen in January 1853, he received the appointment of +postmaster-general. In this office he showed not only a large +capacity for hard work, but also general administrative ability +and much zeal for the improvement of the service. He retained +his post under Lord Palmerston’s ministry until July 1855, +when, in consequence of the death of Lord Dalhousie and a +vacancy in the governor-generalship of India, he was selected +by Lord Palmerston to succeed to that great position. This +appointment appears to have been made rather on the ground +of his father’s great services than from any proof as yet given +of special personal fitness on the part of Lord Canning. The new +governor sailed from England in December 1855, and entered +upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February +1856. His strong common sense and sound practical judgment +led him to adopt a policy of conciliation towards the native +princes, and to promote measures tending to the betterment +of the condition of the people.</p> + +<p>In the year following his accession to office the deep-seated +discontent of the people broke out in the Indian Mutiny (<i>q.v.</i>). +Fears were entertained, and even the friends of the viceroy +to some extent shared them, that he was not equal to the crisis. +But the fears proved groundless. He had a clear eye for the +gravity of the situation, a calm judgment, and a prompt, swift +hand to do what was really necessary. By the union of great +moral qualities with high, though not the highest, intellectual +faculties, he carried the Indian empire safely through the stress +of the storm, and, what was perhaps a harder task still, he dealt +wisely with the enormous difficulties arising at the close of such +a war, established a more liberal policy and a sounder financial +system, and left the people more contented than they were +before. The name of “Clemency Canning,” which was applied +to him during the heated animosities of the moment, has since +become a title of honour.</p> + +<p>While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation +declaring the lands of the province forfeited; and this step +gave rise to much angry controversy. A “secret despatch,” +couched in arrogant and offensive terms, was addressed to +the viceroy by Lord Ellenborough, then a member of the Derby +administration, which would have justified the viceroy in +immediately resigning. But from a strong sense of duty he +continued at his post; and ere long the general condemnation +of the despatch was so strong that the writer felt it necessary +to retire from office. Lord Canning replied to the despatch, +calmly and in a statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating +his censured policy. In April 1859 he received the thanks +of both Houses of Parliament for his great services during the +mutiny. He was also made an extra civil grand cross of the +order of the Bath, and in May of the same year he was raised +to the dignity of an earl. By the strain of anxiety and hard +work his health and strength were seriously impaired, while +the death of his wife was also a great shock to him; in the +hope that rest in his native land might restore him, he left +India, reaching England in April 1862. But it was too late. +He died in London on the 17th of June following. About a +month before his death he was created K.G. As he died without +issue the title became extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir H.S. Cunningham, <i>Earl Canning</i> (“Rulers of India” series), +1891; and A.J.C. Hare, <i>The Story of Two Noble Lilies</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNING, GEORGE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1770-1827), British statesman, was born +in London on the 11th of April 1770. The family was of English +origin and had been settled at Bishop’s Canynge in Wiltshire. +In 1618 a George Canning, son of Richard Canning of Foxcote in +Warwickshire, received a grant of the manor of Garvagh in +Londonderry, Ireland, from King James I. The father of the +statesman, also named George, was the eldest son of Mr Stratford +Canning, of Garvagh. He quarrelled with and was disowned by +his family. He came to London and led a struggling life, partly +in trade and partly in literature. In May 1768 he married Mary +Annie Costello, and he died on the 11th of April 1771, exactly +one year after the birth of his son. Mrs Canning, who was left +destitute, received no help from her husband’s family, and went +on the stage, where she was not successful. She married a dissolute +and brutal actor of the name of Reddish. Her son owed +his escape from the miseries of her household to another member +of the company, Moody, who wrote to Mr Stratford Canning, a +merchant in London and younger brother of the elder George +Canning. Moody represented to Mr Stratford Canning that the +boy, although full of promise, was on the high road to the gallows +under the evil influence of Reddish. Mr Stratford Canning +exerted himself on behalf of his nephew. An estate of the value +of £200 a year was settled on the boy, and he was sent in succession +to a private school at Hyde Abbey near Winchester, to +Eton in 1781, and to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1787. After +leaving Eton and before going to Oxford, he was entered as a +student at Lincoln’s Inn. At Eton he edited the school magazine, +<i>The Microcosm</i>, and at Oxford he took the leading part in the +formation of a debating society. He made many friends, and his +reputation was already so high that Sheridan referred to him in +the House of Commons as a rising hope of the Whigs. According +to Lord Holland, he had been noted at Oxford as a furious +Jacobin and hater of the aristocracy. In 1792 he came to London +to read for the bar. He had taken his B.A. in 1791 and proceeded +M.A. on the 6th of July 1794.</p> + +<p>Soon after coming to London he became acquainted with Pitt +in some uncertain way. The hatred of the aristocracy, for which +Lord Holland says he was noted at Oxford, would naturally +deter an ambitious young man with his way to make in the +world, and with no fixed principles, from attaching his fortune +to the Whigs. Canning had the glaring examples of Burke and +Sheridan himself to show him that the great “revolution +families”—Cavendishes, Russells, Bentincks—who controlled +the Whig party, would never allow any man, however able, who +did not belong to their connexion, to rise to the first rank. He +therefore took his place among the followers of Pitt. It is, +however, only fair to note that he always regarded Pitt with +strong personal affection, and that he may very naturally have +been influenced, as multitudes of other Englishmen were, by +the rapid development of the French Revolution from a reforming +to an aggressive and conquering force. In a letter to his +friend Lord Boringdon (John Parker, afterwards earl of Morley), +dated the 13th of December 1792, he explicitly states that this +was the case. Enlightened self-interest was doubtless combined +with honest conviction in ranking him among the followers of +Pitt. By the help of the prime minister he entered parliament +for the borough of Newtown in the Isle of Wight in July 1793. +His maiden speech, on the subvention to the king of Sardinia, +was made on the 31st of January 1794. It is by some said to +have been a failure, but he satisfied himself, and he soon established +his place as the most brilliant speaker on the ministerial +side. It may be most conveniently noted here, that his political +patrons exerted themselves to provide for his private as well +as his official prosperity. Their favour helped him to make a +lucrative marriage with Miss Joan Scott, who had a fortune of +£100,000, on the 8th of July 1800. The marriage was a very +happy one, though the bulk of the fortune was worn away in the +expenses of public and social life. Mrs Canning, who survived +her husband for ten years, was created a viscountess in 1828. +Four children were born of the marriage—a son who died in his +father’s lifetime, and was lamented by him in very touching +verse; another a captain in the navy, drowned at Madeira in +1827; a third son, Charles (<i>q.v.</i>), afterwards created Earl +Canning; and a daughter Harriet, who married the marquess of +Clanricarde in 1825.</p> + +<p>The public life of Canning may be divided into four stages. +From 1793 to 1801 he was the devoted follower of Pitt, was in +minor though important office, and was the wittiest of the +defenders of the ministry in parliament and in the press. From +1801 to 1809 he was partly in opposition, partly in office, fighting +for the foremost place. Between 1809 and 1822 there was a +period of comparative eclipse, during which he was indeed at +times in office, but in lesser places than he would have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +prepared to accept between 1804 and 1809, and was regarded +with general distrust. From 1822 till his death in 1827 he was +the most powerful influence in English, and one of the most +powerful in European, politics.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1796 he was appointed under-secretary for +the foreign office, and in the election of that year he was +returned for Wendover. He was also appointed receiver-general +of the alienation office, a sinecure post which brought him +£700 a year. His position as under-secretary brought him into +close relations with Pitt and the foreign secretary, Lord Grenville +(<i>q.v.</i>). During the negotiations for peace at Lille (1797), Canning +was actively concerned in the devices which were employed by +Pitt and Grenville to keep the real character of the discussion +secret from other members of the cabinet. Canning had a taste +for mystery and disguises, which he had shown at Oxford, and +which did much to gain him his unfortunate reputation for +trickery. From the 20th of November 1797, till the 9th of July +1798, he was one of the most active, and was certainly the most +witty of the contributors to the <i>Anti-Jacobin</i>, a weekly paper +started to ridicule the frothy philanthropic and eleutheromaniac +rant of the French republicans, and to denounce their brutal +rapacity and cruelty. But Canning’s position as under-secretary +was not wholly pleasant to him. He disliked his immediate chief +Grenville, one of the Whigs who joined Pitt, and a man of +thoroughly Whiggish aristocratic insolence. In 1799 he left the +foreign office and was named one of the twelve commissioners +for India, and in 1800 joint paymaster of the forces, a post which +he held till the retirement of Pitt in 1801.</p> + +<p>During these years of subordinate activity Canning had +established his position as an orator and a wit. His oratory +cannot be estimated with absolute confidence. Speeches were +then badly reported. The text of his own, published by Therry +(6 volumes, London, 1828), were revised by himself, and not for +the better. Though his favourite author was Dryden, whose +prose is uniformly manly and simple, and though he had a keen +eye for faults of taste in the style of others, Canning had himself +a leaning to preciosity and tinsel. His wit was, and remains, +above all question. In public life it did him some harm in the +opinion of serious people, who could not believe that so jocose +a politician had solid capacity. It exasperated opponents, some +of whom, notably Peter Pindar (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wolcot, John</a></span>), retaliated +by brutal personalities. Canning was constantly reminded that +his mother was a strolling actress, and was accused of foisting +his pauper family on the public funds. The accusation was +perfectly untrue, but this style of political controversy was +common, and was adopted by Canning. He put himself on a +level with Peter Pindar when he assailed Pitt’s successor +Addington (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sidmouth, Viscount</a></span>) on the ground that he +was the son of a doctor.</p> + +<p>While out of office with Pitt, Canning proved a somewhat +insubordinate follower. The snobbery and malignity of his +attacks on Addington roused considerable feeling against him, +and his attempts to act as a political go-between in ministerial +arrangements were unfortunate. On the formation of Pitt’s +second ministry he took the post of treasurer of the navy on the +12th of May 1804. In office he continued to be insubordinate, +and committed mistakes which got him into bad odour as untrustworthy. +He endeavoured to persuade Lord Hawkesbury +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liverpool, Earls of</a></span>) to join in a scheme for turning an old +friend out of the India Office. Though his relations with Pitt +began to be somewhat strained towards the end, he left office on +the minister’s death on the 21st of January 1806.</p> + +<p>Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of +Commons on the 3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox’s +ministry of “all the talents.” Attempts were made to secure +him, and he was offered the leadership of the House of Commons, +under the supervision of Fox, an absurd proposal which he had +the good sense to decline. After the death of Fox, and the +dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville’s ministry, he joined the +administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state for +foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807 +till the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a +large share in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret +articles of the treaty of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet. +As foreign secretary it fell to him to defend the ministry when it +was attacked in parliament. He refused to tell how he became +aware of the secret articles, and the mystery has never +been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the prosecution +of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in resignation +in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He became +entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In +view of the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his +colleague, Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a +new prime minister must be found, that he must be in the House +of Commons, that the choice lay between them, adding that he +might not be prepared to serve as subordinate. In April of 1809 +he had told the duke of Portland that Lord Castlereagh, +secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion unfit for his +post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a +sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and +took no steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague. +When he found that no measures were being taken to make a +change of office, Canning resigned on the 7th of September. +Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and after resigning sent +Canning a challenge on the 19th of September. In the duel on +Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the +thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against +the charge of double dealing, but there can be no question that +Castlereagh had just ground to be angry. Public opinion was +strong against Canning, and in the House of Commons he was +looked upon with distrust. For twelve years he remained out of +office or in inferior places. His ability made it impossible that he +should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the Bullion +Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery +of the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic +knowledge which chiefly recommended him to the electors of +Liverpool in 1812. He had been elected for Tralee in 1803, for +Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for Harwich in 1807. But in +parliament he had lost all influence, and is described as wandering +about neglected and avoided. In 1812 he committed the serious +mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to Lisbon, +which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He +remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to +enter office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liverpool’s +cabinet, in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now +become reconciled, was secretary of state for foreign affairs. In +1820 he resigned his post in order to avoid taking any part in the +proceedings against Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV.</p> + +<p>Canning’s return to great office and influence dates from the +suicide of Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-generalship +of India, which would have implied his retirement +from public life at home, and refused to remain unless he was +promised “the whole inheritance” of Castlereagh,—the foreign +office and the leadership of the House of Commons. His terms +were accepted, and he took office in September 1822. He held the +office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime +minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had +broken down. Even before this he was the real director of the +policy of the cabinet—as Castlereagh had been from 1812 to +1822. It may be noted that he resigned his seat for Liverpool in +1823, and was elected for Harwich, which he left for Newport in +1826. Few English public men have represented so many +constituencies.</p> + +<p>His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy +which he pursued in those years—the policy of non-intervention, +and of the patronage, if not the actual support, of national and +liberal movements in Europe (see the historical articles under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portugal</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>). To this policy +he may be said to have given his name, and he has enjoyed the +reputation of having introduced a generous spirit into British +politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor at the +foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of +despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning +followed his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +the possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of +proof, that he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the +fact remains that when Canning came into office in September +1822, he found the instructions to be given to the representative +of the British government at the congress of Verona already +drawn up by his predecessor, who had meant to attend the +congress himself (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Londonderry</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robert Stewart, 2nd +Marquess of</a></span>). These instructions were handed on without +change by Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as +representative, and they contain all the principles which have +been said to have been peculiarly Canning’s. Indeed this policy +was dictated by the character and position of the British government, +and had been followed in the main since the conference of +Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and minister +rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated with +his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No +speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he +claimed the initiative in recognizing the independence of the +revolted Spanish colonies in South America in 1823—“I resolved +that, if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. +I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of +the Old” (December 12, 1826).</p> + +<p>When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of +February 1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only +possible successor. He was not indeed accepted by all the party +which had followed Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir +Robert Peel and several other members of the ministry, moved +perhaps by personal animosity, and certainly by dislike of his +known and consistent advocacy of the claims of the Roman +Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in +constructing a ministry in April—but the hopes and the fears of +friends and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His +health had already begun to give way, and broke down altogether +under the strain of the effort required to form his ministry. He +had caught cold in January at the funeral of the duke of York, +and never recovered. He died on the 8th of August 1827, at +Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where Fox had +died, and in the same room.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Speeches</i>, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.G. +Stapleton, <i>Political Life of Canning</i>, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London, +1831); <i>Canning and His Times</i> (London, 1859); Lord Dalling and +Bulwer, <i>Historical Characters</i> (London, 1868); F.H. Hill, <i>George +Canning</i> (London, 1887); <i>Some Political Correspondence of George +Canning</i>, ed. E.J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); J.A.R. Marriott, +<i>George Canning and His Times, a Political Study</i> (London, 1903); +W. Alison Phillips, <i>George Canning</i> (London, 1903), with reproductions +of contemporary portraits and caricatures; H.W.V. +Temperley, <i>George Canning</i> (London, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1826-1910), Italian chemist, +was born at Palermo on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he +entered the university of his native place with the intention of +making medicine his profession, but he soon turned to the study +of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as assistant to Rafaelle +Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin, who was then +professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied the +same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served +as an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for +Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of +Messina in September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina. +On the collapse of the insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in +May 1849, and after visiting various French towns reached +Paris in October. There he gained an introduction to M.E. +Chevreul’s laboratory, and in conjunction with F.S. Cloëz +(1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research +in 1851, when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia +on cyanogen chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year +he was appointed professor of physical chemistry at the National +College of Alexandria, where he discovered that aromatic +aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic potash into a mixture +of the corresponding acid and alcohol, <i>e.g.</i> benzaldehyde into +benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol (“Cannizzaro’s reaction”). +In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at +Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professorships +at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and +organic chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying +the aromatic compounds and continuing to work on the amines, +until in 1871 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at +Rome university. Apart from his work on organic chemistry, +which includes also an investigation of santonin, he rendered +great service to the philosophy of chemistry when in his memoir +<i>Sunto di un corso di Filosofia chemica</i> (1858) he insisted on +the distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between molecular +and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of +elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from +the molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic +weights of elements of whose compounds the vapour densities +are unknown can be ascertained from a knowledge of their +specific heats. For this achievement, of fundamental importance +for the atomic theory in chemistry, he was awarded the Copley +medal by the Royal Society in 1891. Cannizzaro’s scientific +eminence in 1871 secured him admission to the Italian senate, +of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the Council +of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important +services to the cause of scientific education in Italy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNOCK,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a market town in the western parliamentary +division of Staffordshire, England, in the district known as +Cannock Chase, 130 m. N.W. from London by the London and +North Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1891) 20,613; +(1901) 23,974. The church of St Luke is Perpendicular, enlarged +in modern times. The famous political preacher, Henry Sacheverell, +held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock has +tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract +generally exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis +from north-west to south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was +a royal preserve, and remains for the most part an uncultivated +waste, but it is also a rich coalfield, and there are mines in +every direction. Brownhills, Burntwood and Chase Town, Great +Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are townships +or villages of the mining population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNON<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (a word common to Romance languages, from the +Lat. <i>canna</i>, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative +termination <i>-on, -one</i>), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word, +first found about 1400 (there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407 +referring to <i>”canones, seu instrumenta Anglicè gunnes vocata”</i>), +is commonly applied to any form of firearm which is fired from +a carriage or fixed mounting, in contradistinction to “small-arms,” +which are fired without a rest or support of any kind.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +An exception must be made, however, in the case of <i>machine +guns</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and the word as used in modern times may be +defined as follows: “a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or +movable carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than +1½ in.” In French, however, <i>canon</i> is the term applied to the +barrel of small arms, and also, as an alternative to <i>mitrailleuse</i> +or <i>mitrailleur</i>, to machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly +so-called. The Hotchkiss machine gun used in several navies is +officially called “revolving cannon.” For details see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machine Guns</a></span>, &c. Amongst the many derived +senses of the word may be mentioned “cannon curls,” in which +the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the +other. For “cannon” in billiards see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Billiards</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In the 16th and 17th centuries the “cannon” in England +was distinctively a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance +being called by various special names such as culverin, saker, +falcon, demi-cannon, &c. We hear of Cromwell taking with +him to Ireland (1649) “two cannon of eight inches, two cannon +of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders,” &c.</p> + +<p>Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier +contemporary with Cromwell, says: “The cannon or battering +ordnance is divided by the English into Cannon Royal, Whole +Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is likewise called the +Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and shoots a +bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs +7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +The Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet +of 28 or 30 pound. ... These three several guns are called +cannons of eight, cannons of seven and cannons of six.” The +generic sense of “cannon,” in which the word is now exclusively +used, is found along with the special sense above mentioned +as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by Edward IV. +of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide “<i>bumbardos, +canones, culverynes ... et alias canones quoscumque, ac pulveres, +sulfer ... pro eisdem canonibus necessarias</i>.” “Artillery” and +“ordnance,” however, were the more usual terms up to the time +of Louis XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance began +to be classified according to the weight of its shot, and the +special sense of “cannon” disappears.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand cannon.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNON-BALL TREE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (<i>Couroupita guianensis</i>), a native of +tropical South America (French Guiana), which bears large +spherical woody fruits, containing numerous seeds, as in the +allied genus <i>Bertholletia</i> (Brazil nut).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANNSTATT,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kannstatt</span>, a town of Germany in the +kingdom of Württemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley +on both banks of the Neckar, 2½ m. from Stuttgart, with which +it has been incorporated since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is +a railway centre, has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic +church, two bridges across the Neckar, handsome streets in the +modern quarter of the town and fine promenades and gardens. +There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway plant, +automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and +weaving are carried on; and there are chemical works and a +brewery here. Fruit and vines are largely cultivated in the +neighbourhood. A large population is temporarily attracted +to Cannstatt by the fame of its mineral springs, which are +valuable for diseases of the throat and weaknesses of the +nervous system. These springs were known to the Romans. Besides +the usual bathing establishments there are several medical +institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the +palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851) +for King William of Württemberg in the Moorish style, is +surrounded by beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also +are immense caves in the limestone where numerous bones of +mammoths and other extinct animals have been found. On the +Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral castle of the +house of Württemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and his +wife.</p> + +<p>Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as +the place where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the +trial of the rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians. +From the emperor Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights +and privileges as were enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and +until the middle of the 14th century it was the capital of the +county of Württemberg. Cannstatt was the scene of a victory +gained by the French over the Austrians on the 21st of July 1796.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Veiel, +<i>Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen</i> (Cannstatt, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANO, ALONZO<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and +sculptor, was born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very +great number of specimens of his genius, which display the +boldness of his design, the facility of his pencil, the purity of his +flesh-tints and his knowledge of chiaroscuro. He learned architecture +from his father, Miguel Cano, painting from Pacheco +and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montañes. As a statuary, +his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church +of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo. +As an architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and +gave way too much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made +him royal architect and king’s painter, and gave him the church +preferment of a canon. His more important pictures are at +Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable temper; and +it is said that once he risked his life by committing the then +capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when +in a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded. +His known passionateness also (according to another story) +caused him to be suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of +his wife, though all other circumstances pointed to his servant +as the culprit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANO, MELCHIOR<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at +Tarançon, in New Castile, joined the Dominican order at an +early age at Salamanca, where in 1546 he succeeded to the +theological chair in that university. A man of deep learning +and originality, proud and a victim to the <i>odium theologicum</i>, +he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time could +compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a +Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university +the schools were divided between the partisans of the +two professors; but Cano pursued his rival with relentless +virulence, and took part in the condemnation for heresy of his +brother-friar. The new society of the Jesuits, as being the forerunners +of Antichrist, also met with his violent opposition; and +he was not grateful to them when, after attending the council +of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence, in 1552, as +bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal influence +with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made provincial +of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous +<i>Consultatio theologica</i>, in which he advised the king to resist the +temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, +to defend his rights by bringing about a radical change in the +administration of ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain +less dependent on Rome. With this in his mind Paul IV. styled +him “a son of perdition.” The reputation of Cano, however, +rests on a posthumous work, <i>De Locis theologicis</i> (Salamanca, +1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its own line. In this, a +genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to free +dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and, +by clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, +to bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, +method, co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific +treatment of theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of +September 1560.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOE<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (from Carib. <i>canáoa</i>, the West Indian name found in +use by Columbus; the Fr. <i>canot</i>, boat, and Ger. <i>Kahn</i>, are +derived from the Lat. <i>canna</i>, reed, vessel), a sort of general term +for a boat sharp at both ends, originally designed for propulsion +by one or more paddles (not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, +the paddler facing the bow. As the historical native name for +certain types of boat used by savages, it is applied in such cases +to those which, like other boats, are open within from end to end, +and the modern “Canadian canoe” preserves this sense; but +a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ +essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck, +except for a “well” where the paddler sits. Modern developments +are the cruising canoe, combining the use of paddle and +sails, and the racing canoe, equipped with sails only.</p> + +<p>The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which +skins (as in the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the +North American lndians’ birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched. +The modern painted canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was +a natural development of this idea. The Indian also used, and +the African still uses, the “dug-out,” made from a tree hollowed +by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe. Many of these are +of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the New York +Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte’s Island is 63 ft. +long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The +“war canoe” of paddling races is its modern successor. In the +islands of the Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by +the natives, who make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening +them by attaching another hull (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catamaran</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a +“canoe” in England was the short covered-in craft, with a +“well” for the paddler to sit in, which was popularly used for +short river practice; and this type still survives. But the sport +of canoeing in any real sense dates from 1865, when John MacGregor +(<i>q.v.</i>) designed the canoe “Rob Roy” for long journeys +by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light +enough (about 70 ℔) to be carried over land. The general type +of this canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> +12 ft. to 15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in. +to 16 in. The paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade, +the canoeist sits low in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades +first on one side and then the other. The rig is generally yawl.</p> + +<p>In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the +prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore. +Its headquarters are at Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the +leading organization. There is also the British Canoe Association, +devoted to cruising. After the English canoes were seen in Paris +at the Exhibition of 1867, others like them were built in France. +Branches and clubs were formed also at the English universities, +and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The New York +Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal +Canoe Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the +Irish Channel from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were +explored in inaccessible parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and +the Abana and the Pharpar at Damascus, as well as the Lake +Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the Lake of Galilee and +Waters of Merom in Syria.</p> + +<p>W. Baden Powell modified the type of the “Rob Roy” in the +“Nautilus,” intended only for sailing. From this time the two +kinds of pleasure canoe—paddling and sailing—parted company, +and developed each on its own lines; the sailing canoe soon +(1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a smaller and smaller cockpit, +and a larger and larger sail area, with the consequent necessary +air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul Butler of Lowell, +Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat, allowing the +canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the racing +machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the +annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the +St Lawrence river, or at the more frequent race days of its +constituent divisions, associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic +(32 clubs), Central (26 clubs) and Western.</p> + +<p>The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also +represented in single, tandem and crew (“war canoe”) races, +and this form of the sport remains more of the amateur type. +The “Canadian,” a clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or +bass-wood canoe, or the painted canvas, bark or compressed +paper canoe, all on the general lines of the Indian birch bark, are +as common on American rivers as the punt is on the Thames, and +are similarly used.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See MacGregor, <i>A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe</i> (1866), +<i>The Rob Roy on the Baltic</i>, &c.; +W. Baden Powell, <i>Canoe Travelling</i> (1871); +W.L. Alden, <i>Canoe and the Flying Proa</i> (New York, 1878); +J.D. Hayward, <i>Camping out with the British Canoe Association</i>; +C.B. Vaux, <i>Canoe Handling</i> (New York, 1888); +Stephens, <i>Canoe and Boat Building</i> (New York, 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANON.<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> The Greek word <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span> means originally a straight +rod or pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing +upright or straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in +Gal. vi. 16, and 2 Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former +passage a measure, in the latter what is measured, a district. +The general applications of the word fall mainly into two groups, +in one of which the underlying meaning is that of rule, in the other +that of a list or catalogue, <i>i.e.</i> of books containing the rule. Of +the first, such uses as that of a standard or rule of conduct or +taste, or of a particular form of musical composition (see below) +may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of the +laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>). In the +second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below), +that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints +by the Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canonization</a></span>), and that of the authoritative +body of Scriptures (see below) are examples.</p> + +<p><i>Music.</i>—A canon in part-music is the form taken by the +earliest compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts +having the same melody, but each beginning at a stated period +after its precursor or antecedent. In many early polyphonic +compositions, one or more voices were imitated note for note by +the others, so that the other parts did not need to be written out +at all, but were deduced from the leaders by a rule or canon. Sir +Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way the term +“canon” came to supersede the old name of the art-form, <i>Fuga +ligata</i>. (See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fugue</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contrapuntal Forms</a></span> and +Music.) When the first part completes its rhythmical sentence +before the second enters, and then continues the melody as an +accompaniment to the second, and so on for the third or fourth, +this form of canon in England was styled a “round” or “catch”; +the stricter canon being one in which the succession of parts did +not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England +catches and canons were undifferentiated. The “round” +derived its name from the fact that the first part returned to the +beginning while the others continued the melody; the “catch” +meant that each later part caught up the tune. The problem of +the canon, as an artistic composition, is to find one or more points +in a melody at which one or more successive parts may start the +same tune harmoniously. Catches were familiar in English folk +music until after the Restoration; different trades having +characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of Charles II +they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental. +Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now +survives mainly in its historical interest.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + +<p><i>The Church Dignitary</i>.—A canon is a person who possesses a +prebend, or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service +in a cathedral or collegiate church. Though the institute of canons +as it at present exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it +has a long history behind it. The name is derived from the list +(<i>matricula</i>) of the clergy belonging to a church, <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span> being thus +used in the council of Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea +the adjective <span class="grk" title="kanonikos">κανονικός</span> is found in this sense (c. 15); and +during the 6th century the word <i>canonicus</i> occurs commonly in +western Europe in relation to the clergy belonging to a cathedral +or other church. Eusebius of Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to +introduce the system whereby the cathedral clergy dwelt together, +leading a semi-monastic life in common and according to rule; +and St Augustine established a similar manner of life for the +clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely over +Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory’s +injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his +clergy should live a common life together, similar to the monastic +life in which he had been trained; that these “clerics” at +Canterbury were not monks is shown by the fact that those of +them in the lower clerical grades were free to marry and live at +home, without forfeiting their position or emoluments as members +of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> i. 27). This +mode of life for the secular clergy, which became common in the +west, seems never to have taken root in the east. It came to be +called <i>vita canonica</i>, canonical life, and it was the object of various +enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries. +The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it to rule +was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (<i>c.</i> 750), who composed +a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure +an adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular +clergy living in common. Chrodegang’s Rule was adopted in +many churches, both cathedral and collegiate (<i>i.e.</i> those served +by a body of clergy). In 816 the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see +<i>Mon. Germ. Concil.</i> ii. 307) made further regulations for the +canonical life, which became the law in the Frankish empire for +cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of Chrodegang was +taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some points +mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a +common dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon +was allowed a dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh +meat was permitted, and the clothing was of better quality than +that of monks. Each canon retained the use of his private +property and money, but the revenues of the cathedral or church +were treated as a common fund for the maintenance of the whole +establishment. The chief duty of the canons was the performance +of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks, but +secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic +vows or resigning their private means—a form of life somewhat +resembling that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham +Oratory in our day. The bishop was expected to lead the +common life along with his clergy.</p> + +<p>The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted +in the 9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +intermediate form of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a +constant tendency to relax the bonds of the common life, and +attempts in various directions to restore it. In England, by the +middle of the 10th century, the prescriptions of the canonical +life seem to have fallen into desuetude, and in nine cathedrals +the canons were replaced by communities of Benedictines. In +the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced into +certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation +of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The +turning point came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the +Lateran, exhorted the clergy of all cathedral and collegiate +churches to live in community, to hold all property and money in +common, and to “lead the life of the Apostles” (cf. Acts ii. 44, +45). The clergy of numerous churches throughout Western +Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set themselves +to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement grew +the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons +(<i>q.v.</i>). The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced +the institute of secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral +were divided into two parts, that of the bishop and that of the +clergy; this latter was again divided among the clergy themselves, +so that each member received his own separate income, +and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical grade, were +the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at +leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In +England the final establishment of this order of things was due to +St Osmund (1090). The nature and functions of the institute of +secular canons are described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, under “Canonicus”; +Amort, <i>Vetus Disciplina Canonicorum</i> (1747), +to be used with caution for the earlier period; +C. du Molinet, <i>Réflexions historiques et curieuses sur les +antiquités des chanoines tant séculiers que réguliers</i> (1674); +Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), art. “Kapitel”; +Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), +art. “Canonica vita” and “Canonikat.” +The history of the canonical institute is succinctly told, and the best +literature named, by Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, +1896, i. § 55; also by Otto Zöckler, <i>Askese und Mönchtum</i>, 1897, +pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard work is Chr. +Wordsworth’s <i>Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral</i> (1892-1897); see also an +article thereon by Edm. Bishop in <i>Dublin Review</i>, July 1898.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + +<p>In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate +churches retain their traditional character and functions, +though they are now, of course, permitted to marry. Their +duties were defined by the Canons of 1603, and included that of +residence at the cathedrals according to “their local customs and +statutes,” and preaching in the cathedral and in the churches of +the diocese, “especially those whence they or their church +receive any yearly rent or profit.” A canonry not being legally a +“cure of souls,” a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his +prebend, in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons +of 1603 he was subject to discipline if he made his canonry an +excuse for neglecting his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming +cathedral chapters the number of canonries was greatly reduced, +while some were made applicable to the endowment of archdeaconries +and professorships. At the same time it was enacted +that a canon must have been six years in priest’s orders, except in +the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or +other office in any university. The obligatory period of residence, +hitherto varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform +period of three months. The right of presentation to canonries +is now vested in some cases in the crown, in others in the lord +chancellor, the archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese.</p> + +<p>Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or +other emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the +case of old cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving +clergymen by the bishop as a mark of distinction. In new +cathedrals, <i>e.g.</i> Manchester or Birmingham, where no endowment +exists for a chapter, the bishop is empowered to appoint honorary +canons, who carry out the ordinary functions of a cathedral +body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed +by the dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to +sing the service, and they are selected therefore mainly for their +voices and musical qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if +it lies within 6 m. of the cathedral.</p> + +<p>In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical +officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony, +however, certain chapters, secularized at the Reformation, +still exist. The canons (<i>Domherren</i>) are, however, laymen with +no ecclesiastical character whatever, and their rich prebends are +merely sources of endowment for the cadets of noble families.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Phillimore, <i>Eccles. Law</i>, 2 vols. (London, 1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<p><i>The Scriptures.</i>—There are three opinions as to the origin of +the application of the term “canon” to the writings used by the +Christian Church. According to Semler, Baur and others, the word +had originally the sense of list or catalogue—the books publicly +read in Christian assemblies. Others, as Steiner, suppose that +since the Alexandrian grammarians applied it to collections of +old Greek authors as models of excellence or classics, it meant +classical (canonical) writings. According to a third opinion, the +term included from the first the idea of a regulating principle. +This is the more probable, because the same idea lies in the New +Testament use of the noun, and pervades its applications in the +language of the early Fathers down to the time of Constantine, +as Credner has shown.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The “<span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span> of the church” in the +Clementine homilies,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the “ecclesiastical <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span>”<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and the “<span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span> +of the truth” in Clement and Irenaeus,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> the <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span> of the faith in +Polycrates,<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the <i>regula fidei</i> of Tertullian,<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and the <i>libri regulares</i> +of Origen<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> imply a <i>normative principle</i>. Credner’s view of <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span> +as an abbreviation of <span class="grk" title="grachai kanonos">γραφαὶ κανόνος</span>, equivalent to <i>Scripturae +legis</i> in Diocletian’s Act,<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> is too artificial, and is unsanctioned +by usage.</p> + +<p>The earliest example of its application to a catalogue of the +Old or New Testament books occurs in the Latin translation of +Origen’s homily on Joshua, where the original seems to have +been <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span>. The word itself is certainly in Amphilochius,<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> as +well as in Jerome<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and Rufinus.<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> As the Latin translation of +Origen has <i>canonicus</i> and <i>canonizatus</i>, we infer that he used +<span class="grk" title="kanonikos">κανονικός</span>, opposed as it is to <i>apocryphus</i> or <i>secretus</i>. The first +occurrence of <span class="grk" title="kanonikos">κανονικός</span> is in the 59th canon of the council of +Laodicea, where it is contrasted with <span class="grk" title="idiotikos">ἰδιωτικός</span> and <span class="grk" title="akanonistos">ἀκανόνιστος</span>. +<span class="grk" title="Kanonixomena">Κανονιζόμενα</span>, “<i>canonized</i> books,” is first used in Athanasius’s festal +epistle.<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The kind of rule which the earliest Fathers thought the +Scriptures to be can only be conjectured; it is certain that they +believed the Old Testament books to be a divine and infallible +guide. But the New Testament was not so considered till +towards the close of the 2nd century, when the conception of a +Catholic Church was realized. The collection of writings was not +called <i>Scripture</i>, or put on a par with the Old Testament as sacred +and inspired, till the time of Theophilus of Antioch (about 180 +<span class="sc">a.d.</span>). Hence Irenaeus applies the epithets divine and perfect to +the Scriptures; and Clement of Alexandria calls them inspired.</p> + +<p>When distinctions were made among the Biblical writings other +words were employed, synonymous with <span class="grk" title="kanonixomena">Κανονιζόμενα</span> or <span class="grk" title="kekanonismena">κεκανονισμένα</span>, +such as <span class="grk" title="endiathaeka">ἐνδιάθηκα</span>, <span class="grk" title="orismena">ὡρισμένα</span>. The canon was thus +a catalogue of writings, forming a rule of truth, sacred, divine, +revealed by God for the instruction of men. The rule was +perfect for its purpose. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: section <i>Canon</i>.)</p> + +<p>The term “canonical,” <i>i.e.</i> that which is approved or ordered +by the “canon” or rule, is applied to ecclesiastical vestments, +“canonicals,” and to those hours set apart by the +Church for prayer and devotion, the “Canonical Hours” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Breviary</a></span>).</p> +<div class="author">(S. D.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Zur Geschichte des Kanons</i>, pp. 3-68.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Clement Hom.</i>, ap. Coteler. vol. i. p. 608.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Stromata</i>, vi. 15, p. 803, ed. Potter.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Adv. Haeres.</i> i. 95.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Euseb. <i>H.E.</i> v. 24.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>De praescript. Haereticorum</i>, chs. 12, 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Comment. in Mat.</i> iii. p. 916, ed. Delarue.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Monumenta vetera ad Donatistarum historiam pertinentia</i>, ed. Dupin, p. 168.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> At the end of the <i>Iambi ad Seleucum</i>, on the books of the New +Testament, he adds, +<span class="grk" title="outos acheudestatos kanon an ein ton theopneuston grachon">οὐτος ἀψευδέστατος κανών ἂν εἴη τῶν θεοπνεύστων γραφῶν</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Prologus galeatus in ii. Reg.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Expos. in Symb. Apost.</i> 37, p. 374, ed. Migne.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> After the word is added <span class="grk" title="kai paradothenta, pioteuthenta te theia einai">καὶ παραδοθέντα, πιστευθέντα τὲ θεῖα είναι</span>. +<i>Opp.</i> vol. i. p. 961, ed. Benedict.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CANONESS<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (Fr. <i>chanoinesse</i>, Ger. <i>Kanonissin</i>, Lat. <i>canonica</i> +or <i>canonica virgo</i>), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In +the 8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish +empire, and in imitation of these certain women took common +vows of obedience and chastity, though not of poverty. Like +nuns they had common table and dormitory, and recited the +breviary, but generally the rule was not so strict as in the case of +nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and were also employed +in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and transcribing +liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular and +secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not +practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable +feudal princesses. In Germany several foundations of this +kind (<i>e.g.</i> Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were +practically secular institutions before the Reformation, adopted +the Protestant faith, and still exist, requiring of their members +the simple conditions of celibacy and obedience to their superior +during membership. These institutions (<i>Stifter</i>) are now practically +almshouses for the unmarried daughters of noble families. +In some cases the right of presentation belongs to the head of the +family, sometimes admission is gained by purchase; but in +modern times a certain number of prebends have been created for +the daughters of deserving officials. The organization of the <i>Stift</i> +is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient titles of abbess, prioress +or provostess (<i>Pröbstin</i>), and the canonesses (<i>Stiftsdamen</i>) meet +periodically in <i>Konvent</i> for the discussion of the affairs of the +community. The ladies are not bound to residence. In many of +these <i>Stifter</i> quaint pre-Reformation customs and ceremonies +still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at +Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the +<i>Konvent</i> is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax +head of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table +round which the canonesses sit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANONIZATION,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> in its widest sense, an act by which in the +Christian Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased +believer the honour of public <i>cultus</i>. In the early Church there +was no formal canonization. The <i>cultus</i> applied at first to local +martyrs, and it was only in exceptional circumstances that a +kind of judiciary inquiry and express decision became necessary +to legitimate this <i>cultus</i>. The peculiar situation of the Church of +Africa explains the <i>Vindicatio martyrum</i>, which was early +practised there (<i>Optatus Milevit.</i>, i. 16). In the <i>cultus</i> rendered to +confessors, the authorization of the Church had long been merely +implicit. But when an express decision was given, it was the +bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came +to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the +pope the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest +acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of +Ulric of Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> +993. From that time the pontifical intervention became more +and more frequent, and, in practice, the right of the bishops in +the matter of canonization continued to grow more restricted. +In 1170 the new right was sufficiently established for Pope +Alexander III. to affirm that the bishops could not institute the +<i>cultus</i> of a new saint without the authority of the Roman Church +(Cap. <i>Audivimus</i>, Decret. <i>De Rell. et venerat. Sanctorum</i>, iii. 115). +The 12th and, especially, the 13th centuries furnish many +examples of canonizations pronounced by the popes, and the +procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much more +summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of +those who had known the holy personages was collected on the +spot. The inquiry was as rapid as the judgment, and both often +took place a short time after the death of the saint, as in the cases +of St Thomas of Canterbury (died 1170, canonized 1173), St Peter +of Castelnau (died on the 15th of January 1208, canonized on the +12th of March of the same year), St Francis of Assisi (died on the +4th of October 1226, canonized on the 19th of July 1228), and St +Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June 1231, canonized on +the 3rd of June 1232).</p> + +<p>At this period there was no marked difference between canonization +and beatification. In modern practice, as definitively +settled by the decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the +two acts are totally distinct. Canonization is the solemn and +definitive act by which the pope decrees the plenitude of public +honours. Beatification consists in permitting a <i>cultus</i>, the +manifestations of which are restricted, and is merely a step towards +canonization.</p> + +<p>The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either +<i>exceptional</i> or <i>common</i>. The approval of immemorial +<i>cultus</i> comes within the category of exceptional procedure. +Urban VIII., while forbidding the rendering of a public <i>cultus</i> +without authorization from the Holy See, made an exception in favour +of the blessed who were at that time (1625) in possession of an +immemorial <i>cultus, i.e.</i> dating back at least a century (1525). +The procedure <i>per viam casus excepti</i> consists in the legitimation +of a <i>cultus</i> which has been rendered to a saint for a very long +time. The causes of the martyrs (<i>declarationis martyrii</i>) also are +exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the <i>fact</i> of the +martyrdom and of its <i>cause, i.e.</i> it must be established that the +servant of God was put to death through hatred of the faith. These are +the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure.</p> + +<p>The <i>common</i> procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted +<i>per viam non cultus</i>. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded +before the tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent +commission of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of subordinate +officers and presided over by a cardinal. The supreme judge in the +matter is the pope himself. The <i>postulator</i>, who is the +mandatory of a diocese or ecclesiastical commonalty, is the +solicitor. He must furnish the proofs, which are collected +according to very stringent rules. The <i>promoter of the faith</i>, +popularly called the “devil’s advocate” (<i>advocatus diaboli</i>), is +the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the tribunal +the weak points of the case.</p> + +<p>The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the historical +explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system, and which +considerably delay the progress of the causes. The first decisive step +is the <i>introduction of the cause</i>. If, by the advice of the +cardinals who have examined the documents, the pope +pronounce his approval, the servant of God receives the title of +“Venerable,” but is not entitled to any manifestation of <i>cultus</i>. +Only in the event of the claimant passing this test successfully +can the essential part of the procedure be begun, which will result +in conferring on the Venerable the title of “Blessed.” This part +consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a reputation +for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the virtues, +(3) to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on all +three of these tests is called the decree <i>de tuto</i>, by which the +pope decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification +of the servant of God (<i>Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V.S.D.N. +beatificationem</i>). In the ceremony of beatification the essential +part consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the +Venerable in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a +solemn mass, celebrated with special rites in the great hall +above the vestibule of the basilica of St Peter.</p> + +<p>The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification, +is usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of +the miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession +of the Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great +number of formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the +sentence, and indicates eventually the day on which he will +proceed to the ceremony of canonization, which takes place with +great solemnity in the basilica of St Peter.</p> + +<p>The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for +the conduct of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for +exercising rigour and discretion, considerably retards the progress +of the causes, and necessitates a numerous staff. This circumstance, +together with the custom of ornamenting the basilica of +St Peter very richly on the day of the ceremony, accounts for +the considerable cost which a canonization entails. To prevent +abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up during the +pontificate of Leo XIII.</p> + +<p>The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constantinople, +and the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod, +also canonize their saints after a preliminary examination of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +titles to public <i>cultus</i>. Their procedure is less rigorous than +that of the Roman Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly studied.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Fontanini, <i>Codex Constitutionum quas summi pontifices +ediderunt in solemni canonizatione sanctorum</i> (Rome, 1729, a +collection of original documents); +Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.), <i>De servorum Dei +beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione</i> (Bologna, 1734-1738), +several times reprinted, and more remarkable for erudition +and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism; +Al. Lauri, <i>Codex pro postulatoribus causarum beatificationis +et canonizationis, recognovit Joseph Fornari</i> (Romae, 1899); +F.W. Faber, <i>Essay on Beatification, Canonization, &c.</i> +(London, 1848); A. Boudinhon, <i>Les Procès de béatification +et de canonisation</i> (Paris, 1905); E. Golubinskij, +<i>Istorija Kanonizaçii sviatich v russko j çerkvi</i> (Moscow, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANON LAW.<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> Canon law, <i>jus canonicum</i>, is the sum of the +laws which regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is +also called ecclesiastical law, <i>jus ecclesiasticum</i>. It is also +referred to under the name of <i>canones, sacri canones</i>, a title of +great antiquity, for the <span class="grk" title="kanones">κανόνες</span>, <i>regulae</i>, were very early +distinguished from the secular laws, the <span class="grk" title="nomoi">νόμοι</span>, <i>leges</i>.</p> + +<p>The word <span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span>, canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical +literature in several different senses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span> above). The +disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for +example (can. 1, 2, &c.), employ it in the sense of an +<span class="sidenote">Word “canon.” Different meanings.</span> +established rule, ecclesiastical in its origin and in its +object. But the expression is most frequently used to +designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished +from dogmatic definitions. With regard to form, the decisions of +councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the +definitions of the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which +generally begin with the words “<i>Si quis dixerit</i>,” and end with +the anathema, are canons; while the long chapters, even when +dealing with matters of discipline, retain the name of chapters or +decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to give the name of +canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical compilations +such as the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, while the name of chapters is +given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the Decretals. +It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the expression +<i>jus canonicum</i>, it implies the systematic codification of +ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the +labours which resulted in the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>.</p> + +<p>Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the +former is concerned with the constitution of the Church, and, +consequently, with the relations between her and other +bodies, religious and civil; the latter has as its object +<span class="sidenote">Divisions.</span> +the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical body and its members. +This division, which has been found convenient for the study of +canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts. With +regard to the texts now in force, the name of <i>jus antiquum</i>, +ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the <i>Corpus +juris canonici</i>; the legislation of this <i>Corpus</i> has been called +<i>jus novum</i>, new law; and finally, the name of recent law, <i>jus +novissimum</i>, has been given to the law established by the council +of Trent and subsequent papal constitutions. There is a further +distinction between the written law, <i>jus scriptum</i>, laws made by +the councils or popes, which are to be found in the collections, +and the unwritten law, <i>jus non scriptum</i>, a body of practical +rules arising rather from natural equity and from custom than +from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law. +In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the +unwritten customary law has undergone a gradual diminution +in importance, as a consequence of centralization and the +accumulation of written laws; nowadays it need not be reckoned +with, save in cases where local customs are involved. The +common law is that which is intended to regulate the whole +body; special or local law is that which is concerned with +certain districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation +from or addition to the common law.</p> + +<p>By the <i>sources</i> or authors of the canon law are meant the +authorities from which it is derived; they must obviously be of +such a nature as to be binding upon the whole religious +body, or at least upon a specified portion of it. In the +<span class="sidenote">Sources.</span> +highest rank must be placed Christ and the Apostles, whose +dispositions for the constitution and government of the Church +are contained in the New Testament, completed by tradition; +for the Church did not accept the disciplinary and ritual +provisions of the Old Testament as binding upon her (see Acts +xi., xv.). To the apostles succeeded the episcopal body, with +its chief the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, whose +legislative and disciplinary power, by a process of centralization, +underwent a slow but uninterrupted development. It is then to +the episcopate, assembled in ecumenical council, and to its chief, +that the function of legislating for the whole Church belongs; +the inferior authorities, local councils or isolated bishops and +prelates, can only make special laws or statutes, valid only for +that part of the Church under their jurisdiction. Most of the +canons, however, which constitute the ancient law, and notably +those which appear in the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, emanate from +local councils, or even from individual bishops; they have +found a place in the common law because the collections of +canons, of which they formed the most, notable part, have been +everywhere adopted.