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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2
+       "Camorra" to "Cape Colony"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33052]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article CANAAN, CANAANITES: "If (Egyptian) troops come this year,
+      lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops
+      come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my
+      lord." quotes added after 'lord'.
+
+    Article CANTATA: "... though at the same time not excludeing the
+      possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light order of
+      fugue." 'excludeing' amended from 'exclude ing'.
+
+    Article CAPE COLONY: "In the western part of the colony the winter
+      is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in
+      summer." 'in' amended from 'is'.
+
+    Article CAPE COLONY: "Agriculture and Allied Industries."
+      'Industries' amended from 'Industires'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME V, SLICE II
+
+           Camorra to Cape Colony
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CAMORRA                            CANDYTUFT
+  CAMP                               CANE
+  CAMPAGNA DI ROMA                   CANEA
+  CAMPAIGN                           CANE-FENCING
+  CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE    CANEPHORAE
+  CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO                CANES VENATICI
+  CAMPANIA                           CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSÉ
+  CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO           CANGAS DE ONÍS
+  CAMPANILE                          CANGAS DE TINÉO
+  CAMPANULA                          CANGUE
+  CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER                CANINA, LUIGI
+  CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA          CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO
+  CAMPBELL, GEORGE                   CANIS MAJOR
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN                     CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL            CAÑIZARES, JOSÉ DE
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS             CANNAE
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD              CANNANORE
+  CAMPBELL, LEWIS                    CANNES
+  CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN            CANNIBALISM
+  CAMPBELL, THOMAS                   CANNING, CHARLES JOHN
+  CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY      CANNING, GEORGE
+  CAMPBELTOWN                        CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO
+  CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH            CANNOCK
+  CAMPECHE (state of Mexico)         CANNON
+  CAMPECHE (city of Mexico)          CANNON-BALL TREE
+  CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO                 CANNSTATT
+  CAMPER, PETER                      CANO, ALONZO
+  CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON               CANO, MELCHIOR
+  CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM                CANOE
+  CAMPHORS                           CANON
+  CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ           CANONESS
+  CAMPI, GIULIO                      CANONIZATION
+  CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL                 CANON LAW
+  CAMPINAS                           CANOPUS
+  CAMPING OUT                        CANOPY
+  CAMPION, EDMUND                    CANOSA
+  CAMPION, THOMAS                    CANOSSA
+  CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE        CANOVA, ANTONIO
+  CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE  CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO
+  CAMPOBASSO                         CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN
+  CAMPODEA                           CANT, ANDREW
+  CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ        CANT
+  CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE        CANTABRI
+  CAMPOS                             CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS
+  CÂMPULUNG                          CANTACUZINO
+  CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO                CANTAGALLO
+  CAMULODUNUM                        CANTAL
+  CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON               CANTARINI, SIMONE
+  CAMUS, CHARLES ÉTIENNE LOUIS       CANTATA
+  CAMUS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH DES         CANTEEN
+  CAMUS DE MÉZIÈRES, NICOLAS LE      CANTEMIR
+  CANA                               CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON
+  CANAAN, CANAANITES                 CANTERBURY
+  CANACHUS                           CANTHARIDES
+  CANADA                             CANTICLES
+  CANAL                              CANTILEVER
+  CANAL DOVER                        CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE
+  CANALE ANTONIO                     CANTILUPE, WALTER DE
+  CANALIS                            CANTO
+  CANANDAIGUA                        CANTON, JOHN
+  CANARD                             CANTON (city of China)
+  CANARY                             CANTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  CANARY ISLANDS                     CANTON (New York, U.S.A.)
+  CANCALE                            CANTON (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+  CANCEL                             CANTON (country division)
+  CANCELLI                           CANTONMENT
+  CANCER, LUIS                       CANTÙ, CESARE
+  CANCER (astronomy)                 CANUSIUM
+  CANCER (disease)                   CANUTE
+  CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON          CANUTE VI.
+  CANDELABRUM                        CANVAS
+  CANDIA                             CANVASS
+  CANDIDATE                          CANYNGES, WILLIAM
+  CANDLE                             CANYON
+  CANDLEMAS                          CANZONE
+  CANDLESTICK                        CAPE BRETON
+  CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH             CAPE COAST
+  CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE       CAPE COLONY
+  CANDON
+
+
+
+
+CAMORRA, a secret society of Naples associated with robbery, blackmail
+and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful. Probably both the word
+and the association were introduced into Naples by Spaniards. There is a
+Spanish word _camorra_ (a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have
+existed in Spain long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It
+was in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was
+primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan
+prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and oppression,
+its first purpose being the protection of prisoners. In or about 1830
+the Camorra was carried into the city by prisoners who had served their
+terms. The members worked the streets in gangs. They had special methods
+of communicating with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach
+of the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached. A
+long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze meant he
+was not "worth powder and shot," and so on. The society rapidly extended
+its power, and its operations included smuggling and blackmail of all
+kinds in addition to ordinary road-robberies. Its influence grew to be
+considerable. Princes were in league with and shared the profits of the
+smugglers: statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact,
+were involved in the society's misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra drew
+huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The general
+disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly organized that
+merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to superintend the loading and
+unloading of merchandise. Being non-political, the government did not
+interfere with the society; indeed its members were taken into the
+police service and the Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled
+the authorities. After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when
+the constitution was granted by Francis II., the _camorristi_ then in
+gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became
+all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862.
+Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its power.
+In September 1877 there was a determined effort to exterminate it:
+fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi being simultaneously
+arrested in the market-place. Though much of its power has gone, the
+Camorra has remained vigorous. It has grown upwards, and highly-placed
+and well-known camorristi have entered municipal administrations and
+political life. In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra's power were made
+in the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the
+Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner. A
+government inquiry also took place. As the result of this investigation
+the Honest Government League was formed, which succeeded in 1901 in
+entirely defeating the Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.
+
+The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the "swell mobsmen,"
+the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed with and levied fines
+on people of highest rank. Most of these were well connected. There were
+the lower order of blackmailers who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c.;
+and there were political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the
+society were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve
+for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted
+camorrista when he was sometimes called _picciotto d' honore_, and after
+giving proof of courage and zeal became a _picciotto di sgarro_, one,
+that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some localities he was then
+called _tamurro_. The initiatory ceremony for full membership is now a
+mock duel in which the arm alone is wounded. In early times initiation
+was more severe. The camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground,
+and at a signal all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the
+novice had at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that
+his hand was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate
+as _picciotto di sgarro_ lasted three years, during which the lad had to
+work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as master. After
+initiation there was a ceremony of reception. The camorristi stood round
+a table on which were a dagger, a loaded pistol, a glass of water or
+wine supposed to be poisoned and a lancet. The _picciotto_ was brought
+in and one of his veins opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he
+held it out to the camorristi and swore to keep the society's secrets
+and obey orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock
+the pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to die
+for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the dagger, placed
+his right hand on the lad's head while with the left he fired off the
+pistol into the air and smashed the poison-glass. He then drew the
+dagger from the table and presented it to the new comrade and embraced
+him, as did all the others. The Camorra was divided into centres, each
+under a chief. There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one
+time to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was Aniello
+Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested. The chief of
+every centre was elected by the members of it. All the earnings of the
+centre were paid to and then distributed by him. The camorristi employ a
+whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their chief is _masto_ or _si masto_,
+"sir master." When a member meets him he salutes with the phrase _Masto,
+volite niente?_ ("Master, do you want anything?"). The members are
+addressed simply as _si_.
+
+  See Monnier, _La Camorra_ (Florence, 1863); Umilta, _Camorra et Mafia_
+  (Neuchâtel, 1878); Alongi, _La Camorra_ (1890); C.W. Heckethorn
+  _Secret Societies of All Ages_ (London, 1897); Blasio, _Usi e costumi
+  dei Camorriste_ (Naples, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+CAMP (from Lat. _campus_, field), a term used more particularly in a
+military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized place of
+food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary housing (see
+CAMPING-OUT). The shelter of troops in the field has always been of the
+greatest importance to their well-being, and from the earliest times
+tents and other temporary shelters have been employed as much as
+possible when it is not feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in
+barracks or in houses. The applied sense of the word "camp" as a
+military post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the
+Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern warfare the word is
+used in two ways. In the wider sense, "camp" is opposed to "billets,"
+"cantonments" or "quarters," in which the troops are scattered amongst
+the houses of towns or villages for food and shelter. In a purely
+military camp the soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground
+allotted for their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of
+concentration and readiness for immediate action, and are under better
+disciplinary control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from
+the weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the restricted
+sense "camp" implies tents for all ranks, and is thus opposed to
+"bivouac," in which the only shelter is that afforded by improvised
+screens, &c., or at most small _tentes d'abri_ carried in sections by
+the men themselves. The weight of large regulation tents and the
+consequent increase in the number of horses and vehicles in the
+transport service are, however, disadvantages so grave that the
+employment of canvas camps in European warfare is almost a thing of the
+past. If the military situation permits, all troops are put into
+quarters, only the outpost troops bivouacking. This course was pursued
+by the German field armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter
+campaign.
+
+Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole army to
+bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are not to be depended
+upon, tents must be provided, for no troops can endure many successive
+nights in bivouac, except in summer, without serious detriment to their
+efficiency. In a war on the Russo-German frontier, for instance,
+especially if operations were carried out in the autumn and winter,
+tents would be absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In
+this connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates many
+of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For training purposes
+in peace time, _standing camps_ are formed. These may be considered
+simply as temporary barracks. An _entrenched camp_ is an area of ground
+occupied by, or suitable for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and
+protected by fortifications.
+
+_Ancient Camps._--English writers use "camp" as a generic term for any
+remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of their special age,
+size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it various dissimilar things.
+We may distinguish (1) Roman "camps" (_castra_) of three kinds, large
+permanent fortresses, small permanent forts (both usually built of
+stone) and temporary earthen encampments (see ROMAN ARMY); (2)
+Pre-Roman; and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English
+hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to their
+special periods. Often we can say no more than that the "camp" is not
+Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified with earthen walls were
+thrown up as early as the Bronze Age and probably earlier still, and
+that they continued to be built down to Norman times. These consisted of
+hilltops or cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified
+with one or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining
+huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have come in
+first with the Normans. Their _mottes_ or earthen mounds crowned with
+wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by an enclosure on the
+flat constituted a new element in fortification and greatly aided the
+conquest of England. (See CASTLE.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, the low country surrounding the city of Rome, bounded
+on the N.W. by the hills surrounding the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E.
+by the Sabine mountains, on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W.
+by the sea. (See LATIUM, and ROME (province).)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPAIGN, a military term for the continuous operations of an army
+during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the time when armies
+went into quarters during the winter and literally "took the field" at
+the opening of summer. The word is also used figuratively, especially in
+politics, of any continuous operations aimed at a definite object, as
+the "Plan of Campaign" in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived
+from the Latin _Campania_, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f.
+Italian, _la Campagna di Roma_, from which came two French forms: (1)
+_Champagne_, the name given to the level province of that name, and
+hence the English "champaign," a level tract of country free from woods
+and hills; and (2) _Campagne_, and the English "campaign" with the
+restricted military meaning.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822), French educator, the
+companion of Marie Antoinette, was born at Paris in 1752. Her father,
+whose name was Genest, was first clerk in the foreign office, and,
+although without fortune, placed her in the most cultivated society. At
+the age of fifteen she could speak English and Italian, and had gained
+so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader
+to the three daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general
+favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the
+Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of 5000
+_livres_ as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first lady of the
+bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued to be her faithful
+attendant till she was forcibly separated from her at the sacking of the
+Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792. Madame Campan survived the dangers
+of the Terror, but after the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost
+penniless, and being thrown on her own resources by the illness of her
+husband, she bravely determined to support herself by establishing a
+school at St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by
+Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment of
+Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded by Napoleon at
+Écouen for the education of the daughters and sisters of members of the
+Legion of Honour. This post she held till it was abolished at the
+restoration of the Bourbons, when she retired to Mantes, where she spent
+the rest of her life amid the kind attentions of affectionate friends,
+but saddened by the loss of her only son, and by the calumnies
+circulated on account of her connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in
+1822, leaving valuable _Mémoires sur la vie privée de Marie Antoinette,
+suivis de souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les règnes de Louis
+XIV.-XV._ (Paris, 1823); a treatise _De l'Éducation des Femmes_; and one
+or two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style. The
+most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that which
+especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place given to domestic
+economy in the education of girls. At Écouen the pupils underwent a
+complete training in all branches of housework.
+
+  See Jules Flammermont, _Les Mémoires de Madame de Campan_ (Paris,
+  1886), and histories of the time.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance philosopher, was
+born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen years of age he had
+mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth
+year he entered the order of the Dominicans, attracted partly by reading
+the lives of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of
+learning. He took a course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in
+Abruzzo, and in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow
+course of study, he happened to read the _De Rerum Natura_ of Bernardino
+Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its appeal to
+nature rather than to authority. His first work in philosophy (he was
+already the author of numerous poems) was a defence of Telesio,
+_Philosophia sensibus demonstrata_ (1591). His attacks upon established
+authority having brought him into disfavour with the clergy, he left
+Naples, where he had been residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven
+years he led an unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his
+talents and the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox,
+and was an uncompromising advocate of the pope's temporal power. He
+returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was committed to
+prison because he had joined those who desired to free Naples from
+Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudée, however, declares that the
+expressions used by Campanella were wrongly interpreted as
+revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven years in prison. Yet his
+spirit was unbroken; he composed sonnets, and prepared a series of
+works, forming a complete system of philosophy. During the latter years
+of his confinement he was kept in the castle of Sant' Elmo, and allowed
+considerable liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been
+regarded as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was
+thought better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set
+at liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of the
+Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at Rome by the
+pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy headed by his pupil,
+Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go to Paris (1634), where he was
+received with marked favour by Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of
+his life he spent in preparing a complete edition of his works; but only
+the first volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of
+May 1639.
+
+In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (q.v.), a follower of
+Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore, in the uncertain
+half-light which preceded the dawn of modern philosophy. The sterility
+of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he understood it, drove him to the
+study of man and nature, though he was never entirely free from the
+medieval spirit. Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region
+of theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception. The prime
+fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and Descartes, the
+certainty of individual consciousness. To this consciousness he assigned
+a threefold content, power, will and knowledge. It is of the present
+only, of things not as they are, but merely as they seem. The fact that
+it contains the idea of God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the
+divine existence, since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from
+the Infinite. God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect
+degree, those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity
+possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action
+presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its parts
+have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate are in
+everything. The more remote from God, the greater the degree of
+imperfection (i.e. _Not-being_) in things. Of imperfect things, the
+highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue of the possession of
+reason are akin to the Divine and superior to the lower creation. Next
+comes the mathematical world of space, then the corporeal world, and
+finally the empirical world with its limitations of space and time. The
+impulse of self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion;
+above this comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the
+perfection of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and
+love, and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in
+origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is superior to
+the state, and, therefore, all temporal government should be in
+subjection to the pope as the representative of God.
+
+In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio, advocates
+the experimental method and lays down heat and cold as the fundamental
+principles by the strife of which all life is explained. In political
+philosophy (the _Civitas Solis_) he sketches an ideal communism,
+obviously derived from the Platonic, based on community of wives and
+property with state-control of population and universal military
+training. In every detail of life the citizen is to be under authority,
+and the authority of the administrators is to be based on the degree of
+knowledge possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial
+organism for the promotion of individual and collective good. In
+contrast to More's _Utopia_, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking
+in practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity in
+the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to whether this
+system was a philosophic dream, or a serious attempt to sketch a
+constitution for Naples in the event of her becoming a free city. The
+_De Monarchia Hispanica_ contains an able account of contemporary
+politics especially Spanish.
+
+Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic thinker, is
+among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern empirical science, and
+on the other of Descartes and Spinoza. Yet his fondness for the
+antithesis of Being and Not-being (_Ens_ and _Non-ens_) shows that he
+had not shaken off the spirit of scholastic thought.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For his works see Quétif-Echard, appendix to E.S.
+  Cypriano, _Vita Campanellae_ (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722); Al.
+  d'Ancona's edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). The most
+  important are _De sensu rerum_ (1620); _Realis philosophiae
+  epilogisticae partes IV._ (with _Civitas Solis_) (1623); _Atheismus
+  triumphatus_ (1631); _Philos. rationalis_ (1637); _Philos. universalis
+  seu metaph._ (1637); _De Monarchia Hispanica_ (1640). For his life,
+  see Cypriano (above); M. Baldachini, _Vita e filos. di Tommaso
+  Campanella_ (Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, _Lettere
+  inedite di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti_ (1878); and
+  _Nuovi documenti di T.C._ (1881); and especially L. Amabile, _Fra T.
+  Campanella_ (3 vols., Naples, 1882). For his philosophy H. Ritter,
+  _History of Philos._; M. Carrière, _Philos. Weltanschauung d.
+  Reformationszeit_, pp. 542-608; C. Dareste, _Th. Morus et Campanella_
+  (Paris, 1843); Chr. Sigwart, _Kleine Schriften_, i. 125 seq.; and
+  histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda,
+  _Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica di fronte
+  al socialismo moderno_ (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). His poems, first
+  published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered and printed again
+  (1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered into English verse by
+  J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography see _Dict. de théol.
+  cath._, col. 1446 (1904).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANIA, a territorial division of Italy. The modern district (II.
+below) is of much greater extent than that known by the name in ancient
+times.
+
+I. _Campani_ was the name used by the Romans to denote the inhabitants
+first of the town of Capua and the district subject to it, and then
+after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 B.C.), to describe the
+inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally. The name, however, is
+pre-Roman and appears with Oscan terminations on coins of the early 4th
+(or late 5th) century B.C. (R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, p. 143),
+which were certainly struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of
+Campania, whom the name properly denotes, a branch of the great
+Sabelline stock (see SABINI); but in what precise spot the coins were
+minted is uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the
+Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in the last
+quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded appearance being at
+the conquest of their chief town Capua, probably in 438 B.C. (or 445,
+according to the method adopted in interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on
+this see under CUMAE), or 424 according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was
+taken by them in 428 or 421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite
+language they spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all
+Campania except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans
+remained here and there for at least another century (Conway, op. cit.
+p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took over not merely the
+wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their customs; the haughtiness and
+luxury of the men of Capua was proverbial at Rome. This town became the
+ally of Rome in 338 B.C. (Livy viii. 14) and received the _civitas sine
+suffragio_, the highest status that could be granted to a community
+which did not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was
+completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories
+(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent in alliance
+with Rome. These towns were faithful to Rome throughout the Hannibalic
+war. But Capua and the towns dependent on it revolted (Livy
+xxiii.-xxvi.); after its capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and
+the jealousy and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both
+finally appeased (cf. Cicero. _Leg. Agrar._ ii. 88). We have between
+thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating,
+probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway, _Italic
+Dialects_, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to the curious
+cult described under JOVILAE, while two or three are curses written on
+lead; see OSCA LINGUA.
+
+  See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd
+  ed.), c. "Capua"; Th. Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 365.     (R. S. C.)
+
+The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from Campani (see
+above), and did not come into common use until the middle of the 1st
+century A.D. Polybius and Diodorus avoid it entirely. Varro and Livy use
+it sparingly, preferring _Campanus ager_. Polybius (2nd century B.C.)
+uses the phrase [Greek: ta pedia ta kata Kapuen] to express the district
+bounded on the north by the mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the
+Apennines of Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which
+ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by the sea,
+and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy. But the
+geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division of Italy
+Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried the north
+boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and even the river
+Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village of San Pietro in Fine
+preserves the memory of the north-east boundary which ran between
+Venafrum and Casinum. On the east the valley of the Volturnus and the
+foot-hills of the Apennines as far as Abellinum formed the boundary;
+this town is sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to
+Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the time of
+Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended much farther north,
+and included the whole of Latium. This district was governed by a
+_corrector_, who about A.D. 333 received the title of _consularis_. It
+is for this reason that the district round Rome still bears the name of
+Campagna di Roma, being no doubt popularly connected with Ital. _campo_,
+Lat. _campus_. This district (to take its earlier extent), consisting
+mainly of a very fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south,
+and the sea on the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the
+Liris and Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right
+down to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is
+comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is the main
+plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the central Apennines,
+and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus, Sebethus, Savo, belong
+entirely to Campania.
+
+The road system of Campania was extremely well developed and touched all
+the important towns. The main lines are followed (though less
+completely) by the modern railways. The most important road centre of
+Campania was Capua, at the east edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to
+the north-west, was the only bridge over the Volturnus until the
+construction of the Via Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing
+through Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the
+Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum and Cales.
+At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia began to turn east
+and to approach the mountains on its way to Beneventum, while the Via
+Popillia went straight on to Nola (whence a road ran to Abella and
+Abellinum) and thence to Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating
+at Regium. From Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia
+and Telesia, while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up
+ancient warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae,
+Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae, Puteoli and
+Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella and Neapolis. Neapolis
+could also be reached by a branch from the Via Popillia at Suessula,
+which passed through Acerrae. From Suessula, too, there was a short cut
+to the Via Appia before it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian
+further improved the communications of this district with Rome, by the
+construction of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at
+Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river
+Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must have
+been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along the shore,
+past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here it fell into the
+existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana over the hills, at
+the back, and the newer, dating from the time of Agrippa, through the
+tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast. The mileage in both cases was
+reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond Naples a road led along the coast through
+Herculaneum to Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and
+Surrentum, and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From
+Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran to
+Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but outside the
+limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to Abellinum and thence
+to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum was another important centre: it lay
+at the point where the Via Latina was crossed at right angles by a road
+leaving the Via Appia at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca,
+while east of Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road
+from Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched off
+to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and rejoined it
+near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed, probable that the
+original road made the detour by Venafrum, in order to give a direct
+communication between Rome and the interior of Samnium (inasmuch as
+roads ran from Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae),
+and Th. Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies
+the antiquity of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo),
+though it is shown in Kiepert's map at the end of the volume, with a
+milestone numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing
+and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the road to
+Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short cut was
+not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century coins of Telesia,
+Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian type.
+
+Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most important from
+the commercial point of view. Its period of greatest comparative
+importance was the 2nd-1st century B.C. The harbours constructed by
+Augustus by connecting the Lacus Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the
+sea, and that at Misenum (the latter the station of one of the chief
+divisions of the Roman navy, the other fleet being stationed at
+Ravenna), were mainly naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but
+was less important than Puteoli.
+
+The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as in modern
+times;[1] the best portion was the Campi Laborini or Leborini (called
+Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in modern times, though the
+name has now extended to the whole province of Caserta) between the
+roads from Capua to Puteoli and Cumae (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xviii. III).
+The loose black volcanic earth (_terra pulla_) was easier to work than
+the stiffer Roman soil, and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt,
+wheat and millet are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables;
+and the roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the
+Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the east and
+south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other districts
+also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited to the slopes
+than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.
+
+The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania (Pompeii,
+Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but at some date soon
+after that Latin became general, except in Neapolis, where Greek was the
+official language during the whole of the imperial period.
+
+  See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway, _Italic
+  Dialects_, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie_,
+  iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.
+
+II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably larger area
+than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the _compartimento_ of Campania
+belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento, Naples, Avellino and
+Salerno.
+
+It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila (Abruzzi)
+and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of Foggia (Apulia),
+on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the south and west by
+the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289 sq. m. It thus includes the whole
+of the ancient Campania, a considerable portion of Samnium (with a part
+of the main chain of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of _Latium
+adjectum_, consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part
+of which lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the
+extraordinarily fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro,
+with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains and the
+sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc. Liris), which
+rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno (94 m. in length),
+with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which rises near Sarno and
+waters the fertile plain south-east of Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose
+main tributary is the Tanagro, which is in turn largely fed by another
+Calore. The headwaters of the Sele have been tapped for the great
+aqueduct for the Apulian provinces.
+
+The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of Fondi
+with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient _Ager Caecubus_),
+renowned for its wine (see FONDI). The mountains (of the ancient
+Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the east side of the extreme
+promontory to the south-east is the port of Gaeta, a strongly fortified
+naval station. The east side of the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the
+marshes at the mouth of the Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its
+unhealthy lagoons, continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico,
+which reaches the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as
+far as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct
+craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of Naples,
+which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of Naples. Here the
+scenery completely changes: the Bay of Naples, indeed, is one of the
+most beautiful in the world. The island of Procida lies 2½ m. south-west
+of the Capo Miseno, and 3 m. south-west of Procida is that of Ischia. In
+consequence of the volcanic character of the district there are several
+important mineral springs which are used medicinally, especially at
+Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of Ischia.
+
+Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy in the 1st
+century B.C., is now mainly noticeable for the large armour-plate and
+gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the volcanic earth (_pozzolana_)
+which forms so important an element in concrete and cement, and is
+largely quarried near Rome also. Naples, on the other hand, is one of
+the most important harbours of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco
+and Torre Annunziata at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports
+for smaller vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is
+manufactured extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare
+di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval shipbuilding
+yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare the promontory of
+Sorrento, ending in the Punta della Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m.
+south-west) forms the south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest
+point of this mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine
+chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east as
+Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the low marshy
+ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno, malaria is very
+prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf of Salerno is formed by
+another mountain group, culminating in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.);
+and on the east side of this is the Gulf of Policastro, where the
+province of Salerno, and with it Campania, borders, on the province of
+Potenza.
+
+The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of the province
+of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes, the chief towns
+being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni
+(20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844); that of the province of Benevento was
+256,504, with 73 communes, the only important town being Benevento
+itself (24,647); that of the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69
+communes, the most important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del
+Greco (33,299), Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata
+(28,143), Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino
+(Principato Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425,
+with 128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and Ariano di
+Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno (Principato Citeriore)
+564,328, with 158 communes, the chief towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava
+dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief
+railway centre: a main line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence
+there is a branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to
+Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on the line
+between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento), Sparanise (branch to
+Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples. From Caserta, indeed, there are
+two independent lines to Naples, while a main line runs to Benevento and
+Foggia across the Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to
+Vinchiaturo (for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From
+Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples,
+branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato, San
+Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to Caserta (and
+thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local lines to Pozzuoli and
+Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the
+other via Pompeii, which together make up the circum-Vesuvian electric
+line, and were in connexion with the railway to the top of Vesuvius
+until its destruction in April 1906. The main line for southern Italy
+passes through Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and
+Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for Mercato San
+Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one line going
+east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro), Potenza and
+Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line along the east coast of
+Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east along the west
+coast of Calabria to Reggio.
+
+Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli and the
+towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia (including the latter)
+on the north-east shores of the Bay of Naples. The native peasant
+industries are (besides agriculture, for which see ITALY) the
+manufacture of pottery and weaving with small hand-looms, both of which
+are being swept away by the introduction of machinery; but a government
+school of textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement
+of the trade.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The name Osci--earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. [Greek:
+    Opikoi])--presumably meant "tillers of the soil."