</p> + +<p>Having made these general observations, we must now consider +the history of those texts and collections of canons which to-day +form the ecclesiastical law of the Western Church: (1) up to the +<i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, (2) up to the council of Trent, (3 and 4) up to +the present day, including the codification ordered by Pius X.</p> + +<p>1. <i>From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian.</i>—At no time, +and least of all during the earliest centuries, was there any +attempt to draw up a uniform system of legislation for the whole +of the Christian Church. The various communities ruled themselves +principally according to their customs and traditions, which, +however, possessed a certain uniformity resulting from their +close connexion with natural and divine law. Strangely enough, +those documents which bear the greatest resemblance to a small +collection of canonical regulations, such as the Didache, the +Didascalia and the Canons of Hippolytus, have not been retained, +and find no place in the collections of canons, doubtless +for the reason that they were not official documents. Even the +Apostolical Constitutions (<i>q.v.</i>), an expansion of the Didache +and the Didascalia, after exercising a certain amount of influence, +were rejected by the council in Trullo (692). Thus the only +pseudo-epigraphic document preserved in the law of the Greek Church +is the small collection of the eighty-five so-called “Apostolic +Canons” (<i>q.v.</i>). The compilers, in their several collections, +gathered only occasional decisions, the outcome of no +pre-determined plan, given by councils or by certain great bishops.</p> + +<p>These compilations began in the East. It appears that in +several different districts canons made by the local +assemblies<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> were added to those of the council of Nicaea which +were everywhere accepted and observed. The first example seems +<span class="sidenote">Greek collection.</span> +to be that of the province of Pontus, where after the twenty +canons of Nicaea were placed the twenty-five canons of the +council of Ancyra (314), and the fifteen of that of +Neocaesarea (315-320). These texts were adopted at Antioch, +where there were further added the twenty-five canons of the +so-called council <i>in encaeniis</i> of that city (341). Soon +afterwards, Paphlagonia contributed twenty canons passed at the +council of Gangra (held, according to the <i>Synodicon orientale</i>, +in 343),<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Phrygia fifty-nine canons of the assembly of +Laodicea (345-381?), or rather of the compilation known as the +work of this council.<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The collection was so well and so widely +known that all these canons were numbered in sequence, and +thus at the council of Chalcedon (451) several of the canons of +Antioch were read out under the number assigned to them in +the collection of the whole. It was further increased by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> +twenty-eight (thirty) canons of Chalcedon; about the same +time were added the four canons of the council of Constantinople +of 381, under the name of which also appeared three (or seven) +other canons of a later date. Towards the same date, also, the +so-called “Apostolic Canons” were placed at the head of the +group. Such was the condition of the Greek collection when +it was translated and introduced into the West.</p> + +<p>In the course of the 6th century the collection was completed +by the addition of documents already in existence, but which +had hitherto remained isolated, notably the canonical letters of +several great bishops, Dionysius of Alexandria, St Basil and +others. It was at this time that the Latin collection of Dionysius +Exiguus became known; and just as he had given the Greek +councils a place in his collection, so from him were borrowed the +canons of councils which did not appear in the Greek collection—the +twenty canons of Sardica (343), in the Greek text, which +differs considerably from the Latin; and the council of Carthage +of 410, which itself included, more or less completely, in 105 +canons, the decisions of the African councils. Soon after came +the council <i>in Trullo</i> (692), also called the <i>Quinisextum</i>, +because it was considered as complementary to the two councils (5th +and 6th ecumenical) of Constantinople (553 and 680), which +had not made any disciplinary canons. This assembly elaborated +102 canons, which did not become part of the Western law +till much later, on the initiative of Pope John VIII. (872-881). +Now, in the second of its canons, the council in Trullo recognized +<span class="sidenote">Its final form.</span> +and sanctioned the Greek collection above mentioned; +it enumerates all its articles, insists on the +recognition of these canons, and at the same time prohibits +the addition of others. As thus defined, the collection +contains the following documents: firstly, the eighty-five +Apostolic Canons, the Constitutions having been put aside +as having suffered heretical alterations; secondly, the canons +of the councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, +Laodicea, Constantinople (381), Ephesus (the disciplinary +canons of this council deal with the reception of the Nestorians, +and were not communicated to the West), Chalcedon, Sardica, +Carthage (that of 419, according to Dionysius), Constantinople +(394); thirdly, the series of canonical letters of the following +great bishops—Dionysius of Alexandria, Peter of Alexandria +(the Martyr), Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil, +Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Amphilochus of +Iconium, Timotheus of Alexandria, Theophilus of Alexandria, +Cyril of Alexandria, Gennadius of Constantinople; the canon +of Cyprian of Carthage (the Martyr) is also mentioned, but with +the note that it is only valid for Africa. With the addition of +the twenty-two canons of the ecumenical council of Nicaea (787), +this will give us the whole contents of the official collection +of the Greek Church; since then it has remained unchanged. +The law of the Greek Church was in reality rather the work of +the Byzantine emperors.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The collection has had several commentators; we need only +mention the commentaries of Photius (883), Zonaras (1120) +and Balsamon (1170). A collection in which the texts are +simply reproduced in their chronological order is obviously +inconvenient; towards 550, Johannes Scholasticus, patriarch +of Constantinople, drew up a methodical classification of them +under fifty heads. Finally should be mentioned yet another +kind of compilation still in use in the Greek Church, bearing +<span class="sidenote">Nomocanon.</span> +the name of <i>nomocanon</i>, because in them are inserted, +side by side with the ecclesiastical canons, the imperial +laws on each subject: the chief of them are the one +bearing the name of Johannes Scholasticus, which belongs, +however, to a later date, and that of Photius (883).</p> + +<p>The canon law of the other Eastern Churches had no marked +influence on the collections of the Western Church, so we need +not speak of it here. While, from the 5th century onwards a +certain unification in the ecclesiastical law began to take place +within the sphere of the see of Constantinople, it was not till +later that a similar result was arrived at in the West. For +<span class="sidenote">In the West.</span> +several centuries there is no mention of any but local +collections of canons, and even these are not found till +the 5th century; we have to come down to the 8th +or even the 9th century before we find any trace of unification. +This process was uniformly the result of the passing on of the +various collections from one region to another.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable, and the most homogeneous, as well as +without doubt the most ancient of these local collections is that +of the Church of Africa. It was formed, so to speak, +automatically, owing to the plenary assemblies of the +<span class="sidenote">Africa.</span> +African episcopate held practically every year, at which it was +customary first of all to read out the canons of the previous +councils. This gave to the collection an official character. At +the time of the Vandal invasion this collection comprised the +canons of the council of Carthage under Gratus (about 348) +and under Genethlius (390), the whole series of the twenty or +twenty-two plenary councils held during the episcopate of +Aurelius, and finally, those of the councils held at Byzacene. +Of the last-named we have only fragments, and the series of the +councils under Aurelius is very incomplete. The African collection +has not come to us directly: we have two incomplete and +confused arrangements of it, in two collections, that of the +<i>Hispana</i> and that of Dionysius Exiguus. Dionysius knows +only the council of 419, in connexion with the affair of Apiarius; +but in this single text are reproduced, more or less fully, almost +all the synods of the collection; this was the celebrated <i>Concilium +Africanum</i>, so often quoted in the middle ages, which +was also recognized by the Greeks. The Spanish collection +divides the African canons among seven councils of Carthage +and one of Mileve; but in many cases it ascribes them to the +wrong source; for example, it gives under the title of the fourth +council of Carthage, the <i>Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua</i>, an Arlesian +compilation of Saint Caesarius, which has led to a number of +incorrect references. Towards the middle of the 6th century +a Carthaginian deacon, Fulgentius Ferrandus, drew up a <i>Breviatio +canonum</i>,<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> a methodical arrangement of the African collection, +in the order of the subjects. From it we learn that the +canons of Nicaea and the other Greek councils, up to that of +Chalcedon, were also known in Africa.</p> + +<p>The Roman Church, even more than the rest, governed itself +according to its own customs and traditions. Up to the end +of the 5th century the only canonical document of +non-Roman origin which it officially recognized was +<span class="sidenote">Rome.</span> +the group of canons of Nicaea, under which name were also +included those of Sardica. A Latin version of the other Greek +councils (the one referred to by Dionysius as <i>prisca</i>) was known, +but no canonical use was made of it. The local law was founded +on usage and on the papal letters called decretals. The latter +were of two kinds: some were addressed to the bishops of the +ecclesiastical province immediately subject to the pope; the +others were issued in answer to questions submitted from various +quarters; but in both cases the doctrine is the same. +At the beginning of the 6th century the Roman Church adopted the +double collection, though of private origin, which was drawn +<span class="sidenote">Dionysius Exiguus and his collection.</span> +up at that time by the monk Dionysius, known by the +name of Dionysius Exiguus, which he himself had +assumed as a sign of humility. He was a Scythian +by birth, and did not come to Rome till after 496, +his learning was considerable for his times, and to him we owe +the employment of the Christian era and a new way of reckoning +Easter. At the desire of Stephen, bishop of Salona, he undertook +the task of making a new translation, from the original Greek +text, of the canons of the Greek collection. The manuscript +which he used contained only the first fifty of the Apostolic +Canons; these he translated, and they thus became part of the +law of the West. This part of the work of Dionysius was not +added to later; it was otherwise with the second part. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> +embodied the documents containing the local law, namely 39 +decretals of the popes from Siricius (384-398) to Anastasius II. +(496-498). As was natural this collection received successive +additions as further decretals appeared. The collection formed +by combining these two parts remained the only official code +of the Roman Church until the labours undertaken in consequence +of the reforming movement in the 11th century. In 774 Pope +Adrian I. gave the twofold collection of the Scythian monk +to the future emperor Charlemagne as the canonical book of the +Roman Church; this is what is called the <i>Dionysio-Hadriana</i>. +This was an important stage in the history of the centralization +<span class="sidenote">Dionysio-Hadriana.</span> +of canon law; the collection was officially received by the Frankish +Church, imposed by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle of 802, and from +that time on was recognized and quoted as the <i>liber canonum</i>. If +we consider that the Church of Africa, which had already suffered +considerably from the Vandal invasion, was at this period almost +entirely destroyed by the Arabs, while the fate of Spain was but +little better, it is easy to see why the collection of Dionysius +became the code of almost the whole of the Western Church, with the +exception of the Anglo-Saxon countries; though here too it was known.</p> + +<p>The other collections of canons, of Italian origin, compiled +before the 10th century, are of importance on account of the +documents which they have preserved for us, but as they have +not exercised any great influence on the development of canon +law, we may pass them over.</p> + +<p>The Dionysio-Hadriana did not, when introduced into Gaul, +take the place of any other generally received collection of +canons. In this country the Church had not been +centralized round a principal see which would have +<span class="sidenote">In Gaul.</span> +produced unity in canon law as in other things; even the +political territorial divisions had been very unstable. The only +canonical centre of much activity was the Church of Arles, +which exercised considerable influence over the surrounding +region in the 5th and 6th centuries. The chief collection known +throughout Gaul before the Dionysio-Hadriana +<span class="sidenote">Quesnel collection.</span> +was the so-called collection of Quesnel, named after its first +editor.<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a> It is a rich collection, though badly arranged, +and contains 98 documents—Eastern and African +canons and papal letters, but no Gallic councils; so that it is +not a collection of local law. We might expect to find such a +collection, in view of the numerous and important councils +held in Gaul, but their decisions remained scattered among +a great number of collections none of which had ever a wide +circulation or an official character.</p> + +<p>It would be impossible to enumerate here all the Gallic councils +which contributed towards the canon law of that country; we +will mention only the following:—Arles (314), of great +importance; a number of councils in the district +<span class="sidenote">Councils.</span> +of Arles, completed by the <i>Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua</i> of St +Caesarius;<a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the councils of the province of Tours; the assemblies +of the episcopate of the three kingdoms of the Visigoths at +Agde (506), of the Franks at Orleans (511), and of the +Burgundians at Epaone (517); several councils of the kingdoms +of the Franks, chiefly at Orleans; and finally, the synods of the +middle of the 8th century, under the influence of St Boniface. +Evidently the impulse towards unity had to come from without; +it began with the alliance between the Carolingians and the +Papacy, and was accentuated by the recognition of the <i>liber +canonum</i>.</p> + +<p>In Spain the case, on the contrary, is that of a strong centralization +round the see of Toledo. Thus we find Spanish canon law +embodied in a collection which, though perhaps not +official, was circulated and received everywhere; +<span class="sidenote">In Spain.</span> +this was the Spanish collection, the <i>Hispana</i>.<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The collection +is well put together and includes almost all the important +canonical documents. In the first part are contained the +councils, arranged according to the regions in which they were +held: Greek councils, following a translation of Italian origin, +<span class="sidenote">The Hispana.</span> +but known by the name of <i>Hispana</i>; African councils, +Gallican councils and Spanish councils. The latter, +which form the local section, are further divided into +several classes: firstly, the synods held under the Roman +empire, the chief being that of Elvira<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> (c. 300); next the texts +belonging to the kingdom of the Suevi, after the conversion of +these barbarians by St Martin of Braga: these are, the two +councils of Braga (563 and 572), and a sort of free translation or +adaptation of the canons of the Greek councils, made by Martin +of Braga; this is the document frequently quoted in later days +under the name of <i>Capitula Martini papae</i>; thirdly, the decisions +of the councils of the Visigothic Church, after its conversion +to Catholicism. Nearly all these councils were held at +Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589. The series +continued up to 694 and was only interrupted by the Mussulman +invasion. Finally, the second part of the <i>Hispana</i> contains +the papal decretals, as in the collection of Dionysius.</p> + +<p>From the middle of the 9th century this collection was to +become even more celebrated; for, as we know, it served as +the basis for the famous collection of the False Decretals.</p> + +<p>The Churches of Great Britain and Ireland remained still +longer outside the centralizing movement. Their contribution +towards the later system of canon law consisted in +<span class="sidenote">Great Britain and Ireland.</span> +two things: the Penitentials and the influence of the +Irish collection, the other sources of local law not +having been known to the predecessors of Gratian +nor to Gratian himself.</p> + +<p>The Penitentials<a name="fa10j" id="fa10j" href="#ft10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a> are collections intended for the guidance +of confessors in estimating the penances to be imposed for various +sins, according to the discipline in force in the Anglo-Saxon +countries. They are all of Anglo-Saxon or +<span class="sidenote">Penitentials.</span> +Irish origin, and although certain of them were compiled +on the continent, under the influence of the island missionaries, +it seems quite certain that a Roman Penitential has +never existed.<a name="fa11j" id="fa11j" href="#ft11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> They are, however, of difficult and uncertain +ascription, since the collections have been largely amended and +remodelled as practice required. Among the most important +we may mention those bearing the names of Vinnianus (d. 589), +Gildas (d. 583), Theodore of Canterbury (d. 690), the Venerable +Bede (d. 735) and Egbert of York (732-767); the Penitentials +which are ascribed to St Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil +and Bobbio (d. 615), and Cumean (Cumine Ailbha, abbot of +Iona); in the Prankish kingdom the most interesting work +is the Penitential of Halitgar, bishop of Cambrai<a name="fa12j" id="fa12j" href="#ft12j"><span class="sp">12</span></a> from 817 to +831. As penances had for a long time been lightened, and the +books used by confessors began to consist more and more of +instructions in the style of the later moral theology (and this +is already the case of the books of Halitgar and Rhabanus +Maurus), the canonical collections began to include a greater or +smaller number of the penitential canons.</p> + +<p>The Irish collection,<a name="fa13j" id="fa13j" href="#ft13j"><span class="sp">13</span></a> though it introduced no important +documents into the law of the Western Church, at least set +canonists the example of quoting passages from the +<span class="sidenote">Irish collection.</span> +Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers. This collection +seems to date from the 8th century; besides +the usual sources, the author has included several documents +of local origin, beginning with the pretended synod of St +Patrick.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span></p> + +<p>In the very middle of the 9th century a much enlarged edition +of the <i>Hispana</i> began to be circulated in France. To this rich +collection the author, who assumes the name of Isidore, +the saintly bishop of Seville, added a good number +<span class="sidenote">The false decretals.</span> +of apocryphal documents already existing, as well as +a series of letters ascribed to the popes of the earliest centuries, +from Clement to Silvester and Damasus inclusive, thus filling +up the gap before the decretal of Siricius, which is the first +genuine one in the collection. The other papal letters only rarely +show signs of alteration or falsification, and the text of the +councils is entirely respected.<a name="fa14j" id="fa14j" href="#ft14j"><span class="sp">14</span></a> From the same source and at +the same date came two other forged documents—firstly, a +collection of Capitularies, in three books, ascribed to a certain +Benedict (Benedictus Levita),<a name="fa15j" id="fa15j" href="#ft15j"><span class="sp">15</span></a> a deacon of the church of Mainz; +this collection, in which authentic documents find very little +place, stands with regard to civil legislation exactly in the +position of the False Decretals with regard to canon law. The +other document, of more limited scope, is a group of <i>Capitula</i> +given under the name of Angilram, bishop of Metz. It is nowadays +admitted by all that these three collections come from the +same source. For a study of the historical questions connected +with the famous False Decretals, see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals (False)</a></span>; +here we have only to consider them with reference +to the place they occupy in the formation of ecclesiastical law. +In spite of some hesitation, with regard rather to the official +character than to the historical authenticity of the letters attributed +to the popes of the earlier centuries, the False Decretals +were accepted with confidence, together with the authentic +texts which served as a passport for them. All later collections +availed themselves indiscriminately of the contents of this vast +collection, whether authentic or forged, without the least +suspicion. The False Decretals did not greatly modify nor corrupt +the Canon Law, but they contributed much to accelerate its +progress towards unity. For they were the last of the chronological +collections, <i>i.e.</i> those which give the texts in the order +in which they appeared. From this time on, canonists began +<span class="sidenote">Systematic collections.</span> +to exercise their individual judgment in arranging +their collections according to some systematic order, +grouping their materials under divisions more or less +happy, according to the object they had in view. +This was the beginning of a codification of a common canon law, +in which the sources drawn upon lose, as it were, their local +character. This is made even more noticeable by the fact that, +in a good number of the works extant, the author is not content +merely to set forth and classify the texts; but he proceeds to +discuss the point, drawing conclusions and sometimes outlining +some controversy on the subject, just as Gratian was to do more +fully later on.</p> + +<p>During this period, which extended from the end of the 9th +century to the middle of the 12th, we can enumerate about forty +systematic collections, of varying value and circulation, which +all played a greater or lesser part in preparing the juridical +renaissance of the 12th century, and most of which were +utilized by Gratian. We need mention only the chief of them—the +<span class="sidenote">Regino.</span> +<i>Collectio Anselmo dedicata</i>, by an unknown author of the +end of the 9th century; the <i>Libri duo de synodalibus +causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis</i>,<a name="fa16j" id="fa16j" href="#ft16j"><span class="sp">16</span></a> compiled about 906 +by Regino, abbot of Prüm, and dedicated to Hatto of Mainz, +relatively a very original treatise; the enormous compilation +<span class="sidenote">Burchard.</span> +in twenty books of Burchard, bishop of Worms (1112-1122), +the <i>Decretum</i> or <i>Collectarium</i>,<a name="fa17j" id="fa17j" href="#ft17j"><span class="sp">17</span></a> very widely +spread and known under the name of <i>Brocardum</i>, of which the +19th book, dealing with the process of confession, is specially +noteworthy. Towards the end of the 11th century, under the +influence of Hildebrand, the reforming movement makes itself +felt in several collections of canons, intended to support the +rights of the Holy See and the Church against the pretensions +of the emperor. To this group belong an anonymous collection, +described by M.P. Fournier as the first manual of the +Reform;<a name="fa18j" id="fa18j" href="#ft18j"><span class="sp">18</span></a> the collection of Anselm, bishop of Lucca,<a name="fa19j" id="fa19j" href="#ft19j"><span class="sp">19</span></a> in 13 +<span class="sidenote">Anselm Deusdedit.</span> +books (1080-1086); that of Cardinal Deusdedit,<a name="fa20j" id="fa20j" href="#ft20j"><span class="sp">20</span></a> +in 4 books, dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-1087); +and lastly that of Bonizo,<a name="fa21j" id="fa21j" href="#ft21j"><span class="sp">21</span></a> bishop of Sutri, in 10 books +(1089). In the 12th century, the canonical works of Ivo of +Chartres<a name="fa22j" id="fa22j" href="#ft22j"><span class="sp">22</span></a> are of great importance. His <i>Panormia</i>, compiled +<span class="sidenote">Ivo of Chartres.</span> +about 1095 or 1096, is a handy and well-arranged +collection in 8 books; as to the <i>Decretum</i>, a weighty +compilation in 17 books, there seems sufficient proof +that it is a collection of material made by Ivo in view of his +<i>Panormia</i>. To the 12th century belong the collection in the +MS. of Saragossa (<i>Caesaraugustana</i>) to which attention was +drawn by Antonio Agustin; that of Cardinal Gregory, called +by him the <i>Polycarpus</i>, in 8 books (about 1115); and finally +the <i>Liber de misericordia et justitia</i> of Algerus,<a name="fa23j" id="fa23j" href="#ft23j"><span class="sp">23</span></a> scholasticus +of Liége, in 3 books, compiled at latest in 1123.</p> + +<p>But all these works were to be superseded by the <i>Decretum</i> +of Gratian.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Decretum of Gratian and the Corpus Juris Canonici.</i>—The +work of Gratian, though prepared and made possible by +those of his predecessors, greatly surpasses them in +scientific value and in magnitude. It is certainly +<span class="sidenote">The Decretum of Gratian.</span> +the work which had the greatest influence on the +formation of canon law; it soon became the sole +manual, both for teaching and for practice, and even after the +publication of the Decretals was the chief authority in the +universities. The work is not without its faults; Gratian is +lacking in historical and critical faculty; his theories are often +hesitating; but on the whole, his treatise is as complete and as +perfect as it could be; so much so that no other work of the +same kind has been compiled; just as there has never been +made another Book of the Sentences. These two works, which +were almost contemporary (Gratian is only about two years +earlier),<a name="fa24j" id="fa24j" href="#ft24j"><span class="sp">24</span></a> were destined to have the same fate; they were the +manuals, one for theology, the other for canon law, in use in +all the universities, taught, glossed and commented on by the +most illustrious masters. From this period dates the more +marked and definitive separation between theology and ecclesiastical +law.</p> + +<p>Of Gratian we know practically nothing. He was a Camaldulensian +monk of the convent of St Felix at Bologna, where he +taught canon law, and published, probably in 1148, his treatise +called at first <i>Concordantia discordantium canonum</i>, but soon +known under the name of the <i>Decretum</i>. Nowadays, and for +some time past, the only part of the <i>Decretum</i> considered is +the collection of texts; but it is actually a treatise, in which +the author endeavours to piece together a coherent juridical +system from the vast body of texts, of widely differing periods +and origin, which are furnished by the collections. These texts +<span class="sidenote">Dicta Gratiani.</span> +he inserts bodily in the course of his dissertation; +where they do not agree, he divides them into opposite +groups and endeavours to reconcile them; but the +really original part of his work are the <i>Dicta Gratiani</i>, inserted +between the texts, which are still read. Gratian drew his +materials from the existing collections, and especially from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +richer of them; when necessary, he has recourse to the Roman +laws, and he made an extensive use of the works of the Fathers +and the ecclesiastical writers; he further made use of the canons +of the recent councils, and the recently published decretals, +up to and including the Lateran council of 1139. His immense +<span class="sidenote">Contents.</span> +work consists of three parts (<i>partes</i>). The first, +treating of the sources of canon law and of ecclesiastical +persons and offices, is divided according to the method +of Paucapalea, Gratian’s pupil, into 101 <i>distinctiones</i>, which +are subdivided into <i>canones</i>. The second part consists of 36 +<i>causae</i> (cases proposed for solution), subdivided into <i>quaestiones</i> +(the several questions raised by the case), under each of which +are arranged the various <i>canones</i> (canons, decretals, &c.) bearing +on the question. But <i>causa</i> xxxiii. <i>quaestio</i> 3, headed <i>Tractatus +de Poenitentia</i>, is divided like the main part into seven <i>distinctiones</i>, +containing each several <i>canones</i>. The third part, +which is entitled <i>De Consecratione</i>, gives, in five <i>distinctiones</i>, +the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The +<span class="sidenote">Mode of citation.</span> +following is the method of citation. A reference to +the first part indicates the initial words or number +of the <i>canon</i> and the number of the <i>distinctio</i>, <i>e.g.</i> +can. Propter ecclesiasticas, dist. xviii. or c. 15, d. xviii. The +second part is cited by the <i>canon, causa</i> and <i>quaestio</i>, <i>e.g.</i> can. +Si quis suadente, C. 17, qu. 4, or c. 29, C. xvii., qu. 4. The treatise +<i>De Poenitentia</i>, forming the 3rd <i>quaestio</i> of the 33rd <i>causa</i> of the +second part, is referred to as if it were a separate work, <i>e.g.</i> c. +Principium, D. ii. de poenit. or c. 45, D. ii. de poenit. In quoting +a passage from the third part the <i>canon</i> and <i>distinctio</i> are given, +<i>e.g.</i> c. Missar. solenn. D.I. de consecrat., or c. 12, D.I. de +consecr.</p> + +<p>Considered from the point of view of official authority, the +<i>Decretum</i> occupies an intermediate position very difficult to +define. It is not and cannot be a really official code, +in which every text has the force of a law. It has never +<span class="sidenote">Authority.</span> +been recognized as such, and the pretended endorsement of it +by Pope Eugenius III. is entirely apocryphal. Moreover, it +could not have become an official code; it would be impossible +to transform into so many laws either the discordant texts +which Gratian endeavoured to reconcile or his own <i>Dicta</i>; a +treatise on canon Law is not a code. Further, there was as yet +no idea of demanding an official compilation. The <i>Decretum</i> +has thus remained a work of private authority, and the texts +embodied in it have only that legal value which they possess +in themselves. On the other hand, the <i>Decretum</i> actually +enjoys a certain public authority which is unique; for centuries +it has been the text on which has been founded the instruction +in canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed and +commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it has become, +without being a body of laws, the first part of the <i>Corpus juris +canonici</i>, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited +by the popes. It has thus, by usage, obtained an authority +perfectly recognized and accepted by the Church.<a name="fa25j" id="fa25j" href="#ft25j"><span class="sp">25</span></a></p> + +<p>Gratian’s collection, for the very reason that it had for its aim +the creation of a systematic canon law, was a work of a transitional +character. Henceforth a significant differentiation +began to appear; the collections of texts, the +<span class="sidenote">After Gratian.</span> +number of which continued to increase, were clearly +separated from the commentaries in which the canonists continued +the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the +way was prepared for official collections. The disciples of +Gratian, in glossing or commenting on the <i>Decretum</i>, turned to +the papal decretals, as they appeared, for information and the +determination of doubtful points. Their idea, then, was to +make collections of these points, to support their teaching; +this is the origin of those <i>Compilationes</i> which were soon to be +embodied in the collection of Gregory IX. But we must not +forget that these compilations were intended by their authors +to complete the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian; in them were included +the decretals called <i>extravagantes, i.e. quae vagabantur extra +Decretum</i>. This is why we find in them hardly any documents +earlier than the time of Gratian, and also why canonists have +continued to refer to the decretals of Gregory IX. by the abbreviation +X (<i>Extra, i.e. extra Decretum</i>).</p> + +<p>There were numerous collections of this kind towards the end +of the 12th and at the beginning of the 13th century. Passing +over the first <i>Additiones</i> to the <i>Decretum</i> and the +<span class="sidenote">“Quinque compilationes.”</span> +<i>Appendix concilii Lateranensis</i> (council of 1179), we +will speak only of the <i>Quinque compilationes</i>,<a name="fa26j" id="fa26j" href="#ft26j"><span class="sp">26</span></a> which +served as a basis for the works of Raymond of Pennaforte. +The first and most important is the work of Bernard, +provost and afterwards bishop of Pavia, namely, the <i>Breviarium +extravagantium</i>, compiled about 1190; it included the decretals +<span class="sidenote">Bernard of Pavia, “Breviarium.”</span> +from Alexander III. to Clement III., together with +certain “useful chapters” omitted by Gratian. The +important feature of the book is the arrangement +of the decretals or sections of decretals in five books, +divided into titles (<i>tituli</i>) logically arranged. The five books +treat of (1) ecclesiastical persons and dignitaries or judges; +(2) procedure; (3) rights, duties and property of the clergy, <i>i.e.</i> +benefices, dues, sacraments, &c., with the exception of marriage, +which is the subject of book (4); (5) of penalties. There is a +well-known hexameter summing up this division:</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Judex, judicium, clerus, connubia, crimen.</i></p> + +<p>This is the division adopted in all the official collections of the +<i>Corpus juris</i>. By a bull of the 28th of December 1210 Innocent +<span class="sidenote">“Compilatio tertia.”</span> +III. sent to the university of Bologna an authentic +collection of the decretals issued during the first twelve +years of his pontificate; this collection he had caused +to be drawn up by his notary, Petrus Collivacinus of +Benevento, his object being to supersede the collections in circulation, +<span class="sidenote">“Secunda.”</span> +which were incomplete and to a certain extent +spurious. This was the <i>Compilatio tertia</i>; for soon +after, Joannes Galensis (John of Wales) collected the +decretals published between the collection of Bernard of Pavia +and the pontificate of Innocent III.; and this, though of later +<span class="sidenote">“Quarta.”</span> +date, became known as the <i>Compilatio secunda</i>. The +<i>quarta</i>, the author of which is unknown, contained +the decretals of the last six years of Innocent III., and the +<span class="sidenote">“Quinta.”</span> +important decrees of the Lateran council of 1215. +Finally, in 1226, Honorius III. made an official presentation +to Bologna of his own decretals, this forming the <i>Compilatio +quinta</i>.</p> + +<p>The result of all these supplements to Gratian’s work, apart +from the inconvenience caused by their being so scattered, was +the accumulation of a mass of material almost as +considerable as the <i>Decretum</i> itself, from which they +<span class="sidenote">Decretals of Gregory IX.</span> +tended to split off and form an independent whole, +embodying as they did the latest state of the law. +From 1230 Gregory IX. wished to remedy this condition of +affairs, and gave to his penitentionary, the Dominican Raymond +of Pennaforte, the task of condensing the five compilations in use +into a single collection, freed from useless and redundant documents. +The work was finished in 1234, and was at once sent by +the pope to Bologna with the bull <i>Rex pacificus</i>, declaring it to be +official. Raymond adopts Bernard of Pavia’s division into five +books and into titles; in each title he arranges the decretals in +chronological order, cutting out those which merely repeat one +another and the less germane parts of those which he preserves; +but these <i>partes decisae</i>, indicated by the words “<i>et infra</i>” or +“<i>et j,</i>” are none the less very useful and have been printed in +recent editions. Raymond does not attempt any original +work; to the texts already included in the <i>Quinque compilationes</i>, +he adds only nine decretals of Innocent III. and 196 chapters of +Gregory IX. This first official code was the basis of the second +part of the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>. The collection of Gregory IX. +is cited as follows: the opening words of the chapter are given, +or else its order or number, then the title to which it belongs; +earlier scholars added X (<i>extra</i>); nowadays, this indication is +omitted, and the order or number of the title in the book is given +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> +instead, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Quum olim, de Consuetudine</i>, X.; or cap. 6, <i>de consuet.</i> +(I. iv.); that is to say, book I., title iv., <i>de consuetudine</i>, chapter +6, beginning with the words <i>Quum olim</i>.</p> + +<p>Though Gregory IX. wished to supersede the <i>compilationes</i>, he +had no idea of superseding the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, still less of +codifying the whole of the canon law. Though his +collection is still in theory the chief monument of +<span class="sidenote">Their relation to the general law.</span> +ecclesiastical law, it only marked a certain stage and +was before long to receive further additions. The +reason for this is that in most cases the decretals did not formulate +any law, but were merely solutions of particular cases, +given as models; to arrive at the abstract law it was necessary +to examine the solution in each case with regard to the circumstances +and thus formulate a rule; this was the work of the +canonists. The “decretalists” commented on the new collection, +as the “decretists” had done for that of Gratian; but the +canonists were not legislators: even the summaries which they +placed at the head of the chapters could not be adduced as +legislative texts. The abstract law was to be found rather in the +<i>Summae</i> of the canonists than in the decretals. Two important +results, however, were achieved: on the one hand, supplementary +collections on private authority ceased to be made, for +this Gregory IX. had forbidden; on the other hand, the collections +were no longer indefinitely swelled by the addition of new +decisions in particular cases, those already existing being enough +to form a basis for the codification of the abstract law; and for +this reason subsequent collections contain as a rule only the +“constitutions” of popes or councils, <i>i.e.</i> rules laid down as of +general application. Hence arose a separation, which became +more and more marked, between legislation and jurisprudence. +This change was not produced suddenly, the old method being at +first adhered to. In 1245 Innocent IV. sent to the universities a +collection of 45 decretals, with the order that they should +be inserted under their proper titles in the collection of +Gregory IX. In 1253 he sent a further list of the first words +(<i>principia</i>) of the complementary constitutions and decretals; +but the result was practically <i>nil</i> and the popes gave up +this system of successive additions. It was, however, found +expedient to publish a new official collection. At the instance of +the university of Bologna, Boniface VIII., himself an eminent +canonist, had this prepared by a committee of canonists and +published it in 1298. As it came as an addition to the five +<span class="sidenote">The “Liber Sextus.”</span> +books of Gregory IX., it was called the sixth book, the <i>Liber +Sextus</i>. It includes the constitutions subsequent to +1234, and notably the decrees of the two ecumenical +councils of Lyons, and is arranged in books and titles, +as above described; the last title, <i>de regulis juris</i>, contains +no less than eighty-eight legal axioms, mostly borrowed +from Roman law. The <i>Liber Sextus</i> is cited like the decretals of +Gregory IX., only with the addition of: <i>in sexto</i> (in VI<sup>o</sup>.).</p> + +<p>The same observations apply to the next collection, the +<i>Clementinae</i>. It was prepared under the care of Clement V., and +even promulgated by him in consistory in March 1314; +but in consequence of the death of the pope, which +<span class="sidenote">The “Clementinae.”</span> +took place almost immediately after, the publication +and despatch of the collection to the universities was +postponed till 1317, under John XXII. It includes the constitutions +of Clement V., and above all, the decrees of the council of +Vienne of 1311, and is divided, like preceding collections, into +books and titles; it is cited in the same way, with the additional +indication <i>Clem</i>-(<i>entina</i>).</p> + +<p>At this point the official collections stop. The two last, +which have found a place in the editions of the <i>Corpus</i>, are +collections of private authority, but in which all the +<span class="sidenote">“Extravagantes” of John XXII.</span> +documents are authentic. Evidently the strict prohibition +of the publishing of collections not approved +by the Holy See had been forgotten. The <i>Extravagantes</i> +(<i>i.e. extra collectiones publicas</i>) of John XXII. number 20, +<span class="sidenote">And “communes.”</span> +and are classified under fourteen titles. The <i>Extravagantes +communes</i> (<i>i.e.</i> coming from several popes) +number 73, from Boniface VIII. to Sixtus IV. (1484), +and are classified in books and titles. These two collections +were included in the edition of Jean Chappuis in 1500; they +passed into the later editions, and are considered as forming part +of the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>. As such, and without receiving any +complementary authority, they have been corrected and re-edited, +like the others, by the <i>Correctores romani</i>. They are cited, +like the decretals, with a further indication of the collection to +which they belong: <i>Extrav. Jo. XXII.,</i> or <i>inter-comm-(unes).</i></p> + +<p>Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>; +but this expression, which is familiar to us nowadays, is only a +bibliographical term. Though we find in the 15th +<span class="sidenote">The “Corpus juris canonici.”</span> +century, for example, at the council of Basel the +expression <i>corpus juris</i>, obviously suggested by the +<i>Corpus juris civilis</i>, not even the official edition of +Gregory XIII. has as its title the words <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>. +and we do not meet with this title till the Lyons edition of 1671.</p> + +<p>The history of the canonical collections forming the <i>Corpus +juris</i> would not be complete without an account of the labours +of which they were the object. We know that the +universities of the middle ages contained a Faculty +<span class="sidenote">The study of canon law. </span> +of Decrees, with or without a Faculty of Laws, <i>i.e.</i> +civil law. The former made <i>doctores decretorum</i>, the +latter <i>doctores legum</i>. The teaching of the <i>magistri</i> consisted in +oral lessons (<i>lecturae</i>) directly based on the text. The short +remarks explanatory of words in the text, originally written +<span class="sidenote">The glosses. </span> +in the margin, became the gloss which, formed thus +by successive additions, took a permanent form and +was reproduced in the manuscripts of the <i>Corpus</i>, and +later in the various editions, especially in the official Roman +edition of 1582; it thus acquired by usage a kind of semi-official +authority. The chief of the <i>glossatores</i> of the <i>Decretum</i> of +Gratian were Paucapalea, the first disciple of the master, Rufinus +(1160-1170), John of Faenza (about 1170), Joannes Teutonicus +(about 1210), whose glossary, revised and completed by Bartholomeus +Brixensis (of Brescia) became the <i>glossa ordinaria +decreti</i>. For the decretals we may mention Vincent the Spaniard +and Bernard of Botone (Bernardus Parmensis, d. 1263), author of +the <i>Glossa ordinaria</i>. That on the <i>Liber Sextus</i> is due to the +famous Joannes Andreae (<i>c</i>. 1340); and the one which he began +for the Clementines was finished later by Cardinal Zabarella +(d. 1417). The commentaries not so entirely concerned with the +text were called <i>Apparatus</i>; and <i>Summae</i> was the name given to +<span class="sidenote">The “Summae.” </span> +general treatises. The first of these works are of capital +importance in the formation of a systematic canon +law. Such were the <i>Summae</i> of the first disciples of +Gratian: Paucapalea (1150),<a name="fa27j" id="fa27j" href="#ft27j"><span class="sp">27</span></a> Rolando Bandinelli<a name="fa28j" id="fa28j" href="#ft28j"><span class="sp">28</span></a> +(afterwards Alexander III., <i>c</i>. 1150), Rufinus<a name="fa29j" id="fa29j" href="#ft29j"><span class="sp">29</span></a> (<i>c</i>. 1165), Étienne +of Tournai<a name="fa30j" id="fa30j" href="#ft30j"><span class="sp">30</span></a> (Stephanus Tornacensis, <i>c</i>. 1168), John of Faenza +(<i>c</i>. 1170), Sicard, bishop of Cremona (<i>c</i>. 1180), and above all +Huguccio (<i>c</i>. 1180). For the Decretals we should mention: +Bernard of Pavia<a name="fa31j" id="fa31j" href="#ft31j"><span class="sp">31</span></a> (<i>c</i>. 1195), Sinibaldo Fieschi (Innocent IV., +<i>c</i>. 1240), Henry of Susa (d. 1271), commonly called (cardinalis) +Hostiensis, whose <i>Summa Hostiensis</i> or <i>Summa aurea</i> is a work +of the very highest order; Wilhelmus Durantis or Durandus, +Joannes Andreae, Nicolas de Tudeschis (<i>abbas siculus</i>), &c. +The 15th century produced few original treatises; but after +the council of Trent the <i>Corpus juris</i> was again commented on +by distinguished canonists, <i>e.g.</i> the Jesuit Paul Laymann (1575-1635), +the Portuguese Agostinho Barbosa (1590-1649), Manuel +Gonzalez Tellez (d. 1649) and Prospero Fagnani (1598-1687), +who, although blind, was secretary to the Congregation of the +Council. But as time goes on, the works gradually lose the +character of commentaries on the text, and develop into expositions +of the law as a whole.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span></p> + +<p>We can mention here only the chief editions of the <i>Corpus</i>. +The council of Trent, as we know, ordered that the official books +of the Roman Church—sacred books, liturgical books, +<span class="sidenote">Editions.</span> +&c.—should be issued in official and more correct +editions; the compilations of ecclesiastical law were also revised. +The commission of the <i>Correctores romani</i>,<a name="fa32j" id="fa32j" href="#ft32j"><span class="sp">32</span></a> established +<span class="sidenote">The “Correctores romani.”</span> +about 1563 by Pius IV., ended its work under Gregory +XIII and the official edition, containing the text and +the glosses, appeared at Rome in 1582. Richter’s +edition (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839) remains valuable, but +has been greatly surpassed by that of E. Friedberg (Leipzig, +<span class="sidenote">“Institutiones Lancelotti.”</span> +1879-1881). Many editions contain also the <i>Institutiones</i> +composed at the command of Paul IV. (1555-1559) +by Giovanni Paolo Lancelotti, a professor of +Bologna, on the model of the Institutes of Justinian. +The work has merits, but has never been officially +approved.</p> + +<p>Though the collections of canon law were to receive no more +additions, the source of the laws was not dried up; decisions +of councils and popes continued to appear; but there was no +attempt made to collect them. Canonists obtained the recent +texts as they could. Moreover, it was an epoch of trouble: the +great Schism of the West, the profound divisions which were +its result, the abuses which were to issue in the Reformation, +were conditions little favourable for a reorganization +of the ecclesiastical laws. Thus we are brought to the third +period.</p> + +<p>3. <i>After the Council of Trent.</i>—The numerous important +decrees made by the council of Trent, in the second part of its +sessions, called <i>de reformatione</i>, are the starting-point of the +canon law in its latest stage, <i>jus novissimum</i>; it is this which is +still in force in the Roman Church. It has in no way undermined +the official status of the <i>Corpus juris</i>; but it has completed the +legislation of the latter in many important respects, and in some +cases reformed it.</p> + +<p>The law during this period, as abstracted from the texts and +compilations, suggests the following remarks. The laws are +formulated in general terms, and the decisions in +particular cases relegated to the sphere of jurisprudence; +<span class="sidenote">Final state of the law.</span> +and the canonists have definitely lost the +function which fell to them in the 12th and 13th +centuries: they receive the law on authority and no longer have +to deduce it from the texts. The legislative power is powerfully +centralized in the hands of the pope: since the reforming decrees +of the council of Trent it is the pontifical constitutions alone +which have made the common law; the ecumenical council, +doubtless, has not lost its power, but none were held until that +of the Vatican (1870), and this latter was unable to occupy +itself with matters of discipline. Hence the separation, increasingly +marked, between the common law and the local +laws, which cannot derogate from the common law except +by concession of the Holy See, or by right of a lawfully +authorized custom. This centralization, in its turn, has greatly +increased the tendency towards unity and uniformity, which +have reached in the present practice of the Roman Church +a degree never known before, and considered by some to be +excessive.</p> + +<p>If we now consider the laws in themselves, we shall find that +the dispersed condition of the legislative documents has not +been modified since the closure of the <i>Corpus juris</i>; +on the contrary the enormous number of pontifical +<span class="sidenote">Dispersion of the texts.</span> +constitutions, and of decrees emanating from the +Roman Congregations, has greatly aggravated the +situation; moreover, the attempts which have been made to +resume the interrupted process of codification have entirely +failed. As regards the texts, the canon law of to-day is in a very +similar position to that of English law, which gave rise to J.S. +Mill’s saying: “All ages of English history have given one +another rendezvous in English law; their several products +may be seen all together, not interfused, but heaped one upon +another, as many different ages of the earth may be read in some +perpendicular section of its surface.”<a name="fa33j" id="fa33j" href="#ft33j"><span class="sp">33</span></a> Nothing has been +abrogated, except in so far as this has been implicitly demanded +by subsequent laws. From this result insoluble controversies +and serious uncertainties, both in the study and practice of the +law; and, finally, it has become impossible for most people to have +a first-hand knowledge of the actual laws.</p> + +<p>For this third period, the most important and most considerable +of the canonical texts is the body of disciplinary decrees +of the council of Trent (1545-1563). In consequence +of the prohibition issued by Pius IV., they have not +<span class="sidenote">Decrees of the Council of Trent.</span> +been published separately from the dogmatic texts +and other acts, and have not been glossed;<a name="fa34j" id="fa34j" href="#ft34j"><span class="sp">34</span></a> but their +official interpretation has been reserved by the popes to the +“Congregation of the cardinal interpreters of the Council of +Trent,” whose decisions form a vast collection of jurisprudence. +Next in importance come the pontifical constitutions, which +<span class="sidenote"> Pontifical constitutions.</span> +are collected together in the <i>Bullarium</i>; but this is +a collection of private authority, if we except the +<i>Bullarium</i> of Benedict XIV., officially published by +him in 1747; further, the <i>Bullarium</i> is a compilation +arranged in chronological order, and its dimensions make it +rather unwieldy. In the third place come the decrees of the +Roman Congregations, which have the force of law. Several +<span class="sidenote"> Decrees of the Curia.</span> +of these organs of the papal authority have published +official collections, in which more place is devoted +to jurisprudence than to laws; several others have +only private compilations, or even none at all, among +others the most important, viz. the Holy Office (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia +Romana</a></span>). The resulting confusion and uncertainty may be +imagined.</p> + +<p>These drawbacks were felt a long time back, and to this feeling +we owe two attempts at a supplementary codification which +were made in the 16th century, both of which are +known under the name of <i>Liber Septimus</i>. The first +<span class="sidenote"> “Liber septimus” of P. Mathieu.</span> +was of private origin, and had as its author Pierre +Mathieu, the Lyons jurist (1563-1621); it appeared +in 1590 at Lyons. It is a continuation of the <i>Extravagantes +communes</i>, and includes a selection of papal constitutions, +from Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to Sixtus V. (1585-1590) inclusive, +with the addition of a few earlier documents. It follows the +order of the decretals. This collection has been of some service, +and appears as an appendix in many editions of the <i>Corpus juris</i>; +the chief reason for its failure is that it has no official sanction. +The second attempt was official, but it came to nothing. It +was connected with the movement of reform and revision which +followed the council of Trent. Immediately after the publication +of the official edition of the <i>Corpus juris</i>, Gregory XIII. appointed +a committee of cardinals charged with the task of drawing up +a <i>Liber septimus</i>. Sixtus V. hurried on its execution, which was +<span class="sidenote"> of Clement VIII.</span> +rapidly proceeded with, mainly owing to Cardinal +Pinelli, who submitted the draft of it to Clement VIII. +The pope had this Liber VII. printed as a basis for +further researches; but after long deliberations the volume was +suppressed, and the idea of a fresh codification was abandoned. +The collection included the decrees of the council of Trent, and +a number of pontifical constitutions, arranged in the order of +the titles of the decretals.<a name="fa35j" id="fa35j" href="#ft35j"><span class="sp">35</span></a> But even had it been promulgated, +it is doubtful whether it would have improved the situation. +It would merely have added another collection to the previous +ones, which were already too voluminous, without resulting +in any useful abrogations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span></p> + +<p>4. <i>The Future Codification.</i>—Neither Clement VIII. nor, at +a later date, Benedict XIV., could have dreamt of the radical +reform at present in course of execution. Instead of +accumulating the texts of the laws in successive collections, +<span class="sidenote">Demand for codification.</span> +it is proposed entirely to recast the system of +editing them. This codification in a series of short +articles was suggested by the example of the French codes, +the history of which during the 19th century is well known. +From all quarters the Catholic episcopate had submitted to the +Vatican council petitions in this sense. “It is absolutely clear,” +said some French bishops, “and has for a long time past been +universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision and +reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As +matters now stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes +in human affairs and in society, many laws have become useless, +others difficult or impossible to obey. With regard to a great +number of canons, it is a matter of dispute whether they are +still in force or are abrogated. Finally, in the course of so many +centuries, the number of ecclesiastical laws has increased to such +an extent, and these laws have accumulated in such immense +collections, that in a certain sense we can well say: We are +crushed beneath the laws, <i>obruimur legibus</i>. Hence arise +infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study +of canon law; an immense field for controversy and litigation; +a thousand perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for +the laws.”<a name="fa36j" id="fa36j" href="#ft36j"><span class="sp">36</span></a> We know how the Vatican council had to separate +without approaching the question of canonical reform; but this +general desire for a recasting of the ecclesiastical code was taken +up again on the initiative of Rome. On the 19th of March 1904, +<span class="sidenote">Decision of Pius X.</span> +Pius X. published a <i>Motu proprio, “de ecclesiae legibus +in unum redigendis</i>.” After briefly reviewing the +present condition of the canonical texts and collections, +he pointed out its inconvenience, referred to the many +requests from the episcopate, and decreed the preparation of +a general code of canon law. This immense undertaking involved +the codification of the entire canon law, drawing it up in +a clear, short and precise form, and introducing any expedient +modifications and reforms. For this purpose the pope appointed +<span class="sidenote">Method.</span> +a commission of cardinals, of which he himself became +president; also a commission of “consultors” +resident at Rome, which asked for a certain amount of assistance +from canonists at various universities and seminaries. Further, +the assembled bishops of each province were invited to give +their opinion as to the points in which they considered the canon +law might profitably be modified or abrogated. Two consultors +had the duty of separately drawing up a preliminary plan for each +title, these projects being twice submitted for the deliberation +of the commission (or sub-commission) of consultors, the version +adopted by them being next submitted to the commission of +cardinals, and the whole finally sent up for the papal sanction. +These commissions started work at the end of 1904.</p> + +<p><i>Local Law.</i>—The common law of the Roman Church cannot +by itself uniformly regulate all the churches of the different +nations; each of them has its own local law, which +we must briefly mention here. In theory, this law +<span class="sidenote">Local law.</span> +has as its author the local ecclesiastical authorities, councils +or bishops; but this is true only for laws and regulations +which are in harmony with the common law, merely completing +or defining it. But if it is a question of derogating from the +common law, the authority of the Holy See must intervene to +legalize these derogations. This intervention takes the form +either of “indults,” <i>i.e.</i> graceful concessions granted at the +request of the episcopate, or of special approbation of conciliary +resolutions. It would, however, be impossible to mention any +compilations containing only local law. Whether in the case +of national or provincial councils, or of diocesan synods, the +chief object of the decrees is to reinforce, define or apply the +law; the measures which constitute a derogation have only a +small place in them. It is, then, only in a limited sense that we +can see a local canon law in the councils of the various regional +churches. Having made this remark, we must distinguish +between the countries which are still subject to the system of +concordats and other countries.</p> + +<p>In the case of the former, the local law is chiefly founded +on the concordat (<i>q.v.</i>), including the derogations and privileges +resulting from it. The chief thing to note is the +existence, for these countries, of a civil-ecclesiastical +<span class="sidenote">Countries subject to concordats.</span> +law, that is to say, a body of regulations made by the +civil authority, with the consent, more or less explicit, +of the Church, about ecclesiastical matters, other than spiritual; +these dispositions are chiefly concerned with the nomination or +confirmation by the state of ecclesiastics to the most important +benefices, and with the administration of the property of the +Church; sometimes also with questions of jurisdiction, both +civil and criminal, concerning the persons or property of the +Church. It is plain that the agreements under the concordats +have a certain action upon a number of points in the canonical +laws; and all these points go to constitute the local concordatory +law. This is the case for Austria, Spain, Portugal, Bavaria, +the Prussian Rhine provinces, Alsace, Belgium, and, in America, +Peru. Up to 1905 it was also the case in France, where the ancient +local customs now continue, pending the reorganization of the +Church without the concordat.</p> + +<p>We do not imply that in other countries the Church can always +find exemption from legislative measures imposed upon her by +the civil authorities, for example, in Italy, Prussia and Russia; +but here it is a situation <i>de facto</i> rather than <i>de jure</i>, which the +Church tolerates for the sake of convenience; and these regulations +only form part of the local canon law in a very irregular +sense.</p> + +<p>In other countries the episcopal assemblies lay down the local +law. England has its council of Westminster (1852), the United +States their plenary councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866, +1884), without mentioning the diocesan synods; and +<span class="sidenote">Other Countries.</span> +the whole of Latin America is ruled by the special law +of its plenary council, held at Rome in 1899. The same is the +case with the Eastern Churches united to the Holy See; following +the example of the famous council of Lebanon for the Maronites, +held in 1730, and that of Zamosc for the Ruthenians, in +1720, these churches, at the suggestion of Leo XIII., have drawn +up in plenary assembly their own local law: the Syrians at +Sciarfa in 1888; the Ruthenians at Leopol in 1891; and a little +later, the Copts. The framing of local law will certainly be more +clear and more easy when the general code of canon law has been +published.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—For the texts and collections: the dissertations +of Dom Coustant, <i>De antiquis canonum collectionibus, deque variis +epistolarum Rom. Pont, editionibus</i> (Paris, 1721); P. de Marca, +<i>De veteribus collectionibus canonum</i> (Paris, 1681}; the brothers +Peter and Jerome Ballerini, <i>De antiquis tum editis tum ineditis collectionibus +et collectoribus canonum ad Gratianum usque</i> (Venice, 1757). +This is the best of all these works; it is reproduced in Migne, <i>P.L.</i>, +vol. 56; C. Seb. Berardi, <i>De variis sacrorum canonum collectionibus +ante Gratianum</i> (Turin, 1752); P. Quesnel, <i>De codice canonum +Ecclesiae Romanae; de variis fidei libellis in antiquo Rom. Eccl. +codice contentis; de primo usu codicis canonum Dionysii Exigui in +Gallicanis regionibus</i> (Paris, 1675; with the critical notes of the +brothers Ballerini, also in Migne, <i>loc. cit.</i>); and finally, Florent, +<i>De methodo atque auctoritate collectionis Gratiani</i> (Paris, 1679), and +Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tarragona, <i>De emendatione Gratiani</i> +(Tarragona, 1586); these have all been brought together in Gallandi, +<i>De vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge</i> (Venice, +1778). The most complete work on the texts up to the 9th century +is F. Maassen, <i>Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des canonischen +Rechts im Abendlande</i>, vol. i. (all that has yet appeared, Gratz, 1870). +For the period between the False Decretals and Gratian, there is +no work of this sort, but the materials have been put together and +published in part by M.P. Fournier. After Gratian, the classic +work is Schulte, <i>Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des canonischen +Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875 et. +seq.). Manuals for the study of the sources: Ph. Schneider, <i>Die +Lehre von den Kirchenrechtsquellen</i> (Regensburg, 1892); F. Laurin, +<i>Introductio in Corpus juris canonici</i> (Freiburg, 1889); Tardif, +<i>Histoire des sources du droit canonique</i> (Paris, 1887). Most of the +German manuals on canon law devote considerable space to the +history of the sources: see Phillips, vol. ii (3rd ed., 1857; French +translation by the abbé Crouzet); Vering, 3rd ed. (Freiburg, 1893); +Schulte, <i>Das katholische Kirchenrecht</i>, pt. i. (Giessen, 1860), &c. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +For the Greek Church: Pitra, <i>Juris ecclesiae graecorum historia et +monumenta</i> (Rome, 1864); the later history of the Greek law: +Zachariae, <i>Historiae juris graecorum delineatio</i> (Heidelberg, 1839); +Mortreuil, <i>Histoire du droit byzantin</i> (Paris, 1843-1846); the recent +texts in the <i>Conciliorum Collectio lacensis</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Acta et decreta +s. conciliorum, quae ab episcopis rituum orientalium ab a. 1682 usque +ad a. 1789 indeque ad a. 1869 sunt celebrata</i> (Freiburg, 1876). Short +manual of Institutions: Jos. Papp-Szilagyi, <i>Enchiridion juris eccl. +orientalis catholicae</i> (Magno-Varadini, 1862). For recent canonical +texts: Richter’s edition of the council of Trent (Leipzig, 1863); +the <i>Collectanea S.C. de Propaganda Fide</i> (Rome, 1893); the +<i>Bullarium</i>, a collection of papal acts and constitutions; the editions +of Cocquelines (28 vols., Rome, 1733-1756), and of Cherubini (19 vols., +Luxemburg, 1727-1758), which are better than the enlarged reprint +of Turin, which was unfinished (it goes up to 1730). The official +edition of the <i>Bullarium</i> of Benedict XIV. (4 vols., Rome, 1754-1758) +has been reprinted several times and is of great importance; +the continuation of the <i>Bullarium</i> since Benedict XIV. has been +published by Barberi, <i>Bullarii romani continuatio</i>, in 20 vols., going +up to the fourth year of Gregory XVI. Every year, since 1854, has +been printed a collection of pontifical acts, <i>Acta Pii IX., Acta +Leonis XIII.</i>, &c., which are the equivalents of the <i>Bullarium</i>. +Dictionaries: Durand de Maillane, <i>Dictionnaire canonique</i> (Paris, +1786), re-edited by André under the title, <i>Cours alphabétique et +méthodique de droit canonique</i>, and by Wagner (Paris, 1894), has +Gallican tendencies; Ferraris, <i>Prompta bibliotheca canonica</i>, &c., +several new and enlarged editions; the best is that of Migne (1866), +completed by Father Bucceroni, <i>Ferraris Supplementum</i> (Rome, +1899). Articles on canon law in Wetzer und Welte’s <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> +(2nd ed., Freiburg, 1880 et seq.); Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie für prot. +Theologie und Kirche</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877-1888); Vacant-Mangenot’s +<i>Dictionnaire de théologie catholique</i>, in course of publication +(Paris, 1899 et seq.). Periodicals: <i>Analecta juris pontificii</i>, ed. by +Mgr. Chaillot (1863-1889); <i>Analecta ecclesiastica</i> (since 1893); <i>Acta +Sanctae sedis</i> (since 1865); <i>Archiv fur kathol. Kirchenrecht</i> (since +1857); <i>Le Canoniste contemporain</i> (since 1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Bo.*)</div> + +<p><i>Canon Law in England and in the Anglican Communion</i>.—There +were matters in which the local English and Irish canon +law, even before the 16th century, differed from that obtaining +on the western part of the European continent. Thus (1), it has +been said that—whereas the continental canon law recognized +a quadripartite division of Church revenue of common right +between (<i>a</i>) the bishop, (<i>b</i>) the clergy, (<i>c</i>) the poor, (<i>d</i>) the fabric—the +English law maintained a tripartite division—(<i>a</i>) clergy, +(<i>b</i>) the poor, (<i>c</i>) the fabric. Lord Selborne (<i>Ancient Facts and +Fictions concerning Churches and Tithes</i>, 2nd ed., 1892) denies +that there was any division of tithe in England. (2) By the +general canon law the burden of repairing the nave, as well as +the chancel of the church, was upon the parson or rector who +collected the whole tithe. But the custom of England transferred +this burden to the parishioners, and some particular +local customs (as in the city of London) placed even the burden +of repair of the chancel on them. To meet this burden church +rates were levied. (3) A church polluted by the shedding of +blood, as by suicide or murder, was reconsecrated on the +continent. In England the custom was (and is) simply to +“reconcile.” (4) A much more important difference, if the +decision of the Irish court of exchequer chamber upheld in +the House of Lords, where the peers were equally divided, +correctly stated the English Canon law (<i>Reg.</i> v. <i>Millis</i>, 10 Cl. +& Fin., 534) was in regard to the essentials of marriage. By +the general Western canon law before the council of Trent, +the parties themselves were said to be the “ministers of the +Sacrament” in the case of holy matrimony. The declared +consent of the parties to take each other there and then constituted +at once (although irregularly) holy matrimony. The +presence of priest or witnesses was not necessary. In <i>Reg.</i> v. +<i>Millis</i>, however, it was held that in England it was always +otherwise and that here the presence of a priest was necessary. +High authorities, however, have doubted the historical accuracy +of this decision. (5) The addition of houses of priests to the provincial +synods seems peculiar to England and Ireland.</p> + +<p>The historical position of the general canon law of the Catholic +Church in the English provinces has, since the separation from +Rome, been the subject of much consideration by English +lawyers and ecclesiastics. The view taken by the king’s courts, +and acquiesced in by the ecclesiastical courts, since Henry VIII., +is that the Church of England was always an independent +national church, subject indeed to the general principles of the +<i>jus commune ecclesiasticum</i> (Whitlock J. in <i>Ever</i> v. <i>Owen</i>, Godbolt’s +Reports, 432), but unbound by any particular constitutions +of council or pope; unless those constitutions had been +“received” here by English councils, or so recognized by English +courts (secular or spiritual) as to become part of the ecclesiastical +custom of the realm. Foreign canon law never bound (so it has +been taught) <i>proprio vigore</i>.</p> + +<p>The sources of English ecclesiastical law (purely ecclesiastical) +were therefore (1) the principles of the <i>jus commune ecclesiasticum</i>; +(2) foreign particular constitutions received here, as +just explained; (3) the constitutions and canons of English +synods (cf. <i>Phill. Ecc. Law</i>, part i. ch. iv., and authorities there +cited).</p> + +<p>1. On the existence of this <i>jus commune ecclesiasticum</i> and +that the Church of England, in whatever sense independent, +takes it over until she repeals it, see <i>Escott</i> v. <i>Mastin</i>, 4 Moo. +<i>P.C.C.</i> 119. Lord Brougham, in delivering the judgment, +speaks of the “common law prevailing for 1400 years over +Christian Europe,” and (p. 137) says that “nothing but express +enactment can abrogate the common law of all Christendom +before the Reformation of the Anglican Church.”</p> + +<p>2. As to foreign particular constitutions in England, there are +a great number of them, of which it has been and is admitted, +that they have currency in England. However papal in their +origin, post-Reformation lawyers have regarded them as valid, +unless they can be shown to be contrary to the king’s prerogative, +or to the common or statute law of the realm. To this +doctrine express statutory authority (as the events have +happened) has been given by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, sect. 7. A +striking example of the doctrine is furnished by the decree of +Innocent III. in the Fourth Lateran Council against pluralities. +This decree was enforced in the court of Arches against a pluralist +clerk in 1848 (<i>Burder</i> v. <i>Mavor</i>, I Roberts, 614). The courts +of common law from Lord Coke’s time downwards have recognized +this “constitution of the pope” (as the queen’s bench +called it in 1598). The exchequer chamber, in 1837, declared +it to have “become part of the common law of the land” +(<i>Alstan</i> v. <i>Atlay, 7 A.</i> and <i>E.</i> 289).</p> + +<p>3. The particular constitutions of English synods are numerous +and cover a large field. At least in legal theory, the only +distinction between pre-Reformation and post-Reformation +constitutions is in favour of the former—so long as they do not +contravene the royal prerogative or the law of the land (see +25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). The most important are collected together +and digested (so far as regards England) in Lyndwood’s +<i>Provinciale</i>, a work which remains of great authority in English +courts. These constitutions are again divided into two classes: +(<i>a</i>) provincial constitutions promulgated by provincial synods, +usually in the name of the presiding archbishop or bishop; and +(<i>b</i>) decrees of papal legates, Otho in 1236 and Othobon (Ottobuono +de’ Fieschi, afterwards Pope Adrian V.) in 1269. Canons +passed since 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 have not the parliamentary +confirmation which that act has been held to give to previous +canons, and do not necessarily bind the laity, although made +under the king’s licence and ratified by him. This doctrine +laid down by Lord Hardwicke in <i>Middleton</i> v. <i>Croft</i> (2 <i>Stra</i>. +1056) was approved in 1860 in <i>Marshall</i> v. <i>Bp. of Exeter</i> (L.R. 3 +H.L. 17). Nevertheless, there are many provisions in these post-Reformation +canons which are declaratory of the ancient usage +and law of the Church, and the law which they thus record is binding +on the laity. The chief body of English post-Reformation +canon law is to be found in the canons of 1603, amended in +1865 and 1888. The canons of 1640 are apparently upon the +same footing as those of 1603; notwithstanding objections made +at the time that they were void because convocation continued +to sit after the dissolution of parliament. The opinion of all +the judges taken at the time was in favour of the legality of this +procedure. 13 Car. ii. c. 12 simply provided that these canons +should not be given statutory force by the operation of that +act.</p> + +<p>In addition to the enactment of canons (strictly so-called) the +English provincial synods since the Henrician changes have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +legislated—in 1570 by the enactment of the Thirty-Nine +Articles, in 1661 by approving the present Book of Common +Prayer, and in 1873 by approving shorter forms of matins and +evensong.</p> + +<p>The distinction between pre-Henrician and post-Henrician +procedure lies in the requirement, since 25 Hen. VIII., of the +royal licence and confirmation. Apparently diocesan synods +may still enact valid canons without the king’s authority; but +these bodies are not now called.</p> + +<p>The prevailing legal view of the position of the Church of +England in regard to canon law has been just stated, and that is +the view taken by judicial authority for the past three centuries. +On the other hand, it is suggested by, <i>e.g.</i>, the late +Professor Maitland, that it was not, in fact, the view taken here +in the later middle ages—that in those ages there was no theory +that “reception” here was necessary to validate papal decrees. +It is said by this school of legal historians that, from the Conquest +down to Henry VIII., the Church of England was regarded +by churchmen not as in any sense as separate entity, but as two +provinces of the extra-territorial, super-national Catholic Church, +and that the pope at this period was contemplated as the <i>princeps</i> +of this Catholic Church, whose edicts bound everywhere, as those +of Augustus had bound in the Roman empire.</p> + +<p>It is right that this view should be stated, but it is not that +of the writer of this article.</p> + +<p>As to <i>Ireland</i>, in a national synod of the four Irish provinces +held at Dublin before the four archbishops, in 1634, a hundred +canons were promulgated with the royal licence, containing +much matter not dealt with by similar constitutions in England. +In 1711, some further canons were promulgated (with royal +licence) by another national synod. Some forms of special +prayer were appended to these canons.</p> + +<p>In 1869 the Irish Church Act (32 and 33 Vict. c. 42) “disestablished” +the Irish Church, sect. 19 repealed any act of +parliament, law or custom whereby the bishops, clergy or laity +of the said church were prohibited from holding synods or electing +representatives thereto for the purpose of making rules for +the well-being and ordering of the said church, and enacted that +no such law, &c., should hinder the said bishops, clergy and laity, +by such representatives, lay and clerical, and so elected as they +shall appoint, from meeting in general synod or convention and +in such general synod or convention forming constitutions and +providing for future representation of the members of the church +in diocesan synods, general convention or otherwise. The +Church of Ireland, so set free, created for herself new legislative +authorities, unknown to the old canon law, viz. mixed synods +of clergy and laity, and a system of representation by election, +unknown to primitive or medieval times. Similar changes had, +however, been introduced during the preceding century in some +parts of the Anglican communion outside the British Isles +(see <i>infra</i>). Sect. 20 of the same statute kept alive the old +ecclesiastical law of Ireland by way of assumed contract (cf. +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Under the provisions of this statute, the “archbishops and +bishops of the ancient Apostolic and Catholic Church of Ireland” +(so they describe themselves), together with representatives +of the clergy and laity, assembled in 1870, in “General +Convention,” to “provide for the regulation” of that church. +This Convention declared that a General Synod of the archbishops +and bishops, with representatives of the clergy and +laity, should have chief legislative power in the Irish Church, +with such administrative power as might be necessary and consistent +with the church’s episcopal constitution. This General +Synod was to consist of two Houses—the House of Bishops and +the House of Lay and Clerical Representatives. No question was +to be carried unless there were in its favour a majority of the +clerical and lay representatives, voting either conjointly or by +orders, and also a majority of the bishops, should they desire +to vote. This General Synod was given full power to alter or +amend canons, or to repeal them, or to enact new ones. For +any alteration or amendment of “articles, doctrines, rites or +rubrics,” a two-thirds majority of each order of the representative +house was required and a year’s delay for consultation of +the diocesan synods. Provisions were made as to lay representation +in the diocesan synods. The Convention also enacted +some canons and a statute in regard to ecclesiastical tribunals +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>). It expressly provided +that its own legislation might be repealed or amended by future +general synods.</p> + +<p>In 1871 the General Synod attempted to codify its canon +law in forty-eight canons which, “and none other,” were to +have force and effect as the canons of the Church of Ireland. +Since 1871 the General Synod has, from time to time, put forth +other canons.</p> + +<p>The post-Reformation history of canon law in the Anglican +communion in <i>Scotland</i> has differed from the story of that law +in the last four centuries in Ireland. After the legislation under +William and Mary disestablishing episcopacy in Scotland and +subjecting its professors to civil penalties, little attention was +given to canon law for many years. Synods of bishops at +Edinburgh in 1724 and 1731 dealt with some disputed questions +of ritual and ceremonial. In 1743 an assembly of five bishops +enacted sixteen canons. A “primus” was to be chosen indifferently +from the bishops, but to have no other powers than those +of convoking and presiding over synods. He was to hold office +only during pleasure of the other bishops. Bishops were to be +elected by the presbyters of the district. Such election was +subject to the confirmation of the majority of the bishops. In +1811, a “Code of Canons” was enacted by a “General Ecclesiastical +Synod,” consisting of the bishops, the deans (viz. +presbyters appointed by the bishops in each diocese to defend +the interests of the presbyters and now for the first time given +“decisive” voice in synods) and certain clerical representatives +from the “districts” or dioceses. Future synods, called for the +purpose of altering the code, were to consist of two chambers. +The first was to be composed of the bishops; the second to +consist of the “deans” and clerical representatives. No law +or canon was to be enacted or abrogated, save by the consent +of both chambers. These canons were revised in 1828, 1829 +and 1838. The code of this last year created diocesan synods, +to be held annually and to consist of the bishop, dean and all +instituted clergy of the diocese. It also provided for the annual +meeting of a purely episcopal synod, which was to receive +appeals from either clergy or laity. In 1862-1863, another +General Synod further revised and amended the Code of Canons. +This revised code enabled the bishop to appoint a learned and +discreet layman to act as his chancellor, to advise him in legal +matters and be his assessor at diocesan synods. Assistant +curates and mission priests were, under certain restrictions, +given seats in diocesan synods. Male communicants were also +permitted to be present at such synods, with a deliberative but +not “decisive” voice; unless in special circumstances the +bishop excluded them. Canon 46 provides that “if any question +shall arise as to the interpretation of this Code of Canons or of +any part thereof, the general principles of canon law shall be +alone deemed applicable thereto.” This provision was reenacted +in Canon 47 of 1876. Canon 51 of 1890, however, +weakens this provision. It enacts that: “The preceding canons +shall in all cases be construed in accordance with the principles +of the civil law of Scotland. Nevertheless, it shall be lawful, +in cases of dispute or difficulty concerning the interpretation +of these canons, to appeal to any generally recognized principles +of canon law.” The canons of 1862-1863 also provided for a lay +share in the election of bishops. In 1890 the 32nd canon enacted +that the “General Synod” should thereafter be called the +Provincial Synod.</p> + +<p>The canon law in Scotland before the 16th century was generally +that of the continent of Europe. The usages of the church +were similar to those in France, and had not the insular character +of those in England and Ireland. The canon law regulating +marriage, legitimacy and succession was taken over by the +Scottish secular courts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>) +and survived as part of the common law of the land almost unimpaired. +Thus, the courts recognize marriages by <i>verba de +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +praesenti</i> or by <i>verba de futuro cum copula</i>—in this last matter +following a decree of Gregory IX.—and also legitimation <i>per +subsequens matrimonium</i>. But though one of the <i>fontes juris +Scotiae</i>, canon law never was of itself authoritative in Scotland. +In the canons of her national provincial councils (at whose yearly +meetings representatives attended on behalf of the king) that +country possessed a canon law of her own, which was recognized +by the parliament and the popes, and enforced in the courts of +law. Much of it, no doubt, was borrowed from the <i>Corpus juris +canonici</i> and the English provincial canons. But the portions +so adopted derived their authority from the Scottish Church. +The general canon law, unless where it has been acknowledged +by act of parliament, or a decision of the courts, or sanctioned +by the canons of a provincial council, is only received in Scotland +according to equity and expediency.</p> + +<p>The “Protestant Episcopal Church <i>in the United States</i>” is +the organization of the Anglican Communion in the American +colonies before the separation. This communion was subject to +“all the laws of the Church of England applicable to its situation” +(Murray Hoffman, <i>A Treatise on the Law of the Protestant +Episcopal Church</i>, New York, 1850, p. 17). This body of law +the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States took over +(<i>op. cit.</i> p. 41 et seq.; F. Vinton, <i>A Manual Commentary on the +General Canon Law and the Constitution of the Protestant Episcopal +Church</i>, New York, 1870, p. 16 et seq.). Much, however, +of the English post-Reformation canonical legislation was not +applicable to the United States, because of different circumstances, +as <i>e.g.</i> a very large portion of the canons of 1603 (Vinton, +p. 32). In 1789, a General Convention, consisting of clerical +and lay deputies as well as of bishops, assumed for itself and +provided for its successors supreme legislative power. The +concurrence of both “orders,” clerical and lay, was required +for the validity of any vote. Since 1853 a lay deputy to the +Convention has been required to be a communicant (<i>ib.</i> p. 102). +Upon the American bishops numbering more than three, they +became a separate “House” from the “Convention.” The +House of Bishops was given a right to propose measures to the +“House of Deputies,” and to negative acts of the House of +Deputies, provided they complied with certain forms. Similar +“constitutions” providing for representation of the laity have +been adopted by the different dioceses (Hoffman, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 184 +et seq.). Deacons are also admitted to a deciding voice in every +diocese but New Jersey, where they may speak but not vote. +A great body of legislation has been put forth by these bodies +during the past century.</p> + +<p>Since 1870, at least, the “Church of the Province of <i>South +Africa</i>” has secured autonomy while yet remaining a part of +the Anglican Communion. By its constitution of that year +the English Church in South Africa adopts the laws and usages +of the Church of England, as far as they are applicable to an +unestablished church, accepts the three creeds, the Thirty-Nine +Articles, the Book of Common Prayer, the decisions of the +undisputed general councils, the Authorized English Version +of the Scriptures, disclaims the right of altering any of these +standards of faith and doctrine, except in agreement with such +alterations as may be adopted by a general synod of the Anglican +Communion. But in interpreting these standards of faith and +doctrine, the Church of the Province of South Africa is not +bound by decisions other than those of its own Church courts, +or such court as the Provincial Synod may recognize as a tribunal +of appeal. The Provincial Synod is the legislative authority +subject to a general synod of the Anglican Communion, provided +such latter synod include representatives from the Church of +South Africa. The Provincial Synod consists of (1) the House +of Bishops, (2) the House of the Clergy, (3) the House of the +Laity. No resolution can be passed which is not accepted by +all three orders. Bishops are elected by the clergy with the +assent of lay representatives, subject to the confirmation of the +metropolitan and comprovincial bishops. The metropolitan +is to be consecrated in England by the archbishop of Canterbury. +He now bears the title of archbishop. All bishops are to enter +into a contract to obey and maintain the constitution and canons +of the province. Canon 18 of the Code of 1870 recognizes the +offices of catechist, reader and sub-deacon (Wirgman, <i>The +English Church and People in South Africa</i>, p. 223 et seq.).</p> + +<p>In the West Indies, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, +provincial and diocesan synods or conventions have been formed +on one or other of the types above mentioned and have enacted +canons.</p> +<div class="author">(W. G. F. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th +century, have been published several times, notably in the great +collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &c.; they will be found brought +together in one small volume in Bruns, <i>Canones apostolorum et +conciliorum</i> (Berlin, 1839).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed +to 343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by +M. Chabot, <i>Synodicon Orientale</i>, p. 278, note 4.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Boudinhon, “Note sur le concile de Laodicée,” in the +<i>Compte rendu du premier congrès des savants catholiques à Paris</i>, +1888 (Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that of the +Eastern Churches, see Vering, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, §§ 14-183 (ed. 1893). +The Russian Church, as we know, adopted the Greek ecclesiastical law.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chifflet, +<i>Fulg. Ferrandi opera</i> (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne, +<i>Patr. Lat.</i> vol. 67, col. 949.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo, vol. ii. +(Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with learned +dissertations, <i>Opera S. Leonis</i>, vol. iii., Migne, <i>P.L. 56.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Malnory, <i>Saint Césaire d’Arles</i> (Paris, 1894).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Collectio canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae</i> (Madrid, 1808); +reproduced in Migne, <i>P.L. 84.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> L. Duchesne, “Le Concile d’Elvire” in the <i>Mélanges Renier</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10j" id="ft10j" href="#fa10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, <i>Die Bussordnungen +der abendländischen Kirche</i> (Halle, 1851); Mgr. H.J. Schmitz, <i>Die Bussbücher +und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche</i> (2 vols., Mainz, 1883, 1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11j" id="ft11j" href="#fa11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of Wasserschleben +and Schmitz, by M. Paul Fournier, “Étude sur les Pénitentiels,” +in the <i>Revue d’histoire et de littérature religieuses</i>, vol. vi. +(1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp. 59-70 and 121-127.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12j" id="ft12j" href="#fa12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> In Migne, <i>P.L.</i> 105, col. 651.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13j" id="ft13j" href="#fa13j"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 1874). See also P. Fournier, +“De l’influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des +collections canoniques,” in <i>Nouvelle Revue historique de droit français +et étranger</i>, vol. xxiii, note I.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14j" id="ft14j" href="#fa14j"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The collection of the False Decretals has been published with +a long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, <i>Decretales +Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni</i> (Leipzig, 1863). +For the rest of the bibliography, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals (False)</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15j" id="ft15j" href="#fa15j"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The latest edition is in Pertz, <i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, vol. ii. part ii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16j" id="ft16j" href="#fa16j"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840); +reproduced by Migne, <i>P.L. 132.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft17j" id="ft17j" href="#fa17j"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Edited several times; in Migne, <i>P.L. 140.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft18j" id="ft18j" href="#fa18j"><span class="fn">18</span></a> P. Fournier, “Le Premier Manuel canonique de la réforme du +XIe siècle,” in <i>Mélanges de l’École française de Rome</i>, xiv. (1894).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19j" id="ft19j" href="#fa19j"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Unpublished.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20j" id="ft20j" href="#fa20j"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Edited by Mgr. Pio Martinucci (Venice, 1869). On this collection +see Wolf von Glanvell, <i>Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit</i> +(Paderborn, 1905).</p> + +<p><a name="ft21j" id="ft21j" href="#fa21j"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Unpublished.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22j" id="ft22j" href="#fa22j"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Several times edited; in Migne, <i>P.L.</i> 161. See P. Fournier, +“Les Collections canoniques attribuées à Yves de Chartres,” <i>Bibliothèque +de l’École des Chartres</i> (1896 and 1897).</p> + +<p><a name="ft23j" id="ft23j" href="#fa23j"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Printed in Martene, <i>Nov. Thesaur. anecdot.</i> vol. v. col. 1019.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24j" id="ft24j" href="#fa24j"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See P. Fournier, “Deux Controverses sur les origines du Décret +de Gratien,” in the <i>Revue d’histoire et de littérature religieuses</i>, vol. iii. +(1898), pp. n. 2 and 3.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25j" id="ft25j" href="#fa25j"><span class="fn">25</span></a> See Laurin, <i>Introductio in corpus juris canonici</i>, c. vii. p. 73.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26j" id="ft26j" href="#fa26j"><span class="fn">26</span></a> By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts inserted +there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged +edition of the <i>Quinque compilationes</i> (Leipzig, 1882).</p> + +<p><a name="ft27j" id="ft27j" href="#fa27j"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Edited by Schulte, <i>Die Summa des Paucapaiea</i> (Giessen, 1890).</p> + +<p><a name="ft28j" id="ft28j" href="#fa28j"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Edited by Thaner, <i>Die Summa Magistri Rolandi</i> (Innsbruck, +1874); later by Gietl, <i>Die Sentenzen Rolands</i> (Freiburg im B., 1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft29j" id="ft29j" href="#fa29j"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Edited by H. Singer, <i>Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus</i> +(Paderborn, 1902).</p> + +<p><a name="ft30j" id="ft30j" href="#fa30j"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Edited by Schulte, <i>Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis</i> +(Giessen, 1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft31j" id="ft31j" href="#fa31j"><span class="fn">31</span></a> He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres, +<i>Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium</i> (Mainz, 1860). The commentaries +of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently +published.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32j" id="ft32j" href="#fa32j"><span class="fn">32</span></a> The history of this commission and the rules which it followed +for editing the <i>Decretum</i>, will be found in Laurin, <i>Introductio in +corpus juris canonici</i>, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg’s +edition of the <i>Decretum</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33j" id="ft33j" href="#fa33j"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Quoted by Hogan, <i>Clerical Studies</i>, p. 235.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34j" id="ft34j" href="#fa34j"><span class="fn">34</span></a> There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That +which is favoured by canonists is Richter’s edition (Leipzig, 1863), +in which each chapter <i>de reformatione</i> is followed by a selection of +decisions of the S.C. of the council.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35j" id="ft35j" href="#fa35j"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have +escaped destruction: <i>Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo +nunenpantur Liber septimus Decretalium Clementis VIII.</i> (Freiburg +im B., 1870).</p> + +<p><a name="ft36j" id="ft36j" href="#fa36j"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Omnium concilii Vaticani ... documentorum collectio</i>, per Conradum +Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOPUS,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Canobus</span>, an ancient coast town of Lower +Egypt, a hundred and twenty stadia, or 15 m. east of Alexandria, +the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation +of Alexandria, situated at the mouth of the westernmost (Canopic +or Heracleotic) branch of the Nile, on the western bank. The +channel, which entered the Mediterranean at the western end +of the Bay of Aboukir, is entirely silted up, but on the shore at +Aboukir there are extensive traces of the city with its quays, &c. +Excavation has disclosed granite monuments with the name +of Rameses II., but they may have been brought at a late +period for the adornment of the place. It is not certain that +Canopus was an old Egyptian town, but it appears in Herodotus +as an ancient port. In the 9th year of Ptolemy Euergetes +(239 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) a great assembly of priests at Canopus passed an +honorific degree, <i>inter alia</i>, conferring the title <span class="grk" title="Euergetaes">Εὐεργέτης</span> +“Benefactor” on the king. Two examples of this decree are +known, inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. From +it we learn that the native form of the name of Canopus was +Karob. A temple of Osiris was built by Euergetes, but very +near to Canopus was an older shrine, a temple of Heracles +mentioned by Herodotus as an asylum for fugitive slaves. The +decree shows that Heracles here stands for Ammon. Osiris +was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, a vase with +a human head, and was identified with Canopus, the pilot of +Menelaus, who was said to have been buried here: the name +canopic has been applied, through an old misunderstanding, +to the vases with human and animal heads in which the internal +organs were placed by the Egyptians after embalming. In the +Roman epoch the town was notorious for its dissoluteness. +Aboukir means “father Cyrus,” referring to a Coptic saint of +that name.</p> +<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOPY<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>canapé</i>, from Med. Lat. <i>canapeum</i>, +classical <i>conopeum</i>, a mosquito curtain, Gr. <span class="grk" title="konops">κώνωψ</span>, a gnat), the +upper part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over +an altar or scat or tomb. Early English canopies are generally +simple, with trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later +styles they are very rich, and divided into compartments with +pendants, knots, pinnacles, &c. The triangular arrangement +over an Early English and Decorated doorway is often called +a canopy. The triangular canopies in the north of Italy are +peculiar. Those in England are generally part of the arrangement +of the arch mouldings of the door, and form, as it were, the hood-moulds +to them, as at York. The former are above and independent +of the door mouldings, and frequently support an +arch with a tympanum, above which is a triangular canopy, +as in the Duomo at Florence. Sometimes the canopy and arch +project from the wall, and are carried on small jamb shafts, as +at San Pietro Martire, at Verona. There is an extremely curious +canopy, being a sort of horseshoe arch, surmounting and breaking +into a circular arch, at Tournai. Similar canopies are often +over windows, as at York, over the great west window, and lower +tiers in the towers. These are triangular, while the upper +windows in the towers have ogee canopies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOSA<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (anc. <i>Canusium</i>), a town of Apulia, Italy, in the +province of Bari, situated on the right bank of the Ofanto +(anc. <i>Aufidus</i>), 505 ft. above sea-level, 15 m. S.W. of Barletta +by rail. Pop. (1901) 24,230. It was rebuilt in 963 below the +Roman city, which had been abandoned after its devastation +by the Saracens in the 9th century. The former cathedral +of S. Sabino (the bishopric passed in 1818 to Andria), in the +southern Romanesque style, was consecrated in 1101: it has +five domes (resembling St Mark’s at Venice, except that it is +a Latin cross, instead of a Greek cross, in plan) and many ancient +columns. The archiepiscopal throne and pulpit of the end of the +11th century are also fine. On the south side of the building +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard, +who died in 1111, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in +the local style. It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions; +the exterior is entirely faced with <i>cipollino</i> (Carystian) marble. +The conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this +period, was undoubtedly derived from the <i>turbeh</i> before a +mosque; these turbehs are square, domed-roofed tombs in +which the sultans and distinguished Mahommedans are buried +(E. Bertaux, <i>L’Art dans l’Italie mêridionale</i>, Paris, 1904, i. 312). +A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of which the city +stands. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canusium</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOSSA,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia, +Italy, 12 m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of +the Apennines. It belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany +(d. 1115), and is famous as the scene of the penance performed +by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope Gregory VII. in 1077. +The castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of Reggio in 1255.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOVA, ANTONIO<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born +on the 1st of November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village +situated amid the recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these +form the last undulations of the Venetian Alps, as they subside +into the plains of Treviso. At three years of age Canova was +deprived of both parents, his father dying and his mother remarrying. +Their loss, however, was compensated by the tender +solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother, +the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest +personal attention from her grandson, who, when he had the +means, gave her an asylum in his house at Rome. His father +and grandfather followed the occupation of stone-cutters or +minor statuaries; and it is said that their family had for several +ages supplied Passagno with members of that calling. As soon +as Canova’s hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated into the +principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter +possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, +designed well, and showed considerable taste in the execution +of ornamental works. He was greatly attached to his art; +and upon his young charge he looked as one who was to perpetuate, +not only the family name, but also the family profession.</p> + +<p>The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of +his mind was to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the +gratification of this predilection in the workshop of his grandfather +were eagerly improved. In his ninth year he executed +two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant. +Soon after this period he appears to have been constantly +employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized +the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by +this means young Canova was first introduced to the senator +of that name, who afterwards became his most zealous patron. +Between the younger son, Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a +friendship commenced which terminated only with life. The +senator Falier was induced to receive him under his immediate +protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since +repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to +a trivial circumstance—the moulding of a lion in butter—for +the warm interest which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote +may or may not be true. By his patron Canova was placed +under Bernardi, or, as he is generally called by filiation, Torretto, +a sculptor of considerable eminence, who had taken up a +temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity of the +senator’s mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his +thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two +years, making in many respects considerable progress. This +master returned to Venice, where he soon afterwards died; but +by the high terms in which he spoke of his pupil to Falier, the +latter was induced to bring the young artist to Venice, whither +he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of Torretto. +With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with +the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement +he began to work on his own account, and received from his +patron an order for a group, “Orpheus and Eurydice.” The +first figure, which represents Eurydice in flames and smoke, +in the act of leaving Hades, was completed towards the close +of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his patron +and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to appear +before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied +him with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a +monastery. Here for nearly four years he laboured with the +greatest perseverance and industry. He was also regular in +his attendance at the academy, where he carried off several +prizes. But he relied far more on the study and imitation of +nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for +their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he reverted +to living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation. +A large portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which +science was regarded by him as “the secret of the art.” He +likewise frequented places of public amusement, where he carefully +studied the expressions and attitudes of the performers. +He formed a resolution, which was faithfully adhered to for +several years, never to close his eyes at night without having +produced some design. Whatever was likely to forward his +advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On archaeological +pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With +ancient and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted +and he also began to acquire some of the continental languages.</p> + +<p>Three years had now elapsed without any production coming +from his chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for +his patron, and the Orpheus which followed evinced the great +advance he had made. The work was universally applauded, +and laid the foundation of his fame. Several groups succeeded +this performance, amongst which was that of “Daedalus and +Icarus,” the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The +simplicity of style and the faithful imitation of nature which +characterized them called forth the warmest admiration. His +merits and reputation being now generally recognized, his +thoughts began to turn from the shores of the Adriatic to the +banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the commencement +of his twenty-fourth year.</p> + +<p>Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the +Venetian senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies +without embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. +The stipend amounted to three hundred ducats (about +£60 per annum), and was limited to three years. Canova had +obtained letters of introduction to the Venetian ambassador, +the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous protector of +the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner. His +arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era +in his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the +most splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the +severest test by a competition with the living masters of the art. +The result was equal to the highest hopes cherished either by +himself or by his friends. The work which first established his +fame at Rome was “Theseus vanquishing the Minotaur.” The +figures are of the heroic size. The victorious Theseus is represented +as seated on the lifeless body of the monster. The +exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves the +terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged. +Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized +Canova’s style; with these were now united more exalted +conceptions of grandeur and of truth. The Theseus was +regarded with fervent admiration.</p> + +<p>Canova’s next undertaking was a monument in honour of +Clement XIV.; but before he proceeded with it he deemed it +necessary to request permission from the Venetian senate, +whose servant he considered himself to be, in consideration of the +pension. This he solicited in person, and it was granted. He +returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated +studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years +of unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the +models for the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, +other two years were employed in finishing the monument, and +it was finally opened to public inspection in 1787 The work, +in the opinion of enthusiastic <i>dilettanti</i>, stamped the author as +the first artist of modern times. After five years of incessant +labour, he completed another cenotaph to the memory of Clement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works now came +rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a butterfly, +which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with +the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of +man’s immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect +the most faultless and classical of Canova’s works. In two +different groups, and with opposite expression, the sculptor has +represented Cupid with his bride; in the one they are standing, +in the other recumbent. These and other works raised his +reputation so high that the most flattering offers were sent him +from the Russian court to induce him to remove to St Petersburg, +but these were declined. “Italy,” says he, in writing of the +occurrence to a friend, “Italy is my country—is the country and +native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was +nurtured here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other +land, they must be of some utility to Italy; and ought not her +claim to be preferred to all others?”</p> + +<p>Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of +which several were repetitions of previous productions. One +was the celebrated group representing the “Parting of Venus +and Adonis.” This famous production was sent to Naples. The +French Revolution was now extending its shocks over Italy; +and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native Passagno. +Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a +year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had +some knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings +about this time. One of his productions is a picture representing +the dead body of the Saviour just removed from the cross, +surrounded by the three Marys, S. John, Joseph of Arimathea, +and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus. Above appears +the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory, and +surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was +greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his +native place. Events in the political world having come to a +temporary lull, he returned to Rome; but his health being +impaired from arduous application, he took a journey through a +part of Germany, in company with his friend Prince Rezzonico. +He returned from his travels much improved, and again commenced +his labours with vigour and enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>Canova’s sculptures have been distributed under three +heads:—(1) Heroic compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and +elegance; and (3) Sepulchral monuments and relievos. In +noticing the works which fall under each of these divisions, it +will be impossible to maintain a strict chronological order, but +perhaps a better idea of his productions may thus be obtained. +Their vast number, however, prevents their being all enumerated.</p> + +<p>(1) His “Perseus with the Head of Medusa” appeared soon +after his return. The moment of representation is when the +hero, flushed with conquest, displays the head of the “snaky +Gorgon,” whilst the right hand grasps a sword of singular +device. By a public decree, this fine work was placed in one of +the <i>stanze</i> of the Vatican hitherto reserved for the most precious +works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say that it +wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier +realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini. +In 1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired +to Paris to model a bust of the first consul. The artist was +entertained with munificence, and various honours were +conferred upon him. The statue, which is colossal, was not +finished till six years after. On the fall of the great Napoleon, +Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British government, +by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington. +“Palamedes,” “Creugas and Damoxenus,” the “Combat of +Theseus and the Centaur,” and “Hercules and Lichas” may +close the class of heroic compositions, although the catalogue +might be swelled by the enumeration of various others, such as +“Hector and Ajax,” and the statues of Washington, King +Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of “Hercules and +Lichas” is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova’s +mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled.</p> + +<p>(2) Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the +statue of Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times +has the artist embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each +time with some variation. The only material improvement, +however, is the substitution of a support more suitable to the +simplicity of the art. Each of the statues is, in all its details, in +expression, attitude and delicacy of finish, strikingly elegant. +The “Dancing Nymphs” maintain a character similar to that of +the Hebe. The “Graces” and the “Venus” are more elevated. +The “Awakened Nymph” is another work of uncommon +beauty. The mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa +(as Concord), to model whom the author made a further journey +to Paris in 1810, the princess Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia +(Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in this class, as do the ideal +heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, Beatrice and Helen +of Troy.</p> + +<p>(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid +is the monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, +consisting of nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman +pontiffs already mentioned, there is one for Alfieri, another for +Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a small model of a cenotaph for +Nelson, besides a great variety of monumental relievos.</p> + +<p>The events which marked the life of the artist during the first +fifteen years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned +works scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely +absorbed in the labours of his studio, and, with the exception of +his journeys to Paris, one to Vienna, and a few short intervals of +absence in Florence and other parts of Italy, he never quitted +Rome. In his own words, “his statues were the sole proofs of +his civil existence.” There was, however, another proof, which +modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence, +especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the +Pope to superintend the transmission from Paris of those works +of art which had formerly been conveyed thither under the +direction of Napoleon. By his zeal and exertions, for there +were many conflicting interests to reconcile, he adjusted the +affair in a manner at once creditable to his judgment and fortunate +for his country. In the autumn of this year he gratified a wish he +had long entertained of visiting London, where he received the +highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed +particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who +might at the time be counted the sole representative of historical +painting there, and whom he especially honoured for his championship +of the Elgin marbles, then recently transported to +England, and ignorantly depreciated by polite connoisseurs. +Canova returned to Rome in the beginning of 1816, with the +ransomed spoils of his country’s genius. Immediately after, +he received several marks of distinction,—by the hand of the +Pope himself his name was inscribed in “the Golden Volume of +the Capitol,” and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with +an annual pension of 3000 crowns, about £625.</p> + +<p>He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of +Religion. The model filled Italy with admiration; the marble +was procured, and the chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied +to it, when the jealousy of churchmen as to the site, or some other +cause, deprived the country of the projected work. The mind of +Canova was inspired with the warmest sense of devotion, and +though foiled in this instance he resolved to consecrate a shrine to +the cause. In his native village he began to make preparations +for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the above +statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were +to repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired +to Passagno in 1810. At a sumptuous entertainment which he +gave to his workmen, there occurred an incident which marks +the kindliness of his character. When the festivities of the day +had terminated, he requested the shepherdesses and peasantgirls +of the adjacent hamlets to pass in review before him, and to +each he made a present, expending on the occasion about £400. +We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few years afterwards, +when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in their last +asylum, the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was +in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity +of more pompous mourning.</p> + +<p>After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he +continued to visit Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and +encourage them with pecuniary rewards and medals. In the +meantime the vast expenditure exhausted his resources, and +compelled him to labour with unceasing assiduity notwithstanding +age and disease. During the period which intervened between +commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he executed +or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were +the group “Mars and Venus,” the colossal figure of Pius VI., the +“Pietà,” the “St John,” the “recumbent Magdalen.” The +last performance which issued from his hand was a colossal bust +of his friend, the Count Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to +Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an +equestrian statue of the perjured Bourbon king Ferdinand. +This journey materially injured his health, but he rallied again on +his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the year he paid +his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he experienced a +relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the +13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease +was one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the +continual use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. +The most distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains, +which were deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of +the same month.</p> + +<p>Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in +Italy, and brought it back to that standard from which it had +declined when the sense both of classical beauty and moderation, +and of Titanic invention and human or superhuman energy as +embodied by the unexampled genius of Michelangelo, had +succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of the 17th +and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a special +method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble. +He formed his models of the same size as the work was intended +to be. The prominent defect of Canova’s attractive and highly +trained art is that which may be summed up in the word artificiality,—that +quality, so characteristic of the modern mind, which +seizes upon certain properties of conception and execution in the +art of the past, and upon certain types of beauty or emotion in +life, and makes a compound of the two—regulating both by the +standard of taste prevalent in contemporary “high society,” a +standard which, referring to cultivation and refinement as its +higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of his moral +character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most +prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized +by his works was distributed in acts of this description. He +established prizes for artists and endowed all the academies of +Rome. The aged and unfortunate were also the objects of his +peculiar solicitude. His titles were numerous. He was enrolled +amongst the nobility of several states, decorated with various orders +of knighthood, and associated in the highest professional honours.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life of Canova</i> by Memes; that by Missirini; the <i>Biografia</i> +by the Count Cicognara; <i>Canova et ses ouvrages</i>, by Quatremère de +Quincy (1834); <i>Opere scelte di Antonio Canova</i>, by Anzelmi (Naples, +1842); <i>Canova</i>, by A.G. Meyer (1898); and <i>La Relazione del Canova +con Napoli ... memorie con documenti inediti</i>, by Angelo Borzelli +(1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1828-1897), Spanish +statesman, was born in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828. +Educated in his native town, he went to Madrid in 1845, bent +upon finding means to complete his literary and philosophical +studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebañez Calderon, found him +a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but Canovas +soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to support +himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University. +During this period he published his two best works—an historical +novel, <i>Las Campanas de Huesca</i>, and the history of the decay of +Spain from Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria. +He became a politician through his Junius-like letters to the +“Murcielago”—<i>The Bat</i>, a satirical political journal—and by +drawing up the manifesto of Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal +O’Donnell, of whom he always remained a loyal adherent. +Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor of +Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858, +under-secretary at the home office in 1860, minister of the +interior in 1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of +finance in 1866, and was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same +year, afterwards becoming a bitter opponent of all the reactionary +cabinets until the revolution of 1868. He took no part in +preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes Constituyentes of +1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all Radical and +democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but he +abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on +the 16th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his +political friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets +of King Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would +depend on the concessions which government would make to +Conservative principles. After the abdication of Amadeus and +the proclamation of the federal republic, Canovas took the lead +of the propaganda in favour of the restoration of the Bourbons, +and was their principal agent and adviser. He drew up the +manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XII., at +that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the +military men who were actively conspiring to organize an +Alphonsist <i>pronunciamiento</i>. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del +Duero, he would have preferred to let events develop enough to +allow of the dynasty being restored without force of arms, and he +severely blamed the conduct of the generals when he first heard +of the <i>pronunciamiento</i> of Marshal Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta +thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (30th of December 1874); +but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed Alphonso +XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received +from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a +regency ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who confirmed +his appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier +except during the short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in +1875 and Marshal Campos for a few months in 1879. Canovas +was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration. He had to reconstruct a +Conservative party out of the least reactionary parties of the days +of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate elements of the +revolution. With such followers he made the constitution of +1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise +in the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience, +rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking +democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, conciliating +the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican, +the Church and the religious orders, pandering to the protectionists +by his tariff policy, and courting abroad the friendship of +Germany and Austria after contributing to the marriage of his +king to an Austrian princess. Canovas crowned his policy by +countenancing the formation of a Liberal party under Sagasta, +flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal generals, which +took office in 1881. He again became premier in 1883, and +remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very unpopular, +and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his +violent repression of popular and press demonstrations, and of +student riots in Madrid and the provinces. At the death of +Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen regent to send for +Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he looked on +quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and most +of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of free +trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the +queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff +policy of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce, +and passing in 1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the +starting-point of the decline in foreign trade, the advance of +foreign exchanges, the decay of railway traffic, and the monetary +and financial crisis which continued from 1892 to 1898. Splits in +the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to resign at the end of +1893, and Sagasta came in for eighteen months, Canovas +resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of +the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts, +with characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and +means for sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out +his stern and unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions +and no reforms. He was making up his mind for another effort +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +to enable General Weyler to enforce the reforms that had +been wrung from the Madrid government, more by American +diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the bullet of +an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda, cut +short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the +greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He +was not only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of +considerable merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic +and philosophical questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a +member of all the Madrid academies and a patron of art and +letters.</p> +<div class="author">(A. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1809-1895), marshal of +France, was born at St Céré (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and +educated at St Cyr; he received a commission as sub-lieutenant +in 1828, becoming lieutenant in 1833. He went to Algeria in +1835, served in the expedition to Mascara, at the capture of +Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year he was +wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of +Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing +a battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841 +he was again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in +1846 and colonel of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the +expedition against Ahmed Sghir in 1848, and defeated the +Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to the Zouaves, he +defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage and +energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in +command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December +1849). For his valour on the latter occasion he received the +rank of general of brigade and the commandership of the Legion +of Honour. He led the expedition against Narah in 1850 and +destroyed the Arab stronghold. Summoned to Paris, he was +made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis Napoleon, and took +part in the <i>coup d’etat</i> of the 2nd of December 1851. In the +Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he +was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling +him to command in case of St Arnaud’s death, and he thus +succeeded to the chief command of the French army a few days +after the battle. He was slightly wounded and had a horse +killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of Zouaves. +Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in +general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the +siege of Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he +did not return to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old +division almost up to the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to +France he was sent on diplomatic missions to Denmark and +Sweden, and made a marshal and senator of France (grand cross +Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.). He commanded the +III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing himself at +Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp +at Châlons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris. +In the Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps, +which won the greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte, +where Canrobert commanded on the St Privat position. The +VI. corps was amongst those shut up in Metz and included in the +surrender of that fortress. After the war Canrobert was appointed +a member of the superior council of war, and was also active in +political life, being elected senator for Lot in 1876 and for +Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the +28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral. +His <i>Souvenirs</i> were published in 1898 at Paris.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANT, ANDREW<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1590?-1663), a leader of the Scottish +Covenanters. About 1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to +be their minister, but he was rejected by James I. Ten years +later he was minister of Pitsligo in Aberdeenshire, a charge +which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in Mid-Lothian. In +July of that year he went with other commissioners to Aberdeen +in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery +of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the +following November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow +which abolished episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was chaplain +to the Scottish army and then settled as minister at Aberdeen. +Though a stanch Covenanter, he was a zealous Royalist, +preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and stoutly advocating +the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the Commonwealth. +Cant’s frequent and bitter attacks on various members of his +congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magistrates, +in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son +Andrew was principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANT,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. <i>cantos</i>, corner), +in architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut +off, octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of +which are not parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said +to be canted. (2) (From the Lat. <i>cantare</i>, to sing, very early in +use, in a depreciatory sense, of religious services), a word appearing +in English in the 16th century ‘for the whining speech of +beggars; hence it is applied to thieves’ or gipsies’ jargon, to the +peculiar language of any class or sect, to any current phrase or +turn of language, and particularly to the hypocritical use of +pious phraseology.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTABRI,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast +of Spain near Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind—a +district hence known as Cantabria. Savage and untameable +mountaineers, they long defied the Roman arms and made themselves +a name for wild freedom. They were first attacked by the +Romans about 150 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; they were not subdued till Agrippa and +Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) which +ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land +was part of the province Hispania Tarraconensis with some +measure of local self-government. They became slowly Romanized, +but developed little town life and are rarely mentioned in +history. They provided recruits for the Roman <i>auxilia</i>, like +their neighbours the Astŭres, and their land contained lead mines, +of which, however, little is known.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Span. <i>Cordillera Cantabrica</i>), +a mountain chain which extends for more than 300 m. across +northern Spain, from the western limit of the Pyrenees to the +borders of Galicia, and on or near the coast of the Bay of Biscay. +The Cantabrians stretch from east to west, nearly parallel to the +sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos, afterwards trending southward +between Leon and Galicia. Their western boundary is +marked by the valley of the river Miño (Portuguese Minho), by +the lower Sil, which flows into the Miño, and by the Cabrera, +a small tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the +mountains of Galicia beyond the Miño as an integral part of the +same system; others confine the name to the eastern half of the +highlands between Galicia and the Pyrenees, and call their +western half the Asturian Mountains. There are also many +local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a +whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their +intricate ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in +the east, it is possible to distinguish two principal ranges, +from which the lesser ridges and mountain masses radiate. One +range, or series of ranges, closely follows the outline of the coast; +the other, which is loftier, forms the northern limit of the great +tableland of Castile and Leon, and is sometimes regarded as a +continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal range rises in some +parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so abrupt a +declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and +swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus +of Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the +Ebro, rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the +Cantabrian chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about +60 m. in the east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are +upwards of 6000 ft. high, but the greatest altitudes are attained +in the central ridges on the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia +and Santander. Here are the Peña Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta +(8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an unnamed summit in +the Peñas de Europa, to which range the Peña Vieja also belongs, +rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045 ft.; farther +west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubiña, Rubia and Cuiña all exceed +7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent +tableland, is the number of its <i>parameras</i>, isolated plateaus shut +in by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At +the south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +lake-bed, now a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by +mountains which bifurcate from the main range south of the +pass of Leitariegos—the Sierra de Justredo and Montañas de +Leon curving towards the east and south-west, the Sierra de +Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges curving towards the +west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in coal and iron; +an account of their geological structure is given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>. +They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their +eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of +Pájares, the railway from Leon to Gijón passes through the +Perruca tunnel, which is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level; +the railway descends northward through fifty-eight smaller +tunnels. The line from Leon to Orense also traverses a remarkable +series of tunnels, bridges and deep cuttings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTACUZINO,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> <span class="sc">Cantacuzen</span> or <span class="sc">Cantacuzene</span>, the name +of a family which traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and +writers of the same name (see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John V.</a></span>, Cantacuzene). +The founder of the family, Andronik, migrated to Rumania in +1633, and from his two sons Constantine and Gheorge sprang the +two principal lines which afterwards branched into numerous +families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars +(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were +represented in every branch of administration and in the world +of letters. Under their influence the Rumanian language and +literature in the 17th century reached their highest development. +Among the more prominent members of the family the following +may be mentioned, (1) <span class="sc">Sherban Cantacuzino</span> (1640-1688), +appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the +Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is +alleged that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople +to drive the Turks out of Europe, the western powers having +promised him their moral support. In the midst of his preparations +he died suddenly, poisoned, it is said, by the boyars who +were afraid of his vast plans. Far more important was his activity +in economic and literary directions. He introduced the maize +into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the country. He +founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted +liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and +under his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in +Bucharest in 1688. Through his influence also the Slavonic +language was officially and finally abolished from the liturgy +and the Rumanian language substituted for it. (2) <span class="sc">Stefan +Cantacuzino</span>, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia, 1714-1716. +(3) <span class="sc">Demetrius Cantacuzino</span>, prince of Moldavia, 1674-1676. +He left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and +Sherban have emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there +as governors of Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4) +Of the Moldavian Cantacuzinos, <span class="sc">Theodore</span> is well known as a +chronicler of his times (<i>c.</i> 1740). (5) <span class="sc">Gheorge Cantacuzino</span> +(b. 1837), son of <span class="sc">Gregori</span> (1800-1849). He was appointed in +1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in 1889, president +of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from +1899 he was head of the Conservative party, and from 1905 +to 1907 prime minister (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rumania</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(M. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTAGALLO,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro, +Brazil, about 100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro, +with which it is connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop. +(1890) of the municipality, 26,067, of whom less than one-fourth +live in the town. Cantagallo is situated in the fertile Parahyba +valley and is the commercial centre of a rich coffee-producing +district. There are exhausted gold placer mines in its vicinity, +but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable development +in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry, +but sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention +is given to the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an +excellent fruit region.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTAL,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a department of central France, formed from +Haute-Auvergne, the southern portion of the old province of +Auvergne. It is bounded N. by the department of Puy-de-Dôme, +E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozère, S. by Aveyron and +Lozère, and W. by Corrèze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop. +(1906) 228,600. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central +plateau of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal, +a volcanic group occupying its central region, and continued +towards the north and east by ranges of lower altitude. The +Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit of the department, +attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the Puy Mary +and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft. +respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies +the lofty but fertile plateau of Planèze, which merges into the +Monts de la Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the +Truyère skirts the Planèze on the south and divides it from the +Monts d’Aubrac, at the foot of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted +for its thermal springs, the most important in the department. +Northwards the Monts du Cantal are connected with the Monts +Dore by the volcanic range of Cézallier and the arid plateaus of +Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus and +beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central +heights. Most of the streams of the department have their +sources in this central ridge and fall by a short and rapid course +into the rivers which traverse the extensive valleys on either side. +The principal rivers are the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier; +the Celle and Truyère, tributaries of the Lot; and the Cère and +Rue, tributaries of the Dordogne. The climate of the department +varies considerably in the different localities. In the +alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour, and in the south-west +in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally mild and +dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are +long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The +cold and damp of the climate in these districts are great obstacles +to the cultivation of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown +in considerable quantities, and in natural pasture Cantal is +extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly reared with profit, +especially around Salers and in the Monts d’Aubrac, while butter +and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large flocks +of sheep pasture in the Monts d’Aubrac and elsewhere in the +department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple +and primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare. +Many of them migrate for part of the year to Paris and the provinces, +where they engage in the humblest occupations. The +principal articles of food are rye, buckwheat and chestnuts. +The internal resources of the department are considerable; but +the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them being sufficiently +developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and the +streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic +and medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal, +antimony and lime. The department has no prominent manufactures. +Live-stock, cheese, butter and coal are the principal +exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour and earthenware are imported. +The department is served by the railways of the Orléans +and Southern companies, the construction of which at some +points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the +case of the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyère. +Cantal is divided into four arrondissements—Aurillac, Mauriac, +Murat and St Flour—23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs +to the region of the XIII. army corps and to the académie +(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is +at St Flour and depends on the archbishopric of Bourges. Its +court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is Aurillac (<i>q.v.