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO, Italian mechanician and natural philosopher of
+the 17th century, was born at Spoleto. He held a curacy at Rome in 1661,
+but devoted himself principally to scientific pursuits. As an optician
+he is chiefly celebrated for the manufacture of the large object-glasses
+with which G.D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn's satellites, and for
+an attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-glass;
+and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated dial-plate,
+and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt to correct the
+irregularities of the pendulum which arise from variations of
+temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work on horology, and on the
+manufacture of lenses for telescopes. His younger brother Giuseppe was
+also an ingenious optician (indeed the attempt to correct chromatic
+aberration has been ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is,
+besides, noteworthy as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by
+the aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter,
+the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio Divini.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANILE, the bell tower attached to the churches and town-halls in
+Italy (from _campana_, a bell). Bells are supposed to have been first
+used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope Sabinian (604), the
+immediate successor to St Gregory; and their use by the municipalities
+came with the rights granted by kings and emperors to the citizens to
+enclose their towns with fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a
+great bell. It is to the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that
+we are indebted for the introduction and development of the campanile,
+which, when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature
+peculiar to Christian architecture--Christians alone making use of the
+bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The campanile of Italy
+serves the same purpose as the tower or steeple of the churches in the
+north and west of Europe, but differs from it in design and position
+with regard to the body of the church. It is almost always detached from
+the church, or at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a
+rule also there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few
+exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara; S.
+Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the churches in south
+Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely from the northern type; it
+never has buttresses, is very tall and thin in proportion to its height,
+and as a rule rises abruptly from the ground without base or plinth
+mouldings undiminished to the summit; it is usually divided by
+string-courses into storeys of nearly equal height, and in north and
+central Italy the wall surface is decorated with pilaster strips and
+arcaded corbel strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an
+octagonal turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and
+Modena cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and
+dimensions as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a lightness
+to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits only,
+impart solidity to the whole composition.
+
+The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S. Apollinare in
+Classe (see BASILICA, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna, dating
+from the 6th century. They are circular, of considerable height, and
+probably were erected as watch towers or depositories for the treasures
+of the church. The next in order are those in Rome, of which there are a
+very large number in existence, dating from the 8th to the 11th century.
+These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part quite
+plain till well above the church to which they are attached. Above this
+they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried on stone
+corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the lower storeys with
+blind arcades and the upper storeys with open arcades. The earliest on
+record was one connected with St Peter's, to the atrium of which, in the
+middle of the 8th century, a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added.
+One of the finest is that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th
+or 9th century. In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient
+columns of the Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The
+tower is 120 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the
+four upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second
+from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number, are
+recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their length
+equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a mid-wall shaft.
+This type of arcade or window is found in early German work, except
+that, as a rule, there is a capital under the impost block. Rome is
+probably the source from which the Saxon windows were derived, the
+example in Worth church being identically the same as those in the Roman
+campanili. In the campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each
+storey, each divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS.
+Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana, S. Croce in
+Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia, S. Pudenziana,
+S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in Capite, are
+characteristic examples. On some of the towers are encrusted plaques of
+marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed in a tile or moulded brick
+border; sometimes these plaques are in majolica with Byzantine patterns.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
+
+FIG. 1.--Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.]
+
+The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another type, the
+north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being decorated with
+vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and horizontal arcaded
+corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the campanile of S. Satiro at
+Milan is in perfect preservation; it is divided into four storeys by
+arched corbel tables, the upper storey having a similar arcade with
+mid-wall shaft to those in Rome. One of the most notable examples in
+north Italy is the campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense
+height and has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall
+face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally with
+arcaded corbel tables,--this campanile, the two towers of S. Antonio,
+Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal plan, being among
+the few which are thus terminated. In the campanile at Torcello we find
+an entirely different treatment: doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide
+each face into two lofty blind arcades rising from the ground to the
+belfry storey, over 100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the
+upper or belfry storey having an arcade of four arches on each front.
+This is the type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where
+there are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark's was of similar
+design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower portion,
+built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but not completed
+till the middle of the 12th century. In 1510 a belfry storey was added
+with an open arcade of four arches on each face, and slightly set back
+from the face of the tower above was a mass of masonry with pyramidal
+roof, the total height being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole
+structure collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in
+1510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part, would seem
+to have been the principal contributors to this disaster, as the pile
+foundations were found to be in excellent condition.
+
+In central Italy the two early campanili at Lucca return to the Lombard
+type of the north, with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel strings, and
+the same is found in S. Francesco (Assisi), S. Frediano (Lucca), S.
+Pietro-in-Grado and S. Michele-in-Orticaia (Pisa), and S. Maria-Novella
+(Florence). The campanile of S. Niccola, Pisa, is octagonal on plan,
+with a lofty blind arcade on each face like those in Venice, but with a
+single string-course halfway up. The gallery above is an open eaves
+gallery like those in north Italy.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Brogi.
+
+FIG. 2.--Campanile of St Mark's, Venice.]
+
+In southern Italy the design of the campanile varies again. In the two
+more important examples at Bari and Molfetta, there are two towers in
+each case attached to the east end of the cathedrals. The campanili are
+in plain masonry, the storeys being suggested only by blind arches or
+windows, there being neither pilaster strips nor string-courses. The
+same treatment is found at Barletta and Caserta Vecchia; in the latter
+the upper storey has been made octagonal with circular turrets at each
+angle, and this type of design is followed at Amalfi, the centre portion
+being circular instead of octagonal and raised much higher. In Palermo
+the campanile of the Martorana, of which the two lower storeys,
+decorated with three concentric blind pointed arches on each face,
+probably date from the Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the
+two upper storeys. The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral
+have similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group
+well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two towers of
+the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble those of Bari and
+Molfetta as regards their treatment.
+
+The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of Siena and
+Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that they owe their
+decoration to the alternating courses of black and white marble. Of this
+type by far the most remarkable so far as its marble decoration is
+concerned is Giotto's campanile at Florence, built in 1334. It measures
+275 ft. high, 45 ft. square, and is encased in black, white and red
+marble, with occasional sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized
+by octagonal projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled
+that of the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three
+upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side in the
+two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the belfry stage.
+A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure, above which a spire was
+projected by Giotto, but never carried out.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
+
+FIG. 3.--Giotto's Campanile, Florence.]
+
+The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft. high. Though
+built in the second half of the 13th century, and showing therefore
+Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the belfry and two storeys
+below, and the substitution of the pointed for the semicircular arch of
+the arcaded corbel string-courses, it follows the Lombard type in its
+general design, and the same is found in the campanile of S. Andrea,
+Mantua. In the 16th century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned
+with a conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some of
+the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these leaning
+towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at Bologna form
+conspicuous objects in the town; the two more remarkable examples are
+the campanile of S. Martino at Este, of early Lombard type, and the
+leaning tower at Pisa, which was built by the citizens in 1174 to rival
+that of Venice. The Pisa tower is circular on plan, about 51 ft. in
+diameter and 172 ft. high. Not including the belfry storey, which is set
+back on the inner wall, it is divided into seven storeys all surrounded
+with an open gallery or arcade. (See ARCHITECTURE, Plate I. fig. 62.)
+Owing to the sinking of the piles on the south side, the inclination was
+already noticed when the tower was about 30 ft. high, and slight
+additions in the height of the masonry on that side were introduced to
+correct the level, but without result, so that the works were stopped
+for many years and taken up again in 1234 under the direction of William
+of Innsbruck; he also attempted to rectify the levels by increasing the
+height of the masonry on the south side. At a later period the belfry
+storey was added. The inclination now approaches 14 ft. out of the
+perpendicular. The outside is built entirely in white marble and is of
+admirable workmanship, but it is a question whether the equal
+subdivision of the several storeys is not rather monotonous. The
+campanili of the churches of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both
+in Pisa, are also inclined to a slight extent.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
+
+FIG. 4.--Campanile of the Palazzo del Signore, Verona.]
+
+The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches, but there
+are others belonging to civic buildings some of which are of great
+importance. The campanile of the town hall of Siena rises to an enormous
+height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft. wide; it is built in brick and
+crowned with a battlemented parapet carried on machicolation corbels,
+16 ft. high, all in stone, and a belfry storey above set back behind the
+face of the tower. The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is
+similarly crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced
+in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example is the
+fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4, the lower
+portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone and above entirely
+in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft., and pierced with putlog
+holes only. The belfry window on each face is divided into three lights
+with coupled shafts. An octagonal tower of two storeys rises above the
+corbelled eaves.
+
+In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general
+proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself
+easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were adhered
+to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei Greci. In that
+of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio returned to the simple
+brickwork of Verona, crowned with a belfry storey in stone, with angle
+pilasters and columns of the Corinthian order in antis, and central
+turret with spire above. In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins
+are either decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters,
+with or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a belfry
+storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of their greater
+projection present a fine effect.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANULA (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants containing about
+230 species, found in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere,
+chiefly in the Mediterranean region. The name is taken from the
+bell-shaped flower. The plants are perennial, rarely annual or biennial,
+herbs with spikes or racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several
+are native in Britain; _Campanula rotundifolia_ is the harebell (q.v.)
+or Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,--the delicate
+slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers; _C.
+Rapunculus_, rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a panicle of
+broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and occurs on gravelly
+roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It is cultivated, but not
+extensively, for its fleshy roots, which are used, either boiled or raw,
+as salad. Many of the species are grown in gardens for their elegant
+flowers; the dwarf forms are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or
+fronts of borders. _C. Medium_, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple
+and white flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there
+are numerous varieties. _C. persicifolia_, a perennial with more open
+flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous forms,
+including white and blue-flowered and single and double. _C. glomerata_,
+which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on the stems and branches,
+found native in Britain in chalky and dry pastures, is known in numerous
+varieties as a border plant. _C. pyramidalis_, with numerous flowers
+forming a tall pyramidal inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are
+also a number of alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as _C.
+alpina, caucasica, caespitosa_ and others. The plants are easily
+cultivated. The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by
+young cuttings in spring, or by seeds.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788-1866), American religious leader, was born
+near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the 12th of September 1788, and
+was the son of Thomas Campbell (1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman
+of the Presbyterian "Seceders." Alexander in 1809, after a year at
+Glasgow University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania, where
+the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association of
+Washington, "for the sole purpose of promoting simple evangelical
+Christianity." With his father's desire for Church unity the son agreed.
+He began to preach in 1810, refusing any salary; in 1811 he settled in
+what is now Bethany, West Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run
+Church, as the Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging
+baptism by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his
+father's place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (q.v., popularly
+called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed momentarily to
+approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists, but by his statement,
+"I will be baptized only into the primitive Christian faith," by his
+iconoclastic preaching and his editorial conduct of _The Christian
+Baptist_ (1823-1830), and by the tone of his able debates with
+Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the disfavour of the Redstone
+Association of Baptist churches in western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his
+followers transferred their membership to the Mahoning Association of
+Baptist churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the
+Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to the
+Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery neighbours,
+now established _The Millennial Harbinger_ (1830-1865), in which, on
+Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation, but which he used principally
+to preach the imminent Second Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in
+which year he died, on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia,
+having been for twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He
+travelled, lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in
+England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian champions, with
+Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert Owen; and edited a revision
+of the New Testament.
+
+  See Thomas W. Grafton's _Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great
+  Reformation of the Nineteenth Century_ (St Louis, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865-   ), English
+actress, was born in London, her maiden name being Tanner, and in 1884
+married Captain Patrick Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the
+provincial stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre,
+London, in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero's
+_Second Mrs Tanqueray_ at the St James's, her remarkable impersonation
+at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For some
+years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London, playing
+notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson's _For the Crown_, and in
+_Macbeth_; and her _Magda_ (Royalty, 1900) could hold its own with
+either Bernhardt or Duse. In later years she paid successful visits to
+America, but in England played chiefly on provincial tours.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was born at Aberdeen
+on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, one
+of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of George Campbell of Westhall,
+who claimed to belong to the Argyll branch of the family, died in 1728,
+leaving a widow and six children in somewhat straitened circumstances.
+George, the youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and
+after attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes at
+Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an apprentice to
+a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he attended the theological
+lectures, and when the term of his apprenticeship expired, he was
+enrolled as a regular student in the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a
+distinguished career he was, in 1746, licensed to preach by the
+presbytery of Aberdeen. From 1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory
+Ternan, a parish on the Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then
+transferred to Aberdeen, which was at the time a centre of considerable
+intellectual activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King's
+College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid's predecessor, held the chair of
+medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor of divinity at
+Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie (1735-1803) became
+professor of moral philosophy in the same college. These men, with
+others of less note, formed themselves in 1758 into a society for the
+discussions of questions in philosophy. Reid was its first secretary,
+and Campbell one of its founders. It lasted till about 1773, and during
+this period numerous papers were read, particularly those by Reid and
+Campbell, which were afterwards expanded and published.
+
+In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In 1763 he
+published his celebrated _Dissertation on Miracles_, in which he seeks
+to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are capable of proof by
+testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity are sufficiently
+attested. There is no contradiction, he argues, as Hume said there was,
+between what we know by testimony and the evidence upon which a law of
+nature is based; they are of a different description indeed, but we can
+without inconsistency believe that both are true. The _Dissertation_ is
+not a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was
+and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In 1771
+Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal College, and
+resigned his city charge, although he still preached as minister of
+Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His _Philosophy of
+Rhetoric_, planned at Banchory Ternan years before, appeared in 1776,
+and at once took a high place among books on the subject. In 1778 his
+last and in some respects his greatest work appeared, _A New Translation
+of the Gospels_. The critical and explanatory notes which accompanied it
+gave the book a high value.
+
+In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the offices he
+held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he received a pension
+of £300 from the king. He died on the 31st of March 1796.
+
+  His _Lectures on Ecclesiastical History_ were published after his
+  death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform
+  edition of his works in 6 vols.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the legal profession, he was
+sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an attorney; but his tastes soon led
+him to abandon the study of law and to devote himself entirely to
+literature. In 1736 he published the _Military History of Prince Eugene
+and the Duke of Marlborough_, and soon after contributed several
+important articles to the _Ancient Universal History_. In 1742 and 1744
+appeared the _Lives of the British Admirals_, in 4 vols., a popular work
+which has been continued by other authors. Besides contributing to the
+_Biographia Britannica_ and Dodsley's _Preceptor_, he published a work
+on _The Present State of Europe_, onsisting of a series of papers which
+had appeared in the _Museum_. He also wrote the histories of the
+Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend
+settlements in the East Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal,
+Algarve, Navarre and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the
+_Modern Universal History_. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a
+vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying in it a
+descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar Islands in the West
+Indies. By the king he was appointed agent for the provinces of Georgia
+in 1755. His last and most elaborate work, _Political Survey of
+Britain_, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1744, and greatly increased the
+author's reputation. Campbell died on the 28th of December 1775. He
+received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in
+1745.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861), lord chancellor of England,
+the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, D.D., was born on the 17th
+of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife, where his father was for fifty years
+parish minister. For a few years Campbell studied at the United College,
+St Andrews. In 1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and,
+after a short connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, was called to the
+bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at _nisi prius_
+(i.e. on jury trial). Of these _Reports_ he published altogether four
+volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas 1807 to Hilary
+1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal to criminal business,
+but in spite of his unceasing industry he failed to attract much
+attention behind the bar; he had changed his circuit from the home to
+the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly, and it was not till 1827 that he
+obtained a silk gown and found himself in that "front rank" who are
+permitted to have political aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the
+borough of Stafford in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in
+1831. In the House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive
+zeal for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense,
+but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however, like
+that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by the abolition
+of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of new and striking
+principles.
+
+Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries Abolition Act
+1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act 1833; the Real Property
+Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act 1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts
+1841; and the Judgments Act 1838. All these measures were important and
+were carefully drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a
+biographical notice. The second was called for by the preference which
+the common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the
+half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an indefeasible
+title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term shortened by Lord
+Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth reduced the number of
+witnesses required by law to attest wills, and removed the vexatious
+distinction which existed in this respect between freeholds and
+copyholds; the last freed an innocent debtor from imprisonment only
+before final judgment (or on what was termed _mesne_ process), but the
+principle stated by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be
+imprisoned was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in
+1869.[1] In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land
+Registration (q.v.), which formed the theme of his maiden speech in
+parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His most important
+appearance as member for Stafford was in defence of Lord John Russell's
+first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate and learned speech, based on
+Fox's declaration against constitution-mongering, he supported both the
+enfranchising and the disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the
+cries of "corporation robbery," "nabob representation," "opening for
+young men of talent," &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell
+solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he represented
+till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general and was returned by
+Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.[2]
+
+His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that of a
+moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church and state, and
+opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot. In parliament he continued
+to lend the most effective help to the Liberal party. His speech in 1835
+in support of the motion for inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities
+with a view to their partial appropriation for national purposes (for
+disestablishment was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much
+terse argument, and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the
+formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell had a fierce
+encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which followed the motion of
+T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) on the repair and maintenance
+of parochial churches and chapels. The legal point in the dispute (which
+Campbell afterwards made the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether
+the church-wardens of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any
+means of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or
+ecclesiastical censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but
+on the broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported
+the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh
+annuity-tax.
+
+In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action (thought by
+some to be a political conspiracy[3]) which the Hon. G.C. Norton brought
+against the Whig premier for criminal conversation with his wife. At
+this time also he exerted himself for the reform of justice in the
+ecclesiastical courts, for the uniformity of the law of marriage (which
+he held should be a purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners
+charged with felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of _The Times_
+newspaper, which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the duchess of
+Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly remarkable for the
+Confession--"I despair of any definition of libel which shall exclude no
+publications which ought to be suppressed, and include none which ought
+to be permitted." His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced
+in the prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the
+bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular
+ground that "the vast bulk of the population believe that morality
+depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be raised among
+them that the ten commandments were given by God from Mount Sinai, men
+would think they were at liberty to steal, and women would consider
+themselves absolved from the restraints of chastity." But his most
+distinguished effort at the bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House
+of Commons in the famous case of _Stockdale v. Hansard_, 1837, 7 C. and
+P. 731. The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers, a
+report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated that an
+obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the prisoners to
+read. Stockdale sued the Commons' publisher, and was met by the plea of
+parliamentary privilege, to which, however, the judges did not give
+effect, on the ground that they were entitled to define the privileges
+of the Commons, and that publication of papers was not essential to the
+functions of parliament. The matter was settled by an act of 1840.
+
+In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John Frost, one of
+the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town of Newport, all of whom
+were found guilty of high treason. We may also mention, as matter of
+historical interest, the case before the high steward and the House of
+Lords which arose out of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the
+earl of Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was clear
+that the "punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call honour" was no
+excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment of everybody, Lord
+Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of felony because the full name
+of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett Phipps Tuckett) was not legally
+proved. It is difficult to suppose that such a blunder was not
+preconcerted. Campbell himself made the extraordinary declaration that
+to engage in a duel which could not be declined without infamy (i.e.
+social disgrace) was "an act free from moral turpitude," although the
+law properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne
+administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable chancellor of
+Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to resign, and the Whig
+attorney-general, who had never practised in equity, became chancellor
+of Ireland, and was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
+Campbell of St Andrews, in the county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth
+Campbell, the eldest daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the
+Campbells of Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in
+1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the withdrawal
+of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post of chancellor
+Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then resigned it to his
+successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards). The circumstances of his
+appointment and the erroneous belief that he was receiving a pension of
+£4000 per annum for his few days' court work brought Campbell much
+unmerited obloquy.[4] It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no
+legal duty, except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish
+appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary fame
+troubled Lord Campbell's leisure.[5]
+
+Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her _Lives of the
+Queens of England_, and by Lord Brougham's _Lives of Eminent Statesmen_,
+he at last produced, in 1849, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and
+Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the earliest times till the
+reign of King George IV._, 7 vols. 8vo. The conception of this work is
+magnificent; its execution wretched. Intended to evolve a history of
+jurisprudence from the truthful portraits of England's greatest lawyers,
+it merely exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning,
+without a trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a
+spark of that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and
+spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present
+becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A charming
+style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be expected from
+a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly be held responsible for
+the frequent plagiarisms, the still more frequent inaccuracies of
+detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes on almost every page, the
+hasty insinuations against the memory of the great departed who were to
+him as giants, and the petty sneers which he condescends to print
+against his own contemporaries, with whom he was living from day to day
+on terms of apparently sincere friendship.
+
+These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke, Eldon,
+Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed out by the
+biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.[6] And yet the book is an
+invaluable repertory of facts, and must endure until it is superseded by
+something better. It was followed by the _Lives of the Chief Justices of
+England, from the Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield_,
+8vo, 2 vols., a book of similar construction but inferior merit.
+
+It must not be supposed that during this period the literary lawyer was
+silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently. The 3rd volume of the
+_Protests of the Lords_, edited by Thorold Rogers (1875), contains no
+less than ten protests by Campbell, entered in the years 1842-1845. He
+protests against Peel's Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen
+Act 1843, as conferring undue power on church courts; against the
+perpetuation of diocesan courts for probate and administration; against
+Lord Stanley's absurd bill providing compensation for the destruction of
+fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and against the Parliamentary
+Proceedings Bill, which proposed that all bills, except money bills,
+having reached a certain stage or having passed one House, should be
+continued to next session. The last he opposed because the proper remedy
+lay in resolutions and orders of the House. He protests in favour of
+Lord Monteagle's motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn
+duties; of Lord Normanby's motion on the queen's speech in 1843, for
+inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military
+occupation); of Lord Radnor's bill to define the constitutional powers
+of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened Mazzini's letters.
+In 1844 he records a solitary protest against the judgment of the House
+of Lords in _R._ v. _Millis_, 1844, 10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed
+that a man regularly married according to the rites of the Irish
+Presbyterian Church, and afterwards regularly married to another woman
+by an episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of bigamy,
+because the English law required for the validity of a marriage that it
+should be performed by an ordained priest.
+
+On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was appointed chief
+justice of the queen's bench. For this post he was well fitted by his
+knowledge of common law, his habitual attention to the pleadings in
+court and his power of clear statement. On the other hand, at _nisi
+prius_ and on the criminal circuit, he was accused of frequently
+attempting unduly to influence juries in their estimate of the
+credibility of evidence. It is also certain that he liked to excite
+applause in the galleries by some platitude about the "glorious
+Revolution" or the "Protestant succession." He assisted in the reforms
+of special pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with
+Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of Lords. But
+he had neither the generous temperament nor the breadth of view which is
+required in the composition of even a mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was
+made lord chancellor of Great Britain, probably on the understanding
+that Bethell should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House
+of Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In the
+same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier an
+amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare's legal
+acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural Drocess which runs
+through the book: "If Shakespeare was really articled to a Stratford
+attorney, in all probability, during the five years of his clerkship, he
+visited London several times on his master's business, and he may then
+have been introduced to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his
+countrymen connected with that theatre." The only positive piece of
+evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash's "Epistle to the
+Gentlemen of the Two Universities," prefixed to Greene's _Arcadia_,
+1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to be Shakespeare) with
+having left the "trade of Noverint" and busied himself with "whole
+Hamlets" and "handfuls of tragical speeches." The knowledge of law shown
+in the plays is very much what a universal observer must have picked up.
+Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent
+layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has been well said of
+him in explanation of his success, that he lived eighty years and
+preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had a hard head, a splendid
+constitution, tireless industry, a generally judicious temper. He was a
+learned, though not a scientific lawyer, a faithful political adherent,
+thoroughly honest as a judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there
+was nothing admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did
+his principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the
+magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults of others.
+His life was the triumph of steady determination unaided by a single
+brilliant or attractive quality.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his
+  Autobiography, Diary and Letters_, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881);
+  E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, _Select
+  Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter_ (1867); E.
+  Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian
+  Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for
+    libel to prove _veritas_, and giving a right of action to the
+    representatives of persons killed through negligence, also deserve
+    mention.
+
+  [2] Greville in his _Memoirs_ says that Campbell got this post on
+    condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the
+    bench; a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by
+    claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach.
+    Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both
+    promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell.
+
+  [3] "There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of it
+    all, and persuaded Lord Grantley to urge it on for mere political
+    purposes."--Greville, iii. 351.
+
+  [4] See thereon J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1908), vol.
+    ii. p. 174.
+
+  [5] In 1842 he published the _Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar
+    and in the Home of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as Lord
+    Chancellor of Ireland_ (Edin., Black).
+
+  [6] It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to
+    its author, "and then there is my noble and biographical friend who
+    has added a new terror to death." See _Misrepresentations in
+    Campbell's "Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham" corrected by St
+    Leonards_ (London, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic scholar, was born
+on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the beautiful Isle of Islay, on
+the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this inheritance he never became
+possessed, as the estate had to be sold by his father, and he began life
+under greatly changed conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh
+University, he occupied at various times several minor government posts.
+His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and editing
+the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from the lips of the
+natives. The results of his investigations were published in four
+volumes under the title _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_
+(1860-1862), and form a most important contribution to the subject, the
+necessary precursor to the subsequent Gaelic revival in Great Britain.
+Campbell was also devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and
+he invented the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British
+meteorological stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February
+1885.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD (1800-1872), Scottish divine, son of the Rev.
+Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyllshire, in 1800. Thanks to
+his father he was already a good Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow
+University in 1811. Finishing his course in 1817, he became a student at
+the Divinity Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After
+further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the
+presbytery of Lorne in 1821. In 1825 he was appointed to the parish of
+Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine of Assurance of Faith
+powerfully influenced him. He began to give so much prominence to the
+universality of the Atonement that his parishioners went so far as to
+petition the presbytery in 1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a
+subsequent appeal in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation
+followed by an accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the
+charge was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching
+heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an
+invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic Church, he
+worked for two years as an evangelist in the Highlands. Returning to
+Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for sixteen years in a large chapel
+erected for him, but he never attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he
+published his famous book on _The Nature of the Atonement_, which has
+profoundly influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim
+is to view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine
+mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God and perfect
+brotherhood towards men. By the light of this divine fact the
+Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally and necessarily as an
+atonement; the penal element in the sufferings of Christ is minimized.
+Subsequent critics have pointed out that Campbell's position was not
+self-consistent in the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element
+in the sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the
+principle that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all
+righteousness and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health
+gave way, and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church,
+where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published _Thoughts on
+Revelation_. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D. from Glasgow
+University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and there began his
+_Reminiscences and Reflections_, an unfinished work published after his
+death by his son. Campbell was greatly loved and esteemed by a circle of
+friends, which included Thomas Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander
+Ewing, F.D. Maurice, D.J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and
+honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried great
+weight. In 1871 a testimonial and address were presented to him by
+representatives of most of the religious bodies in Scotland. He died on
+the 27th of February 1872, and was buried in Roseneath churchyard.