</i>), and +St Flour (<i>q.v.</i>) is the other principal town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTARINI, SIMONE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1612-1648), called <span class="sc">Simone da Pesaro</span>, +painter and etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 1612. +He was a disciple of Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domenichino +and Albano. The irritability of his temper and his vanity +were extreme; and it is said that his death, which took place +at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by chagrin at his failure in +a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others relate that he was +poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. His +pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in originality. +Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido +Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the +extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are +“St Anthony,” at Cagli; the “Magdalene,” at Pesaro; the +“Transfiguration,” in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the “Portrait +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +of Guido,” in the Bologna gallery; and “St Romuald,” in the +Casa Paolucci. His most celebrated etching is “Jupiter, +Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal Borghese.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTATA<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal +composition accompanied by instruments and generally containing +more than one movement. In the 16th century, when +all serious music was vocal, the term had no reason to exist, but +with the rise of instrumental music in the 17th century cantatas +began to exist under that name as soon as the instrumental art +was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the middle +of the 17th till late in the 18th century a favourite form of Italian +chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with +accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo +instruments. It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative +or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated +at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the church music +of Carissimi; and the English vocal solos of Purcell (such as +<i>Mad Tom</i> and <i>Mad Bess</i>) show the utmost that can be made of +this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the cantata +became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative. +Handel’s numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a +rather large scale. His Latin motet <i>Silete Venti</i>, for soprano +solo, shows the use of this form in church music.</p> + +<p>The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large +scale, to become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera. +In the same way the church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable +from a small oratorio or portion of an oratorio. +This is equally evident whether we examine the unparalleled +church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant, or the +<i>Chandos Anthems</i> of Handel. In Bach’s case many of the +larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the <i>Christmas +Oratorio</i> is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended +for performance on six different days, though together forming +as complete an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.</p> + +<p>The essential point, however, in Bach’s church cantatas is +that they formed part of a church service, and moreover of +a service in which the organization of the music was far more +coherent than is possible in the Anglican church. Many of +Bach’s greatest cantatas begin with an elaborate chorus followed +by a couple of arias and recitatives, and end with a plain chorale. +This has often been commented upon as an example of Bach’s +indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no +one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church +cantata occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was +carefully based upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless +the cantata was short the sermon probably took place after the +first chorus or one of the arias, and the congregation joined in +the final chorale. Thus the unity of the service was the unity +of the music; and, in the cases where all the movements of the +cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune, this +unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century +masses and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones +of the festival for which they are written.</p> + +<p>In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively +to choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has, +perhaps, been only one kind of cantata since Bach which can +be recognized as an art form and not as a mere title for works +otherwise impossible to classify. It is just possible to recognize +as a distinct artistic type that kind of early 19th-century cantata +in which the chorus is the vehicle for music more lyric and songlike +than the oratorio style, though at the same time not <span class="correction" title="amended from exclude ing">excludeing</span> +the possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light +order of fugue. Beethoven’s <i>Glorreiche Augenblick</i> is a brilliant +“pot-boiler” in this style; Weber’s <i>Jubel Cantata</i> is a typical +specimen, and Mendelssohn’s <i>Walpurgisnacht</i> is the classic. +Mendelssohn’s “Symphony Cantata,” the <i>Lobgesang</i>, is a hybrid +work, partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic +movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven’s +ninth symphony; but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven’s +work is a symphony of which the fourth movement is +a choral finale of essentially single design, whereas Mendelssohn’s +“Symphony Cantata” is a cantata with three symphonic +preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral +songs were realized at last by Brahms in his <i>Rinaldo</i>, set to a +text which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of +the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>. The point of Brahms’s work (his only +experiment in this <i>genre</i>) has naturally been lost by critics who +expected in so voluminous a composition the qualities of an +elaborate choral music with which it has nothing whatever +to do. Brahms has probably said the last word on this subject; +and the remaining types of cantata (beginning with Beethoven’s +<i>Meeres-stille</i>, and including most of Brahms’s and many notable +English small choral works) are merely so many different ways +of setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be +comprised in one movement.</p> +<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTEEN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>cantine</i>, from Ital. <i>cantina</i>, a +cellar), a word chiefly used in a military sense for an official +sutler’s shop, where provisions, &c., are sold to soldiers. The +word was formerly applied also to portable equipments for carrying +liquors and food, or for cooking in the field. Another sense +of the word, which has survived to the present day, is that of a +soldier’s water-bottle, or of a small wooden or metal can for +carying a workman’s liquor, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTEMIR,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin, +which came from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled in +Moldavia.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Constantine Cantemir</span> became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-1693. +He was a good and conscientious ruler, who protected +the people from the rapacity of the tax-gatherers and introduced +peace into his country. He was succeeded on the throne by his +son Antioch, who ruled twice, 1696-1700 and 1705-1707.</p> + +<p>His youngest brother, <span class="sc">Demetrius</span> or <span class="sc">Demeter Cantemir</span> +(b. October 26, 1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 1710; he +ruled only one year, 1710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great +in his campaign against the Turks and placed Moldavia under +Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks, Cantemir emigrated +to Russia, where he and his family finally settled. He died at +Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest linguists +of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being +well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and +original writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his +writings range over many subjects. The best known is his +<i>History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire</i>. He also +wrote a history of oriental music, which is no longer extant; the +first critical history of Moldo-Walachia; the first geographical, +ethnographical and economic description of Moldavia, <i>Descriptio +Moldaviae</i>, under the name of <i>Historia Hieroglyphica</i>, to +which he furnished a key, and in which the principal persons are +represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling +houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical +treatise on the old theme of the disputation between soul and +body, written in Greek and Rumanian under the title <i>Divanul +Lumii</i>.</p> + +<p>The latter’s son, <span class="sc">Antioch Cantemir</span> (born in Moldavia, 1700; +died in Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great +Britain, and in 1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He +brought to London the Latin MS. from whence the English +translation of his father’s history of the Turkish empire was made +by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an exhaustive +biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He +was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in +modern Russian literature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—<i>Operele Principelui D. Cantemir</i>, ed. Academia +Română (1872 foll.); A. Philippide, <i>Introducere in istoria limbei si +literat. romane</i> (Iasi, 1888), pp. 192-202; O.G. Lecca, <i>Familiile +boeresti romane</i> (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M. Gaster, <i>Chrestom. +româna</i>, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> +(1780-1845), speaker of the House of Commons, was the +elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton (<i>q.v.</i>), afterwards archbishop +of Canterbury, and was born on the 29th of January 1780. +Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he graduated +B.A. in 1802, and was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1806. +At the general election of this year he was returned to parliament +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span> +in the Tory interest as member for Scarborough, and in 1809 +became judge-advocate-general in the ministry of Spencer +Perceval. He retained this position until June 1817, when he +was elected speaker in succession to Charles Abbot, created +Baron Colchester, refusing to exchange this office in 1827 for +that of home secretary. In 1832 he abandoned Scarborough and +was returned to parliament as one of the members for the +university of Cambridge. Before the general election of 1832 +Manners-Sutton had intimated his desire to retire from the +position of speaker and had been voted an annuity of £4000 a +year. The ministry of Earl Grey, however, reluctant to meet +the reformed House of Commons with a new and inexperienced +occupant of the chair, persuaded him to retain his office, and in +1833 he was elected speaker for the seventh time. Some feeling +had been shown against him on this occasion owing to his Tory +proclivities, and the Whigs frequently complained that outside +the House he was a decided partisan. The result was that when +a new parliament met in February 1835 a sharp contest ensued +for the speakership, and Manners-Sutton was defeated by James +Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline. In March 1835 the +retiring speaker was raised to the peerage as Baron Bottesford +and Viscount Canterbury. In 1835 he was appointed high +commissioner for Canada, but owing to domestic reasons he +never undertook the appointment. He died in London on the +21st of July 1845 and was buried at Addington. His first wife +was Lucy (d. 1815), daughter of John Denison of Ossington, by +whom he had two sons and a daughter. Both his sons, Charles +John (1812-1869), and John Henry Thomas (1814-1877), +succeeded in turn to the viscounty. By his second wife, Ellen +(d. 1845), widow of John Home-Purves, he had a daughter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTERBURY,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a city and county of a city, the metropolis of +an archdiocese of the Church of England, and a municipal, +county and parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 62 m. +E.S.E, of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. +Pop. (1901) 24,889. It lies on the river Stour, which here +debouches from a beautiful narrow valley of the North Downs, +the low but abrupt elevations of which command fine views of +the city from the west and south, while the river presently enters +upon the flat belt of land which separates the elevated Isle of +Thanet from the rest of Kent. This belt represents the existence, +in early historic times, of a sea-strait, and Fordwich, little more +than 2 m. north-east of Canterbury, was once accessible for shipping. +The city surrounds the precincts of the great cathedral.</p> + +<p><i>The Cathedral</i>.—It was to Canterbury, as the capital of +Aethelberht, the fourth Saxon king of Kent, that in 597 Augustine +and his fellow-missionaries came from Rome, and their settlement +by Aethelberht in his capital became the origin of its +position, held ever since, as the metropolis of the Church of +England. Aethelberht, whose queen, Bertha, was already a +Christian, gave the missionaries a church whose mythical founder +was King Lucius. Augustine was a Benedictine and established +the monastery of that order attached to the cathedral; this +foundation was set upon a firm basis after the Norman Conquest +by Archbishop Lanfranc, who placed its charge (as distinct from +that of the diocese) in the hands of a prior.</p> + +<p>Preparatory to the description of the cathedral, the principal +epochs in the history of its erection may be noted. The Romano-British +church occupied by St Augustine, of basilica +form, remained long in use, though it was largely +<span class="sidenote">History of the building.</span> +rebuilt by Archbishop Odo, <i>c.</i> 950; after further +vicissitudes it was destroyed by fire in 1067. Archbishop +Lanfranc, taking up his office in 1070, undertook the +building of an entirely new church, but under Anselm (<i>c.</i> 1100) +Prior Ernulf rebuilt the eastern part, and his successor Conrad +carried on the work. A fire destroyed much of this part of the +building in 1174, and from that year the architect, William of +Sens, took up the work of rebuilding until 1178, when, on his +suffering serious injury by falling from a scaffold, another +William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carried on +the work and completed it in 1184. In 1376 Archbishop +Sudbury entered upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior +Chillenden continued this under Archbishop Courtenay. The +building of the central tower was undertaken <i>c</i>. 1495 by Prior +Goldstone, with the counsel of Selling, his predecessor, and +Archbishop Morton.</p> + +<p>This Perpendicular tower is the most notable feature of the +exterior. It rises in two storeys to a height of 235 ft. from the +ground, and is known variously as Bell Harry tower +from the great bell it contains, or as the Angel steeple +<span class="sidenote">Exterior.</span> +from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly adorned the +summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front +by towers, whose massive buttresses, rising in tiers, serve to +enhance by contrast the beautiful effect of the unbroken straight +lines of Bell Harry tower. The south-western of these towers +is an original Perpendicular structure by Prior Goldstone, while +the north-western was copied from it in 1834-1840, replacing a +Norman tower which had carried a spire until 1705 and had +become unsafe. The north-west and south-west transepts are +included in Chillenden’s Perpendicular reconstruction; but east +of these earlier work is met with. The south-east transept +exhibits Norman work; the projecting chapel east of this is +known as Anselm’s tower. The cathedral terminates eastward in +a graceful apsidal form, with the final addition of the circular +eastern chapel built by William the Englishman, and known as +the Corona or Becket’s Crown. St Andrew’s tower or chapel +on the north side, corresponding to Anselm’s on the south, is +the work of Ernulf. From this point westward the various +monastic buildings adjoin the cathedral on the north side, so +that the south side is that from which the details of the exterior +must be examined.</p> + +<p>When the nave of the cathedral is entered, the complete +separation of the interior into two main parts, not only owing +to the distinction between the two main periods of +building; but by an actual structural arrangement, +<span class="sidenote">Interior.</span> +is realized as an unusual and, as it happens, a most impressive +feature. In most English cathedrals the choir is separated from +the nave by a screen; at Canterbury not only is this the case, +but the separation is further marked by a broad flight of steps +leading up to the screen, the choir floor (but not its roof) being +much higher than that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding +the nave, retained only the lower parts of some of the early +Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers of the central tower +arches. These piers were encased or altered on Perpendicular +lines. In the choir, the late 12th-century work of the two +Williams, the notable features are its great length, the fine +ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed, +a remarkable illustration of the transition between the Norman +and Early English styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the +shafts and mouldings strongly contrasting with the light stone +which is the material principally used; and, finally, the graceful +incurve of the main arcades and walls at the eastern end of the +choir where it joins the chapel of the Trinity, an arrangement +necessitated by the preservation of the earlier flanking chapels +or towers of St Anselm and St Andrew. From the altar eastward +the floor of the church is raised again above that of the choir. +The choir screen was built by Prior de Estria, <i>c.</i> 1300. The +organ is not seen, being hidden in the triforium and played from +the choir. There are several tombs of archbishops in the choir. +The south-east transept serves as the chapel of the King’s school +and exhibits the work of William of Sens in alteration of that +of Ernulf. Anselm’s chapel or tower, already mentioned, may +be noticed again as containing a Decorated window (1336). This +style is not common in the cathedral.</p> + +<p>Behind the altar is Trinity Chapel, in the centre of which +stood the celebrated shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The +priory owed its chief fame to the murder of Archbishop +Becket (1170) in the church, his canonization as St +<span class="sidenote">Becket’s shrine. Pilgrimages.</span> +Thomas of Canterbury, and the resort of the Christian +world on pilgrimage to his shrine. Miracles were +almost immediately said to be worked at his grave in the crypt +and at the well in which his garments had been washed; and +from the time when Henry II. did his penance for the murder +in the church, and the battle of Alnwick was gained over the +Scots a few days afterwards—it was supposed as a result—the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span> +fame of the martyr’s power and the popularity of his worship +became established in England. On the rebuilding of the +cathedral after the fire of 1174, a magnificent shrine was erected +for him in Trinity Chapel, which was built for the purpose, and +became thronged for three centuries by pilgrims and worshippers +of all classes, from kings and emperors downward. Henceforward +the interests of the city became bound up in those of +the cathedral, and were shown in the large number of hostels +for the accommodation of pilgrims, and of shops containing +wares especially suited to their tastes. A pilgrimage to Canterbury +became not only a pious exercise, but a favourite summer +excursion; and the poet Chaucer, writing in the 14th century, +gives an admirable picture of such pilgrimages, with the manners +and behaviour of a party of pilgrims, leisurely enjoying the +journey and telling stories on the road. The English language +even preserved two words originating in these customs—a +“canterbury,” or a “canterbury tale,” a phrase used for a +fiction, and a “canter,” which is a short form for a “canterbury +gallop,” an allusion to the easy pace at which these pilgrimages +were performed. The shrine with its vast collected wealth was +destroyed, and every reminiscence connected with it as far as +possible effaced, by King Henry VIII.’s commissioners in 1538. +But some of the beautiful old windows of stained glass, illustrating +the miracles wrought in connexion with the saint, are preserved. +The north-west transept was the actual scene of Becket’s +murder; the spot where he fell is shown on the floor, but this +part of the building is of later date than the tragedy.</p> + +<p>Close to the site of the shrine is the fine tomb of Edward the +Black Prince, with a remarkable portrait effigy, and above it +his helmet, shield and other equipment. There is also in this +chapel the tomb of King Henry IV. The Corona, at the extreme +cast of the church, contains the so-called St Augustine’s chair +in which the archbishops are enthroned. It is of marble, but +its name is not deserved, as it dates probably from <i>c.</i> 1200. The +western part of the crypt, beneath the choir, is the work of +Ernulf, and perhaps incorporates some of Lanfranc’s work. +The chapel of St John or St Gabriel, beneath Anselm’s tower, +is still used for service, in which the French language is used; +it was devoted to this purpose in 1561, on behalf of French +Protestant refugees, who were also permitted to carry on their +trade as weavers in the crypt. The eastern and loftier part of +the crypt, with its apsidal termination, is the work of William +the Englishman. Here for some time lay the body of Becket, +and here the celebrated penance of Henry II. was performed.</p> + +<p>The chief entrance to the precincts is through an ornate gateway +at the south-west, called Christchurch gateway, and built +by Prior Goldstone in 1517. Among the remains of +the monastic buildings there may be mentioned the +<span class="sidenote">Monastic buildings.</span> +Norman ruins of the infirmary, the fine two-storeyed +treasury and the lavatory tower, Norman in the lower part and +Perpendicular in the upper. The cloisters are of various dates, +containing a little rich Norman work, but were very largely +rebuilt by Prior Chillenden. The upper part of the chapter-house +is also his work, but the lower is by Prior de Estria. The +library is modern. The site of the New Hall of the monastery +is covered by modern buildings of King’s school, but the Norman +entry-stair is preserved—a magnificent example of the style, +with highly ornate arcading.</p> + +<p>The principal dimensions of the cathedral arc: length (outside) +522 ft., nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in +breadth and 80 ft. in height.</p> + +<p>The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the +ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England +<span class="sidenote">Province and diocese.</span> +and Wales south of Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the +diocese covers a great part of Kent with a small part +of Sussex. The following is a list of archbishops of +Canterbury:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> 1. Augustine, 597 to 605.</td> <td class="tcl">49. John Peckham, 1279 to 1292.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 2. Lawrence (Laurentius), 605 to 619.</td> <td class="tcl">50. Robert Winchelsea, 1293 to 1313.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 3. Mellitus, 619 to 624.</td> <td class="tcl">51. Walter Reynolds, 1313 to 1327.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 4. Justin. 624 to 627.</td> <td class="tcl">52. Simon de Meopham, 1328 to 1333.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 5. Honorius, 627 to 653.</td> <td class="tcl">53. John Stratford, 1333 to 1348.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 6. Deusdedit (Frithona), 655 to 664.</td> <td class="tcl">54. John de Ufford, 1348 to 1349.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 7. Theodore, 668 to 690.</td> <td class="tcl">55. Thomas Bradwardin, 1349.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 8. Brethwald (Berhtuald), 693 to 731.</td> <td class="tcl">56. Simon Islip, 1349 to 1366.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 9. Taetwine. 731 to 734.</td> <td class="tcl">57. Simon Langham, 1366 to 1368.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">10. Nothelm, 734 to 740.</td> <td class="tcl">58. William Whittlesea, 1368 to 1374.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">11. Cuthbert, 740 to 758.</td> <td class="tcl">59. Simon Sudbury, 1375 to 1381.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">12. Breogwine, 759 to 762.</td> <td class="tcl">60. William Courtenay, 1381 to 1396.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">13. Jaenberht, 763 to 790.</td> <td class="tcl">61. Thomas Arundel, 1396 to 1414.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">14. Aethelhard, 790 to 803.</td> <td class="tcl">62. Henry Chicheley, 1414 to 1443.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">15. Wulfred, 803 to 829.</td> <td class="tcl">63. John Stafford, 1443 to 1452.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">16. Fleogild, 829 to 830.</td> <td class="tcl">64. John Kemp, 1452 to 1454.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">17. Ceolnoth, 830 to 870.</td> <td class="tcl">65. Thomas Bourchier, 1454 to 1486.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">18. Aethelred, 870 to 889.</td> <td class="tcl">66. John Morton, 1486 to 1500.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">19. Plegemund, 889 to 914.</td> <td class="tcl">67. Henry Dean (Dene), 1501 to 1503.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">20. Aethelm, 914 to 923.</td> <td class="tcl">68. William Warham, 1503 to 1532.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">21. Wulfelm, 923 to 942.</td> <td class="tcl">69. Thomas Cranmer, 1533 to 1556.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">22. Odo, 942 to 959.</td> <td class="tcl">70. Reginald Pole, 1556 to 1558.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">23. Aelsine, 959.</td> <td class="tcl">71. Matthew Parker, 1559 to 1575.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">24. Dunstan, 960 to 988.</td> <td class="tcl">72. Edmund Grindal, 1575 to 1583.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">25. Aethelgar, 988 to 989.</td> <td class="tcl">73. John Whitgift, 1583 to 1604.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">26. Sigeric, 990 to 994.</td> <td class="tcl">74. Richard Bancroft, 1604 to 1610.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">27. Aelfric, 995 to 1005.</td> <td class="tcl">75. George Abbot, 1610 to 1633.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">28. Alphege (Aelfeah), 1005 to 1012.</td> <td class="tcl">76. William Laud, 1633 to 1645.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">29. Lyfing, 1013 to 1020.</td> <td class="tcl">77. William Juxon, 1660 to 1663.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">30. Aethelnoth, 1020 to 1038.</td> <td class="tcl">78. Gilbert Sheldon, 1663 to 1677.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">31. Eadsige, 1038 to 1050.</td> <td class="tcl">79. William Sancroft, 1678 to 1691.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">32. Robert of Jumièges, 1051 to 1052.</td> <td class="tcl">80. John Tillotson, 1691 to 1694.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">33. Stigand, 1052 to 1070.</td> <td class="tcl">81. Thomas Tenison, 1694 to 1715.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">34. Lanfranc, 1070 to 1089.</td> <td class="tcl">82. William Wake, 1716 to 1737.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">35. Anselm, 1093 to 1109.</td> <td class="tcl">83. John Potter, 1737 to 1747.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">36. Ralph de Turbine, 1114 to 1122.</td> <td class="tcl">84. Thomas Herring, 1747 to 1757.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">37. William de Corbeuil (Curbellio), 1123 to 1136.</td> <td class="tcl">85. Matthew Hutton, 1757 to 1758.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">38. Theobald, 1139 to 1161.</td> <td class="tcl">86. Thomas Secker, 1758 to 1768.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">39. Thomas Becket, 1162 to 1170.</td> <td class="tcl">87. Frederick Cornwallis, 1768 to 1783.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">40. Richard, 1174 to 1184.</td> <td class="tcl">88. John Moore, 1783 to 1805.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">41. Baldwin, 1185 to 1190.</td> <td class="tcl">89. Charles Manners-Sutton, 1805 to 1828.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">42. Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn, 1191.</td> <td class="tcl">90. William Howley, 1828 to 1848.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">43. Hubert Walter, 1193 to 1205.</td> <td class="tcl">91. John Bird Sumner, 1848 to 1862.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">44. Stephen Langton, 1207 to 1228.</td> <td class="tcl">92. Charles Thomas Longley, 1862 to 1868.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">45. Richard Wethershed, 1229 to 1231.</td> <td class="tcl">93. Archibald Campbell Tait, 1868 to 1882.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">46. Edmund Rich (de Abbendon) 1234 to 1240.</td> <td class="tcl">94. Edward White Benson, 1882 to 1896.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">47. Boniface of Savoy, 1241 to 1270.</td> <td class="tcl">95. Frederick Temple, 1896 to 1903.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">48. Robert Kilwardby, 1273 to 1278.</td> <td class="tcl">96. Randall Thomas Davidson.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth Palace, London. +There are fragments in Palace Street of the old archbishop’s +palace which have been incorporated with a modern palace.</p> + +<p><i>Other Ecclesiastical Foundations.</i>—Canterbury naturally +abounded in religious foundations. The most important, apart +from the cathedral, was the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine. +This was erected on a site granted by King Aethelberht outside +his capital, in a tract called Longport. Augustine dedicated +it to St Peter and St Paul, but Archbishop Dunstan added the +sainted name of the founder to the dedication, and in common +use it came to exclude those of the apostles. The site is now +occupied by St Augustine’s Missionary College, founded in 1844 +when the property was acquired by A.J.B. Beresford Hope. +Some ancient remnants are preserved, the principal being the +entrance gateway (1300), with the cemetery gate, dated a century +later, and the guest hall, now the refectory; but the scanty +ruins of St Pancras’ chapel are of high interest, and embody +Roman material. The chapel is said to have received its dedication +from St Augustine on account of the special association of +St Pancras with children, and in connexion with the famous +story of St Gregory, w hose attention was first attracted to Britain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +when he saw the fair-faced children of the Angles who had been +brought to Rome, and termed them “not Angles but angels.”</p> + +<p>There were lesser houses of many religious orders in Canterbury, +but only two, those of the Dominicans near St Peter’s church +in St Peter’s Street, and the Franciscans, also in St Peter’s +Street, have left notable remains. The Dominican refectory is +used as a chapel. Among the many churches, St Martin’s, +Longport, is of the first interest. This was the scene of the +earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury, and had seen Christian +service before his arrival. Its walls contain Roman masonry, +but whether it is in part a genuine remnant of a Romano-British +Christian church is open to doubt. There are Norman, Early +English and later portions; and the font may be in part pre-Norman, +and is indeed associated by tradition with the baptism +of Aethelberht himself. St Mildred’s church exhibits Early +English and Perpendicular work, and the use of Roman material +is again visible here. St Paul’s is of Early English origin; +St Dunstan’s, St Peter’s and Holy Cross are mainly Decorated +and Perpendicular. The village of Harbledown, on the hill +west of Canterbury on the London road, from the neighbourhood +of which a beautiful view over the city is obtained, has many +associations with the ecclesiastical life of Canterbury. It is +mentioned by Chaucer in his pilgrimage under the name, appropriate +to its site, of “Bob up and down.” The almshouses, +which occupy the site of Lanfranc’s hospital for lepers, include +an ancient hall and a chapel in which the west door and northern +nave arcade are Norman, and are doubtless part of Lanfranc’s +buildings. The neighbouring parish church is in great part +rebuilt. Among the numerous charitable institutions in Canterbury +there are several which may be called the descendants of +medieval ecclesiastical foundations.</p> + +<p><i>City Buildings, &c.</i>—The old city walls may be traced, and +the public walk called the Dane John (derived probably from +<i>donjon</i>) follows the summit of a high artificial mound within +the lines. The cathedral is finely seen from this point. Only +the massive turreted west gate, of the later part of the 14th +century, remains out of the former six city gates. The site of +the castle is not far from the Dane John, and enough remains of +the Norman keep to show its strength and great size. Among +other buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the +guildhall in High Street, of the early part of the 18th century; +the museum, which includes a fine collection of local, including +many Roman, relics; and the school of art, under municipal +management, but founded by the painter T. Sidney Cooper +(d. 1902), who was a resident at Harbledown. A modern statue +of a muse commemorates the poet Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), +a native of the city; and a pillar indicates the place where +a number of persons were burnt at the stake in the reign of Mary.</p> + +<p>The King’s school, occupying buildings adjacent to the +cathedral, developed out of the early teaching furnished by the +monastery. It was refounded by Henry VIII. in 1541 (whence +its name), and is managed on the lines of ordinary public schools. +It has about 250 boys; and there is besides a junior or preparatory +school. The school is still connected with the ecclesiastical +foundation, the dean and chapter being its governors.</p> + +<p>A noted occasion of festivity in Canterbury is the Canterbury +cricket-week, when the Kent county cricket eleven engages in +matches with other first-class teams, and many visitors are +attracted to the city.</p> + +<p>Canterbury has a considerable agriculture trade, breweries, +tanneries, brickworks and other manufactures. The parliamentary +borough returns one member. The city is governed by +a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3955 acres.</p> + +<p><i>History of the City.</i>—The existence of a Romano-British town +on the site of Canterbury has already been indicated. It was +named <i>Durovernum</i>, and was a flourishing county town on the +road from the Kentish ports to London. Mosaic pavements and +other remains have been found in considerable abundance. The +city, known by the Saxons as <i>Cantwaraburh</i>, the town of the men +of Kent, was the metropolis of Aethelberht’s kingdom. At the +time of the Domesday survey Canterbury formed part of the +royal demesne and was governed by a portreeve as it had been +before the Conquest. In the 13th and 14th centuries, two +bailiffs presided over the burghmote, assisted by a larger and +smaller council. Henry II., by an undated charter, confirmed +former privileges and granted to the citizens that no one should +implead them outside the city walls and that the pleas of the +crown should be decided according to the customs of the city. +In 1256 Henry III. granted them the city at an annual fee farm +of £60, also the right of electing their bailiffs. Confirmations +of former charters with additional liberties were granted by later +sovereigns, and Henry VI. incorporated Canterbury, which he +called “one of our most ancient cities,” under the style of the +mayor and commonalty, the mayor to be elected by the burgesses. +James I. in 1609 confirmed these privileges, giving the burgesses +the right to be called a body corporate and to elect twelve aldermen +and a common council of twenty-four. Charles II., after +calling in the charters of corporations, granted a confirmation in +1684. Canterbury was first represented in parliament in 1283, +and it continued to return two members until 1885, when the +number was reduced to one. A fair was granted by Henry VI. +to the citizens to be held in the city or suburbs on the 4th of +August and the two days following; other fairs were in the +hands of the monasteries; the corn and cattle markets and a +general market have been held by prescription from time +immemorial. Canterbury was a great centre of the silk-weaving +trade in the 17th century, large numbers of Walloons, driven by +persecution to England, having settled there in the reign of +Elizabeth. In 1676 Charles II. granted a charter of incorporation +to the Walloon congregation under style of the master, wardens +and fellowship of weavers in the city of Canterbury. The market +for the sale of corn and hops was regulated by a local act in 1801.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.P. Stanley, <i>Historical Memorials of Canterbury</i> (London, +1855); J. Brent, <i>Canterbury in the Olden Time</i> (Canterbury, 1879); +J.W. Legg and W.H. St J. Hope, <i>Inventories of Christchurch, +Canterbury</i> (London, 1902); <i>Victoria County History, Kent</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTHARIDES,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Spanish Flies</span>, the common blister-beetles +(<i>Cantharis vesicatoria</i>) of European pharmacy. They are +bright, iridescent, golden-green or bluish-coloured beetles (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>), with the breast finely punctured and pubescent, +head and thorax with a longitudinal channel, and elytra with two +slightly elevated lines. The insect is from half-an-inch to an inch +in length, and from one to two lines broad, the female being +broader in the abdomen and altogether larger than the male. +It is a native of the south of Europe, being found in Spain, +France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the south of Russia, and +it is also obtained in Siberia. The Spanish fly is also occasionally +found in the south of England. The insects feed upon ash, lilac, +privet and jasmine leaves, and are found more rarely on elder, +rose, apple and poplar trees. Their presence is made known by +a powerful disagreeable odour, which penetrates to a considerable +distance. They are collected for use at late evening or early +morning, while in a dull bedewed condition, by shaking them off +the trees or shrubs into cloths spread on the ground; and they +are killed by dipping them into hot water or vinegar, or by exposing +them for some time over the vapour of vinegar. They are +then dried and put up for preservation in glass-stoppered +bottles; and they require to be very carefully guarded against +mites and various other minute insects, to the attacks of which +they are peculiarly liable. It has been shown by means of +spectroscopic observations that the green colour of the elytra, +&c., is due to the presence of chlorophyll; and that the variations +of the spectral bands are sufficient, after the lapse of many +years, to indicate with some certainty the kind of leaves on which +the insects were feeding shortly before they were killed.</p> + +<p>Cantharides owe their value to the presence of a peculiar +chemical principle, to which the name <i>cantharidin</i> has been given. +It is most abundant in large full-grown insects, while in very +young specimens no cantharidin at all has been found. From +about one-fourth to rather more than one-half per cent, of +cantharidin has been obtained from different samples; and it +has been ascertained that the elytra or wing-sheaths of the +insect, which alone are used in pharmacy, contain more of the +active principle than the soft parts taken together; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +apparently cantharidin is most abundant in the eggs and +generative organs.</p> + +<p>Cantharidin constitutes from ½ to 1% of cantharides. It has the +formula C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, and on hydrolysis is converted into cantharinic +acid, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">5</span>. It crystallizes in colourless plates and is +readily soluble in alcohol, ether, &c., but not in water. The +British Pharmacopeia contains a large number of preparations of +cantharides, but the only one needing special mention is the tincture, +which is meant for internal administration; the small dose is +noteworthy, five minims being probably the maximum for safety.</p> + +<p>The external action of cantharides or cantharidin is extremely +characteristic. When it is applied to the skin there are no +obvious consequences for some hours. Thereafter the part +becomes warm and painful, owing to marked local vascular +dilatation. This is the typical <i>rubefacient</i> action. Soon afterwards +there is an accumulation under the epidermis of a serum +derived from the dilated blood-vessels. The numerous small +blisters or vesicles thus derived coalesce, forming a large sac full +of “blister-fluid.” The drug is described as a counter-irritant, +though the explanation of this action is very doubtful. Apparently +there is an influence on the afferent nerves of the part +which causes a reflex contraction—some authors say dilatation—of +the vessels in the internal organs that are under the control of +the same segment of the nervous system as that supplying the area +of skin from which the exciting impulse comes. When applied +in this fashion a certain quantity of the cantharides is absorbed.</p> + +<p>Taken internally in any but minute doses, the drug causes +the most severe gastro-intestinal irritation, the vomited and +evacuated matters containing blood, and the patient suffering +agonizing pain and extreme depression. The further characteristic +symptoms are displayed in the genito-urinary tract. The +drug circulates in the blood in the form of an albuminate and is +slowly excreted by the kidneys. The effect of large doses is to +cause great pain in the renal region and urgent wish to micturate. +The urine is nevertheless small in amount and contains albumen +and blood owing to the local inflammation produced in the +kidney by the passage of the poison through that organ. The +drug often has a marked aphrodisiac action, producing priapism, +or in the female sex the onset of the catamenia or abortion.</p> + +<p>Cantharides is used externally for its counter-irritant action. +There are certain definite contra-indications to its use. It must +not be employed in cases of renal disease, owing to the risks +attendant upon absorption. It must always be employed with +caution in the case of elderly persons and children; and it must +not be applied to a paralysed limb (in which the power of healing +is deficient), nor to parts upon which the patient lies, as otherwise +a bed-sore is likely to follow its use. The drug is administered +internally in certain cases of impotence and occasionally +in other conditions. Its criminal employment is usually intended +to heighten sexual desire, and has frequently led to death.</p> + +<p>The toxic symptoms have already been detailed, the patient +usually dying from arrest of the renal functions. The treatment +is far from satisfactory, and consists in keeping up the strength +and diluting the poison in the blood and in the urine by the +administration of bland fluids, such as soda-water, milk and plain +water, in quantities as large as possible. External warmth should +also be applied to the regions specially affected by the drug.</p> + +<p>A very large number of other insects belonging to the same +family possess blistering properties, owing to their containing +cantharidin. Of these the most remarkable is the Telini “fly” +of India (<i>Mylabris cichorii</i>), the range of which extends from +Italy and Greece through Egypt and central Asia as far as China. +It is very rich in cantharidin, yielding fully twice as much as +ordinary cantharides. Several green-coloured beetles are, on +account of their colour, used as adulterants to cantharides, but +they are very easily detected by examination with the eye, or, +if powdered, with the microscope.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTICLES.<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> The Old Testament book of Canticles, or the +Song of Solomon, is called in Hebrew <i>The Song of Songs</i> (that is, +<i>the choicest of songs</i>), or, according to the full title which stands as +the first verse of the book, <i>The choicest of the songs of Solomon</i>. +In the Western versions the book holds the third place among +the so-called Solomonic writings, following Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. +In Hebrew Bibles it stands among the <i>Megilloth</i>, the five +books of the Hagiographa which have a prominent place in the +Synagogue service. In printed Bibles and in German MSS. it +is the first of these because it is read at the Passover, which is +the first great feast of the sacred year of the Jews.</p> + +<p>No part of the Bible has called forth a greater diversity of +opinions than the Song of Solomon, and this for two reasons. +In the first place, the book holds so unique a position in the +Old Testament, that the general analogy of Hebrew literature +is a very inadequate key to the verbal difficulties, the artistic +structure, and the general conception and purpose of the poem. +In point of language the departures from ordinary Hebrew are +almost always in the direction of Aramaic. Many forms unique +in Biblical Hebrew are at once explained by the Aramaic dialects, +but not a few are still obscure. The philological difficulties +of the book are, however, less fundamental than those which +lie in the unique character of the Song of Solomon in point of +artistic form, and in the whole atmosphere of thought and feeling +in which it moves. Even in these respects it is not absolutely +isolated. Parallels to the peculiar imagery may be found in +the book of Hosea, in Ezekiel xvi. and xxiii. and above all in the +45th Psalm; but such links of union to the general mass of the +Old Testament literature are too slight to be of material assistance +in the solution of the literary problem of the book. Here, again, +as in the lexical difficulties already referred to, we are tempted +or compelled to argue from the distant and insecure analogy +of other Eastern literatures, or are thrown back upon traditions +of uncertain origin and ambiguous authority.</p> + +<p>The power of tradition has been the second great source of +confusion of opinion about the Song of Solomon. To tradition +we owe the title, which apparently indicates Solomon as the +author and not merely as the subject of the book. The authority +of titles in the Old Testament is often questionable, and in the +present case it is certain on linguistic grounds that the title is +not from the hand that wrote the poem; while to admit that it +gives a correct account of the authorship is to cut away at one +stroke all the most certain threads of connexion between the +book and our historical knowledge of the Old Testament people +and literature.</p> + +<p>To tradition, again, we owe the prejudice in favour of an +allegorical interpretation, that is, of the view that from verse +to verse the Song sets forth the history of a spiritual and not +merely of an earthly love. To apply such an exegesis to Canticles +is to violate one of the first principles of reasonable interpretation. +True allegories are never without internal marks of their +allegorical design. The language of symbol is not so perfect +that a long chain of spiritual ideas can be developed without +the use of a single spiritual word or phrase; and even were this +possible it would be false art in the allegorist to hide away his +sacred thoughts behind a screen of sensuous and erotic imagery, +so complete and beautiful in itself as to give no suggestion that +it is only the vehicle of a deeper sense. Apart from tradition, +no one, in the present state of exegesis, would dream of allegorizing +poetry which in its natural sense is so full of purpose and +meaning, so apt in sentiment, and so perfect in imagery as the +lyrics of Canticles. We are not at liberty to seek for allegory +except where the natural sense is incomplete. This is not the +case in the Song of Solomon. On the contrary, every form of +the allegorical interpretation which has been devised carries +its own condemnation in the fact that it takes away from the +artistic unity of the poem and breaks natural sequences of +thought.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon +bad its rise in the very same conditions which forced a deeper +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> +sense, now universally discarded, upon so many other parts +of scripture. Yet strangely enough there is no evidence that +the Jews of Alexandria extended to the book their favourite +methods of interpretation. The arguments which have been +adduced to prove that the Septuagint translation implies an +allegorical exegesis are inadequate;<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Philo does not mention +the book. Nor is there any allusion to Canticles in the New Testament. +The first trace of an allegorical view identifying Israel +with the “spouse” appears to be in the Fourth Book of Ezra, near +the close of the 1st Christian century (v. 24, 26; vii. 26). Up +to this time the canonicity of the Canticles was not unquestioned; +and the final decision as to the sanctity of the book, so energetically +carried through by R. Aqiba, when he declared that “the +whole world is not worth the day on which the Song of Songs +was given to Israel; for all the scriptures (or Hagiographa) +are holy, but the Canticles most holy,” must be understood as +being at the same time a victory of the allegorical interpretation +over the last remains of a view which regarded the poem as +simply erotic.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The form in which the allegorical theory became fixed in the +synagogue is contained in the Midrash <i>Chazita</i> and in the Targum, +which is a commentary rather than a translation. The spouse +is Israel, her royal lover the divine king, and the poem is explained +as tracing the great events of the people’s history from +the Exodus to the Messianic glory and final restoration.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The authority of Origen, who, according to Jerome, surpassed +himself in his commentary of ten volumes on this book, established +the allegorical theory in the Christian church in the two +main forms in which it has since prevailed. The bridegroom is +Christ, the bride either the church or the believing soul. The +latter conception is, of course, that which lends itself most +readily to purposes of mystical edification, and which has +made Canticles the manual in all ages of a wide-spread type of +religious contemplation. But the other view, which identifies +the bride with the church, must be regarded as the standard of +orthodox exegesis. Of course the allegorical principle admitted +of very various modifications, and readily adapted itself to new +religious developments, such as the rise of Mariolatry. Within +the limits of the orthodox traditions the allegory took various +colours, according as its mystical or its prophetical aspect was +insisted on. Among medieval commentators of the former class +S. Bernard holds a pre-eminent place; while the second class is +represented by Nicolaus de Lyra, who, himself a converted Jew, +modified the Jewish interpretation so as to find in the book an +account of the <i>processus ecclesiae</i> under the Old and New Testaments. +The prophetic exegesis reached its culminating point +in the post-Reformation period, when Cocceius found in the +Canticles a complete conspectus of church history. But the +relaxation of traditional authority opened the door to still +stranger vagaries of interpretation. Luther was tempted to +understand the book of the political relations of Solomon and +his people. Others detected the loves of Solomon and Wisdom—a +view which found a supporter in Rosenmüller.</p> + +<p>The history of the literal interpretation begins with the great +“commentator” of the Syrian Church, Theodorus of Mopsuestia +(died 429), who condemned equally the attempt to find in the +book a prophecy of the blessings given to the church, and the +idea even at that time expressed in some quarters that the book +is immoral. Theodorus regarded the Canticles as a poem +written by Solomon in answer to the complaints of his people +about his Egyptian marriage; and this was one of the heresies +charged upon him after his death, which led to his condemnation +at the second council of Constantinople (553 <span class="sc">a.d.</span>). A literal +interpretation was not again attempted till in 1544 Chateillon +(Castellio or Castalion) lost his regency at Geneva for proposing +to expel the book from the canon as impure. Grotius (<i>Annot. +in V.T.</i>, 1644) took up a more moderate position. Without +denying the possibility of a secondary reference designed by +Solomon to give his poem a more permanent value, he regards +the Canticles as primarily an <span class="grk" title="oaristys">ὀαρίστυς</span> (conjugal prattle) between +Solomon and Pharaoh’s daughter. The distinction of a primary +and secondary sense gradually became current not only among +the Remonstrants, but in England (Lightfoot, Lowth) and even +in Catholic circles (Bossuet, 1693). In the actual understanding +of the book in its literal sense no great progress was made. +Solomon was still viewed as the author, and for the most part +the idea that the poem is a dramatic epithalamium was borrowed +from Origen and the allegorists, and applied to the marriage +of Pharaoh’s daughter.</p> + +<p>From Grotius to Lowth the idea of a typical reference designed +by Solomon himself appears as a mere excrescence on the natural +interpretation, but as an excrescence which could not be removed +without perilling the place of Canticles in the canon, which, +indeed, was again assailed by Whiston in 1723. But in his notes +on Lowth’s lectures, J.D. Michaelis, who regarded the poem as a +description of the enduring happiness of true wedded love long +after marriage, proposed to drop the allegory altogether, and to +rest the canonicity of the book, as of those parts of Proverbs +which treat of conjugal affection, on the moral picture it presents (1758).</p> + +<p>Then came Herder’s exquisite little treatise on <i>Solomon’s +Songs of Love, the Oldest and Sweetest of the East</i> (1778). Herder, +possessing delicacy of taste and sympathetic poetical genius, +delighted in the Canticles as the transparently natural expression +of innocent and tender love. He expressed the idea that the +poem is simply a sequence of independent songs without inner +unity, grouped so as to display various phases and stages of love +in a natural order, culminating in the placid joys of wedded life. +The theory of Herder, which refuses to acknowledge any continuity +in the book, was accepted by Eichhorn on the part of +scholars, and with some hesitation by Goethe on the part of the +poets. Commentaries based on this view are those of Döpke +(1829), Magnus (1842), Noyes (1846).</p> + +<p>The prevalent view of the 19th century, however, recognizes +in the poem a more or less pronounced dramatic character, and +following Jacobi (1771) distinguishes the shepherd, the true love +of the Shulamite, from King Solomon, who is made to play an +ignominious part. Propounded by Stäudlin (1792) and Ammon +(1795), this view was energetically carried out by Umbreit (1820), +and above all by Ewald, whose acuteness gave the theory a new +development, while his commanding influence among Hebrew +scholars acquired for it general recognition. Ewald assumed a +very simple dramatic structure, and did not in his first publication +(1826) venture to suppose that the poem had ever been acted +on a stage. His less cautious followers have been generally +tempted to dispose of difficulties by introducing more complicated +action and additional interlocutors (so, for example, Hitzig, +1855; Ginsburg, 1857; Renan, 1860); while Böttcher (1850) +did his best to reduce the dramatic exposition to absurdity by +introducing the complexities and stage effects of a modern +operetta. Another view is that of Delitzsch (1851 and 1875) +and his followers, who also plead for a dramatic form—though +without supposing that the piece was ever acted—but adhere +to the traditional notion that Solomon is the author, who celebrates +his love to a peasant maiden, whom he made his wife, and +in whose company the proud monarch learned to appreciate the +sweetness of a true affection and a simple rustic life.</p> + +<p>In view of the prevalence of the “dramatic” theory of +Canticles during the 19th century, and its retention by some +comparatively recent writers (Oettli, Driver, Adeney, Harper), +it seems desirable that this theory should be presented in some +detail. A convenient summary of the form it assumed in the +hands of Ewald (the shepherd-hypothesis) and of Delitzsch (the +king-hypothesis) is given by Driver (<i>Literature of the Old +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +Testament</i>, ch. x. § 1). The following presentation of the theory, +on the general lines of Ewald, gives that form of it which +Robertson Smith was able to accept in 1876.</p> + +<p>The centre of attraction is throughout a female figure, and the +unity of this figure is the chief test of the unity of the book. In +the long canto, i. 1-ii .7, the heroine appears in a royal palace +(i. 4) among the daughters of Jerusalem, who are thus presumably +ladies of the court of Zion. At i. 9, an additional interlocutor is +introduced, who is plainly a king, and apparently Solomon +(i. 9, 12). He has just risen from table, and praises the charms +of the heroine with the air of a judge of beauty, but without +warmth. He addresses her simply as “my friend” (not as +English version, “my love”). The heroine, on the contrary, is +passionately in love, but nothing can be plainer than that the +object of her affection is not the king. She is not at home in the +palace, for she explains (i. 6) that she has spent her life as a +peasant girl in the care of vineyards. Her beloved, whom she +knows not where to find (i. 7), but who lies constantly on her +heart and is cherished in her bosom like a spray of the sweet +henna flowers which Oriental ladies delight to wear (i. 13, 14), is +like herself a peasant—a shepherd lad (i. 7)—with whom she was +wont to sit in the fresh greenwood under the mighty boughs of +the cedars (i. 16, 17). Even before the king’s entrance the ladies +of the court are impatient at so silly an affection, and advise her, +“if she is really so witless,” to begone and rejoin her plebeian +lover (i. 8). To them she appeals in ii. 5, 6, where her self-control, +strung to the highest pitch as she meets the compliments +of the king with reminiscences of her absent lover, breaks down +in a fit of half-delirious sickness. The only words directed to the +king are those of i. 12, which, if past tenses are substituted for the +presents of the English version, contain a pointed rebuff. Finally, +ii. 7 is, on the plainest translation, a charge not to arouse love till +it please. The moral of the scene is the spontaneity of true +affection.</p> + +<p>Now, at viii. 5, a female figure advances leaning upon her +beloved, with whom she claims inseparable union,—“for love is +strong as death, its passion inflexible as the grave, its fire a +divine flame which no waters can quench or floods drown. Yea, +if a man would give all his wealth for love he would only be +contemned.” This is obviously the sentiment of ii. 7, and the +suitor, whose wealth is despised, must almost of necessity be +identified with the king of chapter i., if, as seems reasonable, we +place viii. ii, 12 in the mouth of the same speaker—“King +Solomon has vineyards which bring him a princely revenue, and +enrich even the farmers. Let him and them keep their wealth; +my vineyard is before me” (<i>i.e.</i> I possess it in present fruition). +The last expression is plainly to be connected with i. 6. But this +happiness has not been reached without a struggle. The speaker +has proved herself an impregnable fortress (ver. 10), and, armed +only with her own beauty and innocence, has been in his eyes as +one that found peace. The sense is that, like a virgin fortress, +she has compelled her assailant to leave her in peace. To these +marks of identity with the heroine of ch. i. are to be added that +she appears here as dwelling in gardens, there as a keeper of +vineyards (i. 6, and viii. 13), and that as there it was her brethren +that prescribed her duties, so here she apparently quotes words in +which her brothers, while she was still a child, speculated as to her +future conduct and its reward (viii. 8, 9).</p> + +<p>If this analysis of the commencement and close of the book is +correct, it is certain that the poem is in a sense dramatic, that is, +that it uses dialogue and monologue to develop a story. The +heroine appears in the opening scene in a difficult and painful +situation, from which in the last chapter she is happily extricated. +But the dramatic progress which the poem exhibits +scarcely involves a plot in the usual sense of that word. The +words of viii. 9, 10 clearly indicate that the deliverance of the +heroine is due to no combination of favouring circumstances, +but to her own inflexible fidelity and virtue.</p> + +<p>The constant direction of the maiden’s mind to her true love is +partly expressed in dialogue with the ladies of the court (the +daughters of Jerusalem), who have no dramatic individuality, +and whose only function in the economy of the piece is to give +the heroine opportunity for a more varied expression of her +feelings. In i. 8 we found them contemptuous. In chapter iii. +they appear to be still indifferent; for when the heroine relates a +dream in which the dull pain of separation and the uneasy +consciousness of confinement and danger in the unsympathetic +city disappear for a moment in imagined reunion with her lover, +they are either altogether silent or reply only by taking up a +festal part song describing the marriage procession of King +Solomon (iii. 6-11), which stands in jarring contrast to the +feelings of the maiden.<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> A second dream (v. 2-8), more weird +and melancholy, and constructed with that singular psychological +felicity which characterizes the dreams of the Old Testament, +gains more sympathy, and the heroine is encouraged to +describe her beloved at large (v. 10-vi. 3). The structure of +these dialogues is so simple, and their purpose is so strictly +limited to the exhibition of the character and affection of the +maiden, that it is only natural to find them supplemented by a +free use of pure monologue, in which the heroine recalls the +happiness of past days, or expresses her rising hope of reunion +with her shepherd, and restoration to the simple joys of her +rustic life. The vivid reminiscence of ii. 8-17 takes the form of a +dialogue within the main dialogue of the poem, a picture within a +picture—the picture of her beloved as he stood at her window in +the early spring time, and of her own merry heart as she laughingly +answered him in the song with which watchers of the +vineyards frighten away the foxes. It is, of course, a fault of +perspective that this reminiscence is as sharp in outline and as +strong in colour as the main action. But no one can expect +perspective in such early art, and recollection of the past is +clearly enough separated from present reality by ii. 16, 17. The +last monologue (vii. 10-viii. 3), in which the hope of immediate +return with her lover is tempered by maidenly shame, and a +maiden’s desire for her mother’s counsel, is of special value +for a right appreciation of the psychology of the love which +the poem celebrates, and completes a picture of this flower +of the northern valleys which is not only firm in outline, but +delicate in touch. The subordinate action which supports the +portraiture of the maiden of Galilee is by no means easy to +understand.</p> + +<p>We come next to chapter vi., which again sings the praises +of the heroine, and takes occasion in this connexion to introduce, +with the same want of perspective as we observed in ch. ii., +a dialogue descriptive of Solomon’s first meeting with the maiden. +We learn that she was an inhabitant of Shulem or Shunem in +Issachar, whom the king and his train surprised in a garden on +the occasion of a royal progress through the north. Her beauty +drew from the ladies of the court a cry of admiration. The +maiden shrinks back with the reply—“I was gone down into +my garden to see its growth.... I know not how my soul +hath brought me among the chariots of princes”; but she is +commanded to turn and let herself be seen in spite of her bashful +protest—“Why do ye gaze on the Shulamite as at a dance of +Mahanaim (a spectacle)?” Now the person in whose mouth +this relation is placed must be an eye-witness of the scene, and +so none other than the king. But in spite of the verbal repetition +of several of the figures of ch. iv.... the tone in which the +king now addresses the Shulamite is quite changed. She is +not only beautiful but terrible, her eyes trouble him, and he +cannot endure their gaze. She is unique among women, the choice +and only one of her mother. The unity of action can only be +maintained by ignoring vii. 1-9, and taking the words of Solomon +in chapter vi. in their obvious sense as implying that the king +at length recognizes in the maiden qualities of soul unknown in +the harem, a character which compels respect, as well as a beauty +that inflames desire. The change of feeling which was wrought +in the daughters of Jerusalem in the previous scene now extends +to Solomon himself, and thus the glad utterances of vii. 10, seq., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +have a sufficient motive, and the <i>dénouement</i> is no longer violent +and unprepared.</p> + +<p>The <i>nodus</i> of the action is fully given in chapter i., the final +issue in chapter viii. The solution lies entirely in the character +and constancy of the heroine, which prevail, in the simplest +possible way, first over the ladies of the court and then over +the king.</p> + +<p>The attractiveness of the above theory cannot be denied; +but it may be asked whether the attraction does not lie in the +appeal to modern taste of a story which is largely the product +of modern imagination. It supposes a freedom of intercourse +between lovers inconceivable for the East. The initial situation +of the maiden in the harem of Solomon is left as a problem for +the reader to discover, until he comes to its supposed origin in +vi. 11; the expedient might be granted in the case of one of +Browning’s <i>Men and Women</i>, but seems very improbable in +the present case. The more elaborate dramatic theories can +find no parallel in Semitic literature to the “drama” of Canticles, +the book of Job being no exception to this statement; whilst +even the simpler theories ask us to believe that the essential +parts of the story—the rape of the Shulamite, the change in +Solomon’s disposition, her release from the harem—are to be +supplied by the reader from obscure and disputable references. +More serious still is the fact that any progress of action from +first to last is so difficult to prove. In the first chapter we listen +to a woman speaker desiring to be kissed by the man who has +brought her into his chambers, and speaking of “our bed”; +in the last we leave her “leaning upon her beloved.” The +difficulties of detail are equally great. To suppose that all the +male love-making, by hypothesis unsuccessful, belongs to +Solomon, whilst the heroine addresses her passionate words to +the continuously absent shepherd, is obviously unconvincing; +yet, if this shepherd speaks in iv. 8-v. 1, how are we to explain +his appearance in the royal harem? This and other difficulties +were acknowledged by Robertson Smith, notably the presence +of vii. 1-9, which he proposed to set aside as an interpolation, +because of its sensuality and of the difficulty of working it into +the dramatic scheme. The fact that this passage has subsequently +become the central element in the new interpretation +of the book is, perhaps, a warning against violent measures with +difficulties.</p> + +<p>Attention has already been drawn to Herder’s proposal, +accepted by some later writers, including Diestel and Reuss, to +regard the book as a collection of detached songs. This received +new and striking confirmation from the anthropological data +supplied by J.G. Wetstein (1873), Prussian consul at Damascus. +His observations of the wedding customs of Syrian peasants led +him to believe that Canticles is substantially a collection of +songs originally sung at such festivities. Wetstein’s contribution +was republished shortly afterwards by Delitzsch, in an appendix +to his <i>Commentary</i>; but it received little attention. The first +amongst Old Testament scholars to perceive its importance +seems to have been Stade, who accepted Wetstein’s view in a +footnote to his <i>History of the Jewish People</i> (ii. p. 197), published +in 1888; to Budde, however, belongs the distinction of the +systematic and detailed use of Wetstein’s suggestions, especially +in his <i>Commentary</i> (1898). This interpretation of the book is +accepted by Kautzsch (1896), Siegfried (1898), Cheyne (1899), +and other eminent scholars. The last-named states the theory +tersely as follows: “The book is an anthology of songs used at +marriage festivals in or near Jerusalem, revised and loosely +connected by an editor without regard to temporal sequence” +(<i>Ency. Bibl.</i> 691). The character of the evidence which has +contributed to the acceptance of this view may be indicated +in Wetstein’s own statements:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The finest time in the life of the Syrian peasant consists of the +first seven days after his wedding, in which he and his young wife +play the part of king (<i>melik</i>) and queen (<i>melika</i>), both being so +treated and served by their village and the invited communities of +the neighbourhood. The majority of the greater village weddings +fall in the month of March, the finest of the Syrian year. The +winter rains being over, and the sun still refreshing, not oppressive +as in the following months, the weddings are celebrated in the open +air on the village threshing-floor, which at this time of the year is +with few exceptions a flowery mead. ... We pass over the wedding-day +itself with its displays, the sword-dance of the bride, and the +great feast. On the morrow, bridegroom and bride awake as king +and queen. Already before sunrise they receive the leader of the +bridesmen, as their vizier, and the bridesmen themselves; the latter +thereupon fetch the threshing-board and bring it to the threshing-floor, +singing a rousing song of battle or love, generally both. There +it is erected as a throne, and after the royal couple have taken their +seats and the necessary formalities are gone through, a great dance +in honour of the young couple begins; the accompanying song is +concerned only with themselves, its principal element being the +inevitable <i>wasf</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a description of the physical perfections of both +and their ornaments. The eulogy of the queen is more moderate, +and praises her visible, rather than veiled, charms; this is due to +the fact that she is to-day a married woman, and that the <i>wasf</i> +sung on the previous day during her sword-dance has left nothing +to desire. This <i>wasf</i> is the weak element in Syrian wedding-songs +according to our taste; its comparisons are to us frequently too +clumsy and reveal the stereotyped pattern. It is the same with the +little collection of charming wedding-songs and fragments of them +which has been received into the canon of the Old Testament under +the name of Canticles; the <i>wasf</i> (iv.—vii.) is considerably below the +rest in poetical value. With this dance begin the sports, lasting +seven days, begun in the morning on the first, shortly before midday +on the other days, and continuing far into the night by the light of +the fires that are kindled; on the last day alone all is over by sunset. +During the whole week both royalties are in marriage attire, must do +no work and have no cares; they have only to look down from the +<i>merteba</i> (throne) on the sports carried on before them, in which they +themselves take but a moderate part; the queen, however, occasionally +gives a short dance to attract attention to her bridal attire.”<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>For the general application of these and the related customs +to the interpretation of the book, reference should be made to +Budde’s <i>Commentary</i>, which recognizes four <i>wasfs</i>, viz. iv. 1-7 +(describing the bride from head to breasts), v. 10-16 (the bridegroom), +vi. 4-7 (similar to and partly repeating iv. 1-7), and +vii. 1-9, belonging to the sword-dance of the bride, her physical +charms being sung from feet to head (cf. vii. 1; “Why look ye +on the Shulamite as (on) a dance of camps?” <i>i.e.</i> a war-dance). +This dance receives its name from the fact that she dances it +with a sword in her hand in the firelight on the evening of her +wedding-day, and amid a circle of men and women, whilst such +a <i>wasf</i> as this is sung by the leader of the choir. The passage +relating to the litter of Solomon (iii. 6-11)—an old difficulty +with the dramatizers—relates to the erection of the throne +on the threshing-floor.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The terms “Solomon” and “the +Shulamite” are explained as figurative references to the +famous king, and to Abishag the Shulamite, “fairest among +women,” on the lines of the use of “king” and “queen” noted +above. Other songs of Canticles are referred by Budde to the +seven days of festivities. It need hardly be said that difficulties +still remain in the analysis of this book of wedding-songs; +whilst Budde detects 23 songs, besides fragments, Siegfried +divides the book into 10.<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Such differences are to be expected +in the case of a collection of songs, some admittedly in dialogue +form, all concerned with the common theme of the love of man +and woman, and without any external indication of the transition +from one song to the next.</p> + +<p>Further, we must ask whether the task has been complicated +by any editorial rearrangement or interpolation; the collector +of these songs has certainly not reproduced them in the order +of their use at Syrian weddings. Can we trace any principle, or +even any dominant thought in this arrangement? In this +connexion we touch the reason for the reluctance of some scholars +to accept the above interpretation, viz. the alleged marks of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +literary unity which the book contains (<i>e.g.</i> Driver, <i>loc. cit.</i>). +These are (1) general similarity of treatment, seen in the use +of imagery (the bride as a garden, iv. 12; vi. 2, 3), the frequent +references to nature and to particular places, and the recurrence +of descriptions of male and female beauty; (2) references to +“Solomon” or “the king,” to “the Shulamite” and to “the +daughters of Jerusalem” (from which, indeed, the dramatic +theory has found its chief inspiration); (3) indications that the +same person is speaking in different places (cf. the two dreams +of a woman, and the vineyard references, i. 6; viii. 12); (4) +repetitions of words and phrases especially of the refrains, +“disturb not love” (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and “until the day +break” (ii. 17; iv. 6). But of these (1) is no more than should +be expected, since the songs all relate to the same subject, and +spring from a common world of life and thought of the same +group of people; (2) finds at least a partial parallel and explanation +in the use of “king” and “queen” noted above; whilst +(3) and (4) alone seem to require something more than the work +of a mere collector of the songs. It is, of course, true that, in +recurrent ceremonies, the same thought inevitably tends to +find expression in the same words. But this hardly meets the +case of the refrains, whilst the reference to the vineyard at beginning +and end does suggest some literary connexion. It is to +be noted that the three refrains “disturb not love” severally +follow passages relating to the consummation of the sexual +relation, whilst the two refrains “until the day break” appear +to form an invitation and an answer in the same connexion, +whilst the “Omnia vincit Amor” passage in the last chapter +forms a natural climax (cf. Haupt’s translation). So far, then, +as this somewhat scanty evidence goes, it may point to some +one hand which has given its semblance of unity to the book by +underlining the joy of consummated love—to which the vineyard +and garden figures throughout allude—and by so arranging the +collection that the descriptions of this joy find their climax +in viii. 6-7.<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>Whatever conclusion, however, may be reached as to the +present <i>arrangement</i> of Canticles, the recognition of wedding-songs +as forming its nucleus marks an important stage in the +interpretation of the book; even Rothstein (1902), whilst +attempting to resuscitate a dramatic theory, “recognizes... +the possibility that older wedding-songs (as, for instance, the +<i>wasfs</i>) are worked up in the Song of Songs” (Hastings’ <i>D.B.</i> +p. 594b). The drama he endeavours to construct might, indeed, +be called “The Tokens of Virginity,” since he makes it culminate +in the procedure of Deut. xxii. 13 f., which still forms part of +the Syrian ceremonies. But his reconstruction is open to the +same objection as all similar attempts, in that the vital moments +of the dramatic action have to be supplied from without. Thus +between v. 1 and v. 2, the baffled king is supposed to have disappeared, +and to have been replaced by the happy lover; +between viii. 7 and viii. 8, we are required to imagine “the +bridal night and its mysteries”; whilst between viii. 9 and viii. +10, we must suppose the evidence that the bride has been found +a virgin is exhibited. He also attempts, with considerable +ingenuity, to trace the legend involved in the supposed drama +to the fact that Abishag remained a virgin in regard to David +(I Kings i. 4) whilst nothing is said of her marriage to Solomon.<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>On the view accepted above, Canticles describes in a number +of separate poems the central passion of human life, and is +wholly without didactic tendencies. Of its earliest history as +a book we have no information. It is already included in the +Hebrew canon (though its right to be there is disputed) when +the first explicit mention of the book occurs. We have no +evidence, therefore, of the theory of interpretation prevalent +at the time of its incorporation with the other books of the +canon. It seems, however, fair to infer that it would hardly +have found acceptance but for a Solomonic theory of authorship +and a “religious” theory of meaning. The problem raised by +its present place in the canon occurs in relation to mistaken +Jewish theories about other books also; it suggests, at least, +that divine inspiration may belong to the life of a people rather +than to the letter of their literature. Of that life Canticles +portrays a central element—the passion of love—in striking +imagery and graceful language, however far its oriental standard +of taste differs from that of the modern West.</p> + +<p>From the nature of the book, it is impossible to assign a +precise date for its origin; the wedding-songs of which it chiefly +consists must belong to the folklore of more than one century. +The only evidence we possess as to date is drawn from the character +of the Hebrew in which the book is written, which shows +frequent points of contact with new Hebrew.<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> On this ground, +we may suppose the present form of the work to date from the +Greek period, <i>i.e.</i> after 332 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> This is the date accepted by +most recent writers, <i>e.g.</i> Kautzsch, Cheyne, Budde, Rothstein, +Jacob, Haupt. This late date finds some confirmation in the +fact that Canticles belongs to the third and latest part of the Old +Testament canon, and that its canonicity was still in dispute +at the end of the 1st century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> The evidence offered for a +north Israelite origin, on the ground of linguistic parallels and +topographical familiarity (Driver, <i>loc. cit.</i>), does not seem very +convincing; Haupt, however, places the compilation of the book +in the neighbourhood of Damascus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Most of the older books of importance are named +above; Ginsburg, <i>The Song of Songs</i> (1857), gives much information +as to the history of the exegesis of Canticles; Diestel’s +article, “Hohes Lied,” in Schenkel’s <i>Bibel Lexikon</i> (1871), reviews +well the history of interpretation prior to Wetstein; cf. also Riedel, +<i>Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes in der jüdischen Gemeinde und der +griechischen Kirche</i> (1898). The most important commentary is +that by Budde, in Marti’s <i>Kurzer Hand-Commentar</i> (<i>Die fünf +Megilloth</i>) (1898), where references to the literature of the 19th +century are given. To his list add Siegfried, “Prediger und Hoheslied,” +in Nowack’s <i>Handkommentar</i> (1898); Cheyne’s article +“Canticles,” in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> (1899); Dalman, <i>Palästinischer +Diwan</i> (1901), parallels to the songs; Rothstein’s article, +“Song of Songs,” in Hastings’ <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i> (1902); G. +Jacob, <i>Das Hohelied auf Grund arabischer und anderer Parallelen +von neuem Untersucht</i> (1902); A. Harper, <i>The Song of Songs</i> (1902); +Haupt, “The Book of Canticles,” in <i>The American Journal of +Semitic Languages</i> (July 1902); Scholz, <i>Kommentar über das +Hohelied und Psalm 45</i> (1904) (written from the Roman Catholic +dogmatic standpoint of allegorical interpretation, with a vigorous +criticism of other positions). No commentator in English, except +Haupt, in the article named above, has yet worked on the lines of +the above anthology theory. Haupt gives valuable notes, with a +translation and rearrangement of the separate songs.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An argument for the allegorical interpretation has been often +drawn from Mahommedan mysticism—from the poems of Hafiz, and +the songs still sung by dervishes. See Jones, <i>Poëseos Asiaticae Com.</i> +pt. in. cap. 9; Rosenmüller’s remarks on Lowth’s <i>Praelectio</i>, xxxi., and +Lane’s <i>Modern Egyptians</i>, ch. xxiv. But there is no true analogy +between the Old Testament and the pantheistic mysticism of Islam, +and there is every reason to believe that, where the allegory takes a +form really analogous to Canticles, the original sense of these songs +was purely erotic.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Repeated recently by Scholz, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. iii. and iv.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The chief passages of Jewish writings referring to this dispute are +Mishna <i>Jadaim</i>, iii. 5 and Tosifta <i>Sanhedrin</i>, xii. For other passages +see Grätz’s <i>Commentary</i>, p. 115, and in control of his criticism the +introduction to the commentary of Delitzsch.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The text of the Targum in the Polyglots and in Buxtorf’s +Rabbinic Bible is not complete. The complete text is given in the +Venice editions, and in Lagarde’s <i>Hagiographa Chaldaice</i> (Lipsiae, +1873). The Polyglots add a Latin version. A German version is +given by Riedel in his very useful book, <i>Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes</i> +(1898), which also reviews the interpretation of Canticles by +Hippolytus, Origen and later Greek writers.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Ewald and others make this song a distinct scene in the action of +the poem, supposing that the author here exhibits the honourable +form of espousal by which Solomon thought to vanquish the scruples +of the damsel. This view, however, seems to introduce a complication +foreign to the plan of the book.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Wetstein, <i>Zeitschrift f. Ethn.</i>, 1873, pp. 270-302; quoted and +condensed by Budde as above in <i>Comm</i>. p. xvii.; for a fuller reproduction +of Wetstein in English see Harper, <i>The Song of Songs</i>, pp. 74-76.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the connexion of the threshing-floor with marriage through +the idea of sexual fertility, we may compare many primitive ideas +and customs, such as those described by Frazer (<i>The Golden Bough</i>, +ii. p. 181 f., 186).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Castelli (<i>Il Cantico dei Cantici</i>, 1892) has written a very attractive +little book on Canticles (quite apart from the Wetstein development) +regarded as “a poem formed by a number of dialogues mutually +related by a certain succession”; they require for their understanding +nothing but some indication of the speaker at each transition +(such as we find in codex A of the Septuagint).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the erotic meaning of many of the figures employed see the +notes of Haupt in <i>The American Journal of Semitic Languages</i> (July +1902); also G. Jacob, <i>Das Hohelied</i> (1902), who rightly protests +against the limitation in the <i>Comm</i>. of Budde and Siegfried (p. 10) +of all the songs to the marriage relation. Haupt thinks that the songs +were not originally composed for weddings, though used there +(p. 207, <i>op. cit.</i>). Diestel had pointed out, in another connexion +(<i>B.L.</i> 125), that nothing is said in the book of the blessing of children, +the chief end of <i>marriage</i> from a Hebrew standpoint.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Rothstein’s criticism of Budde turns chiefly on the latter’s +admission of redactional elements, introducing “movement and +action,” and may be summed up in the statement that “Budde +himself by the characteristics he assigns to the redactor points the +way again past his own hypothesis to the dramatical view of the +Song” (<i>loc cit.</i> 594b). A. Harper, “The Song of Songs” (<i>Cambridge +Bible</i>) also criticizes Budde at length in favour of the conventional +dramatical theory (Appendix).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> the late form of the relative pronoun used throughout +except in title; foreign words, Persian and Greek; Aramaic words +and usages (details in the <i>Comm</i>. or in <i>E.B.</i> 693).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTILEVER<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived +from “lever,” in its ordinary meaning, and “cant,” an angle +or edge, or else from modern Lat. <i>quanta libra</i>, of what weight), +a building term for a stone, iron or wooden bracket, considerably +greater in length than depth, used to support a gallery, &c.; +and for a system of bridge-building (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bridges</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1218-1282), English saint and +prelate, was a son of William de Cantilupe, the 2nd baron (d. 1251), +one of King John’s ministers, and a nephew of Walter de Cantilupe, +bishop of Worcester. He was educated at Paris and +Orleans, afterwards becoming a teacher of canon law at Oxford +and chancellor of the university in 1262. During the Barons’ +War Thomas favoured Simon de Montfort and the baronial +party. He represented the barons before St Louis of France +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span> +at Amiens in 1264; he was made chancellor of England in +February 1265, but was deprived of this office after Montfort’s +death at Evesham, and lived out of England for some time. +Returning to England, he was again chancellor of Oxford University, +lectured on theology, and held several ecclesiastical +appointments. In 1274 he attended the second council of Lyons, +and in 1275 he was appointed bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe +was now a trusted adviser of Edward I.; he attended the royal +councils, and even when differing from the king did not forfeit +his favour. The archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Kilwardby, +was also his friend; but after Kilwardby’s death in 1279 a series +of disputes arose between the bishop and the new archbishop, +John Peckham, and this was probably the cause which drove +Cantilupe to visit Italy. He died at Orvieto, on the 25th of +August 1282, and he was canonized in 1330. Cantilupe appears +to have been an exemplary bishop both in spiritual and secular +affairs. His charities were large and his private life blameless; +he was constantly visiting his diocese, correcting offenders and +discharging other episcopal duties; and he compelled neighbouring +landholders to restore estates which rightly belonged to the +see of Hereford. In 1905 the Cantilupe Society was founded to +publish the episcopal registers of Hereford, of which Cantilupe’s +is the first in existence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Ada Sanctorum, Boll.</i>, 1st October; and the <i>Register of +Thomas de Cantilupe</i>, with introduction by W.W. Capes (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTILUPE, WALTER DE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<i>d.</i> 1265), bishop of Worcester, +came of a family which had risen by devoted service to the +crown. His father and his elder brother are named by Roger of +Wendover among the “evil counsellors” of John, apparently +for no better reason than that they were consistently loyal +to an unpopular master. Walter at first followed in his father’s +footsteps, entering the service of the Exchequer and acting as an +itinerant justice in the early years of Henry III. But he also +took minor orders, and, in 1236, although not yet a deacon, +received the see of Worcester. As bishop, he identified himself +with the party of ecclesiastical reform, which was then led by +Edmund Rich and Robert Grosseteste. Like his leaders he was +sorely divided between his theoretical belief in the papacy as a +divine institution and his instinctive condemnation of the policy +which Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. pursued in their dealings +with the English church. At first a court favourite, the bishop +came at length to the belief that the evils of the time arose from +the unprincipled alliance of crown and papacy. He raised his +voice against papal demands for money, and after the death of +Grosseteste (1253) was the chief spokesman of the nationalist +clergy. At the parliament of Oxford (1258) he was elected by +the popular party as one of their representatives on the committee +of twenty-four which undertook to reform the administration; +from that time till the outbreak of civil war he was a man of +mark in the councils of the baronial party. During the war he +sided with Montfort and, through his nephew, Thomas, who was +then chancellor of Oxford, brought over the university to the +popular side. He was present at Lewes and blessed the Montfortians +before they joined battle with the army of the king; +he entertained Simon de Montfort on the night before the final +rout of Evesham. During Simon’s dictatorship, the bishop +appeared only as a mediating influence; in the triumvirate of +“Electors” who controlled the administration, the clergy were +represented by the bishop of Chichester. Walter de Cantilupe +died in the year after Evesham (1266). He was respected by +all parties, and, though far inferior in versatility and force of +will to Grosseteste, fully merits the admiration which his moral +character inspired. He is one of the few constitutionalists of his +day whom it is impossible to accuse of interested motives.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Chronica Maiora</i> of Matthew Paris (“Rolls” series, ed. +Luard); the <i>Chronicon de Bellis</i> (ed. Halliwell, Camden Society); +and the <i>Annales Monastici</i> (“Rolls” series, ed. Luard); also T.F. +Tout in the <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. iii. (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTO<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>cantus</i>, a song), one of the divisions of +a long poem, a convenient division when poetry was more usually +sung by the minstrel to his own accompaniment than read. In +music, the <i>canto</i>, in a concerted piece, is that part to which the +air is given. In modern music this is nearly always the soprano. +The old masters, however, more frequently allotted it to the tenor. +<i>Canto fermo</i>, or <i>cantus firmus</i>, is that part of the melody which +remains true to the original motive, while the other parts vary +with the counterpoint; also in Church music the simple straightforward +melody of the old chants as opposed to <i>canto figurato</i>, +which is full of embellishments of a florid character (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plain +Song</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTON, JOHN<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1718-1772), English natural philosopher, +was born at Stroud, Gloucestershire, on the 31st of July 1718. +At the age of nineteen, he was articled for five years as clerk to +the master of a school in Spital Square, London, with whom at +the end of that time he entered into partnership. In 1750 he +read a paper before the Royal Society on a method of making +artificial magnets, which procured him election as a fellow of the +society and the award of the Copley medal. He was the first +in England to verify Benjamin Franklin’s hypothesis of the +identity of lightning and electricity, and he made several important +electrical discoveries. In 1762 and 1764 he published +experiments in refutation of the decision of the Florentine +Academy, at that time generally accepted, that water is incompressible; +and in 1768 he described the preparation, by calcining +oyster-shell with sulphur, of the phosphorescent material known +as Canton’s phosphorus. His investigations were carried on +without any intermission of his work as a schoolmaster. He +died in London on the 22nd of March 1772.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTON<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Kwang-chow Fu</span>), a large and +populous commercial city of China, in the province of Kwangtung, +situated on the eastern bank of the Pearl river, which at +Canton is somewhat broader than the Thames at London Bridge, +and is navigable 300 m. into the interior. The Pearl river has an +additional course of 80 m. to the sea, the first part of which lies +through a rich alluvial plain. Beyond this rises a range of hills +terminating in abrupt escarpments along the course of the river. +The bold shore thus formed compresses the stream at this point +into a narrow pass, to which the Chinese have given the name of +Hu-mun, or Tiger’s Gate. This the Portuguese translated into +Boca Tigre, whence the designation of “the Bogue,” by which it +is commonly known among Europeans. When viewed from the +hills on the north, Canton appears to be little more than an +expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large trees,—two +pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storeyed tower +near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects. +These hills rise 1200 ft. above the river. Little or no vegetation +is seen on them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with +graves and tombs, serve as the necropolis of this vast city. +Three or four forts are built on the points nearest the northern +walls. Facing the city on the opposite side of the river is the +suburb and island of Honan. The part of Canton enclosed by +walls is about 6 m. in circumference, and has a partition wall, +running east and west, and dividing the city into two unequal +parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and the +southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a +circuit of nearly 10 m. The houses stretch along the river for 4 m., +and the banks are almost entirely concealed by boats and rafts. +The walls of the city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone +and granite, are 20 ft. thick, and rise to an average height of 25 ft. +On the north side the wall rises to include a hill which it there +meets with, and on the other three sides the city is surrounded +by a ditch, which is filled by the rising tide, when, for a time, the +revolting mass of filth that lies in its bed is concealed from view. +There are twelve outer gates—four of which are in the partition +wall, and two water gates, through which boats pass from east to +west across the new city. The gates are all shut at night, and in +the daytime a guard is stationed at them to preserve order. +The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long, straight, +and very narrow. They are mostly paved and are not as dirty +as those of some of the other cities in the empire; in fact, +considering the habits of the people and the inattention of the +government to these matters, Canton may be said to be a well-governed +and comparatively cleanly city. The houses are in +general small, seldom consisting of more than two storeys, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span> +ground floor serving as a shop, and the rest of the house, with the +court behind, being used as a warehouse. Here are to be found +the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the merchants +are in general attentive, civil, expert men of business, and +generally assiduous.</p> + +<p>The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but +none of them presents features worthy of special remark. There +are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and 124 +temples, pavilions, halls and other religious edifices within the +city. One of the pagodas called the <i>Kwangtah</i>, or Plain Pagoda, +is a Mahommedan mosque, which was erected by the Arabian +voyagers who were in the habit of visiting Canton about ten +centuries ago. It rises in an angular tapering tower to the height +of 160 ft. The other is an octagonal pagoda of nine storeys, 170 ft. +in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago. +A Buddhist temple at Honan, opposite the foreign factories, and +named in Chinese <i>Hai-ch‘wang-sze</i>, or the Temple of the Ocean +Banner, is one of the largest in Canton. Its grounds, which +cover about seven acres, are surrounded by a wall, and are +divided into courts, gardens and a burial-ground, where are +deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies are burned. There +are about 175 priests connected with this establishment. Besides +the <i>Hai-ch‘wang-sze</i> the most noteworthy temples in and about +the city are those of the Five Hundred Gods and of Longevity, +both in the western suburbs; the Tatar City Temple and the +Temple of the Five Genii. The number of priests and nuns in +Canton is not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000, +nine-tenths of whom are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-looking +edifices. The areas in front of them are usually occupied +by hucksters, beggars and idlers, who are occasionally driven +off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the theatrical +performances got up by the wealthy inhabitants are acted. The +principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in +front, and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men +almost as senseless as the idols they serve.</p> + +<p>The residences of the high officers of government are all +within the walls of the old city. The residence of the governor-general +used to be in the south-west corner of the new city, but it +was utterly destroyed by the bombardment in 1856. The site +remained desolate until 1860, when it was taken possession of by +the French authorities, who erected a Roman Catholic cathedral +upon it. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in the old +city, and is said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There +are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. For the space of +4 or 5 m. opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to +each other in such close order as to resemble a floating city; +and these marine dwellings are occupied by numerous families, +who reside almost constantly on the water. In the middle of the +river lie the Chinese junks, some of them of from 600 to 1000 tons +burden, which trade to the north and to the Strait Settlements. +The various gilds and associations among the people and the +merchants from other provinces have public halls each for its own +particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than +150. Canton was long the only seat of British trade with China, +and was no doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the +European trade, as being the most distant from the capital +Peking.</p> + +<p>Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the +<i>hong</i> or security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners. +They were commonly men of large property and were famed +for integrity in their transactions. All foreign cargoes passed +through the hands of these merchants, and by them also the +return cargoes were furnished. They became security for the +payment of customs duties, and it was criminal for any other +merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners.</p> + +<p>Although it is in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the +climate of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to +that of most places situated between the tropics. The extreme +range of the thermometer is from 38° to 100° F., though these +extremes are rarely reached. In ordinary years the winter +minimum is about 42° and the maximum in summer 96°. +The hot season is considered to last from May to October; +during the rest of the year the weather is cool. In shallow +vessels ice sometimes forms at Canton; but so rarely is snow +seen that when in February 1835 a fall to the depth of 2 in. +occurred, the citizens hardly knew its proper name. Most of the +rain falls during May and June, but the amount is nothing in +comparison with that which falls during a rainy season in +Calcutta. July, August and September are the regular monsoon +months, the wind coming from the south-west with frequent +showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the +northerly winds begin, with some interruptions at first, but from +October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear +and the air invigorating. Few large cities are more generally +healthy than Canton, and epidemics rarely prevail there.</p> + +<p>Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant, and in +general are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is +a singular fact that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in +its natural state or in the form of butter or cheese. Among the +delicacies of a Chinese market are to be seen horse-flesh, +dogs, cats, hawks, owls and edible birds’-nests. The business +between foreigners and natives at Canton is generally transacted +in a jargon known as “pidgin English,” the Chinese being +extremely ready in acquiring a sufficient smattering of English +words to render themselves intelligible.</p> + +<p>The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of +the Cape of Good Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of +Portugal, sent an ambassador, accompanied by a fleet of eight +ships, to Peking, on which occasion the sanction of the emperor +to establish a trade at Canton was obtained. It was in 1596, +in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first attempted +to open an intercourse with China, but ineffectually, for the +two ships which were despatched on this mission were lost on +the outward voyage, and it was not till about 1634 that English +ships visited Canton. Unfortunately at this time a misunderstanding +having occurred with the Chinese authorities owing to +the treachery of the Portuguese, a rupture and a battle took +place, and it was with difficulty that peace was again restored. +In 1673 China was again visited by an English ship which was +subsequently refused admission into Japan, and in 1677 a factory +was established at Amoy. But during an irruption of the +Tatars three years later this building was destroyed, and it was +not till 1685 that the emperor permitted any trade with Europeans +at that port. Upon the union of the two East India Companies +in London, an imperial edict was issued, restricting the foreign +commerce to the port of Canton.</p> + +<p>Tea was first imported into England about the year 1667, and +in 1689 a customs duty of 5s. per ℔ was for the first time imposed. +From this date to 1834 the East India Company held a monopolv +of the trade at Canton, and during this period the prosperity +of the port increased and multiplied, notwithstanding the obstructions +which were constantly thrown in the way of the +“barbarians” by the Chinese government. The termination of +the Company’s monopoly brought no alteration in the conduct +of the native authorities, whose oppressions became before long +so unbearable that in 1839 war was declared on the part of Great +Britain. In 1841, while the forces under Sir Hugh (afterwards +Lord) Gough were preparing to capture Canton, Captain Elliott +entered into negotiations with the Chinese, and consented to +receive a pecuniary ransom in lieu of occupying the city. Meanwhile +the war was carried on in central China, and finally resulted +in the conclusion of the Nanking treaty in August 1842, +under the terms of which four additional ports, viz. Shanghai, +Ningpo, Fu-chow and Amoy, were thrown open to foreign trade, +and foreigners were granted permission to enter the city of +Canton, from which they had hitherto been excluded. This +latter provision of the treaty, however, the Chinese refused to +carry out; and after endless disputes about this and other +improper acts of the Chinese government, war was again declared +in 1856, the immediate cause of which was an insult offered to +the British flag by the capture of certain Chinese on board the +“Arrow,” a small craft trading under English colours. The +outbreak of hostilities was followed by the pillage and destruction +of the foreign “factories” in December 1856 by a Chinese mob, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +and twelve months later Canton was taken by assault by a force +under Sir Charles Straubenzee, which had been sent out from +England for the purpose. From this time until October 1861 +the city was occupied by an English and French garrison, and +the administration of affairs was entrusted to an allied commission, +consisting of two English officers and one French officer, +acting under the English general. Since the withdrawal of this +garrison, the city of Canton has been freely open to foreigners +of all nationalities, and the English consul has his residence +in the Yamun formerly occupied by the allied commissioners, +within the city walls.</p> + +<p>On the conclusion of peace it became necessary to provide +a foreign settlement for the merchants whose “factories” had +been destroyed, and after some consultation it was determined +to fill in and appropriate as the British settlement an extensive +mud flat lying to the westward of the old factory site, and +known as Sha-mien or “The Sand Flats.” This site having +been leased, it was converted into an artificial island by building +a massive embankment of granite in an irregular oval form. +Between the northern face of the site and the Chinese suburb +a canal of 100 ft. in width was constructed, thus forming an island +of about 2850 ft. in length and 950 ft. in greatest breadth. The +expense of making this settlement was 325,000 Mexican dollars, +four-fifths of which were defrayed by the British government +and one-fifth by the French government. The British portion +of the new settlement was laid out in eighty-two lots; and so +bright appeared the prospect of trade at the time of their sale +that 9000 dollars and upwards was paid in more than one instance +for a lot with a river frontage, measuring 12,645 sq. ft. The +depression in trade, however, which soon followed acted as a +bar to building, and it was not until the British consulate was +erected in 1865 that the merchants began to occupy the settlement +in any numbers. The British consulate occupies six lots, +with an area of 75,870 sq. ft. in the centre of the site, overlooking +the river, and is enclosed with a substantial wall. A ground-rent +of 15,000 cash (about £3) per <i>mow</i> (a third of an acre) is annually +paid by the owners of lots to the Chinese government.</p> + +<p>The Sha-mien settlement possesses many advantages. It is +close to the western suburb of Canton, where reside all the +wholesale dealers as well as the principal merchants and brokers; +it faces the broad channel known as the Macao Passage, up +which the cool breezes in summer are wafted almost uninterruptedly, +and the river opposite to it affords a safe and commodious +anchorage for steamers up to 1000 tons burden. +Steamers only are allowed to come up to Canton, sailing vessels +being restricted to the anchorage at Whampoa. There is daily +communication by steamer with Hong-Kong, and with the +Portuguese colony of Macao which lies near the mouth of the +river. Inland communication by steam is now open by the west +river route to the cities of Wuchow and Nanking. The opening +of these inland towns to foreign trade, which has been effected, +cannot but add considerably to the volume of Canton traffic. +The native population is variously estimated at from 1,500,000 +to 2,000,000, the former being probably nearer the truth. The +foreign residents number about 400. Canton is the headquarters +of the provincial government of Kwangtung and Kwangsi, +generally termed the two Kwang, at the head of which is a +governor-general or viceroy, an office which next to that of +Nanking is the most important in the empire. It possesses a +mint built in 1889 by the then viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and +equipped with a very complete plant supplied from England. +It turns out silver subsidiary coinage and copper cash. Contracts +have been entered into to connect Canton by railway +with Hong-Kong (Kowlun), and by a grand trunk line with +Hankow on the Yangtsze. It is connected by telegraph with +all parts. The value of the trade of Canton for the year 1904 +was £13,749,582, £7,555,090 of which represented imports and +£6,194,490 exports.</p> +<div class="author">(R. K. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTON,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a city of Fulton county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. +part of the state, 12 m. N. of the Illinois river, and 28 m. S.W. +of Peoria. Pop. (1890) 5604; (1900) 6564 (424 foreign-born); +(1910) 10,453. Canton is served by the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy, the Toledo, Peoria & Western, and the Illinois Central +Electric Interurban railways. About 1 m. from the centre of +the city are the Canton Chautauqua grounds. The city has a +public library. Canton is situated in a rich agricultural region, +for which it is a supply point, and there are large coal-mines in +the vicinity. Among the manufactures are agricultural implements +(particularly ploughs), machine-shop and foundry products +(particularly mining-cars and equipment), flour, cigars, cigar-boxes, +brooms, and bricks and tile. The municipal water-works +are supplied from a deep artesian well. Canton was laid out in +1825; it was incorporated as a town in 1837 and as a village in +1849, and was chartered as a city in 1854.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTON,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of St Lawrence county, +New York, U.S.A., 17 m. S.E. of Ogdensburg, on the Grasse +river. Pop. (1890) 2580; (1900) 2757; (1905) 3083; (1910) +2701. The village is served by the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg +division of the New York Central & Hudson River railway. +Canton is the seat of St Lawrence University (co-educational; +chartered in 1856; at first Universalist, afterwards unsectarian), +having a college of letters and science, which developed from an +academy, opened in 1859; a theological school (Universalist), +opened in 1858; a law school, established in 1869, discontinued +in 1872 and re-established in Brooklyn, New York, in 1903 as +the Brooklyn Law School of St Lawrence University; and a +state school of agriculture, established in 1906 by the state +legislature and opened in 1907. In 1907-1908 the university +had 52 instructors, 168 students in the college of letters and +science, 14 students in the theological school, 287 in the law +school and 13 in the agricultural school. The Clinton Liberal +Institute (Universalist, 1832), which was removed in 1879 from +Clinton to Fort Plain, New York, was established in Canton in +1901. The Grasse river furnishes water-power, and the village +has saw-, planing- and flour-mills, and plant for the building of +small boats and launches. The village corporation owns a fine +water-supply system. Canton was first settled in 1800 by +Daniel Harrington of Connecticut and was incorporated in +1845. It was for many years the home of Silas Wright, who was +buried here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTON,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Stark county, Ohio, +U.S.A., on Nimisillen Creek, 60 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. +(1890) 26,189; (1900) 30,667, of whom 4018 were foreign-born; +and (1910) 50,217. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the +Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, and +is connected by an interurban electric system with all the +important cities and towns within a radius of 50 m. It lies at an +elevation of about 1030 ft. above sea-level, in a wheat-growing +region, in which bituminous coal, limestone, and brick and +potter’s clay abound. Meyer’s Lake in the vicinity is a summer +attraction. The principal buildings are the post-office, court-house, +city hall, an auditorium with a seating capacity of 5000, +a Masonic building, an Oddfellows’ temple, a Y.M.C.A. building +and several handsome churches. On Monument Hill, in West +Lawn Cemetery, in a park of 26 acres—a site which President +McKinley had suggested for a monument to the soldiers and +sailors of Stark county—there is a beautiful monument to the +memory of McKinley, who lived in Canton. This memorial is +built principally of Milford (Mass.) granite, with a bronze statue +of the president, and with sarcophagi containing the bodies of +the president and Mrs McKinley, and has a total height, from +the first step of the approaches to its top, of 163 ft. 6 in., the +mausoleum itself being 98 ft. 6 in. high and 78 ft. 9 in. in diameter; +it was dedicated on the 30th of September 1907, when an address +was delivered by President Roosevelt. Another monument +commemorates the American soldiers of the Spanish-American +War. Among the city’s manufactures are agricultural implements, +iron bridges and other structural iron work, watches and +watch-cases, steel, engines, safes, locks, cutlery, hardware, +wagons, carriages, paving-bricks, furniture, dental and surgical +chairs, paint and varnish, clay-working machinery and saw-mill +machinery. The value of the factory product in 1905 was +$10,591,143, being 10.6% more than the product value of 1900. +Canton was laid out as a town in 1805, became the county-seat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +in 1808, was incorporated as a village in 1822 and in 1854 was +chartered as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTON<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (borrowed from the Ital. <i>cantone</i>, a corner or angle), +a word used for certain divisions of some European countries. +In France, the canton, which is a subdivision of the arrondissement, +is a territorial, rather than an administrative, unit. The +canton, of which there are 2908, generally comprises, on an +average, about twelve communes, though very large communes +are sometimes divided into several cantons. It is the seat of +a justice of the peace, and returns a member to the <i>conseil +d’arrondissement</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>). In Switzerland, canton is the +name given to each of the twenty-two states comprising the +Swiss confederation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Switzerland</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In heraldry, a “canton” is a corner or square division on a +shield, occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). It is in +area two-thirds of the quarter (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTONMENT<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Fr. <i>cantonnement</i>, from <i>cantonner</i>, to quarter; +Ger. <i>Ortsunterkunft</i> or <i>Quartier</i>). When troops are distributed +in small parties amongst the houses of a town or village, they are +said to be in cantonments, which are also called quarters or +billets. Formerly this method of providing soldiers with shelter +was rarely employed on active service, though the normal +method in “winter quarters,” or at seasons when active military +operations were not in progress. In the field, armies lived as a +rule in camp (<i>q.v.</i>), and when the provision of canvas shelter was +impossible in bivouac. At the present time, however, it is +unusual, in Europe at any rate, for troops on active service to +hamper themselves with the enormous trains of tent wagons that +would be required, and cantonments or bivouacs, or a combination +of the two have therefore taken the place, in modern warfare, +of the old long rectilinear lines of tents that marked the resting-place +and generally, too, the order of battle of an 18th-century +army. The greater part of an army operating in Europe at +the present day is accommodated in widespread cantonments, +an army corps occupying the villages and farms found within +an area of 4 m. by 5 or 6. This allowance of space has +been ascertained by experience to be sufficient, not only for +comfort, but also for subsistence for one day, provided that the +density of the ordinary civil population is not less than 200 +persons to the square mile. Under modern conditions there is +little danger from such a dissemination of the forces, as each +fraction of each army corps is within less than two hours’ march +of its concentration post. If the troops halt for several days, of +course they require either a more densely populated country from +which to requisition supplies, or a wider area of cantonments. +The difficulty of controlling the troops, when scattered in private +houses in parties of six or seven, is the principal objection to this +system of cantonments. But since Napoleon introduced the +“war of masses” the only alternative to cantoning the troops +is bivouacking, which if prolonged for several nights is more +injurious to the well-being of the troops than the slight relaxation +of discipline necessitated by the cantonment system, when the +latter is well arranged and policed. The troops nearest the +enemy, however, which have to be maintained in a state of +constant readiness for battle, cannot as a rule afford the time +either for dispersing into quarters or for rallying on an alarm, and +in western Europe at any rate they are required to bivouac. +In India, the term “cantonment” means more generally a +military station or standing camp. The troops live, not in +private houses, but in barracks, huts, forts or occasionally camps. +The large cantonments are situated in the neighbourhood of the +North-Western frontier, of the large cities and of the capitals of +important native states. Under Lord Kitchener’s redistribution +of the Indian army in 1903, the chief cantonments are Rawalpindi, +Quetta, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Nowshera, Sialkot, Mian Mir, +Umballa, Muttra, Ferozepore, Meerut, Lucknow, Mhow, Jubbulpore, +Bolarum, Poona, Secunderabad and Bangalore.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANTÙ, CESARE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1804-1895), Italian historian, was born at +Brivio in Lombardy and began his career as a teacher. His first +literary essay (1828) was a romantic poem entitled <i>Algiso, o la +Lega Lombarda</i> (new ed., Milan, 1876), and in the following year +he produced a <i>Storia di Como</i> in two volumes (Como, 1829). The +death of his father then left him in charge of a large family, and +he worked very hard both as a teacher and a writer to provide for +them. His prodigious literary activity led to his falling under +the suspicions of the Austrian police, and he was mixed up in a +political trial and arrested in 1833. While in prison writing +materials were denied him, but he managed to write on rags with +a tooth-pick and candle smoke, and thus composed the novel +<i>Margherita Pusterla</i> (Milan, 1838). On his release a year later, +as he was interdicted from teaching, literature became his only +resource. In 1836 the Turinese publisher, Giuseppe Pomba, +commissioned him to write a universal history, which his vast +reading enabled him to do. In six years the work was completed +in seventy-two volumes, and immediately achieved a general +popularity; the publisher made a fortune out of it, and Cantù’s +royalties amounted, it is said, to 300,000 lire (£12.000). Just +before the revolution of 1848, being warned that he would be +arrested, he fled to Turin, but after the “Five Days” he returned +to Milan and edited a paper called <i>La Guardia Nazionale</i>. +Between 1849 and 1850 he published his <i>Storia degli Italiani</i> +(Turin, 1855) and many other works. In 1857 the archduke +Maximilian tried to conciliate the Milanese by the promise of a +constitution, and Cantù was one of the few Liberals who accepted +the olive branch, and went about in company with the archduke. +This act was regarded as treason and caused Cantù much annoyance +in after years. He continued his literary activity after the +formation of the Italian kingdom, producing volume after +volume until his death. For a short time he was member of the +Italian parliament; he founded the Lombard historical society, +and was appointed superintendent of the Lombard archives. +He died in March 1895. His views are coloured by strong +religious and political prejudice, and by a moralizing tendency, +and his historical work has little critical value and is for the most +part pure book-making, although he collected a vast amount of +material which has been of use to other writers. In dealing with +modern Italian history he is reactionary and often wilfully +inaccurate. Besides the above-mentioned works he wrote <i>Gli +Eretici in Italia</i> (Milan, 1873); <i>Cronistoria dell’ Indipendenza +italiana</i> (Naples, 1872-1877); <i>II Conciliatore e i Carbonari</i> +(Milan, 1878), &c.</p> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANUSIUM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kanusion">Κανύσιον</span>, mod. <i>Canosa</i>), an ancient city of +Apulia, on the right bank of the Aufidus (Ofanto), about 12 m. +from its mouth, and situated upon the Via Traiana, 85 m. E.N.E. +of Beneventum. It was said to have been founded by Diomede, +and even at the time of Horace (<i>Sat.</i> i. 10. 30) both Greek and +Latin were spoken there. The legends on the coins are Greek, +and a very large number of Greek vases have been found in the +necropolis. The town came voluntarily under Roman sovereignty +in 318 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, afforded a refuge to the Roman fugitives after +Cannae, and remained faithful for the rest of the war. It +revolted in the Social War, in which it would appear to have +suffered, inasmuch as Strabo (vi. 283) speaks of Canusium and +Arpi as having been, to judge from the extent of their walls, the +greatest towns in the plain of Apulia, but as having shrunk +considerably in his day. Its importance was maintained, +however, by its trade in agricultural products and in Apulian +wool (which was there dyed and cleaned), by its port (probably +Cannae) at the mouth of the Aufidus, and by its position on the +high-road. It was a <i>municipium</i> under the early empire, but was +converted into a <i>colonia</i> under Antoninus Pius by Herodes Atticus, +who provided it with a water-supply. In the 6th century it was +still the most important city of Apulia. Among the ancient +buildings which are still preserved, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct +and a city gate may be mentioned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Jacobone, <i>Ricerche sulla storia e la topografia di Canosa +Antica</i> (Canosa di Puglia, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANUTE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cnut</span>), known as “the Great” (<i>c</i>. 995-1035), king +of Denmark and England, second son of King Sweyn Forkbeard +and his first wife, the daughter of the Polish prince, Mieszko, +was born <i>c</i>. 995. On the death of his father he was compelled +to quit England by a general rising of the Anglo-Saxons, on +which occasion in a fit of rage, for he was not naturally cruel, +he abandoned his hostages after cutting off their hands, ears +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> +and noses. In the following year, 1015, he returned with a +great fleet manned by a picked host, “not a thrall or a freedman +among them.” He speedily succeeded in subduing all England +except London, now the last refuge of King Æthelred and his +heroic son, Edmund Ironside. On the death of Æthelred (23rd of +April 1016) Canute was elected king by an assembly of notables +at Southampton; but London clung loyally to Edmund, who +more than once succeeded in raising the western shires against +Canute. Edmund indeed approved himself the better general +of the two, and would doubtless have prevailed, but for the +treachery of his own ealdormen. This was notably the case +at the great battle of Assandun, in which by the desertion of +Eadric an incipient Anglo-Saxon victory was converted into +a crushing defeat. Nevertheless, the antagonists were so evenly +matched that the great men on both sides, fearing that the +interminable war would utterly ruin the land, arranged a conference +between Canute and Edmund on an island in the Severn, +when they agreed to divide England between them, Canute +retaining Mercia and the north, while Edmund’s territory comprised +East Anglia and Wessex with London. On the death of +Edmund, a few months later (November 1016), Canute was +unanimously elected king of all England at the beginning of +1017. The young monarch at once showed himself equal to +his responsibilities. He did his utmost to deserve the confidence +of his Anglo-Saxon subjects, and the eighteen years of his reign +were of unspeakable benefit to his adopted country. He identified +himself with the past history of England and its native +dynasty by wedding Emma, or Ælgifu, to give her her Saxon +name (the Northmen called her Alfifa), who came over from +Normandy at his bidding, Canute previously repudiating his +first wife, another Ælgifu, the daughter of the ealdorman +Aelfhem of Deira, who, with her sons, was banished to Denmark. +In 1018 Canute inherited the Danish throne, his elder brother +Harold having died without issue. He now withdrew most +of his army from England, so as to spare as much as possible +the susceptibilities of the Anglo-Saxons. For the same reason +he had previously dispersed all his warships but forty. On +his return from Denmark he went a step farther. In a remarkable +letter, addressed to the prelates, ealdormen and people, +he declared his intention of ruling England by the English, +and of upholding the laws of King Edgar, at the same time +threatening with his vengeance all those who did not judge +righteous judgment or who let malefactors go free. The tone +of this document, which is not merely Christian but sacerdotal, +shows that he had wisely resolved, in the interests of law and +order, to form a close alliance with the native clergy. Those +of his own fellow-countrymen who refused to co-operate with +him were summarily dismissed. Thus, in 1021, the stiffnecked +jarl Thorkil was banished the land, and his place taken by an +Anglo-Saxon, the subsequently famous Godwin, who became +one of Canute’s chief counsellors. The humane and conciliatory +character of his government is also shown in his earnest efforts +to atone for Danish barbarities in the past. Thus he rebuilt +the church of St Edmundsbury in memory of the saintly king +who had perished there at the hands of the earlier Vikings, and +with great ceremony transferred the relics of St Alphege from +St Paul’s church at London to a worthier resting-place at +Canterbury. His work of reform and reconciliation was interrupted +in 1026 by the attempt of Olaf Haraldson, king of +Norway, in conjunction with Anund Jakob, king of Sweden, +to conquer Denmark. Canute defeated the Swedish fleet at +Stangebjerg, and so seriously injured the combined squadrons +at the mouth of the Helgeaa in East Scania, that in 1028 he was +able to subdue the greater part of Norway “without hurling +a dart or swinging a sword.” But the conquest was not permanent, +the Norwegians ultimately rising successfully against +the tyranny of Alfifa, who misruled the country in the name +of her infant son Sweyn. Canute also succeeded in establishing +the dominion of Denmark over the southern shores of the Baltic, +in Witland and Samland, now forming part of the coast of +Prussia. Of the details of Canute’s government in Denmark +proper we know but little. His most remarkable institution +was the <i>Tinglid</i>, a military brotherhood, originally 3000 in +number, composed of members of the richest and noblest families, +who not only formed the royal bodyguard, but did garrison duty +and defended the marches or borders. They were subject to +strict discipline, embodied in written rules called the <i>Viderlog</i> +or <i>Vederlag</i>, and were the nucleus not only of a standing army +but of a royal council. Canute is also said to have endeavoured +to found monasteries in Denmark, with but indifferent success, +and he was certainly the first Danish king who coined money, +with the assistance of Anglo-Saxon mint-masters. Of his +alliance with the clergy we have already spoken. Like the other +great contemporary kingdom-builder, Stephen of Hungary, +he clearly recognized that the church was the one civilizing +element in a world of anarchic barbarism, and his submission +to her guidance is a striking proof of his perspicacity. But it +was no slavish submission. When, in 1027, he went to Rome, +with Rudolf III. of Burgundy, to be present at the coronation +of the emperor Conrad II., it was quite as much to benefit his +subjects as to receive absolution for the sins of his youth. He +persuaded the pope to remit the excessive fees for granting the +<i>pallium</i>, which the English and Danish bishops had found such +a grievous burden, substituting therefor a moderate amount +of Peter’s pence. He also induced the emperor and other +German princes to grant safe-conducts to those of his subjects +who desired to make the pilgrimage to Rome.</p> + +<p>Canute died at Shaftesbury on the 12th of November 1035 +in his 40th year, and was buried at Winchester. He was cut +off before he had had the opportunity of developing most of his +great plans; yet he lived long enough to obtain the title of +“Canute the Wealthy” (<i>i.e.</i> “Mighty”), and posterity, still +more appreciative, has well surnamed him “the Great.” A +violent, irritable temper was his most salient defect, and more +than one homicide must be laid to his charge. But the fierce +Viking nature was gradually and completely subdued; for +Canute was a Christian by conviction and sincerely religious. +His humility is finely illustrated by the old Norman poem which +describes how he commanded the rising tide of the Thames at +Westminster to go back. The homily he preached to his courtiers +on that occasion was to prepare them for his subsequent journey +to Rome and his submission to the Holy See. Like his father +Sweyn, Canute loved poetry, and the great Icelandic skalder, +Thorar Lovtunge and Thormod Kolbrunarskjöld, were as welcome +visitors at his court as the learned bishops. As an administrator +Canute was excelled only by Alfred. He possessed in an eminent +degree the royal gift of recognizing greatness, and the still more +useful faculty of conciliating enemies. No English king before +him had levied such heavy taxes, yet never were taxes more +cheerfully paid; because the people felt that every penny of +the money was used for the benefit of the country. According +to the <i>Knytlinga Saga</i> King Canute was huge of limb, of great +strength, and a very goodly man to look upon, save for his nose, +which was narrow, lofty and hooked; he had also long fair +hair, and eyes brighter and keener than those of any man living.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Danmarks Riges Historie. Old Tiden og den aeldre Middelalder</i>, +pp. 382-406 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i> +(Oxford, 1870-1875); Steenstrup, <i>Normannerne</i> (Copenhagen, 1876-1882).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANUTE VI.<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1163-1202), king of Denmark, eldest son of +Valdemar I., was crowned in his seventh year (1170), as his +father’s co-regent, so as to secure the succession. In 1182 he +succeeded to the throne. During his twenty years’ reign Denmark +advanced steadily along the path of greatness and prosperity +marked out for her by Valdemar I., consolidating and +extending her dominion over the North Baltic coast and adopting +a more and more independent attitude towards Germany. +The emperor Frederick I.’s claim of overlordship was haughtily +rejected at the very outset, and his attempt to stir up Duke +Bogislav of Pomerania against Denmark’s vassal, Jaromir of +Rügen, was defeated by Archbishop Absalon, who destroyed +465 of Bogislav’s 500 ships in a naval action off Strela (Stralsund) +in 1184. In the following year Bogislav did homage to Canute on +the deck of his long-ship, off Jomsborg in Pomerania, Canute +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> +henceforth styling himself king of the Danes and Wends. This +victory led two years later to the voluntary submission of the two +Abodrite princes Niklot and Borwin to the Danish crown, whereupon +the bulk of the Abodrite dominions, which extended from +the Trave to the Warnow, including modern Mecklenburg, were +divided between them. The concluding years of Canute’s reign +were peaceful, as became a prince who, though by no means a +coward, was not of an overwhelmingly martial temperament. +In 1197, however, German jealousy of Denmark’s ambitions, +especially when Canute led a fleet against the pirates of Esthonia, +induced Otto, margrave of Brandenburg, to invade Pomerania, +while in the following year Otto, in conjunction with Duke +Adolf of Holstein, wasted the dominions of the Danophil +Abodrites. The war continued intermittently till 1201, when +Duke Valdemar, Canute’s younger brother, conquered the whole +of Holstein, and Duke Adolf was subsequently captured at +Hamburg and sent in chains to Denmark. North Albingia, as +the district between the Eider and the Elbe was then called, now +became Danish territory. Canute died on the 12th of November +1202. Undoubtedly he owed the triumphs of his reign very +largely to the statesmanship of Absalon and the valour of +Valdemar. But he was certainly a prudent and circumspect +ruler of blameless life, possessing, as Arnold of Lübeck (<i>c.</i> 1160-1212) +expresses it, “the sober wisdom of old age even in his +tender youth.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Danmarks Riges Historic. Oldtiden og den aeldre Middelalder</i> +(Copenhagen, 1897-1905), pp. 721-735.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANVAS,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a stout cloth which probably derives its name from +<i>cannabis</i>, the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indicate +that canvas was originally made from yarns of the hemp +fibre, and there is some ground for the assumption. This fibre +and that of flax have certainly been used for ages for the production +of cloth for furnishing sails, and for certain classes of cloth +used for this purpose the terms “sailcloth” and “canvas” are +synonymous. Warden, in his <i>Linen Trade</i>, states that the +manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1590, as +appears by the preamble of James I., cap. 23:—“Whereas the +cloths called <i>Mildernix</i> and <i>Powel Davies</i>, whereof sails and other +furniture for the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore +altogether brought out of France and other parts beyond sea, and +the skill and art of making and weaving of the said sailcloths +never known or used in England until about the thirty-second +year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what time and not before +the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the said cloths was +attained to, and since practised and continued in this realm, to the +great benefit and commodity thereof.” But this, or a similar +cloth of the same name had been used for centuries before this +time by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. Since the introduction +of the power loom the cloth has undergone several modifications, +and it is now made both from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton, +or a mixture of these, but the quality of sailcloth for the British +government is kept up to the original standard. All flax canvas +is essentially of double warp, for it is invariably intended to +withstand some pressure or rough usage.</p> + +<p>In structure it is similar to jute tarpaulin; indeed, if it were +not for the difference in the fibre, it would be difficult to say +where one type stopped and the other began. “Bagging,” +“tarpaulin” and “canvas” form an ascending series of cloths +so far as fineness is concerned, although the finest tarpaulins are +finer than some of the lower canvases. The cloth may be +natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being +tan. It has an enormous number of different uses other than +naval.</p> + +<p>Amongst other articles made from it are:—receptacles for +photographic and other apparatus; bags for fishing, shooting, +golf and other sporting implements; shoes for cricket and +other games, and for yachting; travelling cases and hold-alls, +letter-bags, school-bags and nose-bags for horses. Large +quantities of the various makes of flax and cotton canvases are +tarred, and then used for covering goods on railways, wharves, +docks, etc.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 226px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:176px; height:198px" src="images/img223.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>Sail canvas is, naturally, of a strong build, and is quite different +from the canvas cloth used for embroidery purposes, often called +“art canvas.” The latter is similar in structure to cheese cloths +and strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art +canvas are, in general, of a superior nature. All kinds of +vegetable fibres are used in their production, chief among which +are cotton, flax and jute. The yarns are almost invariably two +or more ply, an arrangement which tends to obtain a uniform +thickness—a very desirable element in these open-built fabrics. +The plain weave A in the figure is extensively used for these +fabrics, but in many cases special weaves +are used which leave the open spaces well +defined. Thus weave B is often employed, +while the “imitation gauze” weaves, C +and D, are also largely utilized in the +production of these embroidery cloths. +Weave B is known as the hopsack, and +probably owes its name to being originally +used for the making of bags for hops. +The cloth for this purpose is now called +“hop pocketing,” and is of a structure +between bagging and tarpaulin. Another class of canvas, +single warp termed “artists’ canvas,” is used, as its name implies, +for paintings in oils. It is also much lighter than sail canvas, +but must, of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities +are made of cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual +to find an admixture of tow, and even of cotton in the commoner +kinds. When the cloth comes from the loom, it undergoes a +special treatment to prepare the surface for the paint.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANVASS<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (an older spelling of “canvas”), to sift by shaking +in a sheet of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly; as a political +term it means to examine carefully the chances of the votes in a +prospective election, and to solicit the support of the electors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANYNGES,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> <span class="sc">Canynge</span>, <span class="bold">WILLIAM</span> (<i>c.</i> 1399-1474), English +merchant, was born at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a member of a +wealthy family of merchants and cloth-manufacturers in that +city. He entered, and in due course greatly extended, the +family business, becoming one of the richest Englishmen of his +day. Canynges was five times mayor of, and twice member of +parliament for, Bristol. He owned a fleet of ten ships, the +largest hitherto known in England, and employed, it is said, +800 seamen. By special license from the king of Denmark he +enjoyed for some time a monopoly of the fish trade between +Iceland, Finland and England, and he also competed successfully +with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic, obtaining a large +share of their business. In 1456 he entertained Margaret of +Anjou at Bristol, and in 1461 Edward IV. Canynges undertook at +his own expense the great work of rebuilding the famous Bristol +church of St Mary, Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred +workmen in his regular service for this purpose. In 1467 he +himself took holy orders, and in 1469 was made dean of +Westbury. He died in 1474. The statesman George Canning +and the first viscount Stratford de Redcliffe were descendants of +his family.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pryce, <i>Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times</i> +(Bristol, 1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CANYON<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (Anglicized form of Span. <i>cañon</i>, a tube, pipe or +cannon; the Spanish form being also frequently written), a +type of valley with huge precipitous sides, such as the Grand +Canyons of the Colorado and the Yellowstone livers, and the gorge +of the Niagara river below the falls, due to rapid stream erosion +in a “young” land. A river saws its channel vertically downwards, +and a swift stream erodes chiefly at the bottom. In +rainy regions the valleys thus formed are widened out by slope-wash +and the resultant valley-slopes are gentle, but in arid +regions there is very little side-extension of the valleys and +the river cuts its way downwards, leaving almost vertical +cliffs above the stream. If the stream be swift as in the +western plateau of North America, the cutting action will be +rapid. The ideal conditions for developing a canyon are: great +altitude and slope causing swift streams, arid conditions with +absence of side-wash, and hard rock horizontally bedded which +will hold the walls up.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CANZONE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a form of verse which has reached us from Italian +literature, where from the earliest times it has been assiduously +cultivated. The word is derived from the Provençal <i>cansò</i>, +a song, but it was in Italian first that the form became a literary +one, and was dedicated to the highest uses of poetry. The +canzone-strophe consists of two parts, the opening one being +distinguished by Dante as the <i>fronte</i>, the closing one as the +<i>sirma</i>. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being usual +to make the rhyme of the last line of the <i>fronte</i> identical with +that of the first line of the <i>sirma</i>. In other respects the canzone +has great liberty, as regards number and length of lines, arrangement +of rhymes and conduct of structure. An examination +of the best Italian models, however, shows that the tendency +of the canzone-strophe is to possess 9, 10, 11, 13, 14 or 16 verses, +and that of these the strophe of 14 verses is so far the most +frequent that it may almost be taken as the type. In this form +it resembles an irregular sonnet. The <i>Vita Nuova</i> contains many +examples of the canzone, and these are accompanied by so +many explanations of their form as to lead us to believe that +the canzone was originally invented or adopted by Dante. +The following is the <i>proemio</i> or <i>fronte</i> of one of the most celebrated +canzoni in the <i>Vita Nuova</i> (which may be studied in +English in Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s translation):—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Donna pietosa e di novella etate,</p> +<p class="i05">Adorna assai di gentilezza umane,</p> +<p class="i05">Era là ov’ io chiamava spesso Morte.</p> +<p class="i05">Veggendo gli occhi miei pien di pietate,</p> +<p class="i05">Ed ascoltando le parole vane,</p> +<p class="i05">Si mosse con paura a pianger forte;</p> +<p class="i05">Ed altro donne, che si furo accorte</p> +<p class="i05">Di me per quella che meco piangia,</p> +<p class="i05">Fecer lei partir via</p> +<p class="i05">Ed apprissârsi per farmi sentire.</p> +<p class="i05">Quel dicea: ‘Non dormire’;</p> +<p class="i05">E qual dicea: ‘Perchè sì te sconforte?’</p> +<p class="i05">Allor lasciai la nuova fantasia,</p> +<p class="i05">Chiamando il nome della donna mia.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Canzoniere</i> of Petrarch is of great authority as to the +form of this species of verse. In England the canzone was +introduced at the end of the sixteenth century by William +Drummond of Hawthornden, who has left some very beautiful +examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by A.W. von +Schlegel and other poets of the Romantic period. It is doubtful, +however, whether it is in agreement with the genius of any +language but Italian, and whether the genuine “Canzone +toscana” is a form which can be reproduced elsewhere than +in Italy.