+     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908), British classical scholar, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His father, Robert Campbell,
+R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. He was educated
+at Edinburgh Academy, and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow
+and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford,
+Hants (1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the
+university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected an honorary
+fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by his work on
+Sophocles and Plato. His published works include: Sophocles (2nd ed.,
+1879); Plato, _Sophistes_ and _Politicus_ (1867), _Theaetetus_ (2nd ed.,
+1883), _Republic_ (with Jowett, 1894); _Life and Letters of Benjamin
+Jowett_ (with E. Abbott, 1897), _Letters of B. Jowett_ (1899); _Life of
+James Clerk Maxwell_ (with W. Garnett, new ed., 1884); _A Guide to Greek
+Tragedy for English Readers_ (1891); _Religion in Greek Literature_
+(1898); _On the Nationalisation of the Old English Universities_ (1901);
+Verse translations of the plays of Aeschylus (1890); Sophocles (1896);
+_Tragic Drama in Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (1904);
+_Paralipomena Sophoclea_ (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867-   ), British Congregationalist divine,
+son of a United Free Methodist minister of Scottish descent, was born in
+London, and educated at schools in Bolton and Nottingham, where his
+father successively removed, and in Belfast, the home of his
+grandfather. At an early age he taught in the high school at Ashton,
+Cheshire, and was already married when in 1891 he went to Christchurch,
+Oxford, where he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern
+history. He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a
+clergyman in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of
+Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget (afterwards
+bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Nonconformist blood was too
+strong, and he abandoned the idea in order to take up work in the
+Congregational ministry. He accepted a call, on leaving Oxford, to the
+small Congregational church in Union Street, Brighton, and quickly
+became famous there as a preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker's
+death he was chosen as his successor (1903) at the City Temple, London.
+Here he notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one of
+the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end of 1906 he
+attracted widespread attention by his vigorous propagation of what was
+called the "New Theology," a restatement of Christian beliefs to
+harmonize with modern critical views and beliefs, and published a book
+with this title which gave rise to considerable discussion.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son of Alexander
+Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of July 1777. His father, who
+was a cadet of the family of Campbell of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged
+to a Glasgow firm trading in Virginia, and lost his money in consequence
+of the American war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and
+university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for
+verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the western
+Highlands. His poem "Glenara" and the ballad of "Lord Ullin's Daughter"
+owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In May 1797 he went to Edinburgh to
+attend lectures on law. He supported himself by private teaching and by
+writing, towards which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor
+of the _British Poets_. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were Sir
+Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas Brown, John
+Leyden and James Grahame. To these early days in Edinburgh may be
+referred "The Wounded Hussar," "The Dirge of Wallace" and the "Epistle
+to Three Ladies." In 1799, six months after the publication of the
+_Lyrical Ballads_ of Wordsworth and Coleridge, _The Pleasures of Hope_
+was published. It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his
+time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to men's
+hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland and with
+negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but Campbell was deficient
+in energy and perseverance and did not follow it up. He went abroad in
+June 1800 without any very definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg,
+and made his way to Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days
+after his arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his
+best lyrics, "Hohenlinden," "Ye Mariners of England" and "The Soldier's
+Dream," belong to his German tour. He spent the winter in Altona, where
+he met an Irish exile, Anthony McCann, whose history suggested "The
+Exile of Erin."[1] He had at that time the intention of writing an epic
+on Edinburgh to be entitled "The Queen of the North." On the outbreak of
+war between Denmark and England he hurried home, the "Battle of the
+Baltic" being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was introduced to the
+first Lord Minto, who took him in the next year to London as occasional
+secretary. In June 1803 appeared a new edition of the _Pleasures of
+Hope_, which some lyrics were added.
+
+In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair, and
+settled in London. He was well received in Whig society, especially at
+Holland House. His prospects, however, were slight when in 1805 he
+received a government pension of £200. In that year the Campbells
+removed to Sydenham. Campbell was at this time regularly employed on the
+_Star_ newspaper, for which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he
+published a narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, "Gertrude of
+Wyoming," with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow
+and fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from
+over-elaboration. Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: "Your timidity or
+fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will not let you give
+your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful, as they present
+themselves; but you must chasten, and refine, and soften them, forsooth,
+till half their nature and grandeur is chiselled away from them. Believe
+me, the world will never know how truly you are a great and original
+poet till you venture to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your
+fancy." In 1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at
+the Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to become a
+candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh University. In 1814
+he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance of the elder Schlegel,
+of Baron Cuvier and others. His pecuniary anxieties were relieved in
+1815 by a legacy of £4000. He continued to occupy himself with his
+_Specimens of the British Poets_, the design of which had been projected
+years before. The work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole
+an admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed to it
+an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In 1820 he
+accepted the editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_, and in the same
+year made another tour in Germany. Four years later appeared his
+"Theodric", a not very successful poem of domestic life. He took an
+active share in the foundation of the university of London, visiting
+Berlin to inquire into the German system of education, and making
+recommendations which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord
+rector of Glasgow University three times (1826-1829). In the last
+election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell retired from the
+editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_ in 1830, and a year later made
+an unsuccessful venture with the _Metropolitan Magazine_. He had
+championed the cause of the Poles in _The Pleasures of Hope_, and the
+news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if
+it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my
+heart night and day," he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy
+found a practical expression in the foundation in London of the
+Association of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and
+Algiers, where he wrote his _Letters from the South_ (printed 1837).
+
+The small production of Campbell may be partly explained by his domestic
+calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two sons, one died in infancy
+and the other became insane. His own health suffered, and he gradually
+withdrew from public life. He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844,
+and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+  Campbell's other works include a _Life of Mrs Siddons_ (1842), and a
+  narrative poem, "The Pilgrim of Glencoe" (1842). See _The Life and
+  Letters of Thomas Campbell_ (3 vols., 1849), edited by William
+  Beattie, M.D.; _Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell_
+  (1860), by Cyrus Redding; _The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell_
+  (1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev.
+  W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet's life by William Allingham;
+  and the "Oxford Edition" of the _Complete Works of Thomas Campbell_
+  (1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also _Thomas Campbell_ in
+  the Famous Scots Series, by J.C. Hadden, and a selection by Lewis
+  Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned
+    to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell's claim is established in _Literary
+    Remains of the United, Irishmen_, by R.R. Madden (1887).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY (1836-1908), English prime minister, was
+born on the 7th of September 1836, being the second son of Sir James
+Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire, lord provost of Glasgow.
+His elder brother James, who just outlived him, was Conservative M.P.
+for Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father
+and his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an important
+drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable fortunes; and he
+assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in compliance with the provisions
+of the will of his maternal uncle, Henry Bannerman, from whom he
+inherited a large property in Kent. He was educated at Glasgow
+University and at Trinity College, Cambridge (senior optime, and
+classical honours); was returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal
+in 1868 (after an unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became
+financial secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary
+to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland
+(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause of Home Rule
+for Ireland, he "found salvation", to use his own phrase, and followed
+his leader. In Mr Gladstone's 1886 ministry he was secretary for war,
+and filled the same office in the Liberal ministry of 1892-1895. In the
+latter year he was knighted (G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister
+to obtain the duke of Cambridge's resignation of the office of
+commander-in-chief; but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff
+in substitution for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the
+ministry. It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and
+therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of
+small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June 1895 led to
+the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy, popular and possessed of
+a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T. Healy had said that he tried to
+govern Ireland with Scottish jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the
+general respect of all parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel
+retired, his claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but
+his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active politics and
+Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent member of the inner Liberal
+circle and a stanch party man, it was not supposed by the public at this
+time that any ambition for the highest place could be associated with
+Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman; but the divisions among the Liberals, and
+the rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made the
+political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he was
+apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined with his
+honourable record and experience to make him a safe man; and in December
+1898, on Sir W. Harcourt's formal resignation of the leadership of the
+Opposition, he was elected to fill the position in the House of Commons
+with the general assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary
+impotence, and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir Henry
+had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted his duty
+as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the Radical party together
+in the midst of its pronounced differences. In this he was successful,
+although the advent of the Boer War of 1899-1902 created new
+difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists. The leader of the Opposition
+from the first denounced the diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and
+Mr Chamberlain, and objected to all armed intervention or even
+preparation for hostilities. Sir Henry's own tendency to favour the
+anti-war section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and
+his allusion to "methods of barbarism" in connexion with the conduct of
+the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the crisis within the
+party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists, who looked to Lord Rosebery
+(q.v.) and Mr Asquith (q.v.) for their political inspiration, showed
+pronounced signs of restiveness. But a party meeting was called on the
+9th of July, and Sir Henry was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.
+
+The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency
+throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The political
+conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the first time
+since 1892. The blunders of the government were open to a united attack,
+and Mr Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement in 1903 provided a new
+rallying point in defence of the existing fiscal system. In the Liberal
+campaign on behalf of free trade the real leader, however, was Mr
+Asquith. Sir Henry's own principal contribution to the discussion was
+rather unfortunate, for while insisting on the blessings derived by
+England from its free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical
+admission (at Bolton in 1903) that "12,000,000 British citizens were
+underfed and on the verge of hunger." But Lord Salisbury's retirement,
+Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the accumulating
+opposition in the country to the Education Act of 1902 and to the
+continued weight of taxation, together with the growth of the Labour
+movement, and the antagonism to the introduction of Chinese coolies
+(1904) into South Africa under conditions represented by Radical
+spokesmen as those of "slavery," made the political pendulum swing back.
+A Liberal majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at
+by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only a question
+of time (see the articles on BALFOUR, A.J., and CHAMBERLAIN, J.). On the
+4th of December 1905 the Unionist government resigned, and the king sent
+for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who in a few days formed his cabinet.
+Lord Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to
+co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd of
+November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately flouted his
+well-known susceptibilities by once more writing Home Rule in large
+letters on the party programme, and he declared at Bodmin that he would
+"never serve under that banner." Sir Henry's actual words, which
+undoubtedly influenced the Irish vote, were that he "desired to see the
+effective management of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative
+Irish assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered
+to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise the
+Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led up to
+their larger policy." But if Lord Rosebery once more separated himself
+from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen in the Liberal League
+were included in the cabinet, Mr Asquith becoming chancellor of the
+exchequer, Sir Edward Grey foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war
+minister. Other sections of the party were strongly represented by Mr
+John Morley as secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at
+Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord
+Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education minister
+(afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as president of the Board
+of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home secretary, and Mr John Burns--a
+notable rise for a Labour leader--as president of the Local Government
+Board. Lord Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin
+(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen (lord
+lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L.V. Harcourt
+(first commissioner of works), and Captain John Sinclair (secretary for
+Scotland) completed the ministry, a place of prominence outside the
+cabinet being found for Mr Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the
+colonies. In 1907 Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as
+education minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there was a
+decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to keep his seat
+in the Commons.
+
+At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming Liberal majority
+was returned, irrespective of the Labour and Nationalist vote, and Sir
+Henry himself was again elected for Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379,
+the Labour members 51, the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157.
+His premiership was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his
+party; it may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime
+ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather than
+that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or his commanding
+personality, nor any positive programme, that brought the Liberals back
+to power, but the country's weariness of their predecessors and the
+successful employment at the elections of a number of miscellaneous
+issues. But as the man who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the
+gap in the days of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously
+criticized by the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly
+marked out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance;
+and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the
+demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all sections.
+Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved to be a powerful
+unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous party; and though the
+illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his wife (daughter of General Sir
+Charles Bruce), whom he had married in 1860, made his constant
+attendance in the House of Commons impossible, his domestic sorrow
+excited widespread sympathy and appealed afresh to the affection of his
+political followers. This became all the more apparent as his own health
+failed during 1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the
+leadership in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the
+premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November, when it
+became clear that his health was not equal to active work, four or five
+months elapsed before the necessary change became a _fait accompli_.
+Personal affection and political devotion had in these two years made
+him appear indispensable to the party, although nobody ever regarded him
+as in the front line of English statesmen so far as originality of ideas
+or brilliance of debating power were concerned. It is not the fortune of
+many more brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character.
+From the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that
+Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would before long
+succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of April Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman's resignation was formally announced. He died on the
+22nd of the same month. He had spoken in the House of Commons on the
+13th of February, but since then had been prostrated and unable to
+transact business, his illness dating really from a serious heart attack
+in the night of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the
+Colston banquet.
+
+From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman's premiership was chiefly marked by the continued
+controversies remaining from the general election of 1906,--tariff
+reform and free trade, the South African question and the allied
+Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the administration of
+Ireland, and the amendment of the Education Act of 1902 so as to remove
+its supposed denominational character. In his speech at the Albert Hall
+on the 21st of December 1905 it was noticeable that, before the
+elections, the prime minister laid stress on only one subject which
+could be regarded as part of a constructive programme--the necessity of
+doing something for canals, which was soon shelved to a royal
+commission. But in spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill
+(1907), the struggles over education (Mr Birrell's bill of 1906 being
+dropped on account of the Lords' amendments), the rejection by the peers
+of the Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due
+to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation Bill
+(1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be a period of
+bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming measures of some
+moment were carried. A new Small Holdings Act (1907) for England was
+passed; the Trades Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades
+unions from the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr
+Lloyd-George's Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906) were
+welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own policy; a
+long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the Deceased Wife's
+Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a public trustee, a court
+of criminal appeal, a system of probation for juvenile offenders, and a
+census of production, were passed in 1907. Meanwhile, though the
+Colonial Conference (re-named Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a
+wide difference of opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade
+government and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the
+ministry took a decided step--in the establishment of a self-governing
+constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies--which, for
+good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane's new army
+scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain. In foreign affairs,
+the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for delimiting the British and
+Russian spheres of influence in the Middle East laid the foundations of
+entirely new relations between the British and Russian governments. On
+the other hand, so far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal
+party, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership can only be regarded
+as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a conciliator
+of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator, ready to
+sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his following, that
+he kept the party together, while his colleagues went their own ways in
+their own departments. His own special "leads" were few, owing to the
+personal reasons given above; his declaration at the Queen's Hall,
+London, early in 1907, in favour of drastic land reform, served only to
+encourage a number of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the
+House of Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education
+Bill and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when his
+method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons was disclosed
+in 1907. The House passed by an enormous majority a resolution
+(introduced on June 25) "that in order to give effect to the will of the
+people, as expressed by their representatives, it is necessary that the
+power of the other House to alter or reject bills passed by this House
+should be so restricted by law as to secure that within the limits of a
+single parliament the final decision of the Commons shall prevail"; but
+the prime minister's explanation that statutory provision should be made
+for two or three successive private conferences between the two Houses
+as to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that,
+only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by the
+Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form it would
+become law over their heads, was obviously not what was wanted by
+enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The problem still
+remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a "law" to restrict
+their own powers. After the passing of this resolution the cry against
+the House of Lords rapidly weakened, since it became clear at the
+by-elections (culminating at Peckham in March 1908) that the "will of
+the people" was by no means unanimously on the side of the bills which
+had failed to pass.
+
+The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the confidence of
+the Opposition, who found that they had outlived the criticisms of the
+general election, and both on the question of tariff reform and on
+matters of general politics were again holding their own. The failure of
+the government in Ireland (where the only success was Mr Birrell's
+introduction of the Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal
+divisions as regards socialistic legislation, their variance from the
+views of the self-governing colonies on Imperial administration, the
+admission after the general election that the alleged "slavery" of the
+Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill's phrase, a
+"terminological inexactitude," and the introduction of extreme measures
+such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent opportunities of
+electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal promises of economy had
+been largely falsified, the reductions in the navy estimates being
+dangerous in themselves, while the income tax still remained at
+practically the war level. For much of all this the prime minister's
+colleagues were primarily responsible; but he himself had given a lead
+to the anti-militarist section by prominently advocating international
+disarmament, and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague
+conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical ideal and
+the general inadequacy of the prime minister's policy of pacificism. Sir
+Henry's rather petulant intolerance of Unionist opposition, shown at the
+opening of the 1906 session in his dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour
+with the words "Enough of this foolery!" gradually gave way before the
+signs of Unionist reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment
+when the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive under
+their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration
+against an Opposition no longer divided and making marked headway in the
+country, and the ministry had to be reconstituted under a successor, Mr
+Asquith, towards whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal
+devotion as had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
+leadership.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELTOWN, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
+Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is situated on a fine bay,
+towards the S.E. extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of
+the Mull and 83 m. S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad
+monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined when the
+capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial of its antiquity has
+survived, but the finely sculptured granite cross standing on a pedestal
+in the market-place belongs to the 12th century, and there are ruins of
+some venerable chapels and churches. Through the interest of the
+Campbells, who are still the overlords and from whom it takes its name,
+it became a royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr
+Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the churches (one
+of which occupies the site of a castle of the Macdonalds), the town
+house, the Academy and the Athenaeum. The staple industry is whisky
+distilling, of which the annual output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than
+half for export. The port is the head of a fishery district and does a
+thriving trade. Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen
+manufacturing are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity.
+There are three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called
+Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth. At its
+entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar. On the Atlantic
+shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish, 5 m. distant.
+Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown by a light railway. Near the
+village of Southend is Machrireoch, the duke of Argyll's shooting-lodge,
+an old structure modernized, commanding superb views of the Firth of
+Clyde and its islands, and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood
+the castle of Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the
+Campbells in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647
+General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the Macdonalds to be
+slain after their surrender. Of the ancient church founded here by
+Columba, only the walls remain. Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray,
+Irvine and Oban in sending one member (for the "Ayr Burghs") to
+parliament.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH (1746-1818), German educationist, was born at
+Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied theology at the university of
+Halle, and after acting for some time as chaplain at Potsdam, he
+accepted a post as director of studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau
+(see BASEDOW). He soon after set up an educational establishment of his
+own at Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one of
+his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble health. In
+1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of education, and purchased
+the _Schulbuchhandlung_, which under his direction became a most
+prosperous business. He died in 1818. His numerous educational works
+were widely used throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the
+_Kleine Kinderbibliothek_ (11th ed., 1815); _Robinson der Jüngere_ (59th
+ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every European
+language; and _Sämmtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften_, 37 vols.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPECHE (CAMPEACHY), a southern state of Mexico, comprising the western
+part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by
+Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico
+designated on English maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264;
+(1900) 86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m. The name
+of the state is derived from its principal forest product, _palo de
+campeche_ (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan, consists of a
+vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations in the north,
+heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts in the north adapted
+to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently watered, the rains
+filtering quickly through the soil. In the south, however, there are
+some large rivers, and the forest region is very humid. The climate is
+hot and unhealthy. In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de
+Términos, a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the
+southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood, fustic,
+lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell and _chicle_, the
+last extracted from the _zapote chico_ trees (_Achras sapota_, L.).
+Stock-raising engages some attention. One railway crosses the state from
+the capital, Campeche, to Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means
+of transportation except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen
+(pop. in 1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Términos
+and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest products,
+and owing to its inland water communications with the forest areas of
+the interior is the principal port of the state and of Tabasco.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPECHE, or CAMPECHE DE BARANDA, a fortified city and port of Mexico,
+and capital of a state of the same name, situated on the Bay of
+Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and 90 m. S.W. of Merida, in
+lat. 20° 5' N., long. 90° 16' W. Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche was one of
+the three open ports of this coast under the Spanish régime, and its
+walls, general plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and comfortable
+stone residences are evidence of the wealth it once possessed. It is
+still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf coast of Mexico. It
+had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed large profits from its
+logwood exports, both of which have been largely lost. It was formerly
+the principal port for the state and for a part of Yucatan, but the port
+of Carmen at the entrance to Laguna de Términos is now the chief
+shipping port for logwood and other forest products, and a considerable
+part of the trade of Campeche has been transferred to Progreso, the port
+of Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow roadstead defended by three
+forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf 160 ft. long, but vessels
+drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie outside and discharge cargo
+into lighters. The exports include logwood, cotton, hides, wax, tobacco,
+salt and cigars of local manufacture. The principal public buildings are
+the old citadel, some old churches, the town hall, a handsome theatre,
+hospital and market. The streets are traversed by tramways, and a
+railway runs north-eastward to Merida. Campeche stands on the site of an
+old native town, of which there are interesting remains in the vicinity,
+and which was first visited by Hernández de Córdoba in 1517. The
+Spanish town was founded in 1540, and was sacked by the British in 1659
+and by buccaneers in 1678 and 1685. During the revolution of 1842
+Campeche was the scene of many engagements between the Mexicans and
+people of Yucatan.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was born at Milan of a
+noble Bolognese family. At first he followed a legal career at Pavia and
+Bologna, and when in 1499 he took his doctorate he was esteemed the most
+learned canonist in Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de'
+Gualtavillani, by whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro,
+born in 1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista, became
+bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went into the church; on
+account of his services during the rebellion of Bologna, he was made by
+Julius II. auditor of the Rota in 1511, and sent to Maximilian and to
+Vienna as nuncio. Raised to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on
+another embassy to Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest
+of San Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a subsidy
+from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England on the ostensible
+business of arranging a crusade against the Turks. Wolsey, then engaged
+in beginning his reform of the English church, procured that he himself
+should be joined to the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who
+arrived in England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position
+and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio's mission
+failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome, where he was
+received in Consistory on the 28th of November 1519, with the gift from
+the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano Castellesi (q.v.), who had
+been deposed, and large gifts of money and furniture. He was made
+protector of England in the Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave
+him the rich see of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of
+Bologna. After attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity
+of Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to restore
+peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England as co-legate
+with Wolsey in the matter of Henry's divorce. He brought with him a
+secret document, the Decretal, which defined the law and left the
+legates to decide the question of fact; but this important letter was to
+be shown only to Henry and Wolsey. "Owing to recent events," that is,
+the loss of the temporal power, Clement was in no way inclined to offend
+the victorious Charles V., Catherine's nephew, and Campeggio had already
+received (16th of September 1528) distinct instructions "not to proceed
+to sentence under any pretext without express commission, but protract
+the matter as long as possible." After using all means of persuasion to
+restore peace between the king and queen, Campeggio had to resist the
+pressure brought upon him to give sentence. The legatine court opened at
+Blackfriars on the 18th of June 1529, but the final result was certain.
+Campeggio could not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his
+only escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea of
+the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he left England
+on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had been searched at
+Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had been burnt. Returning to
+Bologna, the cardinal assisted at the coronation of Charles V. on the
+24th of February 1530, and went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was
+deprived by Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was
+finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the see of
+Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament (11th of March
+1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish dominions made ample
+amends. In 1537 he became cardinal bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on
+the 25th of July 1539. His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in
+Trastevere.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist, was born at
+Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was educated at the university there,
+and in 1746 graduated in philosophy and medicine. After the death of his
+father in 1748 he spent more than a year in England, and then visited
+Paris, Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he had
+been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine and
+surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in 1755 he was
+called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the Athenaeum in
+Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six years, and retired to his
+country house near Franeker, in order uninterruptedly to carry on his
+studies. In 1763, however, he accepted the professorship of medicine,
+surgery and anatomy at Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten
+years. He then returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in
+1776 spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned as one
+of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland, and the
+latter years of his life were much occupied with political affairs. In
+1787 he was nominated to a seat in the council of state, and took up his
+residence at the Hague, where he died on the 7th of April 1789.
+
+  Camper's works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very numerous;
+  the most important of those bearing on comparative anatomy were
+  published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title _Oeuvres de P.
+  Camper qui ont pour objet l'histoire naturelle, la physiologie, et
+  l'anatomie comparée_. His _Dissertation physique sur les différences
+  réelles que présentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de
+  différents pays et de différents âges; sur le beau qui caractérise les
+  statues antiques et les pièces gravées_, &c., which was published in
+  1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial
+  angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also ANATOMY.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON (1812-1896), Prussian statesman, was born at
+Hünshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of October 1812. Having
+studied jurisprudence and political economy at the universities of Bonn,
+Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne,
+and immediately devoted his attention to financial and commercial
+questions. Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this
+capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor in the
+ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of the second
+chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate Liberal party. In
+1869 he was appointed minister of finance. On taking office, he was
+confronted with a deficit in the revenue, which he successfully cleared
+off by effecting a conversion of a greater part of the state loans. The
+French war indemnity enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the
+state debt and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm
+adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either of the
+Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism to the tobacco
+monopoly and the general economic policy of the latter brought about his
+retirement. Camphausen's great services to Prussia were recognized by
+his sovereign in the bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a
+dignity carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the
+18th of May 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM (1818-1885), German painter, was born at Düsseldorf,
+and studied under A. Rethel and F.W. von Schadow. As an historical and
+battle painter he rapidly became popular, and in 1859 was made professor
+of painting at the Düsseldorf academy, together with other later
+distinctions. His "Flight of Tilly" (1841), "Prince Eugene at the Battle
+of Belgrade" (1843; in the Cologne museum), "Flight of Charles II. after
+the Battle of Worcester" (Berlin National Gallery), "Cromwell's Cavalry"
+(Munich Pinakothek), are his principal earlier pictures; and his
+"Frederick the Great at Potsdam," "Frederick II. and the Bayreuth
+Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg," and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein
+campaign and the war of 1866 (notably "Lines of Düppel after the
+Battle," at the Berlin National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as
+a representative of patriotic historical art. He also painted many
+portraits of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He
+died at Düsseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHORS, organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and ketones of the
+hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring associated with volatile oils
+in many plants. They are extracted together with volatile oils by
+distilling certain plants with steam, the volatile oils being
+subsequently separated by fractional distillation. The term "camphor" is
+generally applied to the solid products so obtained, and hence includes
+the "stearoptenes," or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are
+mostly white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they
+are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol and
+ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two main groups,
+according to the nature of the corresponding hydrocarbon or terpene. In
+this article only the camphors of commercial importance will be treated;
+details as to the chemical structure, syntheses and relations will be
+found in the article TERPENES.
+
+_Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor_, C10H19OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl
+hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs in the volatile oils of
+_Mentha piperita_ and _M. arvensis_ (var. _piperascens_ and _glabrata_),
+from which it is obtained by cooling and subsequently pressing the
+separated crystals; or by fractional distillation. It crystallizes in
+prisms, having the odour and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42° and
+boils at 212°. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily
+dissolves in alcohol and ether. It is optically active, being
+laevo-rotatory. Menthol is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in
+rheumatism, neuralgia, throat affections and toothache. It acts also as
+a local anaesthetic, vascular stimulant and disinfectant.