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAPE BRETON,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> the north-east portion of Nova Scotia, +Canada, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, known +as the Gut of Canceau or Canso. Its extreme length from north +to south is about 110 m., greatest breadth about 87 m., and area +3120 sq. m. It juts out so far into the Atlantic that it has been +called “the long wharf of Canada,” the distance to the west +coast of Ireland being less by a thousand miles than from New +York. A headland on the east coast is also known as Cape +Breton, and is said by some to be the first land made by Cabot +on his voyage in 1497-1498. The large, irregularly-shaped, +salt-water lakes of Bras d’Or communicate with the sea by two +channels on the north-east; a short ship canal connects them +with St Peter’s bay on the south, thus dividing the island into +two parts. Except on the north-west, the coast-line is very +irregular, and indented with numerous bays, several of which +form excellent harbours. The most important are Aspy, St +Ann’s, Sydney, Mira, Louisburg, Gabarus, St Peter’s and Mabou; +of these, Sydney Harbour, on which are situated the towns of +Sydney and North Sydney, is one of the finest in North America. +There are numerous rivers, chiefly rapid hill streams not navigable +for any distance; the largest are the Denys, the Margaree, +the Baddeck and the Mira. Lake Ainslie in the west is the most +extensive of several fresh-water lakes. The surface of the island +is broken in several places by ranges of hills of moderate elevation, +well wooded, and containing numerous picturesque glens and +gorges; the northern promontory consists of a plateau, rising +at Cape North to a height of 1800 ft. This northern projection +is formed of Laurentian gneiss, the only instance in Nova Scotia +of this formation, and is fringed by a narrow border of carboniferous +rocks. South of this extends a Cambrian belt, a continuation +of the same formation on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. +On various portions of the west coast, and on the south side +of the island at Seacoal Bay and Little River (Richmond county), +valuable seams of coal are worked. Still more important is +the Sydney coal-field, which occupies the east coast from Mira +Bay to St Ann’s. The outcrop is plainly visible at various +points along the coast, and coal has been mined in the neighbourhood +from a very early period. Since 1893 the operations have +been greatly extended, and over 3,000,000 tons a year are now +shipped, chiefly to Montreal and Boston. The coal is bituminous, +of good quality and easily worked, most of the seams dipping +at a low angle. Several have been mined for some distance +beneath the ocean. Slate, marble, gypsum and limestone are +quarried, the latter, which is found in unlimited quantities, +being of great value as a flux in the blast-furnaces of Sydney. +Copper and iron are also found, though not in large quantities.</p> + +<p>Its lumber, agricultural products and fisheries are also important. +Nearly covered with forest at the time of its discovery, +it still exports pine, oak, beech, maple and ash. Oats, wheat, +turnips and potatoes are cultivated, chiefly for home consumption; +horses, cattle and sheep are reared in considerable numbers; +butter and cheese are exported. The Bras d’Or lakes and the +neighbouring seas supply an abundance of cod, mackerel, herring +and whitefish, and the fisheries employ over 7000 men. Salmon +are caught in several of the rivers, and trout in almost every +stream, so that it is visited by large numbers of tourists and +sportsmen from the other provinces and from the United States. +The Intercolonial railway has been extended to Sydney, and +crosses the Gut of Canso on a powerful ferry. From the same +strait a railway runs up the west coast, and several shorter +lines are controlled by the mining companies. Of these the most +important is that connecting Sydney and Louisburg. Numerous +steamers, with Sydney as their headquarters, ply upon the +Bras d’Or lakes. The inhabitants are mainly of Highland +Scottish descent, and Gaelic is largely spoken in the country +districts. On the south and west coasts are found a number of +descendants of the original French settlers and of the Acadian +exiles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nova Scotia</a></span>), and in the mining towns numbers of +Irish are employed. Several hundred Mic Mac Indians, for the +most part of mixed blood, are principally employed in making +baskets, fish-barrels and butter-firkins. Nearly the whole +population is divided between the Roman and Presbyterian +creeds, and the utmost cordiality marks the relations between +the two faiths. The population is steadily increasing, having +risen from 27,580 in 1851 to over 100,000 in 1906.</p> + +<p>There is some evidence in favour of early Norse and Icelandic +voyages to Cape Breton, but they left no trace. It was probably +visited by the Cabots in 1497-1498, and its name may either +have been bestowed in remembrance of Cap Breton near +Bayonne, by the Basque sailors who early frequented the coast, +or may commemorate the hardy mariners of Brittany and +Normandy.</p> + +<p>In 1629 James Stewart, fourth Lord Ochiltree, settled a small +colony at Baleine, on the east side of the island; but he was +soon after taken prisoner with all his party by Captain Daniell +of the French Company, who caused a fort to be erected at Great +Cibou (now St Ann’s Harbour). By the peace of St Germain +in 1632, Cape Breton was formally assigned to France; and in +1654 it formed part of the territory granted by patent to Nicholas +Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, who made several small settlements +on the island, which, however, had only a very temporary success. +When by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the French were deprived +of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, they were still left in possession +of Cape Breton, and their right to erect fortifications for +its defence was formally acknowledged. They accordingly +transferred the inhabitants of Plaisance in Newfoundland to +the settlement of Havre à l’Anglois, which soon after, under the +name of Louisburg, became the capital of Cape Breton (or Ile +Royale, as it was then called), and an important military post.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span></p> + +<p>Cod-fishing formed the staple industry, and a large contraband +trade in French wines, brandy and sugar, was carried on with +the English colonies to the south. In 1745 it was captured by +a force of volunteers from New England, under Sir William +Pepperell (1696-1759) aided by a British fleet under Commodore +Warren (1703-1752). By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the town +was restored to France; but in 1758 was again captured by a +British force under General Sir Jeffrey Amherst and Admiral +Boscawen. On the conclusion of hostilities the island was ceded +to England by the treaty of Paris; and on the 7th of October +1763 it was united by royal proclamation to the government +of Nova Scotia. In 1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia, +and a new capital founded at the mouth of the Spanish river +by Governor Desbarres, which received the name of Sydney +in honour of Lord Sydney (Sir Thomas Townshend), then +secretary of state for the colonies. There was immediately +a considerable influx of settlers to the island, which received +another important accession by the immigration of Scottish +Highlanders from 1800 to 1828. In 1820, in spite of strong +opposition, it was again annexed to Nova Scotia. Since then, +its history has been uneventful, chiefly centring in the +development of the mining industry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Historical: Richard Brown, <i>A History of the +Island of Cape Breton</i> (1869), and Sir John Bourinot, <i>Historical and +Descriptive Account of Cape Breton</i> (1892), are both excellent. See +also Denys, <i>Description géogr. et hist, des côtes de l’Amérique septentrionale</i> +(1672); Pichon, <i>Lettres et mémoires du Cap Bréton</i>(1760). +General: <i>Reports</i> of Geological Survey, 1872 to 1882-1886, and +1895 to 1899 (by Robb, H. Fletcher and Faribault); H. Fletcher, +<i>The Sydney Coal Fields, Cape Breton, N.S.</i> (1900); Richard Brown, +<i>The Coal Fields of Cape Breton</i> (1871; reprinted, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAPE COAST,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa, +in 5° 5′ N., 1° 13′ W., about 80 m. W. of Accra. Pop. (1901) +28,948, mostly Fantis. There are about 100 Europeans and a +colony of Krumen. The town is built on a low bank of gneiss +and micaceous slate which runs out into the sea and affords +some protection at the landing-place against the violence of +the surf. (This bank was the <i>Cabo Corso</i> of the Portuguese, +whence the English corruption of Cape Coast.) The castle faces +the sea and is of considerable size and has a somewhat imposing +appearance. Next to the castle, used as quarters for military +officers and as a prison, the principal buildings are the residence +of the district commissioner, the churches and schools of various +denominations, the government schools and the colonial hospital. +Many of the wealthy natives live in brick-built residences. +The streets are hilly, and the town is surrounded on the east and +north by high ground, whilst on the west is a lagoon. Fort +Victoria lies west of the town, and Fort William (used as a lighthouse) +on the east.</p> + +<p>The first European settlement on the spot was that of the +Portuguese in 1610. In 1652 the Swedes established themselves +here and built the castle, which they named Carolusburg. In +1659 the Dutch obtained possession, but the castle was seized +in 1664 by the English under Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir) +Robert Holmes, and it has not since been captured in spite +of an attack by De Ruyter in 1665, a French attack in 1757, +and various assaults by the native tribes. Next to Elmina +it was considered the strongest fort on the Guinea Coast. Up +to 1876 the town was the capital of the British settlements on +the coast, the administration being then removed to Accra. +It is still one of the chief ports of the Gold Coast Colony, and +from it starts the direct road to Kumasi. In 1905 it was granted +municipal government. In the courtyard of the castle are +buried George Maclean (governor of the colony 1830-1843) +and his wife (Laetitia Elizabeth Landon). The graves are +marked by two stones bearing respectively the initials “L.E.L.” +and “G.M.” The land on the east side of the town is +studded with disused gold-diggers’ pits. The natives are +divided into seven clans called companies, each under the rule +of recognized captains and possessing distinct customs and +fetish.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Ffoulkes, “The Company System in Cape Coast Castle,” +in <i>Jnl. African Soc.</i> vol. vii., 1908; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CAPE COLONY<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (officially, “<span class="sc">Province of the Cape of Good +Hope</span>”), the most southern part of Africa, a British possession +since 1806. It was named from the promontory on its south-west +coast discovered in 1488 by the Portuguese navigator Diaz, +and near which the first settlement of Europeans (Dutch) was +made in 1652. From 1872 to 1910 a self-governing colony, in +the last-named year it entered the Union of South Africa as an +original province. Cape Colony as such then ceased to exist. +In the present article, however, the word “colony” is retained. +The “provinces” referred to are the colonial divisions existing +before the passing of the South Africa Act 1909, except in the +sections <i>Constitution and Government</i> and <i>Law and Justice</i>, where +the changes made by the establishment of the Union are set +forth. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Boundaries and Area.</i>—The coast-line extends from the mouth +of the Orange (28° 38′ S. 16° 27′ E.) on the W. to the mouth of +the Umtamvuna river (31° 4′ S. 30° 12′ E.) on the E., a distance +of over 1300 m. Inland the Cape is bounded E. and N.E. by +Natal, Basutoland, Orange Free State and the Transvaal; N. +by the Bechuanaland Protectorate and N.W. by Great Namaqualand +(German S.W. Africa). From N.W. to S.E. the colony has a +breadth of 800 m., from S.W. to N.E. 750 m. Its area is 276,995 +sq. m.—more than five times the size of England. Walfish Bay +(<i>q.v.</i>) on the west coast north of the Orange river is a detached +part of Cape Colony.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The outstanding orographic feature of the +country is the terrace-formation of the land, which rises from +sea-level by well-marked steps to the immense plateau which +forms seven-eighths of South Africa. The coast region varies in +width from a few miles to as many as fifty, being narrowest on the +south-east side. The western coast line, from the mouth of the +Orange to the Cape peninsula, runs in a general south-east +direction with no deep indentations save just south of 33° S. +where, in Saldanha Bay, is spacious and sheltered anchorage. +The shore is barren, consisting largely of stretches of white +sand or thin soil sparsely covered with scrub. The Cape +peninsula, which forms Table Bay on the north and False Bay on +the south, juts pendant beyond the normal coast line and consists +of an isolated range of hills. The scenery here becomes bold and +picturesque. Dominating Table Bay is the well-known Table +Mountain (3549 ft.), flat-topped and often covered with a “tablecloth” +of cloud. On its lower slopes and around Table Bay is +built Cape Town, capital of the colony. Rounding the storm-vexed +Cape of Good Hope the shore trends south-east in a series of +curves, forming shallow bays, until at the saw-edged reefs of Cape +Agulhas (Portuguese, Needles) in 34° 51′ 15″ S. 20° E. the +southernmost point of the African continent is reached. Hence +the coast, now very slightly indented, runs north by east until at +Algoa Bay (25° 45′ E.) it takes a distinct north-east bend, and so +continues beyond the confines of the colony. Along the southern +and eastern shore the country is better watered, more fertile and +more picturesque than along the western seaboard. Cape Point +(Cape of Good Hope) stands 840 ft. above the sea; Cape Agulhas +455 ft. Farther on the green-clad sides of the Uiteniquas +Mountains are plainly visible from the sea, and as the traveller +by boat proceeds eastward, stretches of forest are seen and +numbers of mountain streams carrying their waters to the ocean. +In this part of the coast the only good natural harbour is the +spacious estuary of the Knysna river in 23° 5′ E. The entrance, +which is over a bar with 14 ft. minimum depth of water, is +between two bold sandstone cliffs, called the Heads.</p> + +<p>Off the coast are a few small islands, mainly mere rocks within +the bay. None is far from the mainland. The largest are +Dassen Island, 20 m. S. of Saldanha Bay, and Robben Island, +at the entrance to Table Bay. St Croix is a rock in Algoa Bay, +upon which Diaz is stated to have erected a cross. A number of +small islands off the coast of German South-West Africa, chiefly +valuable for their guano deposits, also belong to Cape Colony +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angra Pequena</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Ocean Currents.</i>—Off the east and south shores of the colony +the Mozambique or Agulhas current sweeps south-westward +with force sufficient to set up a back drift. This back drift or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +counter current flowing north-east is close in shore and is taken +advantage of by vessels going from Cape Town to Natal. On the +west coast the current runs northwards. It is a deflected stream +from the west drift of the “roaring forties” and coming from +Antarctic regions is much colder than the Agulhas current. Off +the southern point of the continent the Agulhas current meets the +west drift, giving rise to alternate streams of warm and cold water. +This part of the coast, subject alike to strong westerly and southeasterly +winds, is often tempestuous, as is witnessed by the name, +Cabo Tormentoso, given to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the +many wrecks off the coast. The most famous was that of the +British troopship “Birkenhead,” on the 26th of February 1852, +off Danger Point, midway between Cape of Good Hope and Cape +Agulhas.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:764px" src="images/img226.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img226a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Mountains and Tablelands.</i>—It has been stated that the land +rises by well-marked steps to a vast central plateau. Beyond the +coast plain, which here and there attains a height of 600 ft., are +mountain ranges running parallel to the shore. These mountains +are the supporting walls of successive terraces. When the steep +southern sides of the ranges nearest the sea are ascended the hills +are often found to be flat-topped with a gentle slope northward +giving on to a plateau rarely more than 40 m. wide. This +plateau is called the Southern or Little Karroo, Karroo being a +corruption of a Hottentot word meaning dry, arid. Having +crossed the Little Karroo, from which rise minor mountain chains, +a second high range has to be climbed. This done the traveller +finds himself on another tableland—the Great Karroo. It has an +average width of 80 m. and is about 350 m. long. Northwards +the Karroo (<i>q.v.</i>) is bounded by the ramparts of the great inner +tableland, of which only a comparatively small portion is in +Cape Colony. This sequence of hill and plain—namely (1) the +coast plain, (2) first range of hills, (3) first plateau (Little Karroo), +(4) second range of hills, (5) second plateau (the Great Karroo), (6) +main chain of mountains guarding, (7) the vast interior tableland—is +characteristic of the greater part of the colony but is not +clearly marked in the south-east and north-west borders. The +innermost, and most lofty, chain of mountains follows a curve +almost identical with that of the coast at a general distance of +120 m. from the ocean. It is known in different places under +different names, and the same name being also often given to one +or more of the coast ranges the nomenclature of the mountains is +confusing (see the map). The most elevated portion of the innermost +range, the Drakensberg (<i>q.v.</i>) follows the curve of the coast +from south to north-east. Only the southern slopes of the range +are in Cape Colony, the highest peaks—over 10,000 ft.—being in +Basutoland and Natal. Going westward from the Drakensberg +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +the rampart is known successively as the Stormberg, Zuurberg, +Sneeuwberg and Nieuwveld mountains. These four ranges face +directly south. In the Sneeuwberg range is Compass Berg, +8500 ft. above the sea, the highest point in the colony. In the +Nieuwveld are heights of over 6000 ft. The Komsberg range, +which joins the Nieuwveld on the east, sweeps from the south to +the north-west and is followed by the Roggeveld mountains, +which face the western seaboard. North of the Roggeveld the +interior plateau approaches closer to the sea than in southern +Cape Colony. The slope of the plateau being also westward, the +mountain rampart is less elevated, and north of 32° S. few points +attain 5000 ft. The coast ranges are here, in Namaqualand and +the district of Van Rhyns Dorp, but the outer edges of the inner +range. They attain their highest point in the Kamies Berg, 5511 +ft. above the sea. Northward the Orange river, marking the +frontier of the colony, cuts its way through the hills to the +Atlantic.</p> + +<p>From the Olifants river on the west to the Kei river on the +east the series of parallel ranges, which are the walls of the +terraces between the inner tableland and the sea, are clearly +traceable. Their general direction is always that of the coast, +and they are cut across by rugged gorges or <i>kloofs</i>, through +which the mountain streams make their way towards the sea. +The two chief chains, to distinguish them from the inner chain +already described, may be called the coast and central chains. +Each has many local names. West to east the central chain is +known as the Cedarberg, Groote Zwarteberg (highest point +6988 ft.), Groote river, Winterhoek (with Cockscomb mountain +5773 ft. high) and Zuurberg ranges. The Zuurberg, owing to the +north-east trend of the shore, becomes, east of Port Elizabeth, a +coast range, and the central chain is represented by a more +northerly line of hills, with a dozen different names, which are a +south-easterly spur of the Sneeuwberg. In this range the Great +Winter Berg attains a height of 7800 ft.</p> + +<p>The coast chain is represented west to east by the Olifants +mountains (with Great Winterhoek, 6618 ft. high), Drakenstein, +Zonder Einde, Langeberg (highest point 5614 ft.), Attaquas, +Uiteniquas and various other ranges. In consequence of the +north-east trend of the coast, already noted, several of these +ranges end in the sea in bold bluffs. From the coast plain rise +many short ranges of considerable elevation, and on the east side +of False Bay parallel to Table Bay range is a mountain chain +with heights of 4000 and 5000 ft. East of the Kei river the whole +of the country within Cape Colony, save the narrow seaboard, is +mountainous. The southern part is largely occupied with spurs +of the Stormberg; the northern portion, Griqualand East and +Pondoland, with the flanks of the Drakensberg. Several peaks +exceed 7000 ft. in height. Zwart Berg, near the Basuto-Natal +frontier, rises 7615 ft. above the sea. Mount Currie, farther +south, is 7296 ft. high. The Witte Bergen (over 5000 ft. high) +are an inner spur of the Drakensberg running through the +Herschel district.</p> + +<p>That part of the inner tableland of South Africa which is in the +colony has an average elevation of 3000 ft., being higher in the +eastern than in the western districts. It consists of wide rolling +treeless plains scarred by the beds of many rivers, often dry for a +great part of the year. The tableland is broken by the Orange +river, which traverses its whole length. North of the river the +plateau slopes northward to a level sometimes as low as 2000 +ft. The country is of an even more desolate character than south +of the Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bechuanaland</a></span>). Rising from the plains +are chains of isolated flat-topped hills such as the Karree +Bergen, the Asbestos mountains and Kuruman hills, comparatively +unimportant ranges.</p> + +<p>Although the mountains present bold and picturesque outlines +on their outward faces, the general aspect of the country north of +the coast-lands, except in its south-eastern corner, is bare and +monotonous. The flat and round-topped hills (<i>kopjes</i>), which are +very numerous on the various plateaus, scarcely afford relief to the +eye, which searches the sun-scorched landscape, usually in vain, +for running water. The absence of water and of large trees is one +of the most abiding impressions of the traveller. Yet the vast +arid plains are covered with shallow beds of the richest soil, +which only require the fertilizing power of water to render them +available for pasture or agriculture. After the periodical rains, +the Karroo and the great plains of Bushmanland are converted +into vast fields of grass and flowering shrubs, but the summer sun +reduces them again to a barren and burnt-up aspect. The +pastoral lands or <i>velds</i> are distinguished according to the nature +of their herbage as “sweet” or “sour.” Shallow sheets of water +termed <i>vleis</i>, usually brackish, accumulate after heavy rain at +many places in the plateaus; in the dry seasons these spots, +where the soil is not excessively saline, are covered with rich +grass and afford favourite grazing land for cattle. Only in the +southern coast-land of the colony is there a soil and moisture +supply suited to forest growth.</p> + +<p><i>Rivers</i>.—The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of +the colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the +Orange (<i>q.v.</i>), which flows from east to west nearly across the +continent. For a considerable distance, both in its upper and +lower courses, the river forms the northern frontier of Cape +Colony. In the middle section, where both banks are in the +colony, the Orange receives from the north-east its greatest +tributary, the Vaal (<i>q.v.</i>). The Vaal, within the boundaries of the +colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and +the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony +the Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the +Orange flow, in their lower courses, through the eastern part of +Griqualand West, the only well-watered portion of the colony +north of the mountains. From the north, below the Vaal +confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman, intermittent +streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional +surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose themselves +in some <i>vlei</i> in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob +mark the frontier between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and +the Cape; the Kuruman lies wholly within the colony. From +the south a number of streams, the Brak and Ongers, the Zak +and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the Hartebeest), +flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for a +great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the +volume of the Orange.</p> + +<p>South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic +or Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast +rivers fall thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and +many are little else than mountain torrents. They make their +way down the mountain sides through great gorges, and are +noted in the eastern part of the country for their extremely +sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams after heavy +rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry up +altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers +are obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange +river also, they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable.</p> + +<p>Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic +are the Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here +that the same name is repeatedly applied throughout South +Africa to different streams, Buffalo, Olifants (elephants’) and +Groote (great) being favourite designations. They all occur +more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west coast rivers, the +Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and least important, +flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150 m.), +which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the +Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg +and Olifants ranges. The Doorn, a stream with a somewhat +parallel but more easterly course, joins the Olifants about 50 m. +above its mouth, the Atlantic being reached by a semicircular +sweep to the south-west. The Berg river (125 m.) rises in the +district of French Hoek and flows through fertile country, in a +north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It is +navigable for a few miles from its mouth.</p> + +<p>On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the +Breede (about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and +broad channel. Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the +mountains by Mitchell’s Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of +Ceres and Worcester, and receives, beyond the last-named place, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> +the waters which descend from the famous Hex River Pass. +The Breede thence follows the line of the Langeberg mountains as +far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and traversing the coast +plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From its mouth the +river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m. East of +the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the inner +mountain chain, are passed in the order named:—Gouritz +(200 m.),<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.), +Kei (150 m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John’s +(140 m.).</p> + +<p>The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the +Gamka and the Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld +not far from Beaufort West, traverses the Great Karroo from +north to south, and forces a passage through the Zwarteberg. +Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from the east by the +Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great Karroo, +being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the +Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the +Little Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka. +The united stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south, +and receives from the west, a few miles above the point where it +breaks through the coast range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the +common name Groote, but known in its upper course as the +Buffels. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The Touws +(90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources of +the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the +Groote the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and +enters the Indian Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel +Bay.</p> + +<p>The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams, +the Kouga, an unimportant river which rises in the coast hills, +and the Groote river. This, <i>the</i> Groote river of Cape Colony, has +its rise in the Nieuwveld near Nels Poort, being known in its upper +course as the Salt river. Flowing south-east, it is joined by the +Kariega on the left, and breaking through the escarpment of the +Great Karroo, on the lower level changes its name to the Groote, +the hills which overhang it to the north-east being known as +Groote River Heights. Bending south, the Groote river passes +through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and being +joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St +Francis Bay.</p> + +<p>Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams, +change its name on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo +and again on reaching the coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg +north-west of Graaff Reinet, flows south-east through one of the +most fertile districts of the Great Karroo, which it pierces at the +western end of the Zuurberg (of the coast chain), and reaches the +ocean in Algoa Bay.</p> + +<p>Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with +the Great Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small +streams rising in the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form +the Great Fish river which passes through Cradock, and crossing +the Karroo, changes its general direction from south to east, and +is joined by the Kooner (or Koonap) and Kat, both of which +rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the Great Salt river, it winds +south to the sea. Great Fish river is distinguished for the sudden +and great rise of its waters after heavy rain and for its exceedingly +sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway station it makes an +almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being scarcely 2 m. apart, +in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like the other streams +which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in its upper +course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000 +cubic ft.</p> + +<p>The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise +in the Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish +in its many twists, flows in a general south-east direction through +mountainous country until it reaches the coast plain. Its +mouth is 40 m. in a direct line north-east of East London. In +the history of the Cape the Kei plays an important part as long +marking the boundary between the colony and the independent +Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei rivers +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.), +Kowie (40 m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be +mentioned. The Knysna rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of +importance as a feeder of the lagoon or estuary of the same +name, one of the few good harbours on the coast. The banks +of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which rises +in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham’s Town, is also noted +for the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The +water over the bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft. +draught. The Buffalo river rises in the hilly country north of +King William’s Town, past which it flows. At the mouth of +the river, where the scenery is very fine, is East London, third +in importance of the ports of Cape Colony.</p> + +<p>The frequency of “fontein” among the place names of the +colony bears evidence of the number of springs in the country. +They are often found on the flat-topped hills which dot the +Karroo. Besides the ordinary springs, mineral and thermal +springs are found in several places.</p> + +<p><i>Lakes and Caves.</i>—Cape Colony does not possess any lakes +properly so called. There are, however, numerous natural +basins which, filled after heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an +incrustation of salt on the ground, whence their name of salt +pans. The largest, Commissioner’s Salt Pan, in the arid north-west +district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference. Besides these +pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools or +<i>vleis</i> whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture +of the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore +by a sandbank only, are a series of five <i>vleis</i>, turned in flood +times into one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to +the ocean. These <i>vleis</i> are known collectively as “the lakes.” +In the Zwarteberg of the central chain are the Cango Caves, +a remarkable series of caverns containing many thousand of +stalactites and stalagmites. These caves, distant 20 m. from +Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone bed +about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers, +the caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthiness. +Its chief characteristics are the dryness and clearness +of the atmosphere and the considerable daily range in temperature; +whilst nevertheless the extremes of heat and cold are +rarely encountered. The mean annual temperature over the +greater part of the country is under 65° F. The chief agents +in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in the +southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large +extent of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature +of the air in places south of the tropics compared with that +experienced in countries in the same latitude north of the equator. +Thus Cape Town, about 34° S., has a mean temperature, 63° F., +which corresponds with that of the French and Italian Riviera, +in 41° to 43° N. For the dryness of the atmosphere the elevation +of the country is responsible. The east and south-east winds, +which contain most moisture, dissipate their strength against +the Drakensberg and other mountain ranges which guard the +interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially in the south-east, +enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance west +and north contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger +part of the country drought is common and severe. Along the +valley of the lower Orange rain does not fall for years together. +The drought is increased in intensity by the occasional hot +dry wind from the desert region in the north, though this wind +is usually followed by violent thunderstorms.</p> + +<p>Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here +outlined, in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there +are many variations in different districts. In the coast-lands +the daily range of the thermometer is less marked than in the +interior and the humidity of the atmosphere is much greater. +Nevertheless, the west coast north of the Olifants river is practically +rainless and there is great difference between day and night +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the characteristics +of the interior plateau. The division of the year into four seasons +is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where exceptional +conditions prevail. In general the seasons are but two—summer +and winter, summer lasting from September to April +and winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is +experienced in December, January and February, whilst June and +July are the coldest months. In the western part of the colony +the winter is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains +come <span class="correction" title="amended from is">in</span> summer. A line drawn from Port Elizabeth north-west +across the Karroo in the direction of Walfish Bay roughly divides +the regions of the winter and summer rains. All the country +north of the central mountain chain and west of 23° E., including +the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual rainfall +of under 12 in. East of the 23° E. the plateaus have a mean +annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-lands +and the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in.; +the Cape peninsula by exception having an average yearly +rainfall of 40 in. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Town</a></span>). Along the south coast and +in the south-east the mean annual rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is +over 50 in. at some stations. The rain falls, generally, in heavy +and sudden storms, and frequently washes away the surface soil. +The mean annual temperature of the coast region, which, as stated, +is 63° F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the coast not only +trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect of the +warm Mozambique or Agulhas current.</p> + +<p>On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77° F., the +mean minimum 49°, the mean daily range about 27°. In summer +the drought is severe, the heat during the day great, the nights +cool and clear. In winter frost at night is not uncommon. The +climate of the northern plains is similar to that of the Karroo, +but the extremes of cold and heat are greater. In the summer +the shade temperature reaches 110° F., whilst in winter nights +12° of frost have been registered. The hot westerly winds of +summer make the air oppressive, though violent thunderstorms, +in which form the northern districts receive most of their scanty +rainfall, occasionally clear the atmosphere. Mirages are occasionally +seen. The keen air, accompanied by the brilliant sunshine, +renders the winter climate very enjoyable. Snow seldom falls +in the coast region, but it lies on the higher mountains for three +or four months in the year, and for as many days on the Karroo. +Violent hailstorms, which do great damage, sometimes follow +periods of drought. The most disagreeable feature of the +climate of the colony is the abundance of dust, which seems +to be blown by every wind, and is especially prevalent in the +rainy season.</p> + +<p>That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the +history of South Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations +of settlers, from northern Europe have been born, lived and died +there, and the race is as strong and vigorous as that from which +it sprang. Malarial fever is practically non-existent in Cape +Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare.</p> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The colony affords the typical development of the +geological succession south of the Zambezi. The following +general arrangement has been determined:—</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table Of Formations</span>.<br /> +<i>Post-Cretaceous and Recent.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Cretaceous System</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Pondoland Cretaceous Series<br />Uitenhage Series</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Cretaceous</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Karroo System</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Stormberg Series<br />Beaufort Series<br />Ecca Series<br />Dwyka Series</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Carboniferous</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Cape System</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Witteberg Series<br />Bokkeveld Series<br />Table Mountain Sandstone Series</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Devonian</td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tclm">Pre-Cape Rocks</td> <td class="tcl">Includes several independent<br /> unfossiliferous formations<br /> of pre-Devonian age</td> + <td class="tclm">Archaean to Silurian(?)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be +regarded as a shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal +rocks of the Karroo. These form the plains and plateaus of the +interior. Rocks of pre-Cape age rise from beneath them on the +north and west; on the south and east the Lower Karroo and +Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath which, but in +quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the folded +regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south +and east.</p> + +<p>Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different +development in each:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">North.</td> <td class="tcc allb">West.</td> <td class="tcc allb">South.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Matsap Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nieuwerust Beds</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cango Beds</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ongeluk Volcanic Series</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Griquatown Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibiquas Beds</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Campbell Rand Series</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Black Reef Series</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pniel Volcanic Series</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Keis Series</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Namaqualand Schists</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Namaqualand Schists and Malmesbury Beds</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Malmesbury Beds</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt +represent formations of widely different ages, but all that can be +said is that they are greatly older than the Cape System. The +hope that they will yield fossils has been held out but not yet +fulfilled. Their total thickness amounts to several thousand feet. +The rocks have been greatly changed by pressure in most cases +and by the intrusion of great masses of igneous material, the +Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being most altered.</p> + +<p>The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse +conglomerate; the other rocks include slates, limestone and +porphyroids. The Ibiquas beds consist of conglomerates and +grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas series have been invaded +by granite of older date than the Table Mountain series. The +Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and shales. They +rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury beds.</p> + +<p>The pre-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Campbell +Rand, Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in +the Schuftebergen. They contain a great variety of sediments +and igneous rocks. The oldest, or Keis, series consists of quartzites, +quartz-schists, phyllites and conglomerates. These are +overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great thickness of lavas +and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer Vley and +Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites, +grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the +Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some +interbedded quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quartzites, +limestones and shales are numerous bands of jasper and +large quantities of crocidolite (a fibrous amphibole); while +at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200 ft. thick, is locally +developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known glaciations +have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The +Ongeluk volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conformably +overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites +and conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great +discordance.</p> + +<p>Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the +southern and eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member +(Table Mountain Sandstone) consists of sandstones with subordinate +bands of shale. It forms the upper part of Table +Mountain and enters largely into the formation of the southern +mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous except for a few +obscure sheils obtained near the base. A bed of conglomerate is +regarded as of glacial origin.</p> + +<p>The Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into +a sequence of sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well +exposed in the Cold and Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds +contain many fossils, including <i>Phacops, Homalonotus, Leptocoelia, +Spirifer, Chonetes, Orthothetes, Orthoceras, Bellerophon</i>. +Many of the species are common to the Devonian rocks of the +Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with +perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South +America than to that of any other country.</p> + +<p>The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sandstones, +quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span> +imperfect remains of plants (<i>Spirophyton</i>) are the only fossils, +and these are not sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the +Devonian or Carboniferous System.</p> + +<p>The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.</p> + +<p>The Karroo System is <i>par excellence</i> the geological formation of +South Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do +large tracts in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes +the following well-defined subdivisions:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Feet.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm bb2" rowspan="4">Stormberg Serie</td> <td class="tcl">Volcanic Beds</td> <td class="tcr">4000</td> <td class="tclm bb3" style="background-color: #e8e8e8;" rowspan="3">Jurassic</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cave Sandstone</td> <td class="tcr">800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Red Beds</td> <td class="tcr">1400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl bb2">Molteno Beds</td> <td class="tcr bb2">2000</td> <td class="tclm bb3" style="background-color: #b8b8b8;" rowspan="3">Trias</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm bb2" rowspan="3">Beaufort Series</td> <td class="tcl">Burghersdorp Beds</td> <td class="tcrm bb2" rowspan="3">5000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dicynodon Beds</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl bb2">Pareiasaurus Beds</td> <td class="tclm bb3" style="background-color: #e8e8e8;" rowspan="2">Permian</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm bb2" rowspan="3">Ecca Series</td> <td class="tcl">Shales and Sandstones</td> <td class="tcrm bb2" rowspan="3">2600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Laingsburg Beds</td> <td class="tclm" style="background-color: #b8b8b8;" rowspan="5">Carboniferus</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl bb2">Shales</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="3">Dwyka Series</td> <td class="tcl">Upper Shales</td> <td class="tcr">600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Conglomerates</td> <td class="tcr">1000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lower Shales</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape +System conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on +very much older rocks. The most remarkable deposits are +the conglomerates of the Dwyka series. These afford the +clearest evidences of glaciation on a great scale in early Carboniferous +times. The deposit strictly resembles a consolidated +modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks, and in +different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is +remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward. +The upper shales contain the small reptile <i>Mesosaurus +tenuidens</i>.</p> + +<p>Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among +others they include <i>Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca</i>. +The Beaufort series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable +and often gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and +species are numerous, <i>Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus</i> +being the best known. Among plants <i>Glossopteris</i> occurs for the +last time. The Stormberg series occurs in the mountainous +regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno beds +contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable +feature of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an +extensive scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed +by lava streams of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets, +most of which end at the folded belt, are also numerous. The age +of the intrusive sheets met with in the Beaufort series is usually +attributed to the Stormberg period. They form the kopjes, or +characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great Karroo. The Stormberg +series contains the remains of numerous reptiles. A true +crocodile, <i>Notochampsa</i>, has been discovered in the Red Beds +and Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, <i>Thinnfeldia</i> and +<i>Taeniopteris</i> are common. Three genera of fossil fishes, <i>Cleithrolepis, +Semionotus</i> and <i>Ceratodus</i>, ascend from the Beaufort +series into the Cave Sandstone.</p> + +<p>Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the +Uitenhage beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden. +The marine fauna of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age. +The chief genera are <i>Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus</i> +and certain <i>Trigoniae</i>.</p> + +<p>The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are +widely spread. High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft. +above the sea. The remains of a gigantic ox, <i>Bubalus Baini</i>, +have been obtained from the alluvium near the Modder river. +The recent deposits indicate that the land has risen for a long +period.</p> +<div class="author">(W. G.*)</div> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals +common in the early days of the colony have been exterminated +(<i>e.g.</i> quagga and blaauwbok), and others (<i>e.g.</i> the lion, rhinoceros, +giraffe) driven beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game +have been so reduced in numbers as to require special protection. +This class includes the elephant (now found only in the Knysna +and neighbouring forest regions), buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved, +and confined to much the same regions as the elephant), +eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other kinds of antelope and +gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in the mountainous +districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare woolly +variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs +are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other +carnivora more or less common to the colony are the spotted +hyena, aard-wolf (or <i>Proteles</i>), silver jackal, the <i>Otocyon</i> or Cape +wild dog, and various kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a +few hundreds of rare varieties, there are the springbuck, of +which great herds still wander on the open veld, the steinbok, a +small and beautiful animal which is sometimes coursed like a +hare, the klipspringer or “chamois of South Africa,” common in +the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock rabbit. +There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of jerboa +and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been +introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland. +The ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is +found on the Karroo, where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps +which dot the plain. There is also a scaly ant-eater and various +species of pangolins, of arboreal habit, which live on ants. +Baboons are found in the mountains and forests, otters in the +rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile, confined to the +Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the cobra di +capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises, +including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental +land forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some +regions. The great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft. +high. Other game birds include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl, +sand-grouse, snipe, wild duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal, +plover and rail. Birds of prey include the bearded vulture, +aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks, falcons and owls. +Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in large variety.</p> + +<p>Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong +to the order Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very +common, the Cape canary, long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and +wagtails are fairly numerous. The English starling is stated to +be the only European bird to have thoroughly established itself in +the colony. The Cape sparrow has completely acclimatized itself +to town life and prevented the English sparrow obtaining a footing.</p> + +<p>Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions, +tarantula spiders, butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In +some districts the tsetse fly causes great havoc. The most +interesting of the endemic insectivora is the <i>Chrysochloris</i> or +“golden mole,” so called from the brilliant yellow lustre of its +fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater fish, the +commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both +are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 ℔. The +smallest variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the +<i>vleis</i> and streams in which the water is intermittent the fish +preserve life by burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been +introduced into several rivers and have become acclimatized. +Of sea fish there are more than forty edible varieties. The snock, +the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in the estuaries and +bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters of the +Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.</p> + +<p>Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed +by the natives when the country was discovered by Europeans. +The various farm animals introduced by the whites have thriven +well (see below, <i>Agriculture</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast +districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less +variety. In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted +in the colony, about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape. +The bush of the coast districts and lower hills consists largely +of heaths, of which there are over 400 species. The heaths and +the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a plant 1 to 2 ft. high +resembling heather, form the characteristic features of the +flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom is pink +coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry +season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the +flowers are the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group, +including many varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span> +the eastern coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-tropical. +Of pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty +genera: Cape “everlasting” flowers (generally species of +<i>Helichrysum</i>) are in great numbers. Several species of aloe +are indigenous to the Cape. The so-called American aloe has +also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant and many other +plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great abundance. +Among plants remarkable in their appearance and +structure may be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge +plants, the <i>Stapelia</i> or carrion flower, and the elephant’s foot +or Hottentots’ bread, a plant of the same order as the yam. +Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic of many South +African plants.</p> + +<p>Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges +facing south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The +forests contain a great variety of useful woods, affording excellent +timber; among the commonest trees are the yellow wood, +which is also one of the largest, belonging to the yew species; +black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable stinkhout; +melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and +the assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed +30 ft. in height and scarcely any attain a greater height than +60 ft. A characteristic Cape tree is <i>Leucadendron argenteum</i> +or silver tree, so named from the silver-like lustre of stem and +leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the Cedarberg got its name, +exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the Dutch or +British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the Australian +blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle +grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands, +<i>e.g.</i> the Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more +rapidly and more luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few +indigenous fruits; the kei apple is the fruit of a small tree or +shrub found in Kaffraria and the eastern districts, where also +the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard pears, gourds, +water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon are also +native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been +introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of +dwarf mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the +spring rains are gorgeous in blossom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Karroo</a></span>). The grass +of the interior plains is of a coarse character and yellowish +colour, very different from the meadow grasses of England. The +“Indian” doab grass is also indigenous.</p> + +<p>With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not +reach beyond about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered +with small heath, <i>Bruniaceae, Rutaceae</i>, &c. All plants with permanent +foliage are thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over +seventy species of plants of Alpine character have been found.</p> + +<p><i>Races and Population</i>.—The first inhabitants of Cape Colony +of whom there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots +(<i>q.v.</i>). The last-named were originally called Quaequaes, and +received the name Hottentots from the Dutch. They dwelt +chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of the country; +elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and to +them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered +by Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was +very scanty and it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers +and a few Huguenot families in the 17th century was followed +in the 19th century by that of English and German immigrants. +The Bushmen retreated before the white races and now few are +to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the districts +bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the +Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no <i>pure bred</i> +representatives of the race survive in the colony.</p> + +<p>Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now +form the bulk of the native population west of the Great Fish +river. Of Kaffir tribes the most important living north of the +Orange river are the Bechuanas, whilst in the eastern province +and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus and Pondos. The +Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony proper. +The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot +half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country. +During the slavery period many thousands of negroes were +imported, chiefly from the Guinea coast. The negroes have been +largely assimilated by the Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the +native races see their separate articles.) Of the white races +in the Colony the French element has been completely absorbed +in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are mainly +pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased +form their own language, also engage largely in agriculture +and viticulture. Of fine physique and hardy constitution, +they are of strongly independent character; patriarchal in +their family life; shrewd, <i>slim</i> and courageous; in religion +Protestants of a somewhat austere type. Education is somewhat +neglected by them, and the percentage of illiteracy among adults +is high. They are firm believers in the inferiority of the black +races and regard servitude as their natural lot. The British +settlers have developed few characteristics differing from the +home type. The British element of the community is largely +resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in +professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk +of the farmers are English or German; the German farmers +being found in the district between King William’s Town and +East London, and on the Cape Peninsula. Numbers of them +retain their own language. The term “Africander” is sometimes +applied to all white residents in Cape Colony and +throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to +the Dutch-speaking colonists. “Boer,” <i>i.e.</i> farmer, as a synonym +for “Dutch,” is not in general use in Cape Colony.</p> + +<p>Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of +Malays in Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the +Dutch as slaves. These people are largely leavened with +foreign elements and, professing Mahommedanism, religion rather +than race is their bond of union. They add greatly by their +picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street scenes. They are +generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There are also +a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of +the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the <i>taal</i> +or vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites, +as it is of the natives in the western provinces.</p> + +<p>The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the +colony, which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not +include the comparatively densely-populated Native Territories, +was 566,158. Of these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or +about 33% of the whole. Of the coloured races the Hottentots +and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000, whilst the Kaffirs formed +about 50% of the population. Since 1865 censuses have been +taken—in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland formed +part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand +East, Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated, +and Basutoland had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland +and British Bechuanaland had been added. The following +table gives the area and population at each of the three periods.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1875.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1891.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Area.<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area.<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area.<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">201,136</td> <td class="tccm allb">849,160</td> <td class="tccm allb">260,918</td> <td class="tccm allb">1,527,224</td> <td class="tccm allb">276,995</td> <td class="tccm allb">2,409,804</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at +720,984, and that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is +officially divided into nine provinces, but is more conveniently +treated as consisting of three regions, to which may be added the +detached area of Walfish Bay and the islands along the coast of +Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows the distribution +of population in the various areas.</p> + +<p>The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865 +and 579,741 in 1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783 +in 1875 and 376,987 in 1891. The proportion of Dutch descended +whites to those of British origin is about 3 to 2. No exact +comparison can be made showing the increase in the native +population owing to the varying areas of the colony, but the +natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites; the +increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable +measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25% +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span> +of the total population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the +colony proper. The great bulk of the people inhabit the coast +region. The population is densest in the south-west corner (which +includes Cape Town, the capital) where the white outnumbers +the coloured population. Here in an area of 1711 sq. m. the +inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The urban +population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns +and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the +total population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants +at the 1904 census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as +Indians, 85,892 as Hottentots,<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as +Griquas. The Kaffir and Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067 +individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes separately classified, while +279,662 persons were described as of mixed race. Divided by +sex (including white and black) the males numbered (1904) +1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion +of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:—whites, +82.16 females to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared +with 1891); coloured, 103.22 females to every 100 males. Of +the total population over 14 years old—1,409,975—the number +married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the white population +this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Population (1904).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">White.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coloured.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per<br />sq. m.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Colony Proper</td> <td class="tcr rb">206,613</td> <td class="tcr rb">553,452</td> <td class="tcr rb">936,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,489,691</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British Bechuanaland</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,424</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,104</td> <td class="tcr rb">84,472</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Native Territories</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,310</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,777</td> <td class="tcr rb">817,867</td> <td class="tcr rb">834,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Walfish Bay and Islands</td> <td class="tcr rb">648</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">853</td> <td class="tcr rb">977</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.50</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">276,995</td> <td class="tcr allb">579,741</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,830,063</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,409,804</td> <td class="tcr allb">8.70</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ +about ¼th of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged +in such pursuits numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and +67,278, whereas 99,319 were engaged in domestic employment, +and 111,175 in agricultural employment, while 214,982 (mostly +children) were dependants. The natives follow domestic and +agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.</p> + +<p>Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory +till 1895. Among the European population the birth-rate is +about 33.00 per thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand. +The birth-rate among the coloured inhabitants is about the same +as with the whites, but the death-rate is higher—about 25.00 +per thousand.</p> + +<p><i>Immigration and Emigration</i>.—From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337 +persons availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants +from England to the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped. +The total number of adult immigrants by sea, however, steadily +increased from 11,559 in 1891 to 38,669 in 1896, while during the +same period the number of departures by sea only increased from +8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took place in the last +year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the political +position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants, while +the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900 +there were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163 +departures. Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the +immigration figures rose in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures +numbered 29,615. This great increase proved transitory; in +1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered 32,282 and 33,775 +respectively, while in the same years the emigrants numbered +33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the European +population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian +extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.</p> + +<p><i>Provinces</i>.—The first division of the colony for the purposes +of administration and election of members for the legislative +council was into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the +western being largely Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly +British. With the growth of the colony these provinces were +found to be inconveniently large, and by an act of government, +which became law in 1874, the country was portioned out into +seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were +formed within them by the reduction of those already existing. +The seven provinces are named from their geographical position: +western, north-western, south-western, +eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and +midland. In general usage the distinction +made is into western and eastern provinces, +according to the area of the primary division. +Griqualand West on its incorporation with +the colony in 1880 became a separate province, +and when the crown colony of British +Bechuanaland was taken over by the Cape +in 1895 it also became a separate province +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bechuanaland</a></span>). For electoral purposes +the Native Territories (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span>) are included in the eastern +province.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns</i>.—With the exception of Kimberley the principal +towns (see separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape +Town, had a population (1904) of 77,668, or including the +suburbs, 169,641. The most important of these suburbs, which +form separate municipalities, are Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg +(18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley, the centre of the +diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape Town, +had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of +Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959 +inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river, +25,220. Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London. +Uitenhage (pop. 12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. +Of the other towns Somerset West (2613), Somerset West Strand +(3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl (11,293), Wellington (4881), +Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon (3508), Worcester +(7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are named +in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam +is distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony +are Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West +(5478), Victoria West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of +Mossel Bay (4206) and George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083), +Middleburg (6137), Cradock (7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg +(2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more centrally situated, +while in the east are Graham’s Town (13,887), King William’s +Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp +(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North +(5566), the largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset +East (5216). Simon’s Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of +the British navy. Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the +colony near the Transvaal frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg +(2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad (2903) is the capital of +Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of Tembuland.</p> + +<p>Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines, +whose headquarters are at O’okiep (2106). Knysna, Port +Alfred and Port St Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and +Barkly West are two widely separated towns, the first being +E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West in Griqualand West. +Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the middle course +of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on the +north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western +part of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining +region in the east of the colony. The general plan of the +small country towns is that of streets laid out at right angles, and +a large central market square near which are the chief church, +town hall and other public buildings. In several of the towns, +notably those founded by the early Dutch settlers, the streets are +tree-lined. Those towns for which no population figures are +given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000 inhabitants.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Allied <span class="correction" title="amended from Industires">Industries</span>.</i>—Owing to the scarcity of +water over a large part of the country the area of land under +cultivation is restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are +pastoralists, whose wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep +and goats, horses, and, in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of +adequate irrigation much fertile soil is left untouched.</p> + +<p>The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +bushels in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and +Kaffir corn (a kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing +districts are in the south-western and eastern provinces. The +yield per acre is fully up to the average of the world’s yield, +computed at twelve bushels to the acre. The quality of Cape +wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives its name to the +Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower hills of +Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and +horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and +Kaffir corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider +area than any other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest +crop grown. They are often cut whilst still tender, dried and +used as forage being known as oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of +about 5½ ℔ each were produced in 1904). The principal vegetables +cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold and beet, beans +and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small, whilst those +devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging from 3000 +acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers +own the farms they occupy.</p> + +<p>The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief +occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000 +woolled and 3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There +were 2,775,000 angora and 4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000 +cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000 asses. These figures showed +in most cases a large decrease compared with those obtained in +1891, the cause being largely the ravages of rinderpest. Lucerne +and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich farms are +maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country, young +birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres +supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated +ostriches in 1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over +200,000 since 1891. There are large mule-breeding establishments +on the veld.</p> + +<p>Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony. +It is doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to +the Cape. The first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards, +while the cuttings of French vines introduced by the Huguenots +about 1688 have given rise to an extensive culture in the south-western +districts of the colony. The grapes are among the finest +in the world, whilst the fruit is produced in almost unrivalled +abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of wine are +produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000, +and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides +1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those +known as Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot. +The high reputation which they had in the first half of the 19th +century was afterwards lost to a large extent. Owing to greater +care on the part of growers, and the introduction of French-American +resistant stocks to replace vines attacked by the +phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th century again +acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater part +of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the +colony. The chief wine-producing districts are those of the +Paarl, Worcester, Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and +the Cape, all in the south-western regions. Beyond the +colony proper there are promising vine stocks in the Gordonia +division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata district of +Tembuland.</p> + +<p>Fruit culture has become an important industry with the +facilities afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in +Europe. The trees whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection +and yield the largest harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and +apple. Large quantities of table grapes are also grown. Many +millions of each of the fruits named are produced annually. The +pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees likewise flourish. Cherry +trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive was begun in the +western provinces, <i>c.</i> 1900. In the Oudtshoorn, Stockenstroom, +Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is grown. +The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 ℔.</p> + +<p>Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to +that of diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres +are Port Elizabeth and the Cape district. In 1904 the output +of the mills was valued at over £2,200,000, more than 7,000,000 +bushels of wheat being ground.</p> + +<p>Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown +property and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries +were little developed before 1897 when government experiments +were begun, which proved that large quantities of fish were +easily procurable by trawling. Large quantities of soles are +obtained from a trawling ground near Cape Agulhas. The collection +of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is under government +control.</p> + +<p><i>Mining</i>.—The mineral wealth of the country is very great. +The most valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in +Griqualand West and also at Hopetown, and other districts along +the Orange river. The diamond-mining industry is almost +entirely under the control of the De Beers Mining Company. +From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come larger numbers +of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the world +combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years +1896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and +a half million carats, of the average annual value of £4,250,000, +the average price per carat being £1 : 13 : 3. From the other +districts alluvial diamonds are obtained of the average annual +value of £250,000-£400,000. They are finer stones than the +Kimberley diamonds, having an average value of £3 : 2 : 7 +per carat.</p> + +<p>Next in importance among mineral products are coal and +copper. The collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of +considerable extent. The Indwe mines are the most productive. +The colonial output increased from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000 +tons in 1904. The copper mines are in Namaqualand, an average +of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined yearly. Copper was +the first metal worked by white men in the colony, operations +beginning in 1852.</p> + +<p>Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near +Mafeking—the outcrop extending about 30 m.—-and, in small +quantities, from mines in the Knysna district. In the Cape +and Paarl districts are valuable stone and granite quarries. +Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which neighbourhood +there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several +districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown +and Uitenhage divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near +Cape Town. Many other minerals exist but are not put to +industrial purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Trade</i>.—The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities, +but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods +to and from the Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia. +The staple exports are diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand +mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich feathers, mohair, hides and +skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000 ℔ in 1860, had +doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 ℔ in 1905 when the +export was valued at £1,887,459. In the same year (1905) +471,024 ℔ of ostrich feathers were exported valued at £1,081,187. +The chief imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky, +timber, hardware and machinery. The value of the total imports +rose from £13,612,405 in 1895 to £33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped +to £20,000,913 in 1905. The exports in 1895 were valued at +£16,798,137 and rose to £23,247,258 in 1899. The dislocation +of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics brought +down the exports in 1900 to £7,646,682 (in which year the +value of the gold exported was only £336,795). They rose to +£10,000,000 and £16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and +in 1905 had reached £33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold +valued at £20,731,159.) About 75% of the imports come from +the United Kingdom or British colonies, and nearly the whole of +the exports go to the United Kingdom. The tonnage of ships +entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from 10,175,903 in 1895 +to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year <span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span>ths of the tonnage was +British. It is interesting to compare the figures already given with +those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the colony +over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country +was under £1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over £4,500,000, +in 1874 it exceeded £10,500,000. It remained at about this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +figure until the development of the Witwatersrand gold mines. +The consequent great increase in the carrying trade with the +Transvaal led to some neglect of the internal resources of the +colony. Trade depression following the war of 1899-1902 +turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory results. +The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was +£12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony +being £15,302,854. A “trade balance-sheet” for 1906 drawn up +for the Cape Town chamber of commerce by its president showed, +however, a debtor account of £18,751,000 compared with a credit +account of £17,931,000, figures representing with fair accuracy +the then economic condition of the country.</p> + +<p>Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union. +The tariff, revised in 1906, is protective with a general <i>ad +valorem</i> rate of 15% on goods not specifically enumerated. On +machinery generally there is a 3% <i>ad valorem</i> duty. Books, +engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c., are on the free list. There +is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United Kingdom, +machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—There is regular communication between +Europe and the colony by several lines of steamships. The +British mails are carried under contract with the colonial government +by packets of the Union-Castle Steamship Co., which +leave Southampton every Saturday and Cape Town every +Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m., +according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the +distance in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers +sail once a week, or oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days) +East London (543 m., three days) and Durban (823 m., four +or five days); Mossel Bay being called at once a fortnight. +Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated intervals +for Port Nolloth.</p> + +<p>Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (<i>Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie</i>), starting +from Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three +chief Cape ports. The western route is via Dover to Cape Town, +the eastern route is via the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines +of steamers ply between Cape Town and Australian ports, and +others between Cape Colony and India.</p> + +<p>There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers +crossing main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the +colony is that which spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is +1480 ft. long and cost £114,000. Of the roads in general it may +be said that they are merely tracks across the veld made at the +pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally used as a +draught animal in country districts remote from railways; +sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying +3 to 4 tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted +the ox-wagon for bringing agricultural produce to +market. The “Scotch cart,” a light two-wheeled vehicle is also +much used.</p> + +<p><i>Railways</i>.—Railway construction began in 1859 when a private +company built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line, +64 m. long, was the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen +years. In 1871 parliament resolved to build railways at the +public expense, and in 1873 (the year following the conferment +of responsible government on the colony) a beginning was made +with the work, £5,000,000 having been voted for the purpose. In +the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was bought by +the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private +companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving +subsidies from the government, which owns and works the +greater part of the railways in the colony.</p> + +<p>The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines +from the seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines +then begun determined the development of the whole system. +The standard gauge in South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways +mentioned are of that gauge unless otherwise stated.</p> + +<p>The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified +under three great systems:—the Western, the Midland and +the Eastern.</p> + +<p>The Western system—the southern section of the Cape to +Cairo route—starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley +(647 m.) to Vryburg (774 m.), whence it is continued by the +Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking (870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.), +the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623 m.) and the Belgian +Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs via +Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen +Streams, a station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via +Klerksdorp to Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most +direct route between Cape Town and the Transvaal. (Distance +from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955 m.)</p> + +<p>The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main +line runs by Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval’s Pont on the +Orange river, whence it is continued through the Orange River +Colony and the Transvaal by Bloemfontein to Johannesburg +(714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria (741 m.). From +Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and Johannesburg, +a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban, +and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and +Port Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line +(186 m.) runs by Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the +main line at Rosmead, from which a junction line (83 m.) runs +eastwards, connecting with the Eastern system at Stormberg. +From Naauwpoort another junction line (69 m.) runs north-west, +connecting the Midland with the Western system at De Aar, +and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from +Cape Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to +Johannesburg via Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)</p> + +<p>The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal +line runs to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony, +where it joins the line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal. +(Distance from East London to Johannesburg, 665 m.) From +Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a branch, originally +the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).</p> + +<p>The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways +running for the most part parallel with the coast. Starting +from Worcester, 109 m. from Cape Town on the western main +line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via Swellendair and Riversdale. +From Mossel Bay another line runs by George, Oudtshoorn +and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from +Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town +666 m.) From Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King +William’s Town to Blaney junction on the eastern main line +and 31 m. from East London. The Somerset East line crosses, +at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line from Port Elizabeth +to the north, and by this route the distance between Port Elizabeth +and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905 of +the Somerset East-King William’s Town line, the nearest railway +connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and +Stormberg junction—a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom +junction on the eastern main line a branch railway goes through +the Transkei to connect at Riverside, the frontier station, with +the Natal railways. It runs via the Indwe coal-mines (66 m. +from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and Kokstad. From +Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also +connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele, +a station 51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata +(180 m. distant). Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns +(307 m. from East London), whence another line 142 m. long +goes to Kokstad.</p> + +<p>Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all +the towns within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked +to it by railway. Longer branches run from the capital S.E. +to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via Malmesbury (47 m.), and +Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A line runs N.W. +across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line via +Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction, +a line (111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange +river. From Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown, +whence another line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port +Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie river. Another line (179 m.) +on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port Elizabeth via Humansdorp +to Avontuur.</p> + +<p>A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +Port Nolloth on the west coast to the O’okiep copper mines +(92 m.). It has a gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.</p> + +<p>The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively +short distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the +Karroo. The steepest gradient is on the western main line. +Having entered the hilly district at Tulbagh Road, where the +railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the Hex River Pass is reached +soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above the sea. In the +next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that distance +being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is the +most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from +East London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m. +from its starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft., +at Cathcart (109 m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat, +where it pierces the Stormberg, 204 m. from East London, +the rails are 5450 ft. above the sea. From Sterkstroom to +Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The highest railway +station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the Zuurberg, +on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems. +The capital expended on government railways to the end of +1905 was £29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of £10,034. The +gross earnings in 1905 were £4,047,065 (as compared with +£3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses £3,076,920 (as compared with +£1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in 1905 numbered +20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000 ℔).</p> + +<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs</i>.—Direct telegraphic communication +between London and Cape Town was established on Christmas +day 1879. Cables connect the colony with Europe (1) via +Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena, Ascension and +St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar +and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and +Cocos.</p> + +<p>An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji, +on Lake Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other +lines connect Cape Town with all other South African states, +while within the colony there is a complete system of telegraphic +communication, over 8000 m. of lines being open in 1906. +The telephone service is largely developed in the chief towns. +The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely +built, at a cost up to 1906 of £865,670, by the government, +which in 1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.).</p> + +<p>The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the +reach of the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts +of Gordonia (Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails. +Since 1890 a yearly average of over 50,000,000 has passed +through the post. Of these about four-fifths are letters.</p> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government</i>.—Under the constitution established +in 1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature +consisted of two chambers, a Legislative Council and a +House of Assembly. Members of the Legislative Council or +Upper House represented the provinces into which the colony +was divided and were elected for seven years; members of the +House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for +five years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces. +At the head of the executive was a governor appointed by the +crown. By the South Africa Act 1909 this constitution was +abolished as from the establishment of the Union of South Africa +in 1910. Cape Colony entered the Union as an original province, +being represented in the Union parliament by eight members in +the Senate and fifty-one in the House of Assembly. The qualifications +of voters for the election of members of the House of +Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at the +establishment of the Union, and are as follows:—Voters must +be born or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape +province at least twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no +distinction being made as to race or colour), must be in possession +of property worth £75, or in receipt of salary or wages of not less +than £50 a year. No one not an elector in 1892 can be registered +as a voter unless he can sign his name and write his address and +occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does not qualify for a +vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified for +election to parliament (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>). The number +of registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000 +were non-Europeans.</p> + +<p>For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting +of the same number of members as are elected by the province +to the House of Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the +council are the same as for the House of Assembly. All voters, +European and non-European, are eligible for seats on the +council, but any councillor who becomes a member of parliament +thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial council. +The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation +within the province for purely local purposes, and generally +controls all matters of a merely local or private nature in the +province. The council was also given, for five years following +the establishment of the Union, control of elementary education. +All ordinances passed by the council must have the sanction of +the Union government before coming into force. The council +is elected for three years and is not subject to dissolution save +by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an official +appointed by the Union government and styled administrator +of the province. The administrator holds his post for a period +of five years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting +of four persons elected by the provincial council but not +necessarily members of that body.</p> + +<p>To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the +divisional and municipal councils of the province, but the powers +of such subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn +by the Union parliament acting directly. Divisional councils, +which are elected triennially, were established in 1855. In +1908 they numbered eighty-one. The councils are presided +over by a civil commissioner who is also usually resident +magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the division; +can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money +on the security of the rates for public works; and return +three members yearly to the district licensing court. Their +receipts in 1908 were £269,000; their expenditure in the same +period was £283,000. The electors to the divisional councils are +the owners or occupiers of immovable property. Members of +the councils must be registered voters and owners of immovable +property in the division valued at not less than £500.</p> + +<p>Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for +the most part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal +Act of 1882. Certain municipalities have, however, obtained +special acts for their governance. In 1907 there were 110 +municipalities in the province. Under the act of 1882 the +municipalities were given power to levy annually an owner’s +rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and +a tenant’s rate assessed upon the annual value of such property. +No rate may exceed 2d. in the £ on the capital value or 8d. in +the £ on the annual value. The receipts of the municipalities +in 1907 amounted to £1,430,000. During the same period +the expenditure amounted to £1,539,000.</p> + +<p><i>Law and Justice</i>.—The basis of the judicial system is the +Roman-Dutch law, which has been, however, modified by +legislation of the Cape parliament. In each division of the +province there is a resident magistrate with primary jurisdiction +in civil and criminal matters. The South Africa Act 1909 +created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the supreme court of +the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town, becoming a +provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over by a +judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony, +namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham’s +Town, and the high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley, +became local divisions of the Supreme Court of South Africa. +Each of these courts consists of a judge-president and two +puisne judges. The provincial and local courts, besides their +original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which the +government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which +the validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into +question. From the decisions of these courts appeals may +be made to the appellate division of the Supreme Court. The +judges of the divisional courts go on circuit twice a year. +In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond +buying (“I.D.B.”). This court consists of two judges of the +supreme court and one other member, hitherto the civil commissioner +or the resident magistrate of Kimberley. The Transkeian +territories, which fall under the jurisdiction of the eastern +district court, are subject to a Native Territories Penal Code, +which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual magistrates +in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident at Cape +Town, with two assistants in the territories.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—Up to the year 1876 government provided an +annual grant for ecclesiastical purposes which was divided +among the various churches, Congregationalists alone declining +to receive state aid. From that date, in accordance with the +provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants were only continued +to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed +Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the +country, is by far the most numerous community. Next in +number of adherents among the white community come the +Anglicans—Cape Colony forming part of the Province of South +Africa. In 1847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to preside +over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape +Colony and Natal, but also over the island of St Helena. Later, +however, separate bishops were appointed for the eastern +province (with the seat at Graham’s Town) and for Natal. +Subsequently another bishopric, St John’s, Kaffraria, was created +and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the rank of archbishop. +Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber the +Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people. +The Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham’s +Town, but are comparatively few. There are, besides, several +foreign missions in the colony, the most important being the +Moravian, London and Rhenish missionary societies. The +Moravians have been established since 1732.</p> + +<p>The following figures are extracted from the census returns +of 1904:—Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118; +Jews, 19,537; Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; “no +religion,” 1,016,255. In this last category are placed the pagan +natives. The figures for the chief Protestant sects were:—Dutch +Reformed Church, 399,487; Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209; +Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433; Presbyterians, 88,660; +Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other Methodists, +290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the +Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and +Bechuanas 26% were returned as Christians.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—There is a state system of primary education +controlled by a superintendent-general of education and the +education department which administers the parliamentary +grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of public schools, drawn up +by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into operation, +and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive +scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the +colony into school districts under the control of popularly elected +school boards, which were established during 1905-1906. These +boards levy, through municipal or divisional councils, a rate +for school purposes and supervise all public and poor schools. +The schools are divided into public undenominational elementary +schools; day schools and industrial institutions for the natives; +mission schools to which government aid for secular instruction +is granted; private farm schools, district boarding schools, +training schools for teachers, industrial schools for poor whites, +&c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were open. +Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of +the white population over fourteen years old could read and write. +In the same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and +53,000 could read but not write. There are also numbers of +private schools receiving no government aid. These include +schools maintained by the German community, in which the +medium of instruction is German.</p> + +<p>The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of +London, stands at the head of the educational system of the +colony. It arose out of and superseded the board of public +examiners (which had been constituted in 1858), was established +in 1874 and was granted a royal charter in 1877. It is governed +by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who is chairman of the +university council) and a council consisting (1909) of 38 members, +including representatives of Natal. The university is empowered +to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university in +Great Britain. Originally only B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B., +and M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature, +science and music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The +number of students who matriculated rose from 34 in 1875 +to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in 1905. The examinations +are open to candidates irrespective of where they +have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants +are paid to seven colleges that specially devote themselves +to preparing students for the graduation courses. These +are the South African College at Cape Town (founded in +1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the Diocesan +College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham’s +Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines +at Kimberley and the Huguenot Ladies’ College at Wellington. +Several denominational colleges, receiving no government +aid, do the same work in a greater or less degree, the +best known being St Aidan’s (Roman Catholic) College and +Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham’s Town. +Graaff Reinet College, Dale College, King William’s Town, and +the Grey Institute, Port Elizabeth, occupy the place of high +schools under the education department. The Theological +Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares theological students for the +ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town is a Royal Observatory, +founded in 1829, one of the most important institutions of +its kind in the world. It is under the control of a royal astronomer +and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty.</p> + +<p><i>Defence</i>.—The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to +repelling attacks from the sea. Simon’s Town, which is on the +east side of the peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and +West Coast naval squadron. It is strongly fortified, as is also +Table Bay. Port Elizabeth is likewise fortified against naval +attack. A strong garrison of the British army is stationed in the +colony, with headquarters at Cape Town. The cost of this +garrison is borne by the imperial government. For purposes of +local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted +Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has +been maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape +Mounted Riflemen and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty +is to preserve order in the Transkeian territories. The Cape +Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are also available for the +defence of the colony and are fully armed. There are numerous +volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the government. +By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between +eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as +within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force.</p> + +<p><i>Revenue, Debt, &c.</i>—The following table shows the total receipts +(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts) +of the colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year ending<br />30th June.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Payments.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Loans<br />(included in total).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">£3,556,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3,742,665</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3,814,947</td> <td class="tcr rb">£496,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,211,832</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,571,907</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,141,857</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,327,496</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,416,611</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,388,157</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,565,752</td> <td class="tcr rb">128,376</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,773,230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13,856,247</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,214,290</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10,914,784</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The colony had a public debt of £42,109,561 on the 31st of +December 1905, including sums raised for corporate bodies, +harbour boards, &c., but guaranteed in the general revenue. +The greater part of the loans were issued at 3½ or 4% interest. +Nearly the whole of the loans raised have been spent on railways, +harbours, irrigation and other public works. The value of +assessed property for divisional council purposes was returned in +1905 at £87,078,268. The total revenue of the divisional councils +increased from £160,558 in 1901 to £273,543 in 1905, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> +expenditure from £170,892 in 1901 to £243,241 in 1905. The +receipts from municipal rates and taxes rose from £520,587 in +1901 to £700,103 in 1905; the total municipal receipts in the +same period from £978,867 to £1,752,105. At the end of 1905 +the total indebtedness of the municipalities was £5,775,420, and +the value of assessed property within the municipal bounds +£53,948,224.</p> + +<p><i>Banks</i>.—-The following table gives statistics of the banks under +trust laws:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">31st<br />December.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Including Head Offices.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Circulation,<br />Colony only.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Assets and<br />Liabilities<br />Colony only.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Capital<br />Subscribed.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital<br />Paid up.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Reserve</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5,780,610</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,558,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">£850,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">£740,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,221,661</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,189,090</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,382,003</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,008,837</td> <td class="tcr rb">612,266</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,864,152</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,166,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,508,308</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,810,621</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,361,637</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,537,343</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,510,900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,456,925</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,948,428</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,065,251</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20,749,988</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures</i>.—Since 1903 a +standard time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being +that of 30° or two hours east of Greenwich. In other words +noon in South Africa corresponds to 10.0 A.M. in London. The +actual difference between the meridians of Greenwich and Cape +Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The monetary system is +that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation are exclusively +British. Though all the standard weights and measures are +British, the following old Dutch measures are still used:—<i>Liquid +Measure</i>: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half +aum = 15½ imperial gallons; anker = 7½ imperial gallons. +<i>Capacity</i>: Muid = 3 bushels. The general surface measure is the old +Amsterdam <i>Morgen</i>, reckoned equal to 2.11654 acres; 1000 +Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033 British imperial feet. The Cape +ton is 2000 ℔.</p> + +<p><i>The Press</i>.—The first newspaper of the colony, written in +Dutch and English, was published in 1824, and its appearance +marked an era not only in the literary but in the political +history of the colony, since it drew to a crisis the disputes which +had arisen between the colonists and the governor, Lord Charles +Somerset, who had issued a decree prohibiting all persons from +convening or attending public meetings. Its criticisms on +public affairs soon led to its suppression by the governor, and a +memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for a free +press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in 1828, +and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by +public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are +divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the +British or the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both +sides. There are about one hundred newspapers in English or +Dutch published in the colony.</p> + +<p>The chief papers are the <i>Cape Times, Cape Argus, South +African News</i> (Bond), both daily and weekly; the <i>Diamond +Fields Advertiser</i> (Kimberley) and the <i>Eastern Province Herald</i> +(Port Elizabeth). <i>Ons Land</i> and <i>Het Dagblad</i> are Dutch papers +published at Cape Town.</p> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">History</p> + +<p><i>Discovery and Settlement</i>.—Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese +navigator, discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and +Vasco da Gama in 1497 sailed along the whole coast of South +Africa on his way to India. The Portuguese, attracted by the +riches of the East, made no permanent settlement at the Cape. +But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the Portuguese power, +established themselves in the East, early saw the importance of +the place as a station where their vessels might take in water and +provisions. They did not, however, establish any post at the +Cape until 1652, when a small garrison under Jan van Riebeek +were sent there by the Dutch East India Company. Riebeek +landed at Table Bay and founded Cape Town. In 1671 the first +purchase of land from the Hottentots beyond the limits of the +fort built by Riebeek marked the beginning of the Colony proper. +The earliest colonists were for the most part people of low station +or indifferent character, but as the result of the investigations +of a commissioner sent out in 1685 a better class of immigrants +was introduced. About 1686 the European population was +increased by a number of the French refugees who left their +country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The influence +of this small body of immigrants on the character of the Dutch +settlers was marked. The Huguenots, however, owing to the +policy of the Company, which in 1701 directed that Dutch only +should be taught in the schools, ceased by the middle of the 18th +century to be a distinct body, and the knowledge of French +disappeared. Advancing north and +east from their base at Cape Town +the colonists gradually acquired—partly +by so-called contracts, partly +by force—all the land of the Hottentots, +large numbers of whom they +slew. Besides those who died in +warfare, whole tribes of Hottentots +were destroyed by epidemics of +smallpox in 1713 and in 1755. Straggling remnants still maintained +their independence, but the mass of the Hottentots took +service with the colonists as herdsmen, while others became +hangers-on about the company’s posts and grazing-farms or +roamed about the country. In 1787 the Dutch government passed +a law subjecting these wanderers to certain restrictions. The +effect of this law was to place the Hottentots in more immediate +dependence upon the farmers, or to compel them to migrate +northward beyond the colonial border. Those who chose the +latter alternative had to encounter the hostility of their old foes, +the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the plains from the +Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg mountains to the Orange river. +The colonists also, pressing forward to those territories, came in +contact with these Ishmaelites—the farmers’ cattle and sheep, +guarded only by a Hottentot herdsman, offering the strongest +temptation to the Bushman. Reprisals followed; and the +position became so desperate that the extermination of the +Bushmen appeared to the government the only safe alternative. +“Commandoes” or war-bands were sent out against them, and +they were hunted down like wild beasts. Within a period of six +years, it is said, upwards of 3000 were either killed or captured. +Out of the organization of these commandoes, with their field-commandants +and field-cornets, has grown the common system +of local government in the Dutch-settled districts of South Africa.</p> + +<p>It was not to the hostility of the natives, nor to the hard +struggle with nature necessary to make agriculture profitable +on Karroo or veld, that the slow progress made by the colonists +was due, so much as to the narrow and tyrannical policy adopted +by the East India Company, which closed the colony against free +immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, +combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in +one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they +were to grow, demanded from them a large part of their produce, +and harassed them with other exactions tending to discourage +industry and enterprise. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>, where +the methods and results of Dutch colonial government are +considered in their broader aspects.) To this mischievous policy +is ascribed that dislike to orderly government, and that desire +to escape from its control, which characterized for many generations +the “boer” or farmer class of Dutch settlers—qualities +utterly at variance with the character of the Dutch in their +native country. It was largely to escape oppression that the +farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. +The company, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy +at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. +The Gamtoos river had been declared, <i>c.</i> 1740, the eastern +frontier of the colony, but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, +the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Kaffir tribes +advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with +them to make the Great Fish river the common boundary. In +1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who +were afforded no protection against the Kaffirs, expelled the +officials of the East India Company, and set up independent +governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. In the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> +year, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary government +of France, a British force under General Sir James Craig was sent +to Cape Town to secure the colony for the prince of Orange—a +refugee in England—against the French. The governor of Cape +Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the prince, +but on the British proceeding to take forcible possession he +capitulated.<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> His action was hastened by the fact that the +Hottentots, deserting their former masters, flocked to the British +standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until +a force had been sent against them, while in 1799 and again in +1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the +peace of Amiens, the colony was handed over to the Batavian +Republic, which introduced many needful reforms, as had the +British during their eight years’ rule. (One of the first acts of +General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration +of justice.) War having again broken out, a British force was +once more sent to the Cape. After an engagement (Jan. 1806) +on the shores of Table Bay the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle surrendered +to the British under Sir David Baird, and in 1814 the +colony was ceded outright by Holland to the British crown. +At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding +the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland, and had +an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, +of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Hottentots and the rest +slaves. These slaves were mostly imported negroes and Malays. +Their introduction was the chief cause leading the white settlers +to despise manual labour.</p> + +<p><i>The First and Second Kaffir Wars</i>.—At the time of the +cession to Great Britain the first of several wars with the Kaffirs +had been fought. (The numerous minor conflicts which since +1789 had taken place between the colonists and the Kaffirs—the +latter sometimes aided by Hottentot allies—are not reckoned +in the usual enumeration of the Kaffir wars.) The Kaffirs, who +had crossed the colonial frontier, had been expelled from the +district between the Sunday and Great Fish rivers known as +the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some +time previous to 1811 the Kaffirs, however, had taken possession +of the neutral ground and committed depredations on the +colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel +John Graham took the field with a mixed force in December 1811, +and in the end the Kaffirs were driven beyond the Fish river. +On the site of Colonel Graham’s headquarters arose the town +which bears his name. In 1817 further trouble arose with the +Kaffirs, the immediate cause of quarrel being an attempt by the +colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen +cattle. Routed in 1818 the Kaffirs rallied, and in the early part +of 1819 poured into the colony in vast hordes. Led by a prophet-chief +named Makana, they attacked Graham’s Town on the +22nd of April, then held by a handful of white troops. Help +arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then +arranged that the land between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers +should be neutral territory.</p> + +<p><i>The British Settlers of 1820</i>.—The war of 1817-19 led to the +first introduction of English settlers on a considerable scale, +an event fraught with far-reaching consequences. The then +governor, Lord Charles Somerset, whose treaty arrangements +with the Kaffir chiefs had proved unfortunate, desired to erect +a barrier against the Kaffirs by settling white colonists in the +border district. In 1820, on the advice of Lord Charles, parliament +voted £50,000 to promote emigration to the Cape, and +4000 British were sent out. These people formed what was +known as the Albany settlement, founding Port Elizabeth and +making Graham’s Town their headquarters. Intended primarily +as a measure to secure the safety of the frontier, and regarded by +the British government chiefly as a better means of affording a +livelihood to a few thousands of the surplus population, this +emigration scheme accomplished a far greater work than its +authors contemplated. The new settlers, drawn from every part +of the British Isles and from almost every grade of society, +retained, and their descendants retain, strong sympathy with +their native land. In course of time they formed a valuable +counterpoise to the Dutch colonists, and they now constitute the +most progressive element in the colony. The advent of these +immigrants was also the means of introducing the English +language at the Cape. In 1825, for the first time, ordinances +were issued in English, and in 1827 its use was extended to +the conduct of judicial proceedings. Dutch was not, however, +ousted, the colonists becoming to a large extent bilingual.</p> + +<p><i>Dislike of British Rule</i>.—Although the colony was fairly +prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied +with British rule as they had been with that of the Dutch East +India Company, though their ground of complaint was not the +same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been established for the +benefit of the Hottentots,<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and in 1799 the London Missionary +Society began work among both Hottentots and Kaffirs. The +championship of Hottentot grievances by the missionaries caused +much dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose +views, it may be noted, temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance +was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Hottentot +children as apprentices under conditions differing little from that +of slavery. Meantime, however, the movement for the abolition +of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries +at length appealed from the colonists to the mother country. +An incident which occurred in 1815-1816 did much to make +permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British. +A farmer named Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued +on the complaint of a Hottentot, and firing on the party sent to +arrest him, was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a +miniature rebellion, and on its suppression five ringleaders were +publicly hanged at the spot—Slachters Nek—where they had +sworn to expel “the English tyrants.” The feeling caused +by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances +of the execution—for the scaffold on which the rebels were +simultaneously swung, broke down from their united weight and +the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance +passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of <i>landroost</i> +and <i>heemraden</i> (resident magistrates being substituted) and +decreeing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted +in English; the granting in 1828, as a result of the +representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with +whites to the Hottentots and other free coloured people; the +imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of +slaves, and finally the emancipation of the slaves in 1834,<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a>—all +these things increased the dislike of the farmers to the government. +Moreover, the inadequate compensation awarded to slave-owners, +and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, +caused much resentment, and in 1835 the trekking of farmers +into unknown country in order to escape from an unloved government, +which had characterized the 18th century, recommenced. +Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been continuous +for 150 years, but it now took on larger proportions.</p> + +<p><i>The Third Kaffir War</i>.—On the eastern border further trouble +arose with the Kaffirs, towards whom the policy of the Cape +government was marked by much vacillation. On the 11th of +December 1834 a chief of high rank was killed while resisting +a commando party. This set the whole of the Kaffir tribes +in a blaze. A force of 10,000 fighting men, led by Macomo, +a brother of the chief who was killed, swept across the frontier, +pillaged and burned the homesteads and murdered all who +dared to resist. Among the worst sufferers were a colony of +freed Hottentots who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat +river valley by the British authorities. The fighting power +of the colony was scanty, but the governor, Sir Benjamin +D’Urban (<i>q.v.</i>), acted with promptitude, and all available forces +were mustered under Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) Smith, +who reached Graham’s Town on the 6th of January 1835, six days +after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +territory was invaded, and after nine months’ fighting the Kaffirs +were completely subdued, and a new treaty of peace concluded +(on the 17th of September). By this treaty all the country +as far as the river Kei was acknowledged to be British, and its +inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of +government was selected and named King Wiliam’s Town.</p> + +<p><i>The Great Trek</i>.—The action of Sir Benjamin D’Urban was not +approved by the home government, and on the instruction of +Lord Glenelg, secretary for the colonies, who declared that +“the great evil of the Cape Colony consists in its magnitude,” +the colonial boundary was moved back to the Great Fish +river, and eventually (in 1837) Sir Benjamin was dismissed from +office. “The Kaffirs,” in the opinion of Lord Glenelg, “had +an ample justification for war; they had to resent, and endeavoured +justly, though impotently, to avenge a series of encroachments” +(despatch of the 26th of December 1835). This attitude +towards the Kaffirs was one of the many reasons given by the +Trek Boers for leaving Cape Colony. The Great Trek, as it is +called, lasted from 1836 to 1840, the trekkers, who numbered +about 7000, founding communities with a republican form of +government beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers, and in Natal, +where they had been preceded, however, by British emigrants. +From this time Cape Colony ceased to be the only civilized community +in South Africa, though for long it maintained its predominance. +Up to 1856 Natal was, in fact, a dependency of +the Cape (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>). Considerable trouble was +caused by the emigrant Boers on either side of the Orange +river, where the new comers, the Basutos and other Kaffir +tribes, Bushmen and Griquas contended for mastery. The Cape +government endeavoured to protect the rights of the natives. +On the advice of the missionaries, who exercised great influence +with all the non-Dutch races, a number of native states were +recognized and subsidized by the Cape government, with the +object—not realized—of obtaining peace on this northern +frontier. The first of these “Treaty States” recognized was +that of the Griquas of Griqualand West. Others were +recognized in 1843 and 1844—in the last-named year a treaty +was made with the Pondoes on the eastern border. During +this period the condition of affairs on the eastern frontier was +deplorable, the government being unable or unwilling to afford +protection to the farmers from the depredations of the Kaffirs. +Elsewhere, however, the colony was making progress. The +change from slave to free labour proved to be advantageous to +the farmers in the western provinces; an efficient educational +system, which owed its initiation to Sir John Herschel, the +astronomer (who lived in Cape Colony from 1834 to 1838), +was adopted; Road Boards were established and did much +good work; to the staple industries—the growing of wheat, the +rearing of cattle and the making of wine—was added sheep-raising; +and by 1846 wool became the most valuable export +from the country. The creation, in 1835, of a legislative council, +on which unofficial members had seats, was the first step in +giving the colonists a share in the government.</p> + +<p><i>The War of the Axe</i>.—Another war with the Kaffirs broke out +in 1846 and was known as the War of the Axe, from the murder +of a Hottentot, to whom an old Kaffir thief was manacled, while +being conveyed to Graham’s Town for trial for stealing an axe. +The escort was attacked by a party of Kaffirs and the Hottentot +killed. The surrender of the murderer was refused, and war was +declared in March 1846. The Gaikas were the chief tribe engaged +in the war, assisted during the course of it by the Tambukies. +After some reverses the Kaffirs were signally defeated on the +7th of June by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles +from Fort Peddie. Still the war went on, till at length Sandili, +the chief of the Gaikas, surrendered, followed gradually by the +other chiefs; and by the beginning of 1848 the Kaffirs were again +subdued, after twenty-one months’ fighting.</p> + +<p><i>Extension of British Sovereignty</i>.—In the last month of the +war (December 1847) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town +as governor of the colony, and with his arrival the Glenelg +policy was reversed. By proclamation, on the 17th of December, +he extended the frontier of the colony northward to the Orange +river and eastward to the Keiskamma river, and on the 23rd, +at a meeting of the Kaffir chiefs, announced the annexation of +the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to the +British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by +order of Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with +the Cape, but made a crown dependency under the name of +British Kaffraria. For a time the Kaffirs accepted quietly the +new order of things. The governor had other serious matters +to contend with, including the assertion of British authority +over the Boers beyond the Orange river, and the establishment +of amicable relations with the Transvaal Boers. In the colony +itself a crisis arose out of the proposal to make it a convict +station.</p> + +<p><i>The Convict Agitation and Granting of a Constitution</i>.—In 1848 +a circular was sent by the 3rd Earl Grey, then colonial secretary, +to the governor of the Cape (and to other colonial governors), +asking him to ascertain the feelings of the colonists regarding the +reception of a certain class of convicts, the intention being to +send to South Africa Irish peasants who had been driven into +crime by the famine of 1845. Owing to some misunderstanding, +a vessel, the “Neptune,” was despatched to the Cape before the +opinion of the colonists had been received, having on board 289 +convicts, among whom were John Mitchell, the Irish rebel, and +his colleagues. When the news reached the Cape that this +vessel was on her way, the people of the colony became violently +excited; and they established an anti-convict association, by +which they bound themselves to cease from all intercourse of +every kind with persons in any way connected “with the landing, +supplying or employing convicts.” On the 19th of September +1849 the “Neptune” arrived in Simon’s Bay. Sir Harry Smith, +confronted by a violent public agitation, agreed not to land the +convicts, but to keep them on board ship in Simon’s Bay till he +received orders to send them elsewhere. When the home +government became aware of the state of affairs orders were sent +directing the “Neptune” to proceed to Tasmania, and it did so +after having been in Simon’s Bay for five months. The agitation +did not, however, pass away without other important results, +since it led to another movement, the object of which was to +obtain a free representative government for the colony. This +concession, which had been previously promised by Lord Grey, +was granted by the British government, and, in 1854, a constitution +was established of almost unprecedented liberality.</p> + +<p><i>The Kaffir War of 1850-1853</i>.—The anti-convict agitation had +scarcely ceased when the colony was once again involved in war. +The Kaffirs bitterly resented their loss of independence, and ever +since the last war had been secretly preparing to renew the +struggle. Sir Harry Smith, informed of the threatening attitude +of the natives, proceeded to the frontier, and summoned Sandili +and the other chiefs to an interview. Sandili refused obedience; +upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs (October 1850), the +governor declared him deposed from his chiefship, and appointed +an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be temporary +chief of the Gaika tribe. The governor appears to have believed +that the measures he took would prevent a war and that Sandili +could be arrested without armed resistance. On the 24th of +December Col. Geo. Mackinnon, being sent with a small force with +the object of securing the chief, was attacked in a narrow defile +by a large body of Kaffirs, and compelled to retreat with some +loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the Gaika tribe. +The settlers in the military villages, which had been established +along the frontier, assembled in fancied security to celebrate +Christmas Day, were surprised, many of them murdered, and +their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in +quick succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man. +The greater part of the Kaffir police deserted, many of them +carrying off their arms and accoutrements. Emboldened by +success, the enemy in immense force surrounded and attacked +Fort Cox, where the governor was stationed with an inconsiderable +force. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to +relieve Sir Harry; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the +occasion. At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied +by Colonel Mackinnon, he dashed out of the fort, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span> +and, through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode to King William’s +Town—a distance of 12 m. Meantime, a new enemy appeared. +Some 900 of the Kat river Hottentots, who had in former wars +been firm allies of the British, threw in their lot with their +hereditary enemies—the Kaffirs. They were not without +excuses. They complained that while doing burgher duty in +former wars—the Cape Mounted Rifles consisted largely of +Hottentot levies—they had not received the same treatment as +others serving in defence of the colony, that they got no compensation +for the losses they had sustained, and that they were +in various ways made to feel they were a wronged and injured +race. A secret combination was formed with the Kaffirs to take +up arms to sweep the Europeans away and establish a Hottentot +republic. Within a fortnight of the attack on Colonel Mackinnon +the Kat river Hottentots were also in arms. Their revolt was +followed by that of the Hottentots at other missionary stations; +and part of the Hottentots of the Cape Mounted Rifles followed +their example, including the very men who had escorted the +governor from Fort Cox. But numbers of Hottentots remained +loyal and the Fingo Kaffirs likewise sided with the British.</p> + +<p>After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided, +and preparations had been made, Sir Harry Smith and his +gallant force turned the tide of war against the Kaffirs. The +Amatola mountains were stormed; and the paramount chief +Kreli, who all along covertly assisted the Gaikas, was severely +punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith was recalled by Earl +Grey, who accused him—unjustly, in the opinion of the duke of +Wellington—of a want of energy and judgment in conducting the +war, and he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Cathcart. +Kreli was again attacked and reduced to submission. The +Amatolas were finally cleared of the Kaffirs, and small forts +erected among them to prevent their reoccupation. The British +commanders were hampered throughout by the insufficiency of +their forces, and it was not till March 1853 that this most +sanguinary of Kaffir wars was brought to a conclusion, after a +loss of many hundred British soldiers. Shortly afterwards, +British Kaffraria was made a crown colony. The Hottentot +settlement at Kat river remained, but the Hottentot power +within the colony was now finally crushed.</p> + +<p><i>The Great Amaxosa Delusion.</i>—From 1853 the Kaffir tribes +on the east gave little trouble to the colony. This was due, in +large measure, to an extraordinary delusion which arose among +the Amaxosa in 1856, and led in 1857 to the death of some 50,000 +persons. This incident is one of the most remarkable instances +of misplaced faith recorded in history. The Amaxosa had not +accepted their defeat in 1853 as decisive and were preparing to +renew the struggle with the white men. At this juncture, May +1856, a girl named Nongkwase told her father that on going to +draw water from a stream she had met strangers of commanding +aspect. The father, Mhlakza, went to see the men, who told him +that they were spirits of the dead, who had come, if their behests +were obeyed, to aid the Kaffirs with their invincible power to +drive the white man from the land. Mhlakza repeated the +message to his chief, Sarili, one of the most powerful Kaffir rulers. +Sarili ordered the commands of the spirits to be obeyed. These +orders were, at first, that the Amaxosa were to destroy their fat +cattle. The girl Nongkwase, standing in the river where the +spirits had first appeared, heard unearthly noises, interpreted +by her father as orders to kill more and more cattle. At length +the spirits commanded that not an animal of all their herds was +to be left alive, and every grain of corn was to be destroyed. +If that were done, on a given date myriads of cattle more beautiful +than those destroyed would issue from the earth, while great +fields of corn, ripe and ready for harvest, would instantly appear. +The dead would rise, trouble and sickness vanish, and youth and +beauty come to all alike. Unbelievers and the hated white man +would on that day utterly perish. The people heard and obeyed. +Sarili is believed by many persons to have been the instigator +of the prophecies. Certainly some of the principal chiefs regarded +all that was done simply as the preparation for a last struggle +with the whites, their plan being to throw the whole Amaxosa +nation fully armed and in a famishing condition upon the colony. +There were those who neither believed the predictions nor looked +for success in war, but destroyed their last particle of food in +unquestioning obedience to their chief’s command. Either in +faith that reached the sublime, or in obedience equally great, +vast numbers of the people acted. Great kraals were also +prepared for the promised cattle, and huge skin sacks to hold +the milk that was soon to be more plentiful than water. At +length the day dawned which, according to the prophecies, was +to usher in the terrestrial paradise. The sun rose and sank, bat +the expected miracle did not come to pass. The chiefs who had +planned to hurl the famished warrior host upon the colony had +committed an incredible blunder in neglecting to call the nation +together under pretext of witnessing the resurrection. This +error they realized too late, and endeavoured by fixing the resurrection +for another day to gather the clans, but blank despair +had taken the place of hope and faith, and it was only as starving +suppliants that the Amaxosa sought the British. The colonists +did what they could to save life, but thousands perished miserably. +In their extremity many of the Kaffirs turned cannibals, and one +instance of parents eating their own child is authenticated. +Among the survivors was the girl Nongkwase; her father +perished. A vivid narrative of the whole incident will be found +in G.M. Theal’s <i>History and Geography of South Africa</i> (3rd ed., +London, 1878), from which this account is condensed. The +country depopulated as the result of this delusion was afterwards +peopled by European settlers, among whom were members of the +German legion which had served with the British army in the +Crimea, and some 2000 industrious North German emigrants, +who proved a valuable acquisition to the colony.</p> + +<p><i>Sir George Grey’s Governorship.</i>—In 1854 Sir George Grey +became governor of the Cape, and the colony owed much to his +wise administration. The policy, imposed by the home government, +of abandoning responsibility beyond the Orange river, was, +he perceived, a mistaken one, and the scheme he prepared in +1858 for a confederation of all South Africa (<i>q.v.</i>) was rejected by +Great Britain. By his energetic action, however, in support of +the missionaries Moffat and Livingstone, Sir George kept open +for the British the road through Bechuanaland to the far interior. +To Sir George was also due the first attempt, missionary effort +apart, to educate the Kaffirs and to establish British authority +firmly among them, a result which the self-destruction of the +Amaxosa rendered easy. Beyond the Kei the natives were left to +their own devices. Sir George Grey left the Cape in 1861. +During his governorship the resources of the colony had been +increased by the opening up of the copper mines in Little Namaqualand, +the mohair wool industry had been established and +Natal made a separate colony. The opening, in November 1863, +of the railway from Cape Town to Wellington, begun in 1859, and +the construction in 1860 of the great breakwater in Table Bay, +long needed on that perilous coast, marked the beginning in the +colony of public works on a large scale. They were the more or +less direct result of the granting to the colony of a large share in +its own government. In 1865 the province of British Kaffraria +was incorporated with the colony, under the title of the Electoral +Divisions of King William’s Town and East London. The +transfer was marked by the removal of the prohibition of the +sale of alcoholic liquors to the natives, and the free trade in +intoxicants which followed had most deplorable results among the +Kaffir tribes. A severe drought, affecting almost the entire +colony for several years, caused great depression of trade, and +many farmers suffered severely. It was at this period (1869) that +ostrich-farming was successfully established as a separate +industry.