+
+_Thymol, thyme camphor_, C10H13OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl phenol, an
+oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan, _Carum ajowan_, garden
+thyme, _Thymus vulgaris_, wild thyme, _T. Serpyllum_ and horse mint,
+_Monarda punctata_. Thymol crystallizes in large colourless plates which
+melt at 44° and boil at 230°. It has the odour of thyme, is sparingly
+soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in alkaline
+solutions. In medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more active
+than phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol, which has
+been introduced in surgery under the names _aristol_ and _annidalin_, as
+a substitute for iodoform.
+
+_Borneol, Borneo camphor_ or camphol, also known as Malayan, Barus or
+Dryobalanops camphor, C10H17OH, occurs in fissures in the wood of
+_Dryobalanops aromatica_, a majestic tree flourishing in the East
+Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo and inactive
+modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic camphor. Borneol melts
+at 203° and boils at 212°. It is very similar to common or Japan
+camphor, but has a somewhat peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce
+common camphor to a mixture of d- and l-borneol.
+
+_Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor_, C10H16O, which constitutes
+the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product of the camphor
+laurel, _Cinnamonum camphora_, a tree flourishing in Japan, Formosa and
+central China. It also occurs in various volatile oils, e.g. lavender,
+rosemary, sage and spike. To extract the camphor, chips of the tree are
+steamed, and the mixed vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are
+conducted to a condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates
+out. This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total, which
+is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation and
+cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained is exported from
+Japan in two grades--Samuel A and Samuel B. It is purified by mixing
+with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings or quicklime and subliming,
+by steam distillation or by crystallization. Common camphor forms a
+translucent mass of hexagonal prisms, melting at 175° and boiling at
+204°. It sublimes very readily. In alcoholic solution it is
+dextro-rotatory; the laevo form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil
+of _Matricaria parthenium_ and closely resembles the d form. Camphor
+is chiefly used in the celluloid industry. The so-called "artificial
+camphor" is pinene hydrochloride (see TERPENES).
+
+Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant, and, in
+some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite antiseptic.
+It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the relief of myalgia,
+sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform, thymol or carbolic
+acid, it is a valuable local application for neuralgia and for toothache
+due to dental caries. Taken internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a
+diaphoretic and a feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as
+various substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg). In
+large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration being
+followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions, coma and
+death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and in such conditions as
+diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is a popular remedy for "cold in
+the head," but it is not to be relied upon as a prophylactic against
+infection either by an ordinary cold or true influenza.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586-1627), Dutch painter, poet and
+theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. As he manifested great
+artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death
+of his parents, placed him under the painter Govaerts. But at that time
+there was intense interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the
+prevailing enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a
+private tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616). As,
+however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with fervour, he was
+deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). His chief solace was
+poetry; and he has left a translation of the Psalms, and a number of
+short pieces, remarkable for their freshness and depth of poetic
+feeling. He is also the author of several theological works of fair
+merit, among which is a _Compendium Doctrinae Sociniorum_; but his fame
+chiefly rests on his pictures, which, like his poems, are mostly small,
+but of great beauty; the colouring, though thin, is pure; the
+composition and pencilling are exquisite, and the perspective above
+criticism. The best of his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and
+his views of the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent
+at Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered to have
+been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; and his son
+Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul Potter, is similarly
+credited.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572), the founder of a school of Italian painters,
+was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, Galeazzo Campi
+(1475-1536), under whom he took his first lessons in art. He was then
+taught by Giulio Romano; and he made a special study of Titian,
+Correggio and Raphael. His works are remarkable for their correctness,
+vigour and loftiness of style. They are very numerous, and the church of
+St Margaret in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among
+the earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the
+latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as historian of
+Cremona.
+
+Giulio's pupil, BERNARDINO CAMPI (1522-1592), in some respects superior
+to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After an education under
+Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained such skill that when he
+added another to the eleven Caesars of Titian, it was impossible to say
+which was the master's and which the imitator's. He was also much
+influenced by Correggio and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the
+frescoes of the cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was of very obscure
+origin. From his own account of his youth, written to Antonio de Mier in
+1726, we only know that he was born in "a house equally poor and
+honest," that he studied Latin by his own wish, that he entered the
+service of Don Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Córdoba, who wished
+apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take
+orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then eighteen
+years of age. In 1715 he became "page" to D. Francisco de Ocio,
+superintendent general of customs, who doubtless employed him as a
+clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable notice of Patiño, the head of
+the newly-organized navy, and was by him transferred to the naval
+department. Under the protection of Patiño, who became prime minister in
+1726, Campillo was constantly employed on naval administrative work both
+at home and in America. It was Patiño's policy to build up a navy
+quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much attention
+abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo proved an industrious and
+honest subordinate. Part of his experience was to be present at a
+shipwreck in Central America in which he was credited with showing
+spirit and practical ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he
+was denounced to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden
+books. The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the
+incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the Holy
+Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence in damping
+all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, when Spain was
+entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war with England, that
+Campillo was summoned by the king to take the place of prime minister.
+He had to find the means of carrying on a policy out of all proportion
+to the resources of Spain, with an empty treasury. His short tenure of
+power was chiefly notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the
+system of farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of
+contractors and financiers. Campillo's predecessors were constantly
+compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the demands
+of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A whole year's
+revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo persuaded the king to allow
+him to establish a system of direct collection, by which waste and
+pilfering would be avoided. Some progress was made towards putting the
+national finances on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent
+the king from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money
+needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of April
+1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a _New System of
+Government for America_ printed at Madrid 1789. He also left a MS.
+treatise with the curious title, _What is superfluous and is wanting in
+Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be, and not what it is._
+
+  See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, _Patiño y Campillo_ (Madrid, 1882).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, 65 m. by
+rail N.W. of the city of São Paulo and 114 m. from the port of Santos,
+with which it is connected by the Paulista & São Paulo railway. Pop.
+(1890) of the city and municipality, 33,921. Campinas is the commercial
+centre of one of the oldest coffee-producing districts of the state and
+the outlet for a rich and extensive agricultural region lying farther
+inland. The Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to
+Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west into
+new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple production, though
+Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced largely for local
+consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like depression of the great
+central plateau, and the drainage from the surrounding hillsides has
+produced a dangerously insanitary condition, from which one or two
+virulent fever epidemics have resulted.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and living in
+tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately developed in
+modern times, and a considerable literature has been devoted to it, to
+which the curious may be referred.
+
+  See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell's _Camping-out_ (1892) and _Voyages on
+  German Rivers_ (1890); G.R. Lowndes, _Gipsy Tents_ (1890).
+
+  For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp
+  Life_ (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the _Big Game Shooting_
+  volume of the "Badminton Library"; the articles on "Camping out" in
+  _The Encyclopaedia of Sport_; F.C. Selous, _A Hunter's Wanderings in
+  Africa_ (1881), and _Travel and Adventure in South Africa_ (1893);
+  A.W. Chanler, _Through Jungle and Desert_ (1896); A.B. Rathbone,
+  _Camping and Tramping in Malaya_ (1898).
+
+  For America, G.O. Shields, _Camping and Camp Outfits_ (1890); W.W.
+  Pascoe, _Canoe and Camp Cookery_ (1893); _Woodcraft_, by "Nessmuk"
+  (1895); W.S. Rainsford, _Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone_ (1896);
+  S.E. White, _The Forest_ (1903), and _The Mountains_ (1904);
+  _Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping_ (1904), published
+  by "The Appalachian Mountain Club," Boston. Valuable information will
+  be found in the sporting periodicals, and in the catalogues of
+  outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPION, EDMUND (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in London,
+received his early education at Christ's Hospital, and, as the best of
+the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make the complimentary
+speech when Queen Mary visited the city on the 3rd of August 1553. He
+went to Oxford and became fellow of St John's College in 1557, taking
+the oath of supremacy on the occasion of his degree in 1564, in which
+year he was orator in the schools. He had already shown his talents as a
+speaker at the funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas
+White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration
+fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen Elizabeth
+to the university, and won a regard, which the queen preserved until
+the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset him; but at the
+persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of Gloucester, although holding
+Catholic doctrines, he took deacon's orders in the English Church.
+Inwardly "he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind."
+Rumours of his opinions began to spread and, giving up the office of
+proctor, he left Oxford in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a
+proposed restoration of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry
+followed him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three
+months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying himself by
+writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed's
+_Chronicles_), a superficial work of no real value. At last he escaped
+to Douai, where he joined William Allen (q.v.) and was reconciled to the
+Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon, he went to Rome and became
+a Jesuit in 1573, spending some years at Brünn, Vienna and Prague. In
+1580 the Jesuit mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert
+Parsons (q.v.) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance
+Campion's fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in the
+characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London on the 24th
+of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His presence became known to
+the authorities and an indiscreet declaration, "Campion Brag," made the
+position more difficult. The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth
+he led a hunted life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in
+Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this
+time he was writing his _Decem Rationes_, a rhetorical display of
+reasons against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private
+press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the benches
+of St Mary's, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th of June 1581. The
+sensation was immense, and the pursuit became keener. On his way to
+Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th
+of July and the following day, yielding to the foolish importunity of
+some pious women. Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London,
+bearing on his hat a paper with the inscription, "Campion, the Seditious
+Jesuit." Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the presence of
+Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to be really queen of
+England, and on his replying straightly in the affirmative, she made him
+offers, not only of life but of wealth and dignities, on conditions
+which his conscience could not allow. He was kept a long time in prison,
+twice racked by order of the council, and every effort was made to shake
+his constancy. Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a
+forged confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four
+public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and although
+still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for preparation, he
+bore himself so easily and readily that he won the admiration of most of
+the audience. Racked again on the 31st of October, he was indicted at
+Westminster that he with others had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise
+a sedition in the realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November
+he was brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply to
+him said: "If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to be
+condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects as ever the
+queen had." He received the sentence of the traitor's death with the _Te
+Deum laudamus_, and, after spending his last days in pious exercises,
+was led with two companions to Tyburn (1st of December 1581) and
+suffered the barbarous penalty. Of all the Jesuit missionaries who
+suffered for their allegiance to the ancient religion, Campion stands
+the highest. His life and his aspirations were pure, his zeal true and
+his loyalty unquestionable. He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.
+
+  An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson's _Edmund
+  Campion_ (1867); and a complete list of his works in De Backer's
+  _Bibliothèque de la compagnie de Jésus_.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620), English poet and musician, was born in
+London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened at St Andrew's,
+Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of the Middle Temple, who was by
+profession one of the cursitors of the chancery court, the clerks "of
+course," whose duties were to draft the various writs and legal
+instruments in correct form. His mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of
+Laurence Searle, one of the queen's serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of
+Campion's father in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died
+herself soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the
+orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his stepson
+by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to Peterhouse,
+Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied at Cambridge for four
+years, and left the university, it would appear, without a degree, but
+strongly imbued with those tastes for classical literature which
+exercised such powerful influence upon his subsequent work. In April
+1587 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, possibly with the intention of
+adopting a legal profession, but he had little sympathy with legal
+studies and does not appear to have been called to the bar. His
+subsequent movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have
+taken part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance
+of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears with the
+degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records does not
+permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The rest of his life was
+probably spent in London, where he practised as a physician until his
+death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving behind him, it would appear,
+neither wife nor issue. He was buried the same day at St
+Dunstan's-in-the-West, Fleet Street.
+
+The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being a group
+of five anonymous poems included in the _Songs of Divers Noblemen and
+Gentlemen_, appended to Newman's surreptitious edition of Sidney's
+_Astrophel and Stella_, which appeared in 1591. In 1595 appeared under
+his own name the _Poemata_, a collection of Latin panegyrics, elegies
+and epigrams, which evince much skill in handling, and won him
+considerable reputation. This was followed in 1601 by _A Booke of
+Ayres_, one of the song-books so fashionable in his day, the music of
+which was contributed in equal proportions by himself and Philip
+Rosseter, while the words were almost certainly all written by him. The
+following year he published his _Observations in the Art of English
+Poesie_, "against the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming," in
+favour of rhymeless verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry.
+Its appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of the
+crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped champions, but
+the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by Daniel, who in his
+_Defence of Ryme_, published the same year, finally demolished the
+movement.
+
+In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of the marriage
+of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of _Songs of Mourning_
+(set to music by Coperario or John Cooper) for the loss of Prince Henry,
+which was sincerely lamented by the whole English nation. The same year
+he wrote and arranged three masques, the _Lords' Masque_ for the
+marriage of Princess Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of
+Queen Anne at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl
+of Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex. If,
+moreover, as appears quite likely, his _Two Bookes of Ayres_ (both words
+and music written by himself) belongs also to this year, it was indeed
+his _annus mirabilis_.
+
+Some time in or after 1617 appeared his _Third and Fourth Booke of
+Ayres_; while to that year probably also belongs his _New Way of making
+Foure Parts in Counter-point_, a technical treatise which was for many
+years the standard text-book on the subject. It was included, with
+annotations by Christopher Sympson, in Playfair's _Brief Introduction to
+the Skill of Musick_, and two editions appear to have been bought up by
+1660. In 1618 appeared _The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham
+Castle_ on the occasion of the king's entertainment there, the music by
+Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost certainly by Campion; and
+in 1619 he published his _Epigrammatum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber
+unus_, a reprint of his 1595 collection with considerable omissions,
+additions (in the form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.
+
+While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in his own day, in
+the years that followed his death his works sank into complete oblivion.
+No doubt this was due to the nature of the media in which he mainly
+worked, the masque and the song-book. The masque was an amusement at
+any time too costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was
+practically extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more
+ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan ascendancy,
+with its distaste for all secular music, effectively put an end to the
+madrigal. Its loss involved that of many hundreds of dainty lyrics,
+including those of Campion, and it is due to the enthusiastic efforts of
+Mr A.H. Bullen, who first published a collection of the poet's works in
+1889, that his genius has been recognized and his place among the
+foremost rank of Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.
+
+Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to him "the
+superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies," but we may thank the fates
+that his precepts of rhymeless versification so little affected his
+practice. His rhymeless experiments are certainly better conceived than
+many others, but they lack the spontaneous grace and freshness of his
+other poetry, while the whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must
+have possessed a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is
+unmusical; moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave
+rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic
+features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they frequently
+shift from line to line. His range was very great both in feeling and
+expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate epithalamium or a
+simple country ditty, the result is always full of unstudied freshness
+and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred pieces he is particularly
+successful, combining real poetry with genuine religious fervour.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works_, &c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding _A New
+  Way_, &c.; _Songs and Masques_, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with an
+  introduction on Campion's music by Janet Dodge; _Poems_, &c. (in
+  English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); _Complete Works_, ed. P. Vivian
+  (Clarendon Press, 1908). The "Observations in the Art of English
+  Poesie" are also published in Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_
+  and Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. ii. (1903).
+       (P. Vn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656-1723), French dramatist, was born at
+Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the age of seventeen he was wounded
+in a duel and sent to Paris. Here he became an ardent disciple of
+Racine. If he copied his master's methods of construction with some
+success, in the execution of his plans he never advanced beyond
+mediocrity, nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of
+_Athalie_ and _Phèdre_. He secured the patronage of the influential
+duchesse de Bouillon by dedicating _Arminius_ to her, and in 1685 he
+scored his first success with _Andronic_, which disguised under other
+names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. The piece
+made a great sensation, but Campistron's treatment is weak, and he
+failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent in his subject.
+Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendôme, to write the book of
+an opera to be performed at a fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He
+handed on the commission to Campistron, who produced _Acis et Galathée_
+for Lulli's music. Campistron had another success in _Tiridate_ (1691),
+in which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story of
+Amnon's passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other tragedies and
+two comedies, one of which, _Le Jaloux désabusé_, has been considered by
+some judges to be his best work. In 1686 he had been made intendant to
+the duc de Vendôme and followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him
+on all his campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man
+under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. Many honours
+were conferred on him. The king of Spain bestowed on him the order of St
+James of the Sword; the duke of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in
+Montferrat; and in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty
+years of service with Vendôme he retired to his native place, where he
+died on the 11th of May 1723.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE (1817-1901), Spanish poet, was born at
+Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of September 1817. Abandoning his first
+intention of entering the Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid,
+found an opening in politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and,
+after occupying several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellón
+de la Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies
+grew more pronounced with time, and his _Polémicas con la
+Democracia_ (1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of his
+political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from 1840, when
+he published his _Ternezas y flores_, a collection of idyllic verses,
+remarkable for their technical excellence. His _Ayes del Alma_ (1842) and
+his _Fábulas morales y políticas_ (1842) sustained his reputation, but
+showed no perceptible increase of power or skill. An epic poem in
+sixteen cantos, _Colón_ (1853), is no more successful than modern epics
+usually are. Campoamor's theatrical pieces, such as _El Palacio de la
+Verdad_ (1871), _Dies Irae_ (1873), _El Honor_ (1874) and _Glorias
+Humanas_ (1885), are interesting experiments; but they are totally
+lacking in dramatic spirit. He always showed a keen interest in
+metaphysical and philosophic questions, and defined his position in _La
+Filosofía de las leyes_ (1846), _El Personalismo_ (1855), _Lo
+Absoluto_ (1865) and _El Ideísmo_ (1883). These studies are chiefly
+valuable as embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to
+the composition of those _doloras, humoradas_ and _pequeños poemas_,
+which the poet's admirers consider as a new poetic species. The first
+collection of _Doloras_ was printed in 1846, and from that date onwards
+new specimens were added to each succeeding edition. It is difficult to
+define a _dolora_. One critic has described it as a didactic, symbolic
+stanza which combines the lightness and grace of the epigram, the
+melancholy of the _endecha_, the concise narrative of the ballad, and
+the philosophic intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared
+that a _dolora_ is a dramatic _humorada_, and that a _pequeño poema_ is
+a _dolora_ on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory. The
+humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form to which
+Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes no further. It cannot
+be denied that in the _Doloras_ Campoamor's special gifts of irony,
+grace and pathos find their best expression. Taking a commonplace theme,
+he presents in four, eight or twelve lines a perfect miniature of
+condensed emotion. By his choice of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal
+facility and copiousness which have led many Spanish poets to
+destruction. It pleased him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this
+affectation has been reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the
+impression of insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using
+mysticism as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of
+the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching morality by
+satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism of a genial,
+epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether for good. His
+formula is too easily mastered, and to his example is due a plague of
+_doloras_ and _humoradas_ by poetasters who have caricatured their
+model. Campoamor, as he himself said, did not practise art for art's
+sake; he used art as the medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are
+poor. He died at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a
+deep silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge him
+with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming bulk of
+his work will perish; we may even say that it is already dead. His
+pretensions, or the pretensions put forward in his name, that he
+discovered a new poetic _genre_ will be rejected later, as they are
+rejected now by all competent judges. The title of a philosophic poet
+will be denied to him. But he will certainly survive, at least in
+extract, as a distinguished humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and
+sententious aphorism, an artist of extremely finished execution.
+     (J. F. K.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the province of
+Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated 2132 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune 14,491. The town itself
+contains no buildings of antiquarian interest, but it has some fine
+modern edifices. Its chief industry is the manufacture of arms and
+cutlery. Above the town are the picturesque ruins of a castle of the
+15th century. The date of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The
+town, with the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of
+counts until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in
+consideration of a payment of 108,000 ducats.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPODEA, a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible antennae
+and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known species
+(_Campodea staphylinus_) has a wide distribution and is equally at home
+in the warm valleys of south Europe, in the subarctic conditions of
+mountain tops, in caves and in woods and gardens in England. It lives in
+damp places under stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves.
+Although blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into
+the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with its
+antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling that of
+a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or thysanurous
+insects of the order Aptera (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (1723-1802), Spanish statesman and
+writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st
+of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793 he was president of the council of
+Castile; but on the accession of Charles IV. he was removed from his
+office, and retired from public life, regretted by the true friends of
+his country. His first literary work was _Antiquidad maritima de la
+republica de Cartago_, with an appendix containing a translation of the
+_Voyage of Hanno_ the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared in
+a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable essays,
+_Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular_, 1774, and _Discurso
+sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos y su fomento_, 1775. As a
+supplement to the last, he published four appendices, each considerably
+larger than the original essay. The first contains reflections on the
+origin of the decay of arts and manufactures in Spain during the last
+century. The second points out the steps necessary for improving or
+re-establishing the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection
+of royal ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts
+and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials. The
+third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with the results
+of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances of towns. The fourth
+contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez de Mata on national
+commerce, with some observations adapted to present circumstances. These
+were all printed at Madrid in 1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count
+Campomanes died on the 3rd of February 1802.
+
+  Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes
+  as an introduction to the first edition of his _Cartas
+  politico-economicas_, published in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE (1831-1900), Spanish marshal, senator and
+knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at Segovia on the 14th of December
+1831. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was
+attached to the staff college as an assistant professor. He took part in
+the Morocco campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen
+actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a
+professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under Prim. In
+1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to the rank of general
+in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the Federal Republican
+government in 1873 confided to General Campos several high commands, in
+which he again distinguished himself against the Cantonal Republicans
+and the Carlists. About that time he began to conspire with a view to
+restore the son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his
+designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command of a
+division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of May of
+that year, and in the operations around Estella in June. On both
+occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the other commanders to
+proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected to hold aloof, and would have
+been arrested, had not the minister of war, Ceballos, answered for his
+good behaviour, and quartered him in Avila under surveillance. He
+managed to escape, and after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at
+Sagunto on the 29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII.
+king of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great
+influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as a
+sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso, and later
+by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important political crisis,
+and on every international or colonial question, especially when other
+generals or the army itself became troublesome. He took an important
+part in the military operations against the Carlists, and in the
+negotiations with their leaders, which put an end to the civil war in
+1876. In the same way he brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878.
+On his return from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet
+for a few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever afterwards
+treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In 1881, with other
+discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in obtaining office. After
+the death of King Alphonso, Campos steadily supported the regency of
+Queen Christina, and held high commands, though declining to take
+office. In 1893 he was selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla,
+and went to the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of
+peace, which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed a
+serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of Canovas
+to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as well as in
+his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he was not allowed
+to give them local self-government, as he wished. Subsequently he
+remained aloof from politics, and only spoke in the senate to defend his
+Cuban administration and on army questions. After the war with America,
+and the loss of the colonies in 1899, when Señor Silvela formed a new
+Conservative party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency
+of the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this post up
+to the time of his death. This took place in the summer recess of 1900
+at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa, where he was buried.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOS, an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the
+Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m. N.E. of the city of
+Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city, 22,518; of the municipality,
+78,036. The river is navigable for small steamers above and below the
+city, but is closed to coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at
+its mouth. The shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahé), 60 m.
+south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water
+communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes united by
+canals. Campos has indirect railway communication with Rio de Janeiro by
+way of Macahé, and is the starting point for several small independent
+lines. The elevation of the city is only 69 ft. above sea level, and it
+stands near the western margin of a highly fertile alluvial plain
+devoted to the production of sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and
+many kinds of tropical fruit are produced in abundance.
+
+
+
+
+CÂMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung), the capital of the
+department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat of a suffragan bishop;
+situated among the outlying hills of the Carpathian Mountains, at the
+head of a long well-wooded glen traversed by the river Tirgului, a
+tributary of the Argesh. Pop. (1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine
+scenery render Câmpulung a popular summer resort. In the town are more
+than twenty churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both
+claim to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first
+prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for several
+paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July and the 24th of
+October; and there is a considerable traffic with Transylvania, over the
+Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the south by a branch railway to
+Ploesci. Near Câmpulung are the remains of a Roman camp; and, just
+beyond the gates, vestiges of a Roman colony, variously identified with
+Romula, Stepenium and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1773-1844), Italian historical painter, was born at
+Rome. He was educated by his brother Pietro, a picture-restorer, and
+Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to the age of thirty, attempted nothing
+higher than copies of the great masters, his especial study being
+Raphael. As an original painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the
+French artist David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness
+and patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was
+essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both personally,
+and as an artist, and received many honours and preferments from the
+papal and other Italian courts. He was appointed director of the Academy
+of San Luca and of the Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of
+the pictures of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all
+the orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief works
+are the classical paintings of the "Assassination of Caesar," the "Death
+of Virginia," the "Devotion of the Roman Women," "Young Romulus and
+Remus," "Horatius Cocles," the "St Thomas," which was copied in mosaic
+for St Peter's, the "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" and a number
+of excellent portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection
+of pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including
+Raphael's "Madonna with the Pink") being bought by the duke of
+Northumberland.
+
+
+
+
+CAMULODUNUM, also written CAMALODUNUM (mod. Colchester, q.v.), a British
+and Roman town. It was the capital of the British chief Cunobelin and is
+named on his coins: after his death and the Roman conquest of south
+Britain, the Romans established (about A.D. 48) a _colonia_ or
+municipality peopled with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve
+both as an informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It
+was stormed and burnt A.D. 61 in the rising of Boadicéa (q.v.), but soon
+recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman Britain. Its walls
+and some other buildings still stand and abundant Roman remains enrich
+the local museum. The name denotes "the fortress of Camulos," the Celtic
+Mars.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON (1740-1804), French revolutionist, was a successful
+advocate before the Revolution. In 1789 he was elected by the third
+estate of Paris to the states general, and attracted attention by his
+speeches against social inequalities. Elected to the National Convention
+by the department of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee
+of general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged
+with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered with his
+colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he was exchanged
+for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November 1795. He played an
+inconspicuous rôle in the council of the Five Hundred. On the 14th of
+August 1789 the Constituent Assembly made Camus its archivist, and in
+that capacity he organized the national archives, classified the papers
+of the different assemblies of the Revolution and drew up analytical
+tables of the _procès-verbaux_. He was restored to the office in 1796
+and became absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican,
+refusing to take part in the Napoleonic régime.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS, CHARLES ÉTIENNE LOUIS (1699-1768), French mathematician and
+mechanician, was born at Crécy-en-Brie, near Meaux, on the 25th of
+August 1699. He studied mathematics, civil and military architecture,
+and astronomy, and became associate of the Académie des Sciences,
+professor of geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and
+fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied Pierre
+Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the expedition to Lapland
+for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. He died on the 2nd of
+February 1768. He was the author of a _Cours de mathématiques_ (Paris,
+1766), and a number of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects
+(see Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch_).
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH DES (1672-1732), French mechanician, was born
+near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September 1672. After studying for the
+church, he devoted himself to mechanical inventions, a number of which
+he described in his _Traité des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des
+arts et métiers_, Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS DE MÉZIÈRES, NICOLAS LE (1721-1789), French architect, was born at
+Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died it the same city on the 27th
+of July 1789. He published several works on architectural and related
+subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the home of
+Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's "beginning of miracles" (John ii.