</p> + +<p>Whether by or against the wish of the home government, the +limits of British authority continued to extend. The Basutos, +who dwelt in the upper valleys of the Orange river, had subsisted +under a semi-protectorate of the British government from 1843 +to 1854; but having been left to their own resources on the +abandonment of the Orange sovereignty, they fell into a long +exhaustive warfare with the Boers of the Free State. On the +urgent petition of their chief Moshesh, they were proclaimed +British subjects in 1868, and their territory became part of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> +colony in 1871 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basutoland</a></span>). In the same year the south-eastern +part of Bechuanaland was annexed to Great Britain +under the title of Griqualand West. This annexation was a consequence +of the discovery there of rich diamond mines, an event +which was destined to have far-reaching results.</p> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<p><i>Development of Modern Conditions.</i>—The year 1870 marks the +dawn of a new era in South Africa. From that date the development +of modern South Africa may be said to have fairly started, +and in spite of political complications, arising from time to time, +the progress of Cape Colony down to the outbreak of the Transvaal +War of 1899 was steadily forward. The discovery of diamonds on +the Orange river in 1867, followed immediately afterwards by the +discovery of diamonds on the Vaal river, led to the rapid occupation +and development of a tract of country which had hitherto +been but sparsely inhabited. In 1870 Dutoitspan and Bultfontein +diamond mines were discovered, and in 1871 the still +richer mines of Kimberley and De Beers. These four great +deposits of mineral wealth are still richly productive, and constitute +the greatest industrial asset which the colony possesses. +At the time of the beginning of the diamond industry, not only +the territory of Cape Colony and the Boer Republics, but all +South Africa, was in a very depressed condition. Ostrich-farming +was in its infancy, and agriculture but little developed. The +Boers, except in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town, were a +primitive people. Their wants were few, they lacked enterprise, +and the trade of the colony was restricted. Even the British +colonists at that time were far from rich. The diamond industry +therefore offered considerable attractions, especially to colonists +of British origin. It was also the means at length of demonstrating +the fact that South Africa, barren and poor on the surface, +was rich below the surface. It takes ten acres of Karroo to feed a +sheep, but it was now seen that a few square yards of diamondiferous +blue ground would feed a dozen families. By the end of +1871 a large population had already gathered at the diamond +fields, and immigration continued steadily, bringing new-comers +to the rich fields. Among the first to seek a fortune at the +diamond fields was Cecil Rhodes.</p> + +<p>In 1858 the scheme of Sir George Grey for the federation of the +various colonies and states of South Africa had been rejected, as +has been stated, by the home authorities. In 1874 the 4th earl of +Carnarvon, secretary of state for the colonies, who had been +successful in aiding to bring about the federation of Canada, +turned his attention to a similar scheme for the confederation of +South Africa. The representative government in Cape Colony +had been replaced in 1872 by responsible, <i>i.e.</i> self-government, +and the new parliament at Cape Town resented the manner +in which Lord Carnarvon propounded his suggestions. A resolution +was passed (June 11, 1875) stating that any scheme in favour +of confederation must in its opinion originate within South +Africa itself. James Anthony Froude, the distinguished historian, +was sent out by Lord Carnarvon to further his policy in South +Africa. As a diplomatist and a representative of the British +government, the general opinion in South Africa was that Froude +was not a success, and he entirely failed to induce the colonists to +adopt Lord Carnarvon’s views. In 1876, Fingoland, the Idutywa +reserve, and Noman’s-land, tracts of country on the Kaffir +frontier, were annexed by Great Britain, on the understanding +that the Cape government should provide for their government. +Lord Carnarvon, still bent on confederation, now appointed Sir +Bartle Frere governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner +of South Africa.</p> + +<p>Frere had no sooner taken office as high commissioner +than he found himself confronted with serious native troubles in +Zululand and on the Kaffir frontier of Cape Colony. In 1877 +there occurred an outbreak on the part of the Galekas and the +Gaikas. A considerable force of imperial and colonial troops was +employed to put down this rising, and the war was subsequently +known as the Ninth Kaffir war. It was in this war that the +famous Kaffir chief, Sandili, lost his life. At its conclusion the +Transkei, the territory of the Galeka tribe, under Kreli, was +annexed by the British. In the meantime Lord Carnarvon had +resigned his position in the British cabinet, and the scheme for +confederation which he had been pushing forward was abandoned. +As a matter of fact, at that time Cape Colony was too fully +occupied with native troubles to take into consideration very +seriously so great a question as confederation. A wave of feeling +spread amongst the different Kaffir tribes on the colonial frontier, +and after the Gaika-Galeka War there followed in 1879 a rising in +Basutoland under Moirosi, whose cattle-raiding had for some +time past caused considerable trouble. His stronghold was taken +after very severe fighting by a colonial force, but, their defeat +notwithstanding, the Basutos remained in a restless and aggressive +condition for several years. In 1880 the colonial authorities +endeavoured to extend to Basutoland the Peace Preservation Act +of 1878, under which a general disarmament of the Basutos was +attempted. Further fighting followed on this proclamation, +which was by no means successful, and although peace was +declared in the country in December 1882, the colonial authorities +were very glad in 1884 to be relieved of the administration of a +country which had already cost them £3,000,000. The imperial +government then took over Basutoland as a crown colony, on the +understanding that Cape Colony should contribute for administrative +purposes £18,000 annually. In 1880, Sir Bartle Frere, +who by his energetic and statesmanlike attitude on the relations +with the native states, as well as on all other questions, had won +the esteem and regard of loyal South African colonists, was +recalled by the 1st earl of Kimberley, the liberal secretary of state +for the colonies, and was succeeded by Sir Hercules Robinson. +Griqualand West, which included the diamond fields, was now +incorporated as a portion of Cape Colony.</p> + +<p><i>Origin of the Afrikander Bond.</i>—The Boer War of 1881, with +its disastrous termination, naturally reacted throughout South +Africa; and as one of the most important results, in the year +1882 the first Afrikander Bond congress was held at Graaff +Reinet. The organization of the Bond developed into one +embracing the Transvaal, the Orange Free State and Cape +Colony. Each country had a provincial committee with district +committees, and branches were distributed throughout the whole +of South Africa. At a later date the Bond in the Cape Colony +dissociated itself from its Republican branches. The general +lines of policy which this organization endeavoured to promote +may best be gathered from <i>De Patriot</i>, a paper published in the +colony, and an avowed supporter of the organization. The +following extracts from articles published in 1882 will illustrate, +better than anything else, the ambition entertained by some of +the promoters of this remarkable organization.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The Afrikander Bond has for its object the establishment of a +South African nationality by spreading a true love for what is +really our fatherland. No better time could be found for establishing +the Bond than the present, when the consciousness of nationality +has been thoroughly aroused by the Transvaal war.” ... “The +British government keep on talking about a confederation under the +British flag, but that will never be brought about. They can be +quite certain of that. There is just one obstacle in the way of +confederation, and that is the British flag. Let them remove that, +and in less than a year the confederation would be established +under the Free Afrikander flag.” “After a time the English will +realize that the advice given them by Froude was the best—they +must just have Simon’s Bay as a naval and military station on the +way to India, and give over all the rest of South Africa to the +Afrikanders.” ... “Our principal weapon in the social war must +be the destruction of English trade by our establishing trading +companies for ourselves.” ... “It is the duty of each true +Afrikander not to spend anything with the English that he can +avoid.”</p> +</div> + +<p><i>De Patriot</i> afterwards became imperialist, but <i>Ons Land</i>, +another Bond organ, continued in much the same strain.</p> + +<p>In addition to having its press organs, the Bond from time to +time published official utterances less frank in their tone than +the statements of its press. Some of the Articles of the Bond’s +original manifesto are entirely praiseworthy, <i>e.g.</i> those referring +to the administration of justice, the honour of the people, &c.; +such clauses as these, however, were meaningless in view of the +enlightened government which obtained in Cape Colony, and for +the true “inwardness” of this document it is necessary to note +Article 3, which distinctly speaks of the promotion of South +Africa’s independence (<i>Zelfstandigheid</i>). If the Bond aroused +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +disloyalty and mistaken aspirations in one section of the Cape +inhabitants, it is equally certain that it caused a great wave of +loyal and patriotic enthusiasm to pass through another and more +enlightened section. A pamphlet written in 1885 for an association +called the Empire League by Mr Charles Leonard, who +afterwards consistently championed the cause of civil equality +and impartial justice in South Africa, maintained as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“(1) That the establishment of the English government here +was beneficial to all classes; and (2) that the withdrawal of that +government would be disastrous to every one having vested interests +in the colony.... England never can, never will, give up this +colony, and we colonists will never give up England.... Let us, +the inhabitants of the Cape Colony, be swift to recognize that we +are one people, cast together under a glorious flag of liberty, with +heads clear enough to appreciate the freedom we enjoy, and hearts +resolute to maintain our true privileges; let us desist from reproaching +and insulting one another, and, rejoicing that we have this +goodly land as a common heritage, remember that by united action +only can we realize its grand possibilities. We belong both of us to a +home-loving stock, and the peace and prosperity of every home in +the land is at stake. On our action now depends the question whether +our children shall curse or bless us; whether we shall live in their +memory as promoters of civil strife, with all its miserable consequences, +or as joint architects of a happy, prosperous and united +state. Each of us looks back to a noble past. United, we may +ensure to our descendants a not unworthy future. Disunited, we +can hope for nothing but stagnation, misery and ruin. Is this a +light thing?”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is probable that many Englishmen reading Mr Leonard’s +manifesto at the time regarded it as unduly alarming, but subsequent +events proved the soundness of the views it expressed. +The fact is that, from 1881 onwards, two great rival ideas came +into being, each strongly opposed to the other. One was that of +Imperialism—full civil rights for every civilized man, whatever +his race might be, under the supremacy and protection of Great +Britain. The other was nominally republican, but in fact +exclusively oligarchical and Dutch. The policy of the extremists +of this last party was summed up in the appeal which President +Kruger made to the Free State in February 1881, when he bade +them “Come and help us. God is with us. It is his will to unite +us as a people”—“to make a united South Africa free from +British authority.” The two actual founders of the Bond party +were Mr Borckenhagen, a German who was residing in Bloemfontein, +and Mr Reitz, afterwards state secretary of the Transvaal. +Two interviews have been recorded which show the true aims of +these two promoters of the Bond at the outset. One occurred +between Mr Borckenhagen and Cecil Rhodes, the other between +Mr Reitz and Mr T. Schreiner, whose brother became, at a later +date, prime minister of Cape Colony. In the first interview +Mr Borckenhagen remarked to Rhodes: “We want a united +Africa,” and Rhodes replied: “So do I.” Mr Borckenhagen +then continued: “There is nothing in the way; we will take +you as our leader. There is only one small thing: we must, of +caurse, be independent of the rest of the world.” Rhodes replied: +“You take me either for a rogue or a fool. I should be +a rogue to forfeit all my history and my traditions; and I should +be a fool, because I should be hated by my own countrymen +and mistrusted by yours.” But as Rhodes truly said at Cape +Town in 1898, “The only chance of a true union is the overshadowing +protection of a supreme power, and any German, +Frenchman, or Russian would tell you that the best and most +liberal power is that over which Her Majesty reigns.” The other +interview took place at the beginning of the Bond’s existence. +Being approached by Mr Reitz, Mr T. Schreiner objected that +the Bond aimed ultimately at the overthrow of British rule and +the expulsion of the British flag from South Africa. To this +Mr Reitz replied: “Well, what if it is so?” Mr Schreiner +expostulated in the following terms: “You do not suppose +that that flag is going to disappear without a tremendous struggle +and hard fighting?” “Well, I suppose not, but even so, what +of that?” rejoined Mr Reitz. In the face of this testimony with +reference to two of the most prominent of the Bond’s promoters, +it is impossible to deny that from its beginning the great underlying +idea of the Bond was an independent South Africa.</p> + +<p><i>Mr Hofmeyr’s Policy</i>.—In 1882 an act was passed in the +Cape legislative assembly, empowering members to speak in +the Dutch language on the floor of the House, if they so desired. +The intention of this act was a liberal one, but the moment +of its introduction was inopportune, and its effect was to give +an additional stimulus to the policy of the Bond. It was probably +also the means of bringing into the House a number of +Dutchmen, by no means well educated, who would not have been +returned had they been obliged to speak English. By this act +an increase of influence was given to the Dutch leaders. The +head of the Afrikander Bond at this time in Cape Colony, and +the leader of Dutch opinion, was Mr J.H. Hofmeyr, a man of +undoubted ability and astuteness. Although he was recognized +leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony, he consistently refused +to take office, preferring to direct the policy and the action of +others from an independent position. Mr Hofmeyr sat in the +house of assembly as member for Stellenbosch, a strong Dutch +constituency. His influence over the Dutch members was +supreme, and in addition to directing the policy of the Bond +within the Cape Colony, he supported and defended the aggressive +expansion policy of President Kruger and the Transvaal Boers. +In 1883, during a debate on the Basutoland Dis-annexation +Bill, Rhodes openly charged Mr Hofmeyr in the House with a +desire to see a “United States of South Africa under its own +flag.” In 1884 Mr Hofmeyr led the Bond in strongly supporting +the Transvaal Boers who had invaded Bechuanaland (<i>q.v.</i>), +proclaiming that if the Bechuanaland freebooters were not permitted +to retain the territories they had seized, in total disregard +of the terms of the conventions of 1881 and 1884, there would +be rebellion among the Dutch of Cape Colony. Fortunately, +however, for the peace of Cape Colony at that time, Sir Charles +Warren, sent by the imperial government to maintain British +rights, removed the invading Boers from Stellaland and Goshen—two +so-called republics set up by the Boer freebooters—in +March 1885 and no rebellion occurred. Nevertheless the Bond +party was so strong in the House that they compelled the ministry +under Sir Thomas Scanlen to resign in 1884. The logical and +constitutional course for Mr Hofmeyr to have followed in these +circumstances would have been to accept office and himself form +a government. This he refused to do. He preferred to put in +a nominee of his own who should be entirely dependent on him. +Mr Upington, a clever Irish barrister, was the man he selected, +and under him was formed in 1884 what will always be known +in Cape history as the “Warming-pan” ministry. This action +was denounced by many British colonists, who were sufficiently +loyal, not only to Great Britain, but also to that constitution +which had been conferred by Great Britain upon Cape Colony, +to desire to see the man who really wielded political power also +acting as the responsible head of the party. It was Mr Hofmeyr’s +refusal to accept this responsibility, as well as the nature of his +Bond policy, which won for him the political sobriquet of the +“Mole.” Open and responsible exercise of a power conferred +under the constitution of the country, Englishmen and English +colonists would have accepted and even welcomed. But that +subterranean method of Dutch policy which found its strongest +expression in Pretoria, and which operated from Pretoria to Cape +Town, could not but be resented by loyal colonists. From 1881 +down to 1898, Mr Hofmeyr practically determined how Dutch +members should vote, and also what policy the Bond should +adopt at every juncture in its history. In 1895 he resigned his +seat in parliament—an action which made his political dictatorship +still more remarkable. This influence on Cape politics +was a demoralizing one. Other well-known politicians at the +Cape subsequently found it convenient to adapt their views +a good deal too readily to those held by the Bond. In justice +to Mr Hofmeyr, however, it is only fair to say that after the +Warren expedition in 1885, which was at least evidence that Great +Britain did not intend to renounce her supremacy in South +Africa altogether, he adopted a less hostile or anti-British +attitude. The views and attitude of Mr Hofmeyr between 1881 +and 1884—when even loyal British colonists, looking to the +events which followed Majuba, had almost come to believe that +Great Britain had little desire to maintain her supremacy—can +scarcely be wondered at.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span></p> + +<p><i>Rhodes and Dutch Sentiment.</i>—Recognizing the difficulties of +the position, Cecil Rhodes from the outset of his political career +showed his desire to conciliate Dutch sentiment by considerate +treatment and regard for Dutch prejudices. Rhodes was first +returned as member of the House of Assembly for Barkly West +in 1880, and in spite of all vicissitudes this constituency remained +loyal to him. He supported the bill permitting Dutch to be used +in the House of Assembly in 1882, and early in 1884 he first took +office, as treasurer-general, under Sir Thomas Scanlen. Rhodes +had only held this position for six weeks when Sir Thomas Scanlen +resigned, and in August of the same year he was sent by Sir +Hercules Robinson to British Bechuanaland as deputy-commissioner +in succession to the Rev. John Mackenzie, the London +Missionary Society’s representative at Kuruman, who in the +previous May had proclaimed the queen’s authority over the +district. Rhodes’s efforts to conciliate the Boers failed—hence +the necessity for the Warren mission. In 1885 the territories +of Cape Colony were farther extended, and Tembuland, Bomvanaland +and Galekaland were formally added to the colony. In +1886 Sir Gordon Sprigg succeeded Sir Thomas Upington as +prime minister.</p> + +<p><i>South Affican Customs Union.</i>—The period from 1878 to 1885 +in Cape Colony had been one of considerable unrest. In this short +time, in addition to the chronic troubles with the Basutos—which +led the Cape to hand them over to the imperial authorities—there +occurred a series of native disturbances which were +followed by the Boer War of 1881, and the Bechuanaland disturbances +of 1884. In spite, however, of these drawbacks, the +development of the country proceeded. The diamond industry +was flourishing. In 1887 a conference was held in London +for “promoting a closer union between the various parts of the +British empire by means of an imperial tariff of customs.” +At this conference it is worthy of note that Mr Hofmeyr propounded +a sort of “Zollverein” scheme, in which imperial +customs were to be levied independently of the duties payable +on all goods entering the empire from abroad. In making the +proposition he stated that his objects were “to promote the +union of the empire, and at the same time to obtain revenue for +the purposes of general defence.” The scheme was not at the +time found practicable. But its authorship, as well as the +sentiments accompanying it, created a favourable view of Mr +Hofmeyr’s attitude. In the year 1888, in spite of the failure of +statesmen and high commissioners to bring about political +confederation, the members of the Cape parliament set about +the establishment of a South African Customs Union. A +Customs Union Bill was passed, and this in itself constituted +a considerable development of the idea of federation. Shortly +after the passing of the bill the Orange Free State entered the +union. An endeavour was also made then, and for many years +afterwards, to get the Transvaal to join. But President Kruger, +consistently pursuing his own policy, hoped through the Delagoa +Bay railway to make the South African Republic entirely independent +of Cape Colony. The endeavour to bring about a +customs union which would embrace the Transvaal was also +little to the taste of President Kruger’s Hollander advisers, +interested as they were in the schemes of the Netherlands +Railway Company, who owned the railways of the Transvaal.</p> + +<p><i>Diamonds and Railways.</i>—Another event of considerable +commercial importance to the Cape Colony, and indeed to +South Africa, was the amalgamation of the diamond-mining +companies, chiefly brought about by Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit +and “Barney” Barnato, in 1889. One of the principal and +most beneficent results of the discovery and development of +the diamond mines was the great impetus which it gave to +railway extension. Lines were opened up to Worcester and +Beaufort West, to Graham’s Town, Graaff Reinet and Queenstown. +Kimberley was reached in 1885. In 1890 the line was +extended northwards on the western frontier of the Transvaal as +far as Vryburg in Bechuanaland. In 1889 the Free State entered +into an arrangement with the Cape Colony whereby the main +trunk railway was extended to Bloemfontein, the Free State +receiving half the profits. Subsequently the Free State bought +at cost price the portion of the railway in its own territory. +In 1891 the Free State railway was still farther extended to +Viljoen’s Drift on the Vaal river, and in 1892 it reached Pretoria +and Johannesburg.</p> + +<p><i>Rhodes as Prime Minister: Native Policy</i>.—In 1889 Sir Henry +Loch was appointed high commissioner and governor of Cape +Colony in succession to Sir Hercules Robinson. In 1890 Sir +Gordon Sprigg, the premier of the colony, resigned, and a Rhodes +government was formed. Prior to the formation of this ministry +(see table at end of article), and while Sir Gordon Sprigg was +still in office, Mr Hofmeyr approached Rhodes and offered to put +him in office as a Bond nominee. This offer was declined. When, +however, Rhodes was invited to take office after the downfall of +the Sprigg ministry, he asked the Bond leaders to meet him +and discuss the situation. His policy of customs and railway +unions between the various states, added to the personal esteem +in which he was at this time held by many of the Dutchmen, +enabled him to undertake and to carry on successfully the +business of government.</p> + +<p>The colonies of British Bechuanaland and Basutoland were +now taken into the customs union existing between the Orange +Free State and Cape Colony. Pondoland, another native territory, +was added to the colony in 1894, and the year was marked +by the Glen Grey Act, a departure in native policy for which +Rhodes was chiefly responsible. It dealt with the natives residing +in certain native reserves, and in addition to providing for +their interests and holdings, and in other ways protecting the +privileges accorded to them, the principle of the duty of some +degree of labour devolving upon every able-bodied native enjoying +these privileges was asserted, and a small labour tax was +levied.<a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> This is in many respects the most statesmanlike act +dealing with natives on the statute-book; and in the session of +1895 Rhodes was able to report to the Cape parliament that the +act then applied to 160,000 natives. In 1905 the labour clauses +of this act, which had fallen into desuetude, were repealed. The +clauses had, however, achieved success, in that they had caused +many thousands of natives to fulfil the conditions requisite to +claim exemption.</p> + +<p>In other respects Rhodes’s native policy was marked by combined +consideration and firmness. Ever since the granting of +self-government the natives had enjoyed the franchise. An act +passed in 1892, at the instance of Rhodes, imposed an educational +test on applicants for registration, and made other provisions, +all tending to restrict the acquisition of the franchise +by “tribal” natives, the possible danger arising from a large +native vote being already obvious (see section <i>Constitution</i>).</p> + +<p>Rhodes opposed the native liquor traffic, and at the risk of +offending some of his supporters among the brandy-farmers of +the western provinces, he suppressed it entirely on the diamond +mines, and restricted it as far as he was able in the native reserves +and territories. Nevertheless the continuance of this traffic on +colonial farms, as well as to some extent in the native territories +and reserves, is a black spot in the annals of the Cape Colony. +The Hottentots have been terribly demoralized, and even +partially destroyed by it in the western province.</p> + +<p>Another and little-known instance of Rhodes’s keen insight +in dealing with native affairs—an action which had lasting results +on the history of the colony—may be given. After the native +territories east of the Kei had been added to Cape Colony, a case +of claim to inheritance came up for trial, and in accordance with +the law of the colony, the court held that the eldest son of a +native was his heir. This decision created the strongest resentment +among the people of the territory, as it was in distinct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> +contradiction to native tribal law, which recognized the great +son, or son of the chief wife, as heir. The government were +threatened with a native disturbance, when Rhodes telegraphed +his assurance that compensation should be granted, +and that such a decision should never be given again. This assurance +was accepted and tranquillity restored. At the close of the +next session (that of 1894), after this incident had occurred, +Rhodes laid on the table a bill drafted by himself, the shortest +the House had ever seen. It provided that all civil cases were to +be tried by magistrates, an appeal to lie only to the chief magistrate +of the territory with an assessor. Criminal cases were to +be tried before the judges of supreme court on circuit. The bill +was passed, and the effect of it was, inasmuch as the magistrates +administered according to native law, that native marriage +customs and laws (including polygamy) were legalized in these +territories. Rhodes had retrieved his promise, and no one who +has studied and lived amongst the Bantu will question that the +action taken was both beneficent and wise.</p> + +<p>During 1895 Sir Hercules Robinson was reappointed governor +and high commissioner of South Africa in succession to Sir Henry +Loch, and in the same year Mr Chamberlain became secretary +of state for the colonies.</p> + +<p><i>Movement for Commercial Federation</i>.—With the development +of railways, and the extension of trade between Cape Colony +and the Transvaal, there had grown up a closer relationship +on political questions. Whilst premier of Cape Colony, by means +of the customs union and in every other way, Rhodes endeavoured +to bring about a friendly measure of at least commercial +federation among the states and colonies of South Africa. +He hoped to establish both a commercial and a railway union, +and a speech which he made in 1894 at Cape Town admirably +describes this policy:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“With full affection for the flag which I have been born under, +and the flag I represent, I can understand the sentiment and feeling +of a republican who has created his independence, and values that +before all; but I can say fairly that I believe in the future that I +can assimilate the system, which I have been connected with, +with the Cape Colony, and it is not an impossible idea that the +neighbouring republics, retaining their independence, should share +with us as to certain general principles. If I might put it to you, I +would say the principles of tariffs, the principle of railway connexion, +the principle of appeal in law, the principle of coinage, and in fact +all those principles which exist at the present moment in the United +States, irrespective of the local assemblies which exist in each separate +state in that country.”</p> +</div> + +<p>To this policy President Kruger and the Transvaal government +offered every possible opposition. Their action in what +is known as the Vaal River Drift question will best illustrate the +line of action which the Transvaal government believed it expedient +to adopt. A difficulty arose at the termination of the +agreement in 1894 between the Cape government railway and +the Netherlands railway. The Cape government, for the purposes +of carrying the railway from the Vaal river to Johannesburg, +had advanced the sum of £600,000 to the Netherlands railway +and the Transvaal government conjointly; at the same time it +was stipulated that the Cape government should have the right +to fix the traffic rate until the end of 1894, or until such time as +the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line was completed. These rates were +fixed by the Cape government at 2d. per ton per mile, but at the +beginning of 1895 the rate for the 52 m. of railway from the Vaal +river to Johannesburg was raised by the Netherlands railway +to no less a sum than 8d. per ton per mile. It is quite evident +from the action which President Kruger subsequently took in +the matter that this charge was put on with his approval, and +with the object of compelling traffic to be brought to the Transvaal +by the Delagoa route, instead of as heretofore by the colonial +railway. In order to compete against this very high rate, the +merchants of Johannesburg began removing their goods +from the Vaal river by waggon. Thereupon President Kruger +arbitrarily closed the drifts (fords) on the Vaal river, and thus +prevented through waggon traffic, causing an enormous block +of waggons on the banks of the Vaal. A protest was then made +by the Cape government against the action of the Transvaal, on +the ground that it was a breach of the London Convention. +President Kruger took no notice of this remonstrance, and an +appeal was made to the imperial government; whereupon the +latter entered into an agreement with the Cape government, +to the effect that if the Cape would bear half the cost of any +expedition which should be necessary, assist with troops, and +give full use of the Cape railway for military purposes if required, +a protest should be sent to President Kruger on the subject. +These terms were accepted by Rhodes and his colleagues, of +whom Mr W.P. Schreiner was one, and a protest was then sent +by Mr Chamberlain stating that the government would regard +the closing of the drifts as a breach of the London Convention, +and as an unfriendly action calling for the gravest remonstrance. +President Kruger at once reopened the drifts, and undertook +that he would issue no further proclamation on the subject +except after consultation with the imperial government.</p> + +<p>On the 29th of December 1895 Dr Jameson (<i>q.v.</i>) made his +famous raid into the Transvaal, and Rhodes’s complicity in this +movement compelled him to resign the premiership of Cape +Colony in January 1896, the vacant post being taken by Sir +Gordon Sprigg. As Rhodes’s complicity in the raid became +known, there naturally arose a strong feeling of resentment and +astonishment among his colleagues in the Cape ministry, who +had been kept in complete ignorance of his connexion with any +such scheme. Mr Hofmeyr and the Bond were loud in their +denunciation of him, nor can it be denied that the circumstances +of the raid greatly embittered against England the Dutch element +in Cape Colony, and influenced their subsequent attitude towards +the Transvaal Boers.</p> + +<p>In 1897 a native rising occurred under Galeshwe, a Bantu +chief, in Griqualand West. Galeshwe was arrested and the +rebellion repressed. On cross-examination Galeshwe stated +that Bosnian, a magistrate of the Transvaal, had supplied +ammunition to him, and urged him to rebel against the government +of Cape Colony. There is every reason to suppose that +this charge was true, and it is consistent with the intrigues which +the Boers from time to time practised among the natives.</p> + +<p>In 1897 Sir Alfred Milner was appointed high commissioner +of South Africa and governor of Cape Colony, in succession to +Sir Hercules Robinson, who had been created a peer under the +title of Baron Rosmead in August 1896.</p> + +<p><i>Mr Schreiner’s Policy</i>.—In 1898 commercial federation in +South Africa advanced another stage, Natal entering the customs +union. A fresh convention was drafted at this time, and +under it “a uniform tariff on all imported goods consumed +within such union, and an equitable distribution of the duties +collected on such goods amongst the parties to such union, and +free trade between the colonies and state in respect of all South +African products,” was arranged. In the same year, too, the +Cape parliamentary election occurred, and the result was the +return to power of a Bond ministry under Mr W.P. Schreiner. +From this time, until June 1900, Mr Schreiner remained in office +as head of the Cape government. During the negotiations +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>) which preceded the war in 1899, feeling at the +Cape ran very high, and Mr Schreiner’s attitude was very freely +discussed. As head of a party, dependent for its position in +power on the Bond’s support, his position was undoubtedly +a trying one. At the same time, as prime minister of a British +colony, it was strongly felt by loyal colonists that he should at +least have refrained from openly interfering between the Transvaal +and the imperial government during the course of most +difficult negotiations. His public expressions of opinion were +hostile in tone to the policy pursued by Mr Chamberlain and +Sir Alfred Milner. The effect of them, it was believed, might +conceivably be to encourage President Kruger in persisting in +his rejection of the British terms. Mr Schreiner, it is true, used +directly what influence he possessed to induce President Kruger +to adopt a reasonable course. But however excellent his intentions, +his publicly expressed disapproval of the Chamberlain-Milner +policy probably did more harm than his private influence +with Mr Kruger could possibly do good. On the 11th of June +1899, shortly after the Bloemfontein conference, from which +Sir Alfred Milner had just returned, Mr Schreiner asked the high +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +commissioner to inform Mr Chamberlain that he and his colleagues +agreed in regarding President Kruger’s Bloemfontein +proposals as “practical, reasonable and a considerable step in +the right direction.” Early in June, however, the Cape Dutch +politicians began to realize that President Kruger’s attitude +was not so reasonable as they had endeavoured to persuade +themselves, and Mr Hofmeyr, accompanied by Mr Herholdt, +the Cape minister of agriculture, visited Pretoria. On arrival, +they found that the Transvaal Volksraad, in a spirit of defiance +and even levity, had just passed a resolution offering four new +seats in the Volksraad to the mining districts, and fifteen to +exclusively burgher districts. Mr Hofmeyr, on meeting the +executive, freely expressed indignation at these proceedings. +Unfortunately, Mr Hofmeyr’s influence was more than counterbalanced +by an emissary from the Free State, Mr Abraham +Fischer, who, while purporting to be a peacemaker, practically +encouraged the Boer executive to take extreme measures. +Mr Hofmeyr’s established reputation as an astute diplomatist, +and as the trusted leader for years of the Cape Dutch party, +made him as powerful a delegate as it was possible to find. If any +emissary could accomplish anything in the way of persuading +Mr Kruger, it was assuredly Mr Hofmeyr. Much was looked +for from his mission by moderate men of all parties, and by none +more so, it is fair to believe, than by Mr Schreiner. But Mr +Hofmeyr’s mission, like every other mission to Mr Kruger to +induce him to take a reasonable and equitable course, proved +entirely fruitless. He returned to Cape Town disappointed, but +probably not altogether surprised at the failure of his mission. +Meanwhile a new proposal was drafted by the Boer executive, +which, before it was received in its entirety, or at least before +it was clearly understood, elicited from Mr Schreiner a letter +on the 7th of July to the <i>South African News</i>, in which, referring +to his government, he said:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“While anxious and continually active with good hope in the +cause of securing reasonable modifications of the existing representative +system of the South African Republic, this government +is convinced that no ground whatever exists for active interference +in the internal affairs of that republic.”</p> +</div> + +<p>This letter was precipitate and unfortunate. On the 11th of +July, after seeing Mr Hofmeyr on his return, Mr Schreiner made +a personal appeal to President Kruger to approach the imperial +government in a friendly spirit. At this time an incident +occurred which raised the feeling against Mr Schreiner to a very +high pitch. On the 7th of July 500 rifles and 1,000,000 rounds of +ammunition were landed at Port Elizabeth, consigned to the +Free State government, and forwarded to Bloemfontein. Mr +Schreiner’s attention was called to this consignment at the +time, but he refused to stop it, alleging as his reason that, inasmuch +as Great Britain was at peace with the Free State, he had +no right to interdict the passage of arms through the Cape Colony. +The British colonist is as capable of a grim jest as the Transvaal +Boer, and this action of Mr Schreiner’s won for him the nickname +“Ammunition Bill.” At a later date he was accused of delay +in forwarding artillery and rifles for the defence of Kimberley, +Mafeking and other towns of the colony. The reason he gave +for delay was that he did not anticipate war; and that he did +not wish to excite unwarrantable suspicions in the minds of the +Free State. His conduct in both instances was perhaps +technically correct, but it was much resented by loyal colonists.</p> + +<p>On the 28th of July Mr Chamberlain sent a conciliatory +despatch to President Kruger, suggesting a meeting of delegates +to consider and report on his last franchise proposals, which were +complex to a degree. Mr Schreiner, on the 3rd of August, telegraphed +to Mr Fischer begging the Transvaal to welcome Mr +Chamberlain’s proposal. At a later date, on receiving an inquiry +from the Free State as to the movements of British troops, +Mr Schreiner curtly refused any information, and referred +the Free State to the high commissioner. On the 28th of August +Sir Gordon Sprigg in the House of Assembly moved the adjournment +of the debate, to discuss the removal of arms to the Free +State. Mr Schreiner, in reply, used expressions which called +down upon him the severest censure and indignation, both in +the colony and in Great Britain. He stated that, should the +storm burst, he would keep the colony aloof with regard both to +its forces and its people. In the course of the speech he also +read a telegram from President Steyn, in which the president +repudiated all contemplated aggressive action on the part +of the Free State as absurd. The speech created a great sensation +in the British press. It was probably forgotten at the time +(though Lord Kimberley afterwards publicly stated it) that one +of the chief reasons why the Gladstone government had granted +the retrocession of the Transvaal after Majuba, was the fear that +the Cape Colonial Dutch would join their kinsmen if the war +continued. What was a danger in 1881, Mr Schreiner knew to +be a still greater danger in 1899. At the same time it is quite +obvious, from a review of Mr Schreiner’s conduct through the +latter half of 1899, that he took an entirely mistaken view of the +Transvaal situation. He evinced, as premier of the Cape Colony, +the same inability to understand the Uitlanders’ grievances, +the same futile belief in the eventual fairness of President +Kruger, as he had shown when giving evidence before the British +South Africa Select Committee into the causes of the Jameson +Raid. Actual experience taught him that President Kruger +was beyond an appeal to reason, and that the protestations of +President Steyn were insincere. War had no sooner commenced +with the ultimatum of the Transvaal Republic on the 9th of +October 1899, than Mr Schreiner found himself called upon to +deal with the conduct of Cape rebels. The rebels joined the +invading forces of President Steyn, whose false assurances +Mr Schreiner had offered to an indignant House of Assembly +only a few weeks before. The war on the part of the Republics +was evidently not to be merely one of self-defence. It was one +of aggression and aggrandisement. Mr Schreiner ultimately +addressed, as prime minister, a sharp remonstrance to President +Steyn for allowing his burghers to invade the colony. He also +co-operated with Sir Alfred Milner, and used his influence to +restrain the Bond.</p> + +<p><i>The War of 1899-1902.</i><a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a>—The first shot actually fired in the +war was at Kraipan, a small railway station within the colony, +40 m. south of Mafeking, a train being derailed, and ammunition +intended for Colonel Baden-Powell seized. The effect +of this was entirely to cut off Mafeking, the northernmost town +in Cape Colony, and it remained in a state of siege for over seven +months. On the 16th of October Kimberley was also isolated. +Proclamations by the Transvaal and Free State annexing portions +of Cape Colony were actually issued on the 18th of October, and +included British Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, with the +diamond fields. On the 28th of October Mr Schreiner signed +a proclamation issued by Sir Alfred Milner as high commissioner, +declaring the Boer annexations of territory within Cape Colony +to be null and void.</p> + +<p>Then came the British reverses at Magersfontein (on the 11th +of December) and Stormberg (on the 10th of December). The +effect of these engagements at the very outset of the war, occurring +as they did within Cape Colony, was to offer every inducement +to a number of the frontier colonial Boers to join their kinsmen +of the republics. The Boers were prolific, and their families large. +Many younger sons from the colony, with nothing to lose, left +their homes with horse and rifle to join the republican forces.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the loyal Cape colonists were chafing at the tardy +manner in which they were enrolled by the imperial authorities. +It was not until after the arrival of Lord Roberts and Lord +Kitchener at Cape Town on the 10th of January 1900 that these +invaluable, and many of them experienced, men were freely +invited to come forward. So strongly did Lord Roberts feel on +the subject, that he at once made Colonel Brabant, a well-known +and respected colonial veteran and member of the House of +Assembly, a brigadier-general, and started recruiting loyal +colonists in earnest. On the 15th of February Kimberley was +relieved by General French, and the Boer general, Cronje, +evacuated Magersfontein, and retreated towards Bloemfontein. +Cecil Rhodes was shut up in Kimberley during the whole of the +siege, and his presence there undoubtedly offered an additional +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> +incentive to the Boers to endeavour to capture the town, but +his unique position and influence with the De Beers workmen +enabled him to render yeoman service, and infused enthusiasm +and courage into the inhabitants. The manufacture of a big +gun, which was able to compete with the Boer “Long Tom,” +at the De Beers workshops, under Rhodes’s orders, and by the +ingenuity of an American, Mr. Labram, who was killed a few days +after its completion, forms one of the most striking incidents of +the period.</p> + +<p>With the relief of Mafeking on the 17th of May, the Cape +rebellion ended, and the colony was, at least for a time, delivered +of the presence of hostile forces.</p> + +<p>On the 20th of March Mr (afterwards Sir James) Rose-Innes, +a prominent member of the House of Assembly, who for several +years had held aloof from either party, and who also had defended +Mr Schreiner’s action with regard to the passage of arms to the +Free State, addressed his constituents at Claremont in support +of the annexation of both republics; and in the course of an +eloquent speech he stated that in Canada, in spite of rebellions, +loyalty had been secured from the French Canadians by free +institutions. In South Africa they might hope that a similar +policy would attain a similar result with the Boers. In June, +Mr Schreiner, whose recent support of Sir Alfred Milner had +incensed many of his Bond followers, resigned in consequence +of the refusal of some of his colleagues to support the disfranchisement +bill which he was prepared, in accordance with the views +of the home government, to introduce for the punishment of +Cape rebels. The bill certainly did not err on the side of severity, +but disfranchisement for their supporters in large numbers was +more distasteful to the Bond extremists than any stringency +towards individuals. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who after a political +crisis of considerable delicacy, succeeded Mr Schreiner and for +the fourth time became prime minister, was able to pass the +Bill with the co-operation of Mr Schreiner and his section. +Towards the end of the year 1900 the war entered on a new +phase, and took the form of guerilla skirmishes with scattered +forces of marauding Boers. In December some of these bands +entered the Cape Colony and endeavoured to induce colonial +Boers to join them. In this endeavour they met at first with +little or no success; but as the year 1901 progressed and the +Boers still managed to keep the various districts in a ferment, it +was deemed necessary by the authorities to proclaim martial +law over the whole colony, and this was done on the 9th of +October 1901.</p> + +<p>On the 4th of January 1901 Sir Alfred Milner was gazetted +governor of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, being +shortly afterwards created a peer as Lord Milner, and Sir Walter +Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal, was appointed his successor +as governor of the Cape Colony. The office of high commissioner +in South Africa was now separated from the governorship of the +Cape and associated with that of the Transvaal—an indication +of the changed conditions in South Africa. The division of the +colonists into those who favoured the Boer states and those +firmly attached to the British connexion was reflected, to the +detriment of the public weal, in the parties in the Cape parliament. +Proposals were made to suspend the constitution, but this +drastic course was not adopted. The Progressive party, the +name taken by those who sought a permanent settlement under +the British flag, lost their leader, and South Africa its foremost +statesman by the death, in May 1902, of Cecil Rhodes, a few +weeks before the end of the war.</p> + +<p><i>After the War</i>.—The acknowledgment of defeat by the Boers +in the field, and the surrender of some 10,000 rebels, did not +weaken the endeavours of the Dutch to obtain political supremacy +in the colony. Moreover, in the autumn of 1902 Sir Gordon +Sprigg, the prime minister, nominally the leader of the Progressives, +sought to maintain his position by securing the support +of the Bond party in parliament. In the early part of 1903 +Mr Chamberlain included Cape Town in his visit to South Africa, +and had conferences with the political leaders of all parties. +Reconciliation between the Bond and British elements in the +colony was, however, still impossible, and the two parties concentrated +their efforts in a struggle for victory at the coming +election. Mr Hofmeyr, who had chosen to spend the greater +part of the war period in Europe, returned to the Cape to reorganize +the Bond. On the other side Dr Jameson came forward +as the leader of the Progressives. Parliament was dissolved in +September 1903. It had passed, since the war, two measures +of importance—one (1902) restricting alien immigration, the +other (1903) ratifying the first customs convention between all +the South African colonies. This convention was notable for its +grant of preferential treatment (in general, a rebate of 25% on +the customs already levied) to imports from the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p>The election turned on the issue of British or Bond supremacy. +It was fought on a register purged of the rebel voters, many of +whom, besides being disfranchised, were in prison. The issue +was doubtful, and each side sought to secure the support of the +native voters, who in several constituencies held the balance of +power. The Bondsmen were more lavish than their opponents +in their promises to the natives and even invited a Kaffir journalist +(who declined) to stand for a seat in the Assembly. In view +of the agitation then proceeding for the introduction of Chinese +coolies to work the mines on the Rand, the Progressives declared +their intention, if returned, to exclude them from the colony, +and this declaration gained them some native votes. The polling +(in January and February 1904) resulted in a Progressive majority +of five in a house of 95 members. The rejected candidates +included prominent Bond supporters like Mr Merriman and Mr +Sauer, and also Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr A. Douglass, another +member of the cabinet. Mr W.P. Schreiner, the ex-premier, +who stood as an Independent, was also rejected.</p> + +<p><i>The Jameson Ministry</i>.—On the 18th of February Sir Gordon +Sprigg resigned and was succeeded by Dr L.S. Jameson, who +formed a ministry wholly British in character. The first task +of the new government was to introduce (on the 4th of March) +an Additional Representation Bill, to rectify—in part—the +disparity in electoral power of the rural and urban districts. +Twelve new seats in the House of Assembly were divided among +the larger towns, and three members were added to the legislative +council. The town voter being mainly British, the bill met with +the bitter opposition of the Bond members, who declared that +its object was the extinction of their parliamentary power. +In fact, the bill was called for by the glaring anomalies in the +distribution of seats by which a minority of voters in the country +districts returned a majority of members, and it left the towns +still inadequately represented. The bill was supported by two +or three Dutch members, who were the object of violent attack +by the Bondsmen. It became law, and the elections for the +additional seats were held in July, after the close of the session. +They resulted in strengthening the Progressive majority both in +the House of Assembly and in the legislative council—where +the Progressives previously had a majority of one only.</p> + +<p>At the outset of its career the Jameson ministry had to face +a serious financial situation. During the war the supplying of the +army in the field had caused an artificial inflation of trade, and +the Sprigg ministry had pursued a policy of extravagant expenditure +not warranted by the finances of the colony. The slow +recovery of the gold-mining and other industries in the Transvaal +after the war was reflected in a great decline in trade in Cape +Colony during the last half of 1903, the distress being aggravated +by severe drought. When Dr Jameson assumed office he found +an empty treasury, and considerable temporary loans had to +be raised. Throughout 1904, moreover, revenue continued to +shrink—compared with 1903 receipts dropped from £11,701,000 +to £9,913,000. The government, besides cutting down official +salaries and exercising strict economy, contracted (July 1904) +a loan for £3,000,000. It also passed a bill imposing a graduated +tax (6d. to 1s. in the £) on all incomes over £1000. A substantial +excise duty was placed on spirits and beer, measures of relief +for the brandy-farmers being taken at the same time. The +result was that while there was a deficit on the budget of 1904-1905 +of £731,000, the budget of 1905-1906 showed a surplus +of £5161. This small surplus was obtained notwithstanding +a further shrinkage in revenue.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span></p> + +<p>Dr Jameson’s programme was largely one of material development. +In the words of the speech opening the 1905 session of +parliament, “without a considerable development of our agricultural +and pastoral resources our position as a self-sustaining +colony cannot be assured.” This reliance on its own resources +was the more necessary for the Cape because of the keen rivalry +of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the Transvaal. +The opening up of backward districts by railways was +vigorously pursued, and in other ways great efforts were made +to assist agriculture. These efforts to help the country +districts met with cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers, +and the release, in May 1904, of all rebel prisoners was +another step towards reconciliation. On the exclusion of +Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in agreement +with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established +school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual +introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of +friendly relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one +of the leading objects of Dr Jameson’s policy. The Bond, on its +side, sought to draw closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization +in the Transvaal, and similar bodies, and at its 1906 congress, +held in March that year at Ceres, a resolution with that aim +was passed, the design being to unify, in accordance with the +original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and action +throughout South Africa.</p> + +<p>Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In +January 1905 an inter-colonial native affairs commission reported +on the native question as it affected South Africa as a +whole, proposals being made for an alteration of the laws in +Cape Colony respecting the franchise exercised by natives. In +the opinion of the commission the possession of the franchise +by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to create +in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous +thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over +23,000 coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed +separate voting by natives only for a fixed number of members +of the legislature—the plan adopted in New Zealand with the +Maori voters. The privileged position of the Cape native was +seen to be an obstacle to the federation of South Africa. The +discussion which followed, based partly on the reports that the +ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led, however, +to no immediate results.</p> + +<p>Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs +was the revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-West +Africa (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1904 and the following years large +numbers of refugees, including some of the most important +chiefs, fled into British territory, and charges were made in +Germany that sufficient control over these refugees was not +exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came +to an end in September 1907. In that month Morenga, a chief +who had been interned by the colonial authorities, but had +escaped and recommenced hostilities against the Germans, was +once more on the British side of the frontier and, refusing to +surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted Police and killed +after a smart action. The revolt in the German protectorate +had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the indirect +occasion of a “Boer raid” into Cape Colony. In November +1906 a small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been employed +by the Germans against the Hottentots, entered the +colony under the leadership of a man named Ferreira, and began +raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits. Within a week +the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four companions +were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death +sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude.</p> + +<p>As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pietermaritzburg +in the early months of 1906, a new customs convention +of a strongly protective character came into force on +the 1st of June of that year. At the same time the rebate on +goods from Great Britain and reciprocating colonies was increased. +The session of parliament which sanctioned this +change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and +railway schemes. But one important measure of a political +character was passed in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under +its provisions over 7000 ex-rebels, who would otherwise have +had no vote at the ensuing general election, were readmitted to +the franchise in 1907.</p> + +<p>While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral +resources of the country proved successful, the towns continued +to suffer from the inflation—over-buying, over-building and +over-speculation—which marked the war period. As a consequence, +imports further declined during 1906-1907, and receipts +being largely dependent on customs the result was a considerably +diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending +30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of £640,455. The decline in +revenue, £4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection +of the economic condition of the country—yearly becoming +more self-supporting by the increase in home produce—caused +general disquietude and injuriously affected the position of the +ministry. In the session of 1907 the Opposition in the legislative +council brought on a crisis by refusing to grant supplies +voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the constitutional +right of the council so to act, and on his advice the +governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolution +parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on +diamond- and copper-mining companies earning over £50,000 per +annum, and another act establishing an agricultural credit bank.</p> + +<p><i>Mr Merriman, Premier</i>.—The elections for the legislative +council were held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond +victory. Its supporters, who called themselves the South +African party, the Progressives being renamed Unionists, +obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson thereupon +resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with +Mr J.X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J.W. Sauer +as minister of public works. Neither of these politicians was a +member of the Bond, and both had held office under Cecil Rhodes +and W.P. Schreiner. They had, however, been the leading +parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a considerable time. +The elections for the legislative assembly followed in April and, +partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the ex-rebels, +resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry. +There were returned 69 members of the South African party, +33 Unionists and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers +Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr Schreiner. The change of ministry +was not accompanied by any relief in the financial situation. +While the country districts remained fairly prosperous (agricultural +and pastoral products increasing), the transit trade +and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression +was accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected +adversely the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the +diamond trade, leading to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley +mines. (The “slump” in the diamond trade is shown by a +comparison of the value of diamonds exported from the Cape +in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at +£8,973,148, in 1908 at £4,796,655.) This seriously diminished +the revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907-1908 +showed a deficit of £996,000, and a prospective deficit for +the ensuing year of an almost equal amount. To balance the +budget, Mr Merriman proposed drastic remedies, including the +suspension of the sinking fund, the reduction of salaries of all +civil servants, and taxes on incomes of £50 per annum. Partly +in consequence of the serious economic situation the renewed +movement for the closer union of the various South African +colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received +the support of the Cape parliament. During 1907-1908 a national +convention decided upon unification, and in 1910 the Union of +South Africa was established (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Leading Personalities</i>.—The public life of Cape Colony has +produced many men of singular ability and accomplishments. +The careers of Cecil Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, +and of Dr L.S. Jameson have been sufficiently indicated (see +also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon Sprigg, four times +premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from 1873 to +1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In +and out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> +qualities which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great +leader, he was at least a model of industry. Among other +prominent politicians were Sir James Rose-Innes, Mr J.X. +Merriman and Mr W.P. Schreiner. The two last named both +held the premiership; their attitude and views have been +indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a +lawyer whose intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been +impugned, was not a “party man,” and this made him, on more +than one occasion, a somewhat difficult political ally. On the +native question he held a consistently strong attitude, defending +their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing the native liquor +traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief justice of that +colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative, though +he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every +enlightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought +forward. A man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made +his influence felt, not only in politics, but in journalism and the +best social life of the Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he +held the office of agent-general of the colony in London.</p> + +<p>In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors +whose works have taken their place among those of the best +English writers of their day. The <i>History of South Africa</i>, by +Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a classic work of reference. +The careful industry and the lucidity which characterize Mr +Theal’s work stamp him as a historian of whom South Africa +may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs Cronwright-Schreiner) +produced, while still in her teens, the <i>Story of an +African Farm</i>, a work which gave great promise of original +literary genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest +of South Africa, was subsequently swept into the seething +vortex of contemporary politics and controversy. In music +and painting there have been artists of talent in the Cape Colony, +but the country is still too young, and the conditions of life too +disturbed, to allow such a development as has already occurred +in Australia.</p> + + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Governors at the Cape Since Introduction of Responsible Government</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1870. Sir Henry Barkly.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1877. Sir Bartle Frere.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1880. Sir Hercules Robinson.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1889. Sir Henry Loch.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1895. Sir Hercules Robinson (Lord Rosmead).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1897. Sir Alfred Milner.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1901. Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p class="center pt1 sc">Prime Ministers.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1872. Mr J.C. Molteno.</td> <td class="tcl">1890. Mr C.J. Rhodes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1878. Mr J. Gordon Sprigg.</td> <td class="tcl">1896. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1881. Mr T.C. Scanlen.</td> <td class="tcl">1898. Mr W.P. Schreiner.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1884. Mr Upington.</td> <td class="tcl">1900. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1886. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.</td> <td class="tcl">1904. Dr L.S. Jameson.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">1908. Mr J.X. Merriman.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="author">(A. P. H.; F. R. C.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The majority of the books concerning Cape +Colony deal also with South Africa as a whole (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>: +<i>Bibliography</i>). The following list gives books specially relating to the +Cape. For ethnography see the works mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bushmen</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hottentots</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffirs</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bechuana</a></span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:—The +best early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille’s +<i>Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Espérance</i> (Paris, +1763), the <i>Nouvelle Description du Cap de Bonne Espérance</i> (Amsterdam, +1778); F. le Vaillant’s <i>Voyage dans l’intérieur de l’Afrique</i> +(Paris, 1790), and <i>Second Voyage</i> (Paris, <i>an</i> III. [1794-1795]); C.P. +Thunberg’s “Account of the Cape of Good Hope” in vol. xvi. of +Pinkerton’s <i>Travels</i> (London, 1814); A. Sparman’s <i>Voyage to the +Cape of Good Hope ... 1772-1776</i> (translated into English from the +Swedish, London, 1785)—an excellent work; and W. Paterson’s +<i>A Narrative of Four Journeys ... 1777-1779</i> (London, 1789). +P. Kolbe or Kolben’s <i>Present State of the Cape of Good Hope</i> (English +translation from the German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy. +Sir J. Barrow’s <i>Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa +in 1797-1798</i> (2 vols., London, 1801-1804); H. Lichtenstein’s +<i>Travels in Southern Africa in 1803-1806</i> (translated from the German, +2 vols., London, 1812-1815), and W.J. Burchell’s <i>Travels in the +Interior of Southern Africa</i> (2 vols., London, 1822-1824) are standard +works. Burchell’s book contains the best map of the Cape published +up to that time. W.P. Greswell’s <i>Geography of Africa south of the +Zambesi</i> (Oxford, 1892) deals specially with Cape Colony; the +<i>Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa</i> (Cape Town, +1893) includes chapters on the zoology, flora, productions and +resources of the colony. A.R.E. Burton, <i>Cape Colony To-day</i> +(Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the country and its resources. +A <i>Statistical Register</i> is issued yearly by the Cape government. The +<i>Census of the Colony, 1904: General Report</i> (Cape Town, 1905) and +previous census reports contain much valuable matter.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Special subjects:—For detailed information on special subjects +consult <i>The Natives of South Africa</i> (London, 1901); R. Wallace, +<i>Farming Industries of Cape Colony</i> (London, 1896); A.R.E. Burton, +<i>Cape Colony for the Settler</i> (London, 1903); <i>The Agricultural Journal +of the Cape of Good Hope</i>; Gardner F. Williams, <i>The Diamond Mines +of South Africa</i>, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative work +by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A.W. Rogers, <i>An +Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony</i> (London, 1905) and “The +Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay,” <i>Trans. Geol. Soc +S. Africa</i>, vol. ix. (1906); <i>Reports</i>, Geological Commission of the Cape +of Good Hope (1896 et seq.); <i>Science in South Africa</i> (Cape Town, +1905); H.A. Bryden, <i>Kloof and Karoo</i>; sport, legend and natural +history in Cape Colony (London, 1889); <i>South African Education +Yearbook</i> (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et seq.). For +books dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) History:—H.C.V. Leibbrandt, <i>Précis of the Archives of the +Cape of Good Hope</i> (15 vols., vols. v.-vii. contain van Riebeek’s +<i>Journal</i>, Cape Town, 1896—1902); <i>The Rebellion of 1815, generally +known as Slachter’s Nek</i> (Cape Town, 1902); G.M. Theal, <i>Chronicles +of Cape Commanders ... 1651-1691</i> ... (Cape Town, 1882), and +<i>Records of the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831</i>, from +MS. in the Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897-1905); +<i>History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East +India Company, 1652 to 1795</i> (2 vols., London, 1897); <i>History of +South Africa from 1795 to 1834</i> (London, 1891); E.B. Watermeyer, +<i>Three Lectures on the Cape ... under the ... Dutch East India +Company</i> (Cape Town, 1857); A. Wilmot and J.C. Chase, <i>History of +the ... Cape ... from its Discovery to ... 1868</i> (Cape Town, +1869); Lady Anne Barnard, <i>South Africa a Hundred Years Ago: +Letters-written from the Cape, 1797-1801</i> (London, 1901), a vivid +picture of social life, &c.; Mrs A.F. Trotter, <i>Old Cape Colony ... +Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806</i> (London, 1903); C.T. +Campbell, <i>British South Africa, 1795-1825</i> (London, 1897), the story +of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau’s <i>Life of +Sir Bartle Frere</i>; the <i>Autobiography</i> of Sir Harry Smith; P.A. +Molteno’s <i>Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno</i> (first premier of +Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A. Wilmot’s <i>Life of Sir +Richard Southey</i> (London, 1904), and G.C. Henderson’s <i>Sir George +Grey</i> (London, 1907). B. Worsfold’s <i>Lord Milner’s Work in South +Africa, 1897-1902</i> (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape +politics. For Blue-books, &c., relating to the colony published +by the British parliament, see the <i>Colonial Office List</i> (London, +yearly)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The distances given after the names of rivers indicate the length +of the river valleys, including those of the main upper branch. In +nearly all instances the rivers, owing to their sinuous course, are +much longer.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is an overstatement. The director of the census estimated +the true number of Hottentots at about 56,000.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is stated that Colonel R.J. Gordon (the explorer of the Orange +river), who commanded the Dutch forces at the Cape, chagrined +by the occupation of the country by the British, committed suicide.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> From 1737 to 1744 George Schmidt, “The apostle to the +Hottentots,” had a mission at Genadendal—“The Vale of Grace.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Masters were allowed to keep their ex-slaves as “apprentices” +until the 1st of December 1838.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The act enjoined that “every male native residing in the district, +exclusive of natives in possession of lands under ordinary quit-rent +titles, or in freehold, who, in the judgment of the resident magistrate, +is fit for and capable of labour, shall pay to the public revenue a tax +of ten shillings per annum unless he can show to the satisfaction of +the magistrate that he has been in service beyond the borders of the +district for at least three months out of the previous twelve, when +he will be exempt from the tax for that year, or unless he can show +that he has been employed for a total period of three years, when he +will be exempt altogether.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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