+I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it is evident from the
+biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood of, and higher than,
+Capernaum. Opinion as to identification is fairly divided between Kefr
+Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil. The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth,
+contains a ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter is
+an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no remains but a
+few cisterns.
+
+
+
+
+CANAAN, CANAANITES. These geographical and ethnic terms have a shifting
+reference, which doubtless arises out of the migrations of the tribes to
+which the term "Canaanites" belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems
+to be applied to a population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in
+Josh. xi. 3, Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these,
+but to a people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be
+used of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is
+disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively to the
+population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish
+inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the writer called the
+Yahwist (J); see _e.g. _Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18; Ex. xv. 15; Num.
+xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38, and elsewhere. It
+was also, as Augustine tells us,[1] a usage of the Phoenicians to call
+their land "Canaan." This is confirmed by coins of the city of Laodicea
+by the Lebanon, which bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in
+Canaan"; these coins are dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and
+his successors, Greek writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest,
+viz. that the original name of Phoenicia was [Greek: Chna], i.e. Kena, a
+short, collateral form of Kena'an or Kan'an The form Kan'an is favoured
+by the Egyptian usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or
+Arabian nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Shur?) to "the Ka-n-'-na,"
+and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in "the
+Ka-n-'-na." By this geographical name is probably meant all western
+Syria and Palestine with Raphia--"the (first) city of the
+Ka-n-'-na"--for the south-west boundary towards the desert.[2] In the
+letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their Egyptian
+overlord[3]--commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna tablets--we find the
+two forms Kinahhi and Kinahna, corresponding to Kena' and Kena'an
+respectively, and standing, as Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its
+widest extent.
+
+On the name "Canaan" Winckler remarks,[4] "There is at present no
+prospect of an etymological explanation." From the fact that Egyptian
+(though not Hebrew) scribes constantly prefix the article, we may
+suppose that it originally meant "the country of the Canaanites," just
+as the Hebrew phrase "the Lebanon" may originally have meant "the
+highlands of the Libnites"; and we are thus permitted to group the term
+"Canaan" with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan, Anak (generally
+with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor are scholars more unanimous
+with regard to the region where the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan"
+arose. It may be true that the term Kinahhi in the Amarna letters
+corresponds to Syria and Palestine in their entirety. But this does not
+prove that the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan" arose in that region, for
+they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let us refer at
+this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps hardly estimated at
+its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples in Gen. x. Here we find
+"Canaan" included among the four sons of Ham. If Cush in v. 6 really
+means Ethiopia, and M-s-r-i-m Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is
+really a Hebraized form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t
+(black),[5] the passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has
+recently been suggested,[6] Cush, M-s-r-i-m, and Put are in north
+Arabia, and Ham is the short for Yarham or Yerahme'el (see i Chr. ii.
+25-27, 42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all
+becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an Arabian name.
+Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning from about 4000 B.C.[7] a
+wave of Semitic migration poured out of Arabia, and flooded Babylonia
+certainly, and possibly, more or less, Syria and Palestine also. Also
+that between 2800 and 2600 B.C. a second wave from Arabia took the same
+course, covering not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and
+probably also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet
+with the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213), the
+first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the first part
+of his name is identical with the name of the father of Canaan in
+Genesis (Ham or Kham), indicating his Arabian origin.[8] It was he, too,
+who restored the ancient supremacy of Babylonia over Syria and
+Palestine, and so prevented the Babylonizing of these countries from
+coming to an abrupt end.
+
+We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors arrived in the
+second Semitic migration, came to call their land "Canaan." They had in
+fact the best right to do so. The first of the Canaanite immigrants were
+driven seawards by the masses which followed them. They settled in
+Phoenicia, and in after times became so great in commerce that
+"Canaanite" became a common Hebrew term for "merchant" (e.g. Isa. xxiii.
+8). It is a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their
+inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious
+phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and belonged properly to
+the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.[9] For their own traditions
+as to their origin see PHOENICIA; we cannot venture to reject these
+altogether. The masses of immigrants which followed them may have borne
+the name of Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be
+given. Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.
+
+First, as regards the Old Testament. We find "the Amorite" (a collective
+term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x. 16-18a) among other
+tribal names, the exact original reference of which had probably been
+forgotten. No one in fact would gather from this and parallel passages
+how important a part was played by the Amorites in the early history of
+Palestine. In Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we
+find them located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi.
+13, 21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &c. we hear of two great
+Amorite kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the
+east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in Gen.
+xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &c.,
+where the name of Amorite is synonymous with "Canaanite," except that
+"Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast. Next, as to the
+extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian inscriptions and in the Amarna
+tablets Amar and Amurru have a more limited meaning, being applied to
+the mountain-region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later
+on, Amurru became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as
+north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term "the land of
+Hatti" (conventionally = Hittites) displaced "Amurru" so far as north
+Palestine is concerned (see HITTITES).
+
+Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first stage of the
+second great Arabian migration. In the interval preceding the second
+stage Syria with Palestine became an Egyptian dependency, though the
+links with the sovereign power were not so strong as to prevent frequent
+local rebellions. Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of
+a strong hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the
+Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not quite so
+tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs began to seek their
+opportunities, though as a rule they did not find them because they
+could not obtain the help of a neighbouring king.[10] The boldest of the
+disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta, a prince of Amurru, who even
+before the death, of Amen-hotep III. endeavoured to extend his power
+into the plain of Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or
+Hamath), reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the
+attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused infinite
+trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor of Gubla
+(Gebal).
+
+It was, first, the advance of the Hatti (Hittites) into Syria, which
+began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more threatening in
+that of his successor, and next, the resumption of the second Arabian
+migration, which most seriously undermined the Egyptian power in Asia.
+Of the former we cannot speak here (see HITTITES), except so far as to
+remark the Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the
+Hatti, was afterwards clever enough to make a treaty with their king,
+and, with other external powers, to attack the districts which remained
+loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals for aid to
+the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in his religious
+innovations to attend to such messages. What most interests us is the
+mention of troublesome invaders called some times _sa-gas_ (a Babylonian
+ideogram meaning "robber"), sometimes Habiri. Who are these Habiri? Not,
+as was at first thought by some, specially the Israelites, but all those
+tribes of land-hungry nomads ("Hebrews") who were attracted by the
+wealth and luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it
+for themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites or
+tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites, Ammonites
+and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north Syria. Itakkama writes
+thus to the Pharaoh,[11] "Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the
+cities of the king, my lord, to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in
+Ubi. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will
+bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show
+myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS." Similarly Zimrida,
+king of Sidon, declares, "All my cities which the king has given into my
+hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri."[12] Nor had Palestine any
+immunity from the Arabian invaders. The king of _Jerusalem_, Abd-Hiba,
+the second part of whose name has been thought to represent the Hebrew
+Yahweh,[13] reports thus to the Pharaoh, "If (Egyptian) troops come this
+year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops
+come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my
+lord."[14] Abd-Hiba's chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and
+the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable
+league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death
+at the siege of Gina.[15] All these princes, however, malign each other
+in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest their own innocence of
+traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see
+above) accuses of disloyalty, writes thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, I and
+my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS,
+and my Suti[16] are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go
+whithersoever the king, my lord, commands."[17] This petty prince,
+therefore, sees no harm in having a band of Arabians for his garrison,
+as indeed Hezekiah long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against
+Sennacherib.
+
+From the same period we have recently derived fresh and important
+evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as the material
+gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified and critically
+examined, a true history of early Palestine will be within measurable
+distance. At present, there are five places whence the new evidence has
+been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy, generally identified with the Lachish of
+the Old Testament. Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders
+Petrie and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I
+Kings ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902. 3.
+Tell-es-Safy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from
+Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made some
+discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the site, however,
+was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio).
+Schumacher began working here in 1903 for the German Palestine Society.
+5. Taannek, on the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst
+Sellin of Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may
+be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform tablet
+belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer, a deed of sale;
+at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian stele, three seals, and
+three cylinders with Babylonian mythological representations; at
+Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a Babylonian legend, and at Taannek,
+twelve tablets and fragments of tablets were found near the fragments of
+the terracotta box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact
+that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used
+Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence. But much
+beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive sanctuaries, for
+instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths at Gezer is described in
+detail in _P.E.F. Quart. Statement_, January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903,
+p. 219. There is reason, as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the
+result of a gradual development, beginning with two small pillars, and
+gradually enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at
+Tell-es-Safy. The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved
+to be of great antiquity; Sellin's discoveries at Taannek and those of
+Bliss at Tell-es-Safy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars have also
+been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx. 25, 26, and numerous
+jars with the skeletons of infants. We cannot doubt that the sacrificing
+of children was practised on a large scale among the Canaanites. Their
+chief deity was Ashtart (Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous
+images of her have been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of
+the divine form vary in the different places. The other images which
+have been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however, infer
+that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish Pantheon.
+What the images do prove is the large amount of intercourse between
+Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of Egyptians in the subject country.
+
+  See the _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_, ed. by Winckler, with translation
+  (1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements
+  from 1903 onwards; Sellin's report of excavations at Tell Ta'annek;
+  also H.W. Hogg, "Recent Assyriology," &c., in _Inaugural Lectures_ ed.
+  by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical
+  questions, see Dillmann's commentaries and the Bible dictionaries. See
+  further articles PALESTINE; JEWS.     (T. K. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Enarralio in Psalm civ._
+
+  [2] W.M. Müller, _Asien und Europa, _p. 205.
+
+  [3] The letters are written in the official and diplomatic
+    language--Babylonian, though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are not
+    wanting.
+
+  [4] _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, _p. 181.
+
+  [5] These explanations are endorsed by Driver _ (Genesis, on _Gen. x.).
+
+  [6] See the relevant articles in _Ency. Bib. _and Cheyne's _Genesis
+    and Exodus._
+
+  [7] For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, _Gesch. Isr._ i. 127
+    f.; Paton, _Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine_ (1902), pp. 6-8,
+    25-28.
+
+  [8] It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name
+    differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), _kimta rapashtum_, "wide family." That,
+    however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism
+    or Arabism.
+
+  [9] See Cheyne, _Genesis and Exodus_ (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A.
+    Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscriptions_ (e.g. pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar's
+    inscription).
+
+  [10] See _Amarna Letters_, Winckler's edition, No. 7.
+
+  [11] _Op. cit._ No. 146.
+
+  [12] _Op. cit._ No. 147.
+
+  [13] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. p. 16.
+
+  [14] _Amarna Letters_, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).
+
+  [15] _Ibid._ No. 164 (xi. 15-18).
+
+  [16] Nomads of the Syrian desert.
+
+  [17] _Amarna Letters_, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).
+
+
+
+
+CANACHUS, a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part of the 6th
+century B.C. He was especially noted as the author of two great statues
+of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple at Miletus, and one in
+cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins of Miletus furnish us with copies
+of the former and show the god to have held a stag in, one hand and a
+bow in the other. The rigidity of these works naturally impressed later
+critics.
+
+
+
+
+CANADA. The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern half of the
+continent of North America and its adjacent islands, excepting Alaska,
+which belongs to the United States, and Newfoundland, still a separate
+colony of the British empire. Its boundary on the south is the parallel
+of latitude 49°, between the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods, then a
+chain of small lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon river on
+the north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with their
+connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From this eastward to
+the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial line nearly
+corresponding to lat. 45°; then an irregular line partly determined by
+watersheds and rivers divides Canada from Maine, coming out on the Bay
+of Fundy. The western boundary is the Pacific on the south, an irregular
+line a few miles inland from the coast along the "pan handle" of Alaska
+to Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141° to the Arctic Ocean. A
+somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the Atlantic on the
+east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging to Newfoundland.
+
+_Physical Geography._--In spite of these restrictions of its natural
+coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada is admirably
+provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf of St Lawrence with its
+much indented shores and the coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
+supply endless harbours, the northern ones closed by ice in the winter,
+but the southern ones open all the year round; and on the Pacific
+British Columbia is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with
+well-sheltered harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken
+shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of sheltered
+navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of Newfoundland to
+Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British Columbian coast, are of great
+advantage for the coasting trade. The greatly varied Arctic coast line
+of Canada with its large islands, inlets and channels is too much
+clogged with ice to be of much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a
+mediterranean sea 850 m. long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with
+its outlet Hudson Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and
+whalers, and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada,
+though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of the nine
+provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt water,
+Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may soon be extended
+to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only on Hudson Bay's southern
+extension, James Bay, and there is no probability that the shallow
+harbours of the latter bay will ever be of much importance for shipping,
+though Churchill Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an
+important grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation is,
+however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great Lakes.
+
+
+  Geology.
+
+The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple, and drawn on a
+large scale, more than half of its surface sloping gently inwards
+towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with higher margins to the
+south-east and south-west. In the main it is a broad trough, wider
+towards the north than towards the south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay
+occupying much of its north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains
+rise gradually to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern
+member of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America. The
+physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with its geology
+that at least an outline of the geological factors involved in its
+history is necessary to understand the present physiography. The
+mountain structures originated in three great orogenic periods, the
+earliest in the Archean, the second at the end of the Palaeozoic and the
+third at the end of the Mesozoic. The Archean mountain chains, which
+enclosed the present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that they had
+already been worn down almost to a plain before the early Palaeozoic
+sediments were laid down. This ruling geological and physical feature of
+the North American continent has been named by E. Suess the "Canadian
+Shield." Round it the Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from
+its own waste, were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places
+still almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east of
+this "protaxis," or nucleus of the continent, were pushed against its
+edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, which, however,
+extends only a short distance into Canada. The Mesozoic sediments were
+almost entirely laid down to the west and south-west of the protaxis,
+upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic rocks, and in the prairie region they are
+still almost horizontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up
+into the series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast
+region. The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest,
+and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights deserving
+the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric development of North
+America the main structural watershed is towards its western side, on
+the south coinciding with the Rocky Mountains proper, but to the
+northward falling back to ranges situated further west in the same
+mountain region. The great central area of Canada is drained towards
+Hudson Bay, but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the
+Mackenzie flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence
+north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and the other
+to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While these ancient events
+shaped the topography in a broad way, its final development was
+comparatively recent, during the glacial period, when the loose
+materials were scoured from some regions and spread out as boulder clay,
+or piled up as moraines in others; and the original water-ways were
+blocked in many places. The retreat of the ice left Canada much in its
+present condition except for certain post-glacial changes of level which
+seem to be still in progress. For this reason the region has a very
+youthful topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence
+that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving down of
+the older mountain systems, especially that of the Archean pro taxis,
+and the disorderly scattering of glacial material provide most of the
+lake basins so characteristic of Canada.
+
+_Lakes and Rivers._--As a result of the geological causes just mentioned
+many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes of all sizes and
+shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles long and a thousand feet
+deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest. Thousands of these lakes have
+been mapped more or less carefully, and every new survey brings to light
+small lakes hitherto unknown to the white man. For numbers they can be
+compared only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for
+size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of
+lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it will be
+noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes occur within five
+hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay, and belong to the Archean
+protaxis or project beyond its edges into the Palaeozoic sedimentary
+rocks which lean against it. The most famous of the lakes are those of
+the St Lawrence system, which form part of the southern boundary of
+Canada and are shared with the United States; but many others have the
+right to be called "Great Lakes" from their magnitude. There are nine
+others which have a length of more than 100 m., and thirty-five which
+are more than 50 m. long. Within the Archean protaxis they are of the
+most varied shapes, since they represent merely portions of the
+irregular surface inundated by some morainic dam at the lowest point.
+Comparatively few have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water,
+the great majority running into long irregular bays and containing many
+islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian Bay and
+Lake-of-the-Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the other hand the lakes
+are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections of mountain valleys
+occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords of the adjoining coast are
+valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes of the different regions present
+the same features as the nearest sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The
+majority of the lakes have rocky shores and islands and great variety of
+depth, many of the smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and
+are slowly filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat
+bogs, the _muskegs_ of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered
+that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few
+small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, e.g. the Quill and Old Wives
+lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In such cases the
+waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in solution which are
+deposited as a white rim round the basin towards the end of the summer
+when the amount of water has been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is
+interesting to find maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on
+their shores a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet
+above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over at the
+lowest point from one basin into the next below, making chains of lakes
+with no long or well-defined channels between, since in so young a
+country there has not yet been time for the rivers to have carved wide
+valleys. Thus canoe navigation may be carried on for hundreds of miles,
+with here and there a waterfall or a rapid requiring a portage of a few
+hundred yards or at most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore
+in many cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive
+connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The best
+example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which may be
+said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St Mary's, St
+Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing from Lake Ontario to
+the sea under its proper name. As these lakes are great reservoirs and
+settling basins, the rivers which empty them are unusually steady in
+level and contain beautifully clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a
+few feet in the year and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while
+the Mississippi, whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of
+the Great Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and
+is loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important Canadian
+river from the historic and economic points of view, since it provided
+the main artery of exploration in early days, and with its canals past
+rapids and between lakes still serves as a great highway of trade
+between the interior of the continent and the seaports of Montreal and
+Quebec. It is probable that politically Canada would have followed the
+course of the States to the south but for the planting of a French
+colony with widely extended trading posts along the easily ascended
+channel of the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was
+the ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire.
+
+North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and Hudson Bay there
+are many large rivers converging on that inland sea, such as Whale
+river, Big river, East Main, Rupert and Nottaway rivers coming in from
+Ungava and northern Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important
+tributaries from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill
+rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow,
+affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them, Nelson
+river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and
+Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers, and receive the waters of
+Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and many others emptying into Winnipeg
+river from Ontario; of Red river coming in from the United States to the
+south; and of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western
+prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The parallel
+of 49° approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters from the streams
+going south to the Missouri, though a few small tributaries of the
+latter river begin on Canadian territory.
+
+The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of northern
+British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca and Peace rivers,
+first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake, then north through Slave
+river to Great Slave Lake, and finally north-west through Mackenzie
+river to the Arctic Ocean. If measured to the head of Peace river the
+Mackenzie has a length of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than
+1000 m. of navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like
+other northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented
+sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading
+posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in lat. 69°,
+and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their torrents before
+the thick ice of the lower part with its severer climate has yet given
+way, piling up the ice in great barriers and giving rise to widespread
+floods along the lower reaches. Similar flooding takes place in several
+other important northward-flowing rivers in Canada, the St Lawrence at
+Montreal affording the best-known instance. Second among the great
+north-western rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about 18 m.
+from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea and
+just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north, then to
+the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into Alaska, and then
+south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward projection of the
+Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of its course 1800 m. are
+continuously navigable for suitable steamers, so that most of the
+traffic connected with the rich Klondike gold-fields passes over its
+waters. The rest of the rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through
+British Columbia and are much shorter, though the two southern ones
+carry a great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow
+and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest, but
+after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m., it passes into
+the United States. With its expansions, the narrow and deep Arrow lakes,
+it is an important waterway in the Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in
+size but farther north, follows a similar course, entering the sea at
+Vancouver; while the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are
+much shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and Liard
+rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory. All of
+these rivers are waterways of some importance in their lower course, and
+are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats supplying the posts and
+mining camps of the interior with their requirements. In most cases they
+reach the coast through deep valleys or profound canyons, and the
+transcontinental railways find their way beside them, the Canadian
+Pacific following at first tributaries of the Columbia near its great
+bend, and afterwards Thompson river and the Fraser; while the Grand
+Trunk Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries.
+The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing east and
+north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains, but there are two
+lakes, the Committee's Punch Bowl and Fortress Lake, right astride of
+it, sending their waters both east and west; and there is a mountain
+somewhat south of Fortress Lake whose melting snows drain in three
+directions into tributaries of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the
+Athabasca, so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the
+Atlantic (Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the St
+Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents one or two lakes
+draining each way, but in a much less striking position, since the
+water-parting is flat and boggy instead of being a lofty range of
+mountains. The rivers of Canada, except the St Lawrence, are losing
+their importance as means of communication from year to year, as
+railways spread over the interior and cross the mountains to the
+Pacific; but from the point of view of the physical geographer there are
+few things more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in
+which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers have
+waterfalls on their course, they must become of more and more importance
+as sources of power. The St Lawrence system, for instance, generates
+many thousand horse-power at Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine
+rapids. All the larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this
+way, and many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern
+Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the Rocky
+Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they will some day
+find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland.
+
+_The Archean Protaxis._--The broad geological and geographical
+relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the more
+important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more detail, and for
+that purpose five areas may be distinguished, much the largest being the
+Archean protaxis, covering about 2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador,
+Ungava and most of Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south;
+and the western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to the
+Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The southern parts of
+the Arctic islands, especially Banksland, belong to it also. This vast
+area, shaped like a broad-limbed V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre,
+is made up chiefly of monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and
+granite; but scattered through it are important stretches of Keewatin
+and Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as
+suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The Keewatin
+and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and more or less
+metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special interest for their ore
+deposits, which include most of the important metals, particularly iron,
+nickel, copper and silver. The southern portion of the protaxis is now
+being opened up by railways, but the far greater northern part is known
+only along the lakes and rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though
+once consisting of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty
+elevations in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador,
+where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach 6000 ft. or
+more. In every other part the surface is hilly or mammilated, the harder
+rocks, such as granite or greenstone, rising as rounded knobs, or in the
+case of schists forming narrow ridges, while the softer parts form
+valleys generally floored with lakes. From the summit of any of the
+higher hills one sees that the region is really a somewhat dissected
+plain, for all the hills rise to about the same level with a uniform
+skyline at the horizon. The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as
+a plateau, but probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part
+includes from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and
+extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake Winnipeg.
+Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an average of about 1500
+ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at a few points near Lake
+Superior and on the eastern coast of Labrador. In most parts the
+Laurentian hills are bare _roches moutonnées_ scoured by the glaciers of
+the Ice Age, but a broad band of clay land extends across northern
+Quebec and Ontario just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis
+are in general its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often
+have a descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great
+Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they have cut
+back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The waterfalls are
+utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp the forests of spruce
+which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and Ontario. Most of the pine that
+formerly grew on the Archean at the northern fringe of the settlements
+has been cut, but the lumberman is still advancing northwards and
+approaching the northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine
+forests, beyond which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the
+prevalent trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and
+includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is reached,
+near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and somewhat farther
+south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to the north are the "barren
+grounds" on which herds of caribou (reindeer) and musk ox pasture,
+migrating from north to south according to the season. There are no
+permanent ice sheets known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but
+some of the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are
+partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless by its
+mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known, the barren
+grounds can never support a white population and have little to tempt
+even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it occasionally in summer to hunt
+the deer in their migrations.
+
+_The Acadian Region._--The "maritime provinces" of eastern Canada,
+including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, may be
+considered together; and to these provinces as politically bounded may
+be added, from a physical point of view, the analogous south-eastern
+part of Quebec--the entire area being designated the Acadian region.
+Taken as a whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and
+extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic, may be
+regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian mountain system
+that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the United States. The rocks
+underlying it have been subjected to successive foldings and crumplings
+by forces acting chiefly from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with
+alternating prolonged periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of
+disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the
+south-eastern part of Quebec, forming the Notre Dame Mountains, and
+terminates in the Gaspé peninsula as the Shickshock Mountains. The
+first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height, but the Shickshocks rise
+above 3000 ft. The province of New Brunswick exhibits approximately
+parallel but subordinate ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly
+flat Silurian and Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia,
+connected by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still
+another and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on
+all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates
+referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important veins of
+auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern side,
+while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and on parts of its
+shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New Brunswick the Carboniferous
+rocks occupy a large area, but the coal seams so far developed are thin
+and unimportant. Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova
+Scotia and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already
+mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important industries.
+Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral products of that part of
+Quebec included in the region now under description, although many
+other minerals are known and already worked to some extent. Extensive
+tracts of good arable land exist in many parts of the Acadian region.
+Its surface was originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of
+the forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward Island, the
+smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating, based on
+Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording a red and very fertile
+soil, much of which is under cultivation.
+
+_The St Lawrence Plain._--As the St Lawrence invited the earliest
+settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication with the Old
+World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest and most populous
+part of the country on its shores and near the Great Lakes which it
+leads up to; and this early development was greatly helped by the flat
+and fertile plain which follows it inland for over 600 m. from the city
+of Quebec to Lake Huron. This affords the largest stretch of arable land
+in eastern Canada, including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec
+with an area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south
+of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal to the
+mountains of the "Eastern Townships," while in Ontario it extends from
+the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence and Lakes Ontario, Erie and
+Huron. The whole region is underlain by nearly horizontal and
+undisturbed rocks of the Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward.
+Superimposed on these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and
+sand deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of St
+Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-west peninsula of
+Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and the real wealth of this
+district lies in its soil and climate, which permit the growth of all
+the products of temperate regions. Georgian Bay and the northern part of
+Lake Huron with the whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the
+foot of the Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes;
+so that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous
+cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an elevated,
+rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean from the newer and
+far more extensive farm lands of the west. For many years this southern
+projection of the northern wilderness was spanned by only one railway,
+and offered a serious hindrance to the development of the regions
+beyond; but settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly
+filling up the gap between east and west.
+
+_The Interior Continental Plain._--Passing westward by rail from the
+forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills, the flat prairie
+of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of flowers comes as a
+very striking contrast, introducing the Interior Continental plain in
+its most typical development. This great plain runs north-westward
+between the border of the Archean protaxis and the line of the Rocky
+Mountains, including most of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan
+and most of Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 49° it is 800
+m. wide, but in lat. 56° it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and to the
+north of lat. 62° it is still narrower and somewhat interrupted, but
+preserves its main physical features to the Arctic Ocean about the mouth
+of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the continent represents the
+area of the ancient sea by which it was occupied in Mesozoic times, with
+a more ancient margin towards the north-west against the Archean, where
+undisturbed limestones and other rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest
+upon the downward slope of the Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains are
+underlain by Cretaceous and early Tertiary shales and sandstones lying
+nearly unaltered and undisturbed where they were deposited, although now
+raised far above sea-level, particularly along the border of the Rocky
+Mountains where they were thrust up into foot-hills when the range
+itself was raised. These strata have been subjected to great denudation,
+but owing to their comparatively soft character this has been, in the
+main, nearly uniform, and has produced no very bold features of relief,
+Coal and lignitic coal are the principal economic minerals met with in
+this central plain, though natural gas occurs and is put to use near
+Medicine Hat, and "tar sands" along the north-eastern edge of the
+Cretaceous indicate the presence of petroleum. Its chief value lies in
+its vast tracts of fertile soil, now rapidly filling up with settlers
+from all parts of the world, and the grassy uplands in the foot-hill
+region affording perennial pasturage for the cattle, horses and sheep of
+the rancher. Though the region is spoken of as a plain there are really
+great differences of level between the highest parts in south-western
+Alberta, 4500 ft. above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake
+Winnipeg, where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very
+flat and rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial
+Lake Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently rolling
+character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the plain, the most
+westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri Coteau. The first step
+represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the second to 3000 ft. on an average.
+In so flat a country any elevation of a few hundred feet is remarkable
+and is called a mountain, so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding
+mountains. More important than the hills are the narrow and often rather
+deep river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks
+of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When not too deep
+the river channels may be traced from afar across the prairie by the
+winding band of trees growing beside the water. The treeless part of the
+plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular shape with an area twice as
+large as that of Great Britain. North of the Saskatchewan river groves
+or "bluffs" of trees begin, and somewhat farther north the plains are
+generally wooded, because of the slightly more humid climate. It has
+been proved, however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow
+also on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older
+farm-steads. In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough
+to permit of "alkaline" ponds and lakes, which may completely dry up in
+summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often hard to obtain,
+though the land itself is fertile.
+
+_The Cordilleran Belt._--The Rocky Mountain region as a whole, best
+named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several parallel
+ranges of mountains of different structures and ages, the eastern one
+constituting the Rocky Mountains proper. This band of mountains 400 m.
+wide covers towards the south almost all of British Columbia and a strip
+of Alberta east of the watershed, and towards the north forms the whole
+of the Yukon Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous
+country, very complicated in its orographic features and interlocking
+river systems, two principal mountain axes form its ruling features--the
+Rocky Mountains proper, above referred to, and the Coast Ranges. Between
+them are many other ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as
+the Selkirk Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains. There
+is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau, once probably
+a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected by river valleys,
+which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a width of about 100 m. and
+affords the largest areas of arable and pasture land in British
+Columbia. Similar wide tracts of less broken country occur, after a
+mountainous interruption, in northern British Columbia and to some
+extent in the Yukon Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills
+alternate with short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific
+border of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and
+channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland between
+mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and there is also a
+bordering mountain system partly submerged forming Vancouver Island and
+the Queen Charlotte Islands. The highest mountains of the Cordillera in
+Canada are near the southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from
+the Yukon Territory, the meridian of 141°, and they include Mount Logan
+(19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest peak in
+North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far to the north-west
+in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains, with Mount Fairweather and
+some others, all snowy and glacier-clad for almost their whole height,
+are quite isolated from the highest points of the Rocky Mountains
+proper, which are 1000 m. to the south-east. Near the height of land
+between British Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which rise
+from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has been
+carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next range to
+the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach 10,000 ft. or
+over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond 9000 ft. The snow line
+in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being lower on
+the Pacific side where the heaviest snowfall comes in winter than on the
+drier north-eastern side. The snow line gradually sinks as one advances
+north-west, reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The
+Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not very
+large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All the glaciers
+are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines, hundreds or
+thousands of feet lower down the valley. The timber line is at about
+7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and 4000 ft. in the interior of
+the Yukon Territory. On the westward slopes, especially of the Selkirks
+and Coast Ranges, vegetation is almost tropical in its density and
+luxuriance, the giant cedar and the Douglas fir sometimes having
+diameters of 10 ft. or more and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the
+eastern flanks of the ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the
+interior plateau and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open
+grass land. The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different
+types of structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with
+their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming first,
+then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated in Cretaceous
+times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of granite and diorite as
+batholiths along the margin of the continent and sedimentary rocks lying
+as remnants on their flanks; and finally the Rocky Mountains in the
+Laramie or early Eocene, after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest
+and also highest range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific
+side, crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run
+from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along overturned
+folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually the form of tilted
+blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east and a gentler slope,
+corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards the south-west. Near the
+centre of the range there are broader foldings, carved into castle and
+cathedral shapes. The most easterly range has been shown to have been
+actually pushed 7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains
+proper no eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of
+importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous synclines which
+they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a bituminous and also
+semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best mined on the Pacific slope of
+the continent, the coking coals of the Fernie region supplying the fuel
+of the great metal mining districts of the Kootenays in British
+Columbia, and of Montana and other states to the south. The Selkirks and
+Gold Ranges west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive
+rocks, both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines of
+gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its leadership
+among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals. In early days the
+placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser and Caribou attracted miners
+from everywhere, but these have declined, and lode mines supply most of
+the gold as well as the other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also
+include many mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less
+value than those inland. Most of the mining development is in southern
+British Columbia, where a network of railways and waterways gives easy
+access; but as means of communication improve to the north a similar
+development may be looked for there. The Atlin and White Horse regions
+in northern British Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much
+attention, and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished
+many millions of dollars' worth of gold. Summing up the economic
+features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of the best
+coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold, copper, lead and
+zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and iron Ontario takes the
+lead. When its vast area stretching from the international boundary to
+beyond the Arctic circle is opened up, it may be expected to prove the
+counterpart of the great mining region of the Cordillera in the United
+States to the south.
+
+_Climate_.--In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42° to the
+Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must be great variations
+of climate. If placed upon Europe it would extend from Rome to the North
+Cape, but latitude is of course only one of the factors influencing
+climate, the arrangement of the ocean currents and of the areas of high
+and low pressure making a very wide difference between the climates of
+the two sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada,
+rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western Europe,
+the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48° to 50°, having a
+climate very similar to the southern coast of England. In Canada the
+isotherms by no means follow parallels of latitude, especially in summer
+when in the western half of the country they run nearly north-west and
+south-east; so that the average temperature of 55° is found about on the
+Arctic circle in the Mackenzie river valley, in lat. 50° near the
+Lake-of-the-Woods, in lat. 55° at the northern end of James Bay, and in
+lat. 49° on Anticosti in the Gulf of St Lawrence. The proximity of the
+sea or of great lakes, the elevation and the direction of mountain
+chains, the usual path of storms and of prevalent winds, and the
+relative length of day and amount of sunshine in summer and winter all
+have their effect on different parts of Canada. One cannot even describe
+the climate of a single province, like Ontario or British Columbia, as a
+unit, as it varies so greatly in different parts. Details should
+therefore be sought in articles on the separate provinces. In eastern
+Canada Ungava and Labrador are very chill and inhospitable, owing
+largely to the iceberg-laden current sweeping down the coast from Davis
+Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters and a temperature for the
+year much below the freezing-point. South of the Gulf of St Lawrence,
+however, the maritime provinces have much more genial temperatures,
+averaging 40° F. for the year and over 60° for the summer months. The
+amount of rain is naturally high so near the sea, 40 to 56 in., but the
+snowfall is not usually excessive. In Quebec and northern Ontario the
+rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40 in., while the snows of
+winter are deep and generally cover the ground from the beginning of
+December to the end of March. The winters are brilliant but cold, and
+the summers average from 60° to 65° F., with generally clear skies and a
+bracing atmosphere which makes these regions favourite summer resorts
+for the people of the cities to the south. The winter storms often sweep
+a little to the north of southern Ontario, so that what falls as snow in
+the north is rain in the south, giving a much more variable winter,
+often with too little snow for sleighing. The summers are warm, with an
+average temperature of 65° and an occasional rise to 90°. As one goes
+westward the precipitation diminishes to 17.34 in. in Manitoba and 13.35
+for the other two prairie provinces, most of this, however, coming
+opportunely from May to August, the months when the growing grain most
+requires moisture. There is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in
+northern Ontario and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow
+and the frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing moisture
+to start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in southern Saskatchewan
+and Alberta is much more variable than farther east and north, so that
+in some seasons crops have been a failure through drought, but large
+areas are now being brought under irrigation to avoid such losses. The
+prairie provinces have in most parts a distinctly continental climate
+with comparatively short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but with
+much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta, however, the winter
+cold is often interrupted by chinooks, westerly winds which have lost
+their moisture by crossing the mountains and become warmed by plunging
+down to the plains, where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and
+raising the temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20° to 40° F. In
+this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the grass of the
+ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there may be heavy
+losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent and the winter's cold
+increases, but the coming of spring is not much later, and the summer
+temperatures, with sunshine for twenty hours out of twenty-four in June,
+are almost the same as for hundreds of miles to the south, so that most
+kinds of grain and vegetables ripen far to the north in the Peace river
+valley. Though the climate of the plains is one of extremes and often of
+rather sudden changes, it is brisk and invigorating and of particular
+value for persons affected with lung troubles.
+
+The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more variety than
+that of the other provinces because of the ranges of mountains which run
+parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast itself the climate is insular,
+with little frost in winter and mild heat in summer, and with a very
+heavy rainfall amounting to 100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver
+Island and near Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast
+Range the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario,
+comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the south, but
+with keen winters farther north. The interior plateau may be described
+as arid, so that irrigation is required if crops are to be raised. The
+Selkirk Mountains have a heavy rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on
+their western flanks, but very much less precipitation on their eastern
+side. The Rocky Mountains have the same relationships but the whole
+precipitation is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends
+largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from
+perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist
+climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire. In
+the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and Ungava the
+climate has been little studied, as the region is uninhabited by white
+men except at a few fur-trading posts. North-west and north-east of
+Hudson Bay it becomes too severe for the growth of trees as seen on the
+"barren grounds," and there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of
+moss which serves as a non-conducting covering for the "tundras." There
+is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate on
+the surface to form glaciers, the summer's sun having warmth enough to
+thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the maritime provinces,
+southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the Pacific coast region on the
+one hand, and the Arctic north, particularly near Hudson Bay, on the
+other, Canada has snowy and severe winters, a very short spring with a
+sudden rise of temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn
+with its "Indian summer." There is much sunshine, and the atmosphere is
+bracing and exhilarating.
+
+_Flora_.--The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec and
+Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova Scotia a number of
+species are found common also to Newfoundland that are not apparent
+inland. Professor Macoun gives us a few notable species--_Calluna
+vulgaris_, Salisb., _Alchemilla vulgaris_, L., _Rhododendron maximum_,
+L., _Ilex glabia_, Gray, _Hudsonia ericoides_, L., _Gaylussacia dumosa_,
+F. and G., and _Schezaea pusilla_, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western
+flora begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while in
+the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies considerably. In the
+lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf many Arctic and sub-Arctic
+species are found. On the shores of the lower reaches _Thalictrum
+alpinum_, L., _Vesicaria arctica_, Richards, _Arapis alpina_, L.,
+_Saxifraga oppositifolia_, L., _Cerastium alpinum_, L., _Saxifraga
+caespitosa_, L. and S. have been gathered, and on the Shickshock
+Mountains of Eastern Canada _Silene acaulis_, L., _Lychnis alpina_, L.,
+_Cassiope hypnoides_, Don., _Rhododendron laponicum_, Wahl, and many
+others. On the summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected
+_Aspidium aculeatum_, Swartz var., _Scopulinum_, D.C. Eaton, _Pellaea
+densa_, Hook, _Gallium kamtschaticum_, Sletten. From the city of Quebec
+westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of southern forms, and
+when the mountain (so called) at Montreal is reached the representative
+Ontario flora begins. In Ontario the flora of the northern part is much
+the same as that of the Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the
+Ottawa and St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect,
+and trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern parts
+of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions north of the lakes
+the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie requires a high winter
+temperature, while the east and north shores of Lake Superior have a
+boreal vegetation that shows the summer temperature of this enormous
+water-stretch to be quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come
+the prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the ravines
+the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then disappearing
+gives place to that of the prairie, which is found everywhere between
+the Red river and the Rocky Mountains except in wooded and damp
+localities. Northwards, in the Saskatchewan country, the flora of the
+forest and that of the prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the
+foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found,
+several years' collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of the
+best hay and pasture grasses, _Agropyrum Elymus, Stipa, Bromus,
+Agrostis, Calamagrostes_ and _Poa_, there are 59 species. Besides the
+grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for pasture--_Astragalus,
+Vicia_ (wild vetch), _Lathyrus_ (wild pea) of which there are many
+species. The rose family is represented by _Prunus, Potentilla,
+Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus_ and _Amelanchier_.
+
+About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are found
+_Ruppia maritima_, L., _Heliotropium curassavicum_, L., natives of the
+Atlantic coast, and numerous species of _Chenopodium, Atriplex_ and
+allied genera. The flora of the forest belt of the North-West
+Territories differs little from that of northern Ontario. At the
+beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains there is a luxurious
+growth of herbaceous plants, including a number of rare umbellifers. At
+the higher levels the vegetation becomes more Arctic. Northwards the
+valleys of the Peace and other rivers differ little from those of Quebec
+and the northern prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that
+is, the Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or
+Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp instead
+of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the south the flora
+is partly peculiar to the American desert, and such species as _Purshia
+tridentata_, D.C., and _Artemisia tridentata_, Nutt., and species of
+_Gilia, Aster_ and _Erigonum_ are found that are not met with elsewhere.
+Above Yale, in the drier part of the Fraser valley, the absence of rain
+results in the same character of flora, while in the rainy districts of
+the lower Fraser the vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that
+of the tropics. So in various parts of the mountainous country of
+British Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions.
+Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled with
+flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant, including
+_Erythoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritillarias, Siliums,
+Camassias_ and others.
+
+_Fauna_.--The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and the caribou
+of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the far north; the
+caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces except in Prince Edward
+Island; the moose, with an equally wide range in the wooded country; the
+Virginia deer, in one or other of its varietal forms, common to all the
+southern parts; the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on
+the western edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn
+antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful bison
+found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called "wood buffalo." The
+wapiti or American elk at one time abounded from Quebec to the Pacific,
+and as far north as the Peace river, but is now found only in small
+numbers from Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the
+grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear is also
+common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear everywhere along
+the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf is found in the wooded
+districts of all the provinces, and on the plains there is also a
+smaller wolf called the coyote. In British Columbia the puma or cougar,
+sometimes called the panther and the American lion, still frequently
+occurs; and in all parts the common fox and the silver fox, the lynx,
+beaver, otter, marten, fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other
+fur-bearing animals. Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are
+plentiful or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other
+circumstances. In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or
+Rocky Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the saddleback
+and white mountain sheep have recently been discovered in the northern
+Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly migratory, and are those
+common to the northern and central states of the United States. The
+wildfowl are, particularly in the west, in great numbers; their
+breeding-grounds extending from Manitoba and the western prairies up to
+Hudson Bay, the barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of
+geese--including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the
+laughing goose, the brant and others--all breed in the northern regions,
+but are found in great numbers throughout the several provinces, passing
+north in the spring and south in the autumn. There are several varieties
+of grouse, the largest of which is the grouse of British Columbia and
+the pennated grouse and the prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains,
+besides the so-called partridge and willow partridge, both of which are
+grouse. While the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada)
+has always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a more
+recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which it had come from
+Illinois and the south as settlement and accompanying wheatfields
+extended north. In certain parts of Ontario the wild turkey is
+occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but in British Columbia is
+found the California quail, and a larger bird much resembling it called
+the mountain partridge. The golden eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and
+a large variety of hawks are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the
+horned owl and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently
+remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these, with the
+Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting, being the principal
+birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts in that season. The rook
+is not found, but the common crow and one or two other kinds are there
+during the summer. Song-birds are plentiful, especially in wooded
+regions, and include the American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird
+and various sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago,
+has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns. The
+smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is found
+everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains. The sea-birds
+include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cormorants, albatrosses
+(four species), fulmars and petrels, and in the Gulf of St Lawrence the
+gannet is very abundant. Nearly all the sea-birds of Great Britain are
+found in Canadian waters or are represented by closely allied species.
+     (A. P. C.)
+
+_Area and Population._--The following table shows the division of the
+Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital, population and
+estimated area of each.
+
+  +------------------------+-------------+--------------------------+---------------+
+  |                        |             |       Population.        |               |
+  |                        |   Area in   +------------+-------------+   Official    |
+  |                        |   sq. mi.   |    1881.   |    1901.    |    Capital.   |
+  +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+
+  | Provinces--            |             |            |             |               |
+  |   Ontario              |   260,862   |  1,926,922 | 2,182,947   | Toronto       |
+  |   Quebec               |   351,873   |  1,359,027 | 1,648,898   | Quebec        |
+  |   Nova Scotia          |    21,428   |    440,572 |   459,574   | Halifax       |
+  |   New Brunswick        |    27,985   |    321,233 |   331,120   | Fredericton   |
+  |   Manitoba             |    73,732   |     62,260 |   255,211[1]| Winnipeg      |
+  |   British Columbia     |   372,630   |     49,459 |   178,657   | Victoria      |
+  |   Prince Edward Island |     2,184   |    108,891 |   103,259   | Charlottetown |
+  |   Saskatchewan         |   250,650   | \   25,515 |    91,460[1]| Regina        |
+  |   Alberta              |   253,540   | /          |    72,841[1]| Edmonton      |
+  |                        |             |            |             |               |
+  | Districts--            |             |            |             |               |
+  |   Keewatin             |   516,571   | \          |     8,800   |      · ·      |
+  |   Yukon                |   196,976   |  |         |    27,219   | Dawson City   |
+  |   Mackenzie            |   562,182   |   > 30,931 |     5,216   |      · ·      |
+  |   Ungava               |   354,961   |  |         |     5,113   |      · ·      |
+  |   Franklin             |   500,000   | /          |             |      · ·      |
+  +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+
+  |   The Dominion         | 3,745,574[2]|  4,324,810 | 5,371,315   | Ottawa        |
+  +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+
+
+In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces of Nova
+Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and Ontario (Upper Canada).
+In 1869 the North-west Territories were purchased from the Hudson's Bay
+Company, from a corner of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In
+1871 British Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the
+Dominion.
+
+The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became a
+portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British possessions in
+North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its dependency, the Labrador
+coast, and the Bermuda islands, were annexed to Canada. West of the
+province of Ontario, then inaccurately defined, the provinces of
+Manitoba and British Columbia were the only organized divisions of the
+western territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia,
+Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving the remainder
+of the north-west as unorganized territories, a certain portion of the
+north-east, called Keewatin, having previously been placed under the
+lieutenant-governor of Manitoba. In 1905 these four districts were
+formed into the two provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin
+was placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing to the
+influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted and granted a
+limited measure of self-government. The unorganized territories are
+sparsely inhabited by Indians, the people of the Hudson's Bay Company's
+posts and a few missionaries.
+
+_Population_.--The growth of population is shown by the following
+figures:--1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891, 4,833,239; 1901,
+5,371,315. Since 1901 the increase has been more rapid, and in 1905
+alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada, of whom about two-fifths were
+from Great Britain and one-third from the United States.
+
+The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island, where it
+is 51.6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22.3; New Brunswick, 11.8;
+Ontario, 9.9; Manitoba, 4.9; Quebec, 4.8; Saskatchewan, 1.01; Alberta,
+0.72; British Columbia, 0.4; the Dominion, 1.8. This is not an
+indication of the density in settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and
+the western provinces there are large unpopulated districts, the area of
+which enters into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of
+English- or French-speaking people, but there are German settlements of
+some extent in Ontario, and of late years there has been a large
+immigration into the western provinces and territories from other parts
+of Europe, including Russians, Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and
+Scandinavians. These foreign elements have been assimilated more slowly
+than in the United States, but the process is being hastened by the
+growth of a national consciousness. English, Irish and Scots and their
+descendants form the bulk of the population of Ontario, French-Canadians
+of Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish of a large proportion of New
+Brunswick. In the other provinces the latter race tends to confine
+itself to the cities. Manitoba is largely peopled from Ontario, together
+with a decreasing number of half-breeds--i.e. children of white fathers
+(chiefly French or Scottish) and Indian mothers--who originally formed
+the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and Saskatchewan, particularly the
+ranching districts, are chiefly peopled by English immigrants, though
+since 1900 there has also been a large influx from the United States.
+British Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the mining
+districts a large proportion is American. Since 1871 a great change has
+taken place throughout the west, i.e. from Lake Superior to the Pacific.
+Then Manitoba was principally inhabited by English and French
+half-breeds (or Métis), descendants of Hudson's Bay Company's employes,
+or adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers,
+descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (q.v.), some English
+army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigration that shortly
+followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba buffalo were still running on the
+plains, and British Columbia having lost its mining population of 1859
+and 1860 was largely inhabited by Indians, its white population which
+centred in the city of Victoria being principally English.
+
+French is the language of the province of Quebec, though English is much
+spoken in the cities; both languages are officially recognized in that
+province, and in the federal courts and parliament. Elsewhere, English
+is exclusively used, save by the newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex
+is slightly the more numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the
+greatest discrepancy existing in British Columbia.
+
+The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families of twelve
+to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in Ontario. In spite of
+the growth of manufactures since 1878, there are few large cities, and
+the proportion of the urban population to the rural is small. Herein it
+differs noticeably from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of
+farmers in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and
+there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a
+manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large tracts
+in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for cultivation and
+are being opened up.
+
+_Religion_.--There is no established church in Canada, but in the
+province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the Roman
+Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that province about
+87% of the population belongs to this church, which is strong in the
+others also, embracing over two-fifths of the population of the
+Dominion. The Protestants have shown a tendency to subdivision, and many
+curious and ephemeral sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the
+various sections of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united,
+and a working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians, Methodists
+and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the strongest, and in Ontario
+form over 30% of the population. Next come the Presbyterians, the
+backbone of the maritime provinces. The Church of England is strong in
+the cities, especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief
+in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them 90% are
+nominally Christian.
+
+_Indians_.--The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and has slightly
+increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia and the unorganized
+territories, nearly all of these are on reservations, where they are
+under government supervision, receiving an annuity in money and a
+certain amount of provisions; and where, by means of industrial schools
+and other methods, civilized habits are slowly superseding their former
+mode of life. British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along
+the coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in the
+interior. An almost equal number are found in the three prairie
+provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000, are more civilized
+than those of the west, many of them being good farmers. In all the
+provinces they are under the control of the federal government which
+acts as their trustee, investing the money which they derive chiefly
+from the sale of lands and timber, and making a large annual
+appropriation for the payment of their annuities, schools and other
+expenses. While unable to alienate their reservations, save to the
+federal government, they are not confined to them, but wander at
+pleasure. As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are
+given the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario.
+A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make incomparable
+guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties, on which they will
+cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships, though tending to shrink from
+regular employment in cities or on farms.
+
+_Orientals_.--The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1906 about 20,000, of
+whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though they were
+spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as laundrymen. They are
+as a rule frugal, industrious and law-abiding, and are feared rather for
+their virtues than for their vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on
+all Chinese entering Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to £100 ($500).
+British Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the
+Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature.
+
+_Finance_.--Since 1871 the decimal system of coinage, corresponding to
+that of the United States, has been the only one employed. One dollar is
+divided into one hundred cents (£1=$4.86-2/3). The money in circulation
+consists of a limited number of notes issued by the federal government,
+and the notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and
+copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England, but in
+that year a branch of the royal mint was established at Ottawa. Though
+the whole financial system rests on the maintenance of the gold
+standard, gold coin plays a much smaller part in daily business than in
+England, France or Germany. United States' notes and silver are usually
+received at par; those of other nations are subject to a varying rate of
+exchange.
+
+The banking system, which retains many features of the Scotch system, on
+which it was originally modelled, combines security for the note-holders
+and depositors with prompt increase and diminution of the circulation in
+accordance with the varying conditions of trade. This is especially
+important in a country where the large wheat crop renders an additional
+quantity of money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and
+winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the "wild cat"
+banking, which had such disastrous effects in the early days of the
+western states. Since federation no chartered bank has been compelled to
+liquidate without paying its note-holders in full. The larger banks are
+chartered by the federal government; in the smaller towns a number of
+private banks remain, but their importance is small, owing to the great
+facilities given to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906
+there were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from 619
+in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has rapidly
+increased. The banks are required by law to furnish to the finance
+minister detailed monthly statements which are published in the official
+gazette. Once in every ten years the banking act is revised and
+weaknesses amended. Clearing-houses have been established in the chief
+commercial centres. In October 1906 the chartered banks had an aggregate
+paid-up capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of
+$83,000,000 and deposits of over $553,000,000.
+
+There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada:--(1) the post-office
+savings banks; (2) the government savings banks of the Maritime
+provinces taken over at federation and being gradually merged with the
+former; (3) two special savings banks in the cities of Montreal and
+Quebec; (4) the savings bank departments of the chartered banks. The
+rate of interest allowed by the government is now 3%, and the chartered
+banks usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in the
+first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546 in October
+1906. The returns from the chartered banks do not specify the deposits
+in these special accounts.
+
+The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain banking
+privileges.
+
+The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and excise duties,
+with subsidiary amounts from mining licences, timber dues, post-office,
+&c. Both the revenue and the expenditure have in recent years increased
+greatly, the revenue rising from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in
+1905 and the expenditure keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion
+in 1873 and in 1905 was:--
+
+  +------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |            |      1873.   |     1905.    |
+  +------------+--------------+--------------+
+  | Gross debt | $129,743,432 | $377,678,580 |
+  | Assets     |   30,894,970 |  111,454,413 |
+  | Net debt   |   98,848,462 |  266,224,413 |
+  +------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+While the debt had thus increased faster than the population, it weighed
+less heavily on the people, not only on account of the great increase
+in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower rate of interest paid,
+and of the increasing revenue derived from assets. Whereas in 1867 the
+rate of interest was over 4%, and interest was being paid on former
+provincial loans of over 6%, Canada could in 1906 borrow at 3%.
+
+The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the debts of
+the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure on canals and
+assistance given to railways. It does not include the debts incurred by
+certain provinces since federation, a matter which concerns themselves
+alone. A strong prejudice against direct taxation exists, and none is
+imposed by the federal government, though it has been tentatively
+introduced in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor
+licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &c. British Columbia has
+a direct tax on property and on income. The cities, towns and
+municipalities resort to it to supply their local needs, and there is a
+tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario on account of the excellence
+of her municipal system, to devolve the burden of educational payments,
+and others more properly provincial, upon the municipal authorities on
+the plea of decentralization.
+
+_Commerce and Manufactures._--Since 1867 the opening up of the fertile
+lands in the north-west, the increase of population, the discovery of
+new mineral fields, the construction of railways and the great
+improvement of the canal system have changed the conditions, methods and
+channels of trade. The great extension during the same period of the use
+of water-power has been of immense importance to Canada, most of the
+provinces possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls,
+capable of generating a practically unlimited supply of power.
+
+In 1878 the introduction of the so-called "National Policy" of
+protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection still
+remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a preference
+accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most of the British
+colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared with that of the
+United States, amounted in 1907 to about 28% on dutiable imports and to
+about 16% on total imports. Tentative attempts at export duties have
+also been made. Inter-provincial commerce is free, and the home market
+is greatly increasing in importance. The power to make commercial
+treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great Britain,
+but in most cases the official consent of Canada is required, and for
+many years no treaty repugnant to her interests has been signed. The
+denunciation by the British government in 1897 of commercial treaties
+with Belgium and Germany, at the request of Canada, was a striking proof
+of her increasing importance, and attempts have at various times been
+made to obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government.
+The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is with the
+United States and Great Britain. From the former come most of the
+manufactured goods imported and large quantities of raw materials; to
+the latter are sent food-stuffs. Farm products are the most important
+export, and with the extension of this industry in the north-west
+provinces and in northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold,
+silver, copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an
+unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The exports of
+lumber are about equally divided between the two. Formerly, the logs
+were shipped as square timber, but now almost always in the form of
+deals, planks or laths; such square timber as is still shipped goes
+almost entirely to Great Britain. Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper
+is exported chiefly to the United States. To that country fresh fish is
+sent in large quantities, and there is an important trade in canned
+salmon between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the
+manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an increasing
+share of the home market. In this they have won increased success, at
+least five-sixths of the manufactured goods used being produced within
+the country, but a desire for further protection is loudly expressed.
+Though the chief foreign commerce is with Great Britain and the United
+States, the Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of
+the world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her total foreign
+trade (import and export) was in 1906 over £100,000,000.
+
+_Shipping_.--The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax, N.S.,
+Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal on the Atlantic; and
+Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C., on the Pacific. Halifax is the
+ocean terminus of the Intercolonial railway; St John, Halifax and
+Vancouver of the Canadian Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western
+terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an
+uninhabited harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing
+city. Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the winter
+trade eastwards is done through American harbours, especially Portland,
+Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey. Esquimalt, Halifax,
+Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-equipped graving-docks. The coast,
+both of the ocean and of the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected.
+The decay of the wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the
+comparative importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a
+great increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon
+inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada and Great
+Britain; direct communication exists with France, and the steamers of
+the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly to Japan and to Australia.
+
+_Internal Communications_.--Her splendid lakes and rivers, the
+development of her canal system, and the growth of railways have made
+the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than her foreign, and
+the portfolio of railways and canals is one of the most important in the
+cabinet. There are, nominally, about 200 railways, but about one-half of
+these, comprising five-sixths of the mileage, have been amalgamated into
+four great systems: the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian
+Northern and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or
+less consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected
+the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across Prince
+Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal government.
+Originally built chiefly as a military road, and often the victim of
+political exigencies, it has not been a commercial success. With the
+completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific (planned for 1911) and the
+Canadian Northern, the country would possess three trans-continental
+railways, and be free from the reproach, so long hurled at it, of
+possessing length without breadth.
+
+At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made with the
+railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given by the federal,
+provincial and municipal governments to the construction of railways,
+amounting often to more than half the cost of the road. The government
+of Ontario has constructed a line to open up the agricultural and mining
+districts of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of
+a commission. Practically all the cities[3] and large towns have
+electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power on
+many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding towns and
+villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government has instituted a railway
+commission of three members with large powers of control over freight
+and passenger rates and other such matters. Telephone and express
+companies are also subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an
+appeal may be made to the governor-general in council, i.e. to the
+federal cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways and
+has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a somewhat similar
+commission, appointed by the local government, exercises extensive
+powers of control over railways solely within the province, especially
+over the electric lines.
+
+Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain
+important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers ply on
+lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far northern
+districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary obstacles are
+surmounted by canals, on which over £22,000,000 have been spent, chiefly
+since federation. The St Lawrence river canal system from Lake Superior
+to tide water overcomes a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large
+quantities of grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer
+navigation on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft.
+on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels on equal
+terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most modern character.
+So great, however, is the desire to shorten the time and distance
+necessary for the transportation of grain from Lake Superior to Montreal
+that an increasing quantity is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron
+and Georgian Bay ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller
+canals bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the Hudson
+river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn lumber of Ontario,
+Quebec and New Brunswick find their destination. It has long been a
+Canadian ideal to shorten the distance from Lake Superior to the sea.
+With this object in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been
+built, connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of Lake
+Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently surveys were made with
+a view to connecting the Georgian Bay through the intervening water
+stretches, with the Ottawa river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903
+all tolls were taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of
+trade.
+
+_Mining_.--The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton to the islands
+in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova Scotia, British Columbia and
+the Yukon are still the most productive, but the northern parts of
+Ontario are proving rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly
+bituminous, occurs in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia
+and in various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the
+anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater part of
+the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus of federal
+bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel, chiefly from imported
+ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on certain minerals and metals are
+also given by some of the provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though
+still valuable, show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the
+centre of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly in
+American hands, and the product exported to the United States. Of the
+less important minerals, Canada is the world's chief producer of
+asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver and all the important metals
+are mined in the Rocky Mountain district. From Quebec westwards, vast
+regions are still partly, or completely, unexplored.
+
+_Lumber_.--In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by fire, the
+forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the world. Measures
+have been taken, both by the provincial and the federal governments, for
+its preservation, and for re-forestation of depleted areas. Certain
+provinces prohibit the exportation of logs to the United States, in
+order to promote the growth of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware
+within the country, and the latter have of late years developed with
+great rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered from
+lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the greater demand
+from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. A great development has
+also taken place in Ontario and the eastern provinces, through the use
+of spruce and other trees, long considered comparatively useless, in the
+manufacture of wood-pulp for paper-making.
+
+_Crown Lands_.--Large areas of unoccupied land remain in all the
+provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
+Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British Columbia and the
+territories, these crown lands are chiefly owned by the federal
+parliament; in the other provinces, by the local legislatures. So great
+is their extent that, in spite of the immigration of recent years, the
+Dominion government gives a freehold of 160 acres to every _bona fide_
+settler, subject to certain conditions of residence and the erection of
+buildings during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold
+or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by the provinces
+must be paid for, save in certain districts of Ontario, where free
+grants are given, but the price charged is low. The Canadian Pacific
+railway controls large land areas in the two new provinces; and large
+tracts in these provinces are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion
+and the provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be
+preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of these the
+most extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff, Alberta, owned by
+the Dominion government, and the "Algonquin National Park," north-east
+of Lake Simcoe, the property of Ontario.
+
+_Fisheries_.--The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic coast,
+carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince
+Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec. Cod, herring, mackerel
+and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught, though halibut, salmon,
+anchovies and so-called sardines are also exported. Bounties to
+encourage deep-sea fishing have been given by the federal government
+since 1882. In British Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in
+addition to which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and
+shellfish. The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish,
+sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find more or
+less permanent employment in the fishing industry, including the
+majority of the Indians of British Columbia.
+
+The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent in the
+North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria, but the
+returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as one causing
+friction with the United States. Indeed, no department of national life
+has caused more continual trouble between the two peoples than the
+fisheries, owing to different laws regarding fish protection, and the
+constant invasion by each of the territorial waters of the other.
+
+_Education_.--The British North America Act imposes on the provincial
+legislatures the duty of legislating on educational matters, the
+privileges of the denominational and separate schools in Ontario and
+Quebec being specially safeguarded. In 1871, the New Brunswick
+legislature abolished the separate school system, and a contest arose
+which was finally settled by the authority of the legislature being
+sustained, though certain concessions were made to the Roman Catholic
+dissentients. Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where
+the legislature in 1890 abolished the system of separate schools which
+had been established in 1871. After years of bitter controversy, in
+which a federal ministry was overthrown, a compromise was arranged in
+1897, in which the Roman Catholic leaders have never fully acquiesced.
+In the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain
+educational privileges, (though not amounting to a separate school
+system) were granted to the Roman Catholics.
+
+All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of
+education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read and write,
+and 86% of those over five years of age. These percentages have
+gradually risen ever since federation, especially in the province of
+Quebec, which was long in a backward state. The school systems of all
+the provinces are, in spite of certain imperfections, efficient and
+well-equipped, that of Ontario being especially celebrated. A fuller
+account of their special features will be found under the articles on
+the different provinces.
+
+Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in number with the
+growth of the country in wealth and culture. In Quebec are a number of
+so-called classical colleges, most of them affiliated with Laval
+University.
+
+Higher education was originally organized by the various religious
+bodies, each of which retains at least one university in more or less
+integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba
+support provincial universities at Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg.
+Those of most importance[4] are:--Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S.
+(1818); the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800);
+McGill University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec, and
+Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen's University, Kingston, Ont. (1841); the
+University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827); Trinity University,
+Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria University, Toronto, Ont. (1836); the
+University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba,
+Winnipeg, Man. (1877).
+
+Of these McGill (see MONTREAL) is especially noted for the excellence of
+its training in practical and applied science. Many of the students,
+especially in the departments of medicine and theology, complete their
+education in the United States, Britain or Europe.
+
+Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries, that of
+Toronto being especially well-equipped.
+
+Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is the Royal
+Society of Canada, founded in 1881.
+
+_Defence_.--The command in chief of all naval and military forces is
+vested in the king, but their control rests with the federal parliament.
+The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries protection service, are
+under the minister of marine and fisheries, the land forces under the
+minister of militia and defence. Prior to 1903, command of the latter
+was vested in a British officer, but since then has been entrusted to a
+militia council, of which the minister is president. The fortified
+harbours of Halifax (N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905
+maintained and garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since
+been taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the
+permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had numbered about
+1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in various schools,
+chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In this all able-bodied
+citizens between the ages of 18 and 60 are nominally enrolled, but the
+active militia consists of about 45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying
+state of efficiency. These cannot be compelled to serve outside the
+Dominion, though special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was
+done during the war in South Africa (1899-1902). At Quebec is a Dominion
+arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps flourish in most of
+the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the Royal Military College, to
+the successful graduates of which a certain number of commissions in the
+British service is annually awarded.
+
+_Justice and Crime_.--Justice is well administered throughout the
+country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has been little of
+the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia and the United
+States. For this great credit is due to the "North-west mounted police,"
+the "Riders of the Plains," a highly efficient body of about seven
+hundred men, under the control of the federal government. Judges are
+appointed for life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed
+save by impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never
+attempted since federation, though more than once threatened. From the
+decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be made to the
+judicial committee of the imperial privy council.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The Canadian Geological Survey has published (Ottawa,
+  since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number of subjects.
+  Several provinces have bureaus or departments of mines, also issuing
+  reports. The various departments of the federal and the provincial
+  governments publish annual reports and frequent special reports, such
+  as the decennial report on the census, from which a vast quantity of
+  information may be obtained. Most of this is summed up in the annual
+  _Statistical Year Book of Canada_ and in the _Official Handbook of the
+  Dominion of Canada_, issued at frequent intervals by the Department of
+  the Interior. See also J.W. White (the Dominion geographer), _Atlas of
+  Canada_ (1906); J. Castell Hopkins, _Canada: an Encyclopaedia_ (6
+  vols., 1898-1900); _The Canadian Annual Review_ (yearly since 1902),
+  replacing H.J. Morgan's _Canadian Annual Register_ (1878-1886); Sir
+  J.W. Dawson, _Handbook of Canadian Geology_ (1889); George Johnson,
+  _Alphabet of First Things in Canada_ (3rd ed., 1898); A.G. Bradley,
+  _Canada in the Twentieth Century_ (1903); _Transactions of the Royal
+  Society of Canada_ (yearly since 1883); R.C. Breckenridge, _The
+  Canadian Banking System_ (1895); A. Shortt, _History of Canadian
+  Banking_ (1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, _The Intercolonial_ (1876); John
+  Davidson, "Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces" (_Economic
+  Journal_, June 1905); _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,
+  passim_, for valuable papers by H.M. Ami, A.P. Coleman, G.M. Dawson,
+  W.F. Ganong, B.J. Harrington and others; also articles in _Canadian
+  Economics_ and in the _Handbook of Canada_, published on the occasion
+  of visits of the British Association.     (W. L. G.)
+
+
+AGRICULTURE
+
+Canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of the total population
+(estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are directly engaged in
+practical agriculture. In addition large numbers are engaged in
+industries arising out of agriculture; among these are manufacturers of
+agricultural implements, millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and
+packers of meat, makers of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in
+the transportation and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats,
+butter, cheese, milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. The
+country is splendidly formed for the production of food. Across the
+continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or wider
+than France, with (over a large part of this area) a climate adapted to
+the production of foods of superior quality. Since the opening of the
+20th century, great progress has been made in the settlement and
+agricultural development of the western territories between the
+provinces of Manitoba and British Columbia. The three "North-West
+Provinces" (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) have a total area of
+369,869,898 acres, of which 12,853,120 acres are water. In 1906 their
+population was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1901. The land in
+this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are very
+rich in the constituents of plant food. Chemical analyses made by Mr
+F.T. Shutt have proved that soils from the North-West Provinces contain
+an average of 18,000 lb of nitrogen, 15,580 lb of potash and 6,700 lb of
+phosphoric acid per acre, these important elements of plant food being
+therefore present in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary
+cultivated European soils of good quality. The prairie lands of Manitoba
+and Saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. Horse and cattle
+ranching is practised in Alberta, where the milder winters allow of the
+outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater degree than is possible in
+the colder parts of Canada. The freezing of the soil in winter, which at
+first sight seems a drawback, retains the soluble nitrates which might
+otherwise be drained out. The copious snowfall protects vegetation,
+supplies moisture, and contributes nitrogen to the soil. The
+geographical position of Canada, its railway systems and steamship
+service for freight across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, are
+favourable to the extension of the export trade in farm products to
+European and oriental countries. Great progress has been made in the
+development of the railway systems of Canada, and the new
+transcontinental line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, passing through
+Saskatchewan via Saskatoon, and Alberta via Edmonton, renders possible
+of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing soil. The canal
+system of Canada, linking together the great natural waterways, is also
+of much present and prospective importance in cheapening the
+transportation of agricultural produce.
+
+
+  Crops
+
+Of _wheat_ many varieties are grown. The methods of cultivation do not
+involve the application of so much hand labour per acre as in Europe.
+The average yield of wheat for the whole of Canada is nearly 20 bushels
+per acre. In 1901 the total production of wheat in Canada was 55½
+million bushels. In 1906 the estimated total production was 136 million
+bushels. The total wheat acreage, which at the census of 1901 was
+4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of nearly two million
+acres in five years.
+
+Up to the close of the 19th century, Ontario was the largest
+wheat-growing province in Canada. In 1900 the wheat acreage in Ontario
+was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an average yield of 19.10
+bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of this production was of fall or
+winter wheat, the average yield of which in Ontario over a series of
+years since 1883 had been about 20 bushels per acre. But the
+predominance in wheat-growing has now shifted to the new prairie regions
+of the west. A census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of
+wheat in the North-West Provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824
+bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21.84 bushels per acre.
+Of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in Manitoba, 2,117,484
+acres in Saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres in Alberta, with average
+yields per acre at the rates of 20.02 bushels in Manitoba, 23.70 in
+Saskatchewan and 26.49 in Alberta. In these provinces spring wheat is
+almost universally sown, except in Alberta where fall or winter wheat is
+also sown to a considerable extent. Summer fallowing for wheat is a
+practice that has gained ground in the North-West Provinces. Land
+ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the summer, is
+sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring. Wheat on summer
+fallow land yielded, according to the North-West census of 1906, from 2
+to 8 bushels per acre more than that sown on other land. Summer
+fallowing is, however, subject to one drawback: the strong growth which
+it induces is apt to retard the ripening of the grain. Canada is clearly
+destined to rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries
+of the world. The northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have not
+been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat were grown in
+1907 at Fort Vermilion on the Peace river, nearly 600 m. north of
+Winnipeg in lat. 58.34 and at Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie river in
+lat. 61.52, more than 800 m. north of Winnipeg and about 1000 m. north
+of the United States boundary. As a rule the weather during the
+harvesting period permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage
+from sprouting. Occasionally in certain localities in the north-west the
+grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as the
+proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate becomes
+modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less. The loss from
+this cause is also less than formerly, because any grain unfit for
+export is now readily purchased for the feeding of animals in Ontario
+and other parts of eastern Canada.
+
+Suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in general use,
+so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat is ground. This gives
+Canadian wheat excellent milling properties, and enables the millers to
+turn out flour uniform in quality and of high grade as to keeping
+properties. Canadian flour has a high reputation in European markets. It
+is known as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread,
+and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albuminoids
+being greater in Canadian flour than in the best brands of European.
+Owing to its possession of this characteristic of what millers term
+"strength," i.e. the relative capacity of flour to make large loaves of
+good quality, Canadian flour is largely in demand for blending with the
+flour of the softer English wheats. For this reason some of the strong
+Canadian wheats have commanded in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter
+more than English-grown wheat. At the general census of 1901 the number
+of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five persons
+and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes being 4251 and the
+value of products $31,835,873. A special census of manufactures in 1906
+shows that these figures had grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619
+employes and $56,703,269 value of the products. There is room for a
+great extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and
+exportation of flour.
+
+In the twelve months of 1907 Canada exported 37,503,057 bushels of wheat
+of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485 barrels of flour of the value
+of $7,626,408. The corresponding figures in 1900 were--wheat, 16,844,650
+bushels, value, $11,995,488, and flour, 768,162 bushels, value,
+$2,791,885.
+
+Oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from Prince Edward Island
+on the Atlantic coast to Vancouver Island on the Pacific coast. Over
+large areas the Canadian soil and climate are admirably adapted for
+producing oats of heavy weight per bushel. In all the provinces of
+eastern Canada the acreage under oats greatly exceeds that under wheat.
+The annual average oat crop in all Canada is estimated at about 248
+million bushels. As the total annual export of oats is now less than
+three million bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an
+advantage in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In 1907 the area
+under oats in Ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301
+bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage under hay
+and larger than the combined total of the other principal cereals grown
+in the province. Canadian oatmeal is equal in quality to the best. It is
+prepared in different forms, and in various degrees of fineness.
+
+Barley was formerly grown for export to the United States for malting
+purposes. After the raising of the duty on barley under the McKinley and
+Dingley tariffs that trade was practically destroyed and Canadian
+farmers were obliged to find other uses for this crop. Owing to the
+development of the trade with the mother-country in dairying and meat
+products, barley as a home feeding material has become more
+indispensable than ever. Before the adoption of the McKinley tariff
+about nine million bushels of barley were exported annually, involving
+the loss of immense stores of plant food. In 1907, with an annual
+production of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage
+was exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of
+produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. The preparation of
+pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry.
+
+Rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human food. Flour
+from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from Indian corn are preferred.
+
+Buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some districts for
+the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple syrup. These two make an
+excellent breakfast dish, characteristic of Canada and some of the New
+England states. There are also numerous forms of preparations from
+cereals, sold as breakfast foods, which, owing to the high quality of
+the grains grown in Canada and the care exercised in their manufacture,
+compare favourably with similar products in other countries.
+
+Peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with insect
+pests. Split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and sweet peas for
+canning are obtained of good quality.
+
+Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of the diet of
+the people. There is a comparatively small export, except in the case of
+turnips and potatoes and of vegetables which have been canned or dried.
+Besides potatoes, which thrive well and yield large quantities of
+excellent quality, there are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. The
+cultivation of sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been
+established in Ontario and in southern Alberta, where in 1906 an acreage
+under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of 8.13 tons per
+acre. Among the common vegetables used in the green state are peas,
+beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus, Indian corn, onions, leeks,
+tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery, parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash
+and rhubarb. Hay, of good quality of timothy (_Phleum pratense_), and
+also of timothy and clover, is grown over extensive areas. For export it
+is put up in bales of about 150 lb each. Since 1899 a new form of
+pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to stow in
+about 70 cub. ft. per ton. This has been a means of reducing the ocean
+freight per ton. The compact condition permits the hay to be kept with
+less deterioration of quality than under the old system of more loose
+baling. Austrian brome grass (_Bromus inermis_) and western rye grass
+(_Agropyrum tenerum_) are both extensively grown for hay in the
+North-West Provinces.
+
+
+  Live stock.
+
+The almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns has not
+led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to the extent that was
+at one time anticipated. Heavy draught horses are reared in Ontario, and
+to a less but increasing extent in the North-West Provinces, the breeds
+being mainly the Clydesdale and the Shire. Percherons are also bred in
+different parts of Canada, and a few Belgian draught horses have been
+introduced. Good horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs,
+omnibuses, and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local
+markets and for export. Thoroughbred and pure bred hackney stallions are
+maintained in private studs and by agricultural associations throughout
+the Dominion, and animals for cavalry and mounted infantry remounts are
+produced in all the provinces including those of the North-West. Useful
+carriage horses and saddle horses are bred in many localities. Horse
+ranching is practised largely in Alberta. There are no government stud
+farms. The total number of horses in the Dominion was estimated on the
+basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the year 1907, an increase of
+609,309 since 1901.
+
+Cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance. The bracing
+weather of Canadian winters is followed by the warmth and humidity of
+genial summers, under which crops grow in almost tropical luxuriance,
+while the cool evenings and nights give the plants a robustness of
+quality which is not to be found in tropical regions, and also make life
+for the various domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. In the
+North-West Provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which
+cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks are shipped
+annually. Throughout other parts bullocks are fed on pasture land, and
+also in stables on nourishing and succulent feed such as hay, Indian
+corn fodder, Indian corn silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats,
+barley, peas, Indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. The breeding
+of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of dairy cows
+for the production of milk, butter and cheese, has received much
+attention. There is government control of the spaces on the steamships
+in which the cattle are carried, and veterinary inspection prevents the
+exportation of diseased animals.
+
+A considerable trade has been established in the exportation of dressed
+beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation of meat and other
+foods in hermetically sealed receptacles. By the Meat and Canned Foods
+Act of 1907 of the Dominion parliament and regulations thereunder, the
+trade is carried on under the strictest government supervision, and no
+canned articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely
+wholesome and officially marked as such by government inspectors. There
+is a considerable trade in "lunch tongues."
+
+The cattle breeds are principally those of British origin. For beef,
+shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are bred
+largely, whilst for dairying purposes, shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys,
+Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians prevail. The French-Canadian cattle are
+highly esteemed in eastern Canada, especially by the farmers of the
+French provinces. They are a distinct breed of Jersey and Brittany type,
+and are stated to be descended from animals imported from France by the
+early settlers. The estimated number of cattle in Canada in 1907 was
+7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures of the census of
+1901.
+
+All parts of the Dominion are well adapted for sheep; but various
+causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity of other branches
+of agriculture, including wheat-growing and dairying, have in several of
+the provinces contributed to prevent that attention to this branch which
+its importance deserves, though there are large areas of rolling, rugged
+yet nutritious pastures well suited to sheep-farming. In the maritime
+provinces and in Prince Edward Island sheep and lambs are reared in
+large numbers. In Ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree of
+perfection, and other parts of the American continent draw their
+supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province. All the leading
+British varieties are reared, the Shropshire, Oxford Down, Leicester and
+Cotswold breeds being most numerous. There are also excellent flocks of
+Lincolns and Southdowns. The number of sheep and lambs in Canada was
+estimated for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565 in
+1901.
+
+Pigs, mostly of the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth breeds, are reared
+and fattened in large numbers, and there is a valuable export trade in
+bacon. Canadian hogs are fed, as a rule, on feeds suited for the
+production of what are known as "fleshy sides." Bacon with an excess of
+fat is not wanted, except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers
+of Canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having plenty of
+lean and firm flesh. The great extension of the dairy business has
+fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of swine. Experimental work
+has shown that swine fattened with a ration partly of skim-milk were
+lustier and of a more healthy appearance than swine fattened wholly on
+grains. Slaughtering and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing
+houses. The use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork
+has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a small
+percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered in
+European markets. Regular supplies are exported during every week of the
+year. Large quantities of lard, brawn and pigs' feet are exported. In
+1907 the number of pigs in Canada was estimated at 3,530,060, an
+increase of 1,237,385 over the census record of 1901. Turkeys thrive
+well, grow to a fine size and have flesh of tender quality. Chickens are
+raised in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly since
+the opening of the 20th century. Canadian eggs are usually packed in
+cases containing thirty dozens each. Cardboard fillers are used which
+provide a separate compartment for each egg. There are cold storage
+warehouses at various points in Canada, at which the eggs are collected,
+sorted and packed before shipment. These permit the eggs to be landed in
+Europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with the shells
+quite full.
+
+
+  Dairy products.
+
+Canada has been called the land of milk and honey. Milk is plentiful,
+and enters largely into the diet of the people. With a climate which
+produces healthy, vigorous animals, notably free from epizootic
+diseases, with a fertile soil for the growth of fodder crops and
+pasture, with abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful
+supply of ice, the conditions in Canada are ideal for the dairying
+industry. Large quantities of condensed milk, put up in hermetically
+sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and on board steamships.
+The cheese is chiefly of the variety known as "Canadian Cheddar." It is
+essentially a food cheese rather than a mere condiment, and 1 lb of it
+will furnish as much nourishing material as 2¼ lb of the best beefsteak.
+The industry is largely carried on by co-operative associations of
+farmers. The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864,
+and from that time the production and exportation of cheese grew
+rapidly. Legislation was passed to protect Canadian dairy produce from
+dishonest manipulation, and soon Canadian cheese obtained a deservedly
+high reputation in the British markets. In 1891 cheese factories and
+creameries numbered 1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. In 1908 there
+were 4355 of these factories, of which 1284 were in Ontario, 2806 in
+Quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of Canada. Those in
+Ontario are the largest in size. Amongst the British imports of cheese
+the Canadian product ranks first in quality, whilst in quantity it
+represents about 72% of the total value of the cheese imports, and 84%
+of the total value of the imports of that kind of cheese which is
+classed as Cheddar. In 1906 the total exports of cheese to all countries
+from Canada reached 215,834,543 lb of the value of $24,433,169.
+
+Butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk, cream and
+butter are handled by skilled makers. The creameries are provided with
+special cold storage rooms, into which the butter is placed on the same
+day in which it is made. From them it is carried in refrigerator railway
+cars and in cold storage chambers on steamships to its ultimate
+destination. For the export trade it is packed in square boxes made of
+spruce or some other odourless wood. These are lined with parchment
+paper, and contain each 56 lb net of butter. The total export of butter
+from Canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 lb., of the value of $7,075,539.
+According to a census of manufactures taken in 1906, the total value of
+factory cheese and butter made in Canada during that year was
+$32,402,265.
+
+
+  Fruits.
+
+There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes and westward
+of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine quality can be grown; and
+there are other smaller areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are
+grown in quantities in the open air. The climate is favourable to the
+growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants,
+gooseberries, etc. There are many localities in which cranberries are
+successfully grown, and in which blueberries also grow wild in great
+profusion.
+
+Apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. The high
+flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities of the
+Canadian apples are their chief merits. Apples are exported in barrels
+and also in boxes containing about one bushel each. Large quantities are
+also evaporated and exported. Establishments for evaporating fruit are
+now found in most of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning
+factories and jam factories have been established in many parts of
+Canada, and are conducted with advantage and profit.
+
+The chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern and western
+Ontario and in Nova Scotia; but recently much attention has been devoted
+to fruit-growing in British Columbia, where large areas of suitable land
+are available for the cultivation of apples, pears and other fruits. In
+some parts of the semi-arid districts in the interior of the province
+irrigation is being successfully practised for the purpose of bringing
+land under profitable cultivation for fruit. Collections of fruit grown
+in British Columbia have received premier honours at the competitive
+exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in London, where their
+high quality and fine colour have been greatly appreciated.
+
+Wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal vine-growing
+districts, and in several localities large vineyards have been planted
+for this purpose. An abundance of cider is also made in all the large
+apple-growing districts.
+
+Honey is one of the minor food-products of Canada, and in many
+localities bees have abundance of pasturage. Canadian honey for colour,
+flavour and substance is unsurpassed. Maple sugar and syrup are made in
+those areas of the country where the sugar-maple tree flourishes. The
+syrup is used chiefly as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and
+the sugar is used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes
+and for the making of confectionery. The processes of manufacture have
+been improved by the introduction of specially constructed evaporators,
+and quantities of maple sugar and syrup are annually exported.
+
+Tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in Canada since 1904. Its
+cultivation promises to be successful in parts of Ontario, Quebec and
+British Columbia.
+
+
+  State aid.
+
+The department of agriculture of the Dominion government renders aid to
+agriculture in many ways, maintaining the experimental farms and various
+effective organizations for assisting the live-stock, dairying and
+fruit-growing industries, for testing the germination and purity of
+agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in agricultural
+and dairy produce. The health of animals branch, through which are
+administered the laws relating to the contagious diseases of animals,
+and the control of quarantine and inspection stations for imported
+animals, undertakes also valuable experiments on the diseases of farm
+livestock, including glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &c. The
+policy of slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been
+successfully initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts of
+the country indicating a considerable decrease from the previous year in
+the number of horses destroyed and the amount of compensation paid. A
+disease of cattle in Nova Scotia, known as the Pictou cattle disease,
+long treated as contagious, has now been demonstrated by the veterinary
+officers of the department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the
+ragwort, _Senecio Jacobea_. Hog cholera or swine fever has been almost
+eradicated. A laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and
+pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive vaccines.
+Canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia and
+foot-and-mouth disease.
+
+The work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the improvement of
+the stock-raising industry, and is carried on through the agencies of
+expert teachers and stock judges, the systematic distribution of
+pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly testing of pure-bred dairy herds,
+the supervision of the accuracy of the registration of pure-bred animals
+and the nationalization of live-stock records. The last two objects are
+secured by act of the Dominion parliament passed in 1905. Under this act
+a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud, herd and
+flock book associations of Canada, perform the duties of accepting the
+entries of pure-bred animals for the respective pedigree registers, and
+are provided with an office and with stationery and franking privileges
+by the government. Pedigree certificates are certified as correct by an
+officer of the department of agriculture, so that in Canada there exist
+national registration and government authority for the accuracy of
+pedigree livestock certificates. The government promotes the extension
+of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the United
+Kingdom who make reports from time to time on the condition in which
+Canadian goods are delivered from the steamships, and also on what they
+can learn from importing and distributing merchants regarding the
+preferences of the market for different qualities of farm goods and
+different sorts of packages. Through this branch of the public service a
+complete chain of cold-storage accommodation between various points in
+Canada and markets in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, has been
+arranged. The government offered a bonus to those owners of creameries
+who would provide cold-storage accommodation at them and keep the room
+in use for a period of three years. It also arranged with the various
+railway companies to run refrigerator cars weekly on the main lines
+leading to Montreal and other export points. The food-products from any
+shippers are received into these cars at the various railway stations at
+the usual rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service.
+The government offered subventions to those who would provide
+cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were necessary,
+and also arranged with the owners of ocean steamships to provide
+cold-storage chambers on them by means of mechanical refrigerators. The
+policy of encouraging the provision of ample cold-storage accommodation
+has been developed still further by the Cold Storage Act of the Dominion
+parliament passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part
+payment of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage warehouses in
+Canada for the preservation of perishable food-products.
+
+Besides furnishing technical and general information as to the carrying
+on of dairying operations, the government has established and maintained
+illustration cheese factories and creameries in different places for the
+purpose of introducing the best methods of co-operative dairying in both
+the manufacturing and shipping of butter and cheese. Inspectors are
+employed to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to
+see to the enforcement of the Fruit Marks Acts, which prohibit the
+marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any fraudulent manner.
+
+The seed branch of the department of agriculture was established in 1900
+for the purpose of encouraging the production and use of seeds of
+superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of field and garden crops
+grown in Canada. Seeds are tested in the laboratory for purity and
+germination on behalf of farmers and seed merchants, and scientific
+investigations relating to seeds are conducted and reported upon. In the
+year 1906-1907 6676 samples of seeds were tested. Encouragement to
+seed-growing is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are
+issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against smut and on
+other subjects. Collections of weed seeds are issued to merchants and
+others to enable them readily to identify noxious weed seeds. The Seed
+Control Act of 1905 brings under strict regulations the trade in
+agricultural seeds, prohibiting the sale for seeding of cereals,
+grasses, clovers or forage plants unless free from weeds specified, and
+imposing severe penalties for infringements.
+
+The census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the
+department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census of
+population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the natural
+products of the Dominion every ten years, a census of the population and
+agriculture of the three North-West Provinces every five years, and
+various supplemental statistical inquiries at shorter intervals.
+
+
+  Experimental farms.
+
+Experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts of the
+Dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help to the
+farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the same time to
+cover the varied climatic and other conditions which influence
+agriculture in Canada. The central experimental farm is situated at
+Ottawa, near the boundary line between Quebec and Ontario, where it
+serves as an aid to agriculture in these two important provinces. One of
+the four branch farms then established is at Nappan, Nova Scotia, near
+the boundary between that province and New Brunswick, where it serves
+the farmers of the three maritime provinces. A second branch
+experimental farm is at Brandon in Manitoba, a third is at Indian Head
+in Saskatchewan and the fourth is at Agassiz in the coast climate of
+British Columbia. In 1906-1907 two new branch farms were established.
+One is situated at Lethbridge, southern Alberta, where problems will be
+investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and dry farming
+under conditions of a scanty rainfall. The other is at Lacombe, northern
+Alberta, about 70 m. south of Edmonton, in the centre of a good
+agricultural district on the Canadian Pacific railway. Additional branch
+farms in different parts of the Dominion are in process of
+establishment. At all these farms experiments are conducted to gain
+information as to the best methods of preparing the land for crop and of
+maintaining its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow,
+and how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest
+advantage. To this end experiments are conducted in the feeding of
+cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows for the
+production of milk, and Of poultry both for flesh and eggs. Experiments
+are also conducted to test the merits of new or untried varieties of
+cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage plants, fruits,
+vegetables, plants and trees; and samples, particularly of the most
+promising cereals, are distributed freely among farmers for trial, so
+that those which promise to be most profitable may be rapidly brought
+into general cultivation. Annual reports and occasional bulletins are
+published and widely distributed, giving the results of this work.
+Farmers are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large
+correspondence is conducted with those interested in agriculture in all
+parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and information
+from the officers of the farms.
+
+
+  Agricultural organizations and education.
+
+The governments of the several provinces each have a department of
+agriculture. Among other provincial agencies for imparting information
+there are farmers' institutes, travelling dairies, live-stock
+associations, farmers', dairymen's, seed-growers', and fruit-growers'
+associations, and agricultural and horticultural societies. These are
+all maintained or assisted by the several provinces. Parts of the
+proceedings and many of the addresses and papers presented at the more
+important meetings of these associations are published by the provincial
+governments, and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them.
+There are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important
+character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural and
+horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &c., are shown in
+competition. The Dominion government makes in turn to one of the chief
+local agricultural exhibition societies a grant of $50,000 for the
+purposes of the national representation of agriculture and live-stock.
+The exhibition receiving the grant loses its local character, and thus
+becomes the Dominion exhibition or fair for that year.
+
+There are several important agricultural colleges for the practical
+education of young men in farming, foremost amongst them being the
+Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. Agricultural colleges are also
+maintained at Truro, Nova Scotia, and Winnipeg, Manitoba. In most of the
+provinces are dairy schools where practical instruction and training are
+given. Since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education
+and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by the
+munificence of Sir William C. Macdonald of Montreal. A donation by him
+of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on Canadian farms for prizes
+in a competition for the selection of seed grain, as recommended by
+Professor J.W. Robertson, led to the Macdonald-Robertson Seed Growers'
+Association. This soon assumed national proportions in the Canadian
+Seed Growers' Association, which, with the seed branch of the department
+of agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a uniform
+standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas of the Canadian
+wheat-fields. The Macdonald Institute at Guelph, Ontario, the buildings
+and equipment of which Sir William provided at a cost of $182,500, and
+the Macdonald College at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. west of Montreal,
+have been established to promote the cause of rural education upon the
+lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training domestic
+science, &c., which on both sides of the Atlantic are now being found so
+effective in the hands of properly trained and enthusiastic teachers.
+The property of the Macdonald College at Ste Anne de Bellevue comprises
+561 acres, of which 74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research
+plots, 100 acres to a _petite culture_ farm and 387 acres to a
+live-stock and grain farm. The college includes a school for teachers, a
+school of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of
+household science for the training of young women. The land, buildings
+and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were presented
+by Sir William Macdonald, who in addition has provided for the future
+maintenance of the work by a trust fund of over $2,000,000. In connexion
+with the public elementary schools throughout Canada, where the
+principles of agriculture are taught to some extent, manual training
+centres, provided out of funds supplied by the same public-spirited
+donor, are now maintained by local and provincial public school
+authorities.     (E. H. G.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+  Discovery.
+
+About A.D. 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, led an expedition from
+Greenland to the shores probably of what is now Canada, but the first
+effective contact of Europeans with Canada was not until the end of the
+15th century. John Cabot (q.v.), sailing from Bristol, reached the
+shores of Canada in 1497. Soon after fishermen from Europe began to go
+in considerable numbers to the Newfoundland banks, and in time to the
+coasts of the mainland of America. In 1534 a French expedition under
+Jacques Cartier, a seaman of St Malo, sent out by Francis I., entered
+the Gulf of St Lawrence. In the following year Cartier sailed up the
+river as far as the Lachine Rapids, to the spot where Montreal now
+stands. During the next sixty years the fisheries and the fur trade
+received some attention, but no colonization was undertaken.
+
+
+  French colony.
+
+At the beginning of the 17th century we find the first great name in
+Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (q.v.), who had seen service under
+Henry IV. of France, was employed in the interests of successive
+fur-trading monopolies and sailed up the St Lawrence in 1603. In the
+next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share in founding the
+first permanent French colony in North America--that of Port Royal, now
+Annapolis, Nova Scotia. In 1608 he began the settlement which was named
+Quebec. From 1608 to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to
+develop Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore the
+interior. He passed southward from the St Lawrence to the beautiful lake
+which still bears his name and also westward, up the St Lawrence and the
+Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching the shores of China. He reached Lake
+Huron and Lake Ontario, but not the great lakes stretching still farther
+west.
+
+The era was that of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), and during that
+great upheaval England was sometimes fighting France. Already, in 1613,
+the English from Virginia had almost completely wiped out the French
+settlement at Port Royal, and when in 1629 a small English fleet
+appeared at Quebec, Champlain was forced to surrender. But in 1632
+Canada was restored to France by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye. Just
+at this time was formed under the aegis of Cardinal Richelieu the
+"Company of New France," known popularly as "The Company of One Hundred
+Associates." With 120 members it was granted the whole St Lawrence
+valley; for fifteen years from 1629 it was to have a complete monopoly
+of trade; and products from its territory were to enter France free of
+duty. In return the company was to take to New France 300 colonists a
+year; only French Catholics might go; and for each settlement the
+company was to provide three priests. Until 1663 this company controlled
+New France.
+
+It was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman Catholic church, and
+Canada became the favourite mission. The Society of Jesus was only one
+of several orders--Franciscans (Recollets), Sulpicians, Ursulines,
+&c.--who worked in New France. The Jesuits have attracted chief
+attention, not merely on account of their superior zeal and numbers, but
+also because of the tragic fate of some of their missionaries in Canada.
+In the voluminous _Relations_ of their doings the story has been
+preserved. Among the Huron Indians, whose settlements bordered on the
+lake of that name, they secured a great influence. But there was
+relentless war between the Hurons and the Iroquois occupying the
+southern shore of Lake Ontario, and when in 1649 the Iroquois ruined and
+almost completely destroyed the Hurons, the Jesuit missionaries also
+fell victims to the conquerors' rage. Missionaries to the Iroquois
+themselves met with a similar fate and the missions failed. Commercial
+life also languished. The company planned by Richelieu was not a
+success. It did little to colonize New France, and in 1660, after more
+than thirty years of its monopoly, there were not more than 2000 French
+in the whole country. In 1663 the charter of the company was revoked. No
+longer was a trading company to discharge the duties of a sovereign. New
+France now became a royal province, with governor, intendant, &c., on
+the model of the provinces of France.
+
+In 1664 a new "Company of the West Indies" (_Compagnie des Indes
+Occidentales_) was organized to control French trade and colonization
+not only in Canada but also in West Africa, South America and the West
+Indies. At first it promised well. In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent
+to Canada; the European population was soon doubled, and Louis XIV.
+began to take a personal interest in the colony. But once more, in
+contrast with English experience, the great trading company proved a
+failure in French hands as a colonizing agent, and in 1674 its charter
+was summarily revoked by Louis XIV. Henceforth in name, if not in fact,
+monopoly is ended in Canada.
+
+By this time French explorers were pressing forward to unravel the
+mystery of the interior. By 1659 two Frenchmen, Radisson and
+Groseillers, had penetrated beyond the great lakes to the prairies of
+the far West; they were probably the first Europeans to see the
+Mississippi. By 1666 a French mission was established on the shores of
+Lake Superior, and in 1673 Joliet and Marquette, explorers from Canada,
+reached and for some distance descended the Mississippi. Five years
+later Cavelier de la Salle was making his toilsome way westward from
+Quebec to discover the true character of the great river and to perform
+the feat, perilous in view of the probable hostility of the natives, of
+descending it to the sea. In 1682 he accomplished his task, took
+possession of the valley of the Mississippi in the name of Louis XIV.
+and called it Louisiana. Thus from Canada as her basis was France
+reaching out to grasp a continent.
+
+There was a keen rivalry between church and state for dominance in this
+new empire. In 1659 arrived at Quebec a young prelate of noble birth,
+Francois Xavier de Laval-Montmorency, who had come to rule the church in
+Canada. An ascetic, who practised the whole cycle of medieval
+austerities, he was determined that Canada should be ruled by the
+church, and he desired for New France a Puritanism as strict as that of
+New England. His especial zeal was directed towards the welfare of the
+Indians. These people showed, to their own ruin, a reckless liking for
+the brandy of the white man. Laval insisted that the traders should not
+supply brandy to the natives. He declared excommunicate any one who did
+so and for a time he triumphed. More than once he drove from Canada
+governors who tried to thwart him. In 1663 he was actually invited to
+choose a governor after his own mind and did so, but with no cessation
+of the old disputes. In 1672 Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac (q.v.),
+was named governor of New France, and in him the church found her match.
+Yet not at once; for, after a bitter struggle, he was recalled in 1682.
+But Canada needed him. He knew how to control the ferocious Iroquois,
+who had cut off France from access to Lake Ontario; to check them he had
+built a fort where now stands the city of Kingston. With Frontenac gone,
+these savages almost strangled the colony. On a stormy August night in
+1689 1500 Iroquois burst in on the village of Lachine near Montreal,
+butchered 200 of its people, and carried off more than 100 to be
+tortured to death at their leisure. Then the strong man Frontenac was
+recalled to face the crisis.
+
+
+  Struggles with England.
+
+It was a critical era. James II. had fallen in England, and William III.
+was organizing Europe against French aggression. France's plan for a
+great empire in America was now taking shape and there, as in Europe, a
+deadly struggle with England was inevitable. Frontenac planned attacks
+upon New England and encouraged a ruthless border warfare that involved
+many horrors. Him, in return, the English attacked. Sir William Phips
+sailed from Boston in 1690, conquered Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and then
+hazarded the greater task of leading a fleet up the St Lawrence against
+Quebec. On the 16th of October 1690 thirty-four English ships, some of
+them only fishing craft, appeared in its basin and demanded the
+surrender of the town. When Frontenac answered defiantly, Phips attacked
+the place; but he was repulsed and in the end sailed away unsuccessful.
+
+Each side had now begun to see that the vital point was control of the
+interior, which time was to prove the most extensive fertile area in the
+world. La Salle's expedition had aroused the French to the importance of
+the Mississippi, and they soon had a bold plan to occupy it, to close in
+from the rear on the English on the Atlantic coast, seize their colonies
+and even deport the colonists. The plan was audacious, for the English
+in America outnumbered the French by twenty to one. But their colonies
+were democracies, disunited because each was pursuing its own special
+interests, while the French were united under despotic leadership.
+Frontenac attacked the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these
+proud savages to sue for peace. But in the next year was made the treaty
+of Ryswick, which brought a pause in the conflict, and in 1698 Frontenac
+died.
+
+After Frontenac the Iroquois, though still hostile to France, are
+formidable no more, and the struggle for the continent is frankly
+between the English and the French. The peace of Ryswick proved but a
+truce, and when in 1701, on the death of the exiled James II., Louis
+XIV. flouted the claims of William III. to the throne of England by
+proclaiming as king James's son, renewed war was inevitable. In Europe
+it saw the brilliant victories of Marlborough; in America it was less
+decisive, but France lost heavily. Though the English, led by Sir
+Hovenden Walker, made in 1711 an effort to take Quebec which proved
+abortive, they seized Nova Scotia; and when the treaty of Utrecht was
+made in 1713, France admitted defeat in America by yielding to Britain
+her claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. But she still
+held the shores of the St Lawrence, and she retained, too, the island of
+Cape Breton to command its mouth. There she built speedily the fortress
+of Louisbourg, and prepared once more to challenge British supremacy in
+America. With a sound instinct that looked to future greatness, France
+still aimed, more and more, at the control of the interior of the
+Continent. The danger from the Iroquois on Lake Ontario had long cut her
+off from the most direct access to the West, and from the occupation of
+the Ohio valley leading to the Mississippi, but now free from this
+savage scourge she could go where she would. In 1701 she founded
+Detroit, commanding the route from Lake Erie to Lake Huron. Her
+missionaries and leaders were already at Sault Ste Marie commanding the
+approach to Lake Superior, and at Michilimackinac commanding that to
+Lake Michigan. They had also penetrated to what is now the Canadian
+West, and it was a French Canadian, La Vérendrye, who, by the route
+leading past the point where now stands the city of Winnipeg, pressed
+on into the far West until in 1743, first recorded of white men, he came
+in sight of the Rocky Mountains. In the south of the continent France
+also crowned La Salle's work by founding early in the 18th century New
+Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi. It was a far cry from New
+Orleans to Quebec. If France could link them by a chain of settlements
+and shut in the English to their narrow strip of Atlantic seaboard there
+was good promise that North America would be hers.
+
+The project was far-reaching, but France could do little to make it
+effective. Louis XV. allowed her navy to decline and her people showed
+little inclination for emigration to the colonies. In 1744, when the war
+of the Austrian Succession broke out, the New England colonies planned
+and in 1745 effected the capture of Louisbourg, the stronghold of France
+in Cape Breton Island, which menaced their commerce. But to their
+disgust, when the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was made in 1748, this
+conquest was handed back to France. She continued her work of building a
+line of forts on the great lakes--on the river Niagara, on the Ohio, on
+the Mississippi; and the English colonies, with the enemy thus in their
+rear, grew ever more restive. In 1753 Virginia warned the French on the
+Ohio that they were encroaching on British territory. The next year, in
+circumstances curiously like those which were repeated when the French
+expedition under Marchand menaced Britain in Egypt by seeking to
+establish a post on the Upper Nile, George Washington, a young Virginian
+officer, was sent to drive the French from their Fort Duquesne on the
+Ohio river, where now stands Pittsburgh. The result was sharp fighting
+between English and French in a time of nominal peace. In 1755 the
+British took the stern step of deporting the Acadian French from Nova
+Scotia. Though this province had been ceded to Great Britain in 1713
+many of the Acadians had refused to accept British sovereignty. In 1749
+the British founded Halifax, began to colonize Nova Scotia, and, with
+war imminent, deemed it prudent to disperse the Acadians, chiefly along
+the Atlantic seaboard (see NOVA SCOTIA: _History_). In 1756 the Seven
+Years' War definitely began. France had no resources to cope with those
+of Britain in America, and the British command of the sea proved
+decisive. On the 13th of September 1759 Wolfe won his great victory
+before Quebec, which involved the fall of that place, and a year later
+at Montreal the French army in Canada surrendered. By the peace of
+Paris, 1763, the whole of New France was finally ceded to Great Britain.
+
+
+  English possesion.
+
+With only about 60,000 French in Canada at the time of the conquest it
+might have seemed as if this population would soon be absorbed by the
+incoming British. Some thought that, under a Protestant sovereign, the
+Canadian Catholics would be rapidly converted to Protestantism. But the
+French type proved stubbornly persistent and to this day dominates the
+older Canada. The first English settlers in the conquered country were
+chiefly petty traders, not of a character to lead in social or public
+affairs. The result was that the government of the time co-operated
+rather with the leaders among the French.
+
+After peace was concluded in 1763, Canada was governed under the
+authority of a royal proclamation, but sooner or later a constitution
+specially adapted to the needs of the country was inevitable. In 1774
+this was provided by the Quebec Act passed by the Imperial parliament.
+Under this act the western territory which France had claimed, extending
+as far as the Mississippi and south to the Ohio, was included with
+Canada in what was called the Province of Quebec. This vast territory
+was to be governed despotically from Quebec; the Roman Catholic church
+was given its old privileges in Canada; and the French civil law was
+established permanently side by side with the English criminal law. The
+act linked the land-owning class in Canada and the church by ties of
+self-interest to the British cause. The _habitant_, placed again under
+their authority, had less reason to be content.
+
+In 1775 began the American Revolution. Its leaders tried to make the
+revolt continental, and invaded Canada, hoping that the French would
+join them. They took Montreal and besieged Quebec during the winter of
+1775-1776; but the prudent leadership of Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards
+Lord Dorchester, saved Quebec and in 1776 the revolutionary army
+withdrew unsuccessful from Canada. Since that time any prospect of
+Canada's union to the United States has been very remote.
+
+But the American Revolution profoundly influenced the life of Canada.
+The country became the refuge of thousands of American loyalists who
+would not desert Great Britain. To Nova Scotia, to what are now New
+Brunswick (q.v.) and Ontario (q.v.) they fled in numbers not easily
+estimated, but probably reaching about 40,000. Until this time the
+present New Brunswick and Ontario had contained few European settlers;
+now they developed, largely under the influence of the loyalists of the
+Revolution. This meant that the American type of colonial life would be
+reproduced in Canada; but it meant also bitter hostility on the part of
+these colonists to the United States, which refused in any way to
+compensate the loyalists for their confiscated property. Great Britain
+did something; the loyalists received liberal grants of land and cash
+compensation amounting to nearly £4,000,000.
+
+A prevailingly French type of government was now no longer adequate in
+Canada, and in 1791 was passed by the British parliament the
+Constitutional Act, separating Canada at the Ottawa river into two
+parts, each with its own government; Lower Canada, chiefly French,
+retaining the old system of laws, with representative institutions now
+added, and Upper Canada, on the purely British model. (For the history
+of Lower and Upper Canada, now Quebec and Ontario, the separate articles
+must be consulted.) Each province had special problems; the French in
+Lower Canada aimed at securing political power for their own race, while
+in Upper Canada there was no race problem, and the great struggle was
+for independence of official control and in all essential matters for
+government by the people. It may be doubted whether at this time it
+would have been safe to give these small communities complete
+self-government. But this a clamorous radical element demanded
+insistently, and the issue was the chief one in Canada for half a
+century.
+
+But before this issue matured war broke out between Great Britain and
+the United States in 1812 from causes due chiefly to Napoleon's
+continental policy. The war seemed to furnish a renewed opportunity to
+annex Canada to the American Union, and Canada became the chief theatre
+of conflict. The struggle was most vigorous on the Niagara frontier. But
+in the end the American invasion failed and the treaty made at Ghent in
+1814 left the previous status unaltered.
+
+
+  Lord Durham.
+
+In 1837 a few French Canadians in Lower Canada, led by Louis Joseph
+Papineau (q.v.), took up arms with the wild idea of establishing a
+French republic on the St Lawrence. In the same year William Lyon
+Mackenzie (q.v.) led a similar armed revolt in Upper Canada against the
+domination of the ruling officialdom called, with little reason, the
+"Family Compact." Happening, as these revolts did, just at the time of
+Queen Victoria's accession, they attracted wide attention, and in 1838
+the earl of Durham (q.v.) was sent to govern Canada and report on the
+affairs of British North America. Clothed as he was with large powers,
+he undertook in the interests of leniency and reconciliation to banish,
+without trial, some leaders of the rebellion in Lower Canada. For this
+reason he was censured at home and he promptly resigned, after spending
+only five months in the country. But his _Report_, published in the
+following year, is a masterly survey of the situation and included
+recommendations that profoundly influenced the later history of Canada.
+He recommended the union of the two Canadian provinces at once, the
+ultimate union of all British North America and the granting to this
+large state of full self-government. The French element he thought a
+menace to Canada's future, and partly for this reason he desired all the
+provinces to unite so that the British element should be dominant.
+
+To carry out Lord Durham's policy the British government passed in 1840
+an Act of Union joining Upper and Lower Canada, and sent out as governor
+Charles Poulett Thompson, who was made Baron Sydenham and Toronto In the
+single parliament each province was equally represented. By this time
+there was more than a million people in Canada, and the country was
+becoming important. Lord Sydenham died in 1841 before his work was
+completed, and he left Canada still in a troubled condition. The French
+were suspicious of the Union, aimed avowedly at checking their
+influence, and the complete self-government for which the "Reformers" in
+English-speaking Canada had clamoured was not yet conceded by the
+colonial office. But rapidly it became obvious that the provinces united
+had become too important to be held in leading strings. The issue was
+finally settled in 1849 when the earl of Elgin was governor and the
+Canadian legislature, sitting at Montreal, passed by a large majority
+the Rebellion Losses Bill, compensating citizens, some of them French,
+in Lower Canada, for losses incurred at the hands of the loyal party
+during the rebellion a decade earlier. The cry was easily raised by the
+Conservative minority that this was to vote reward for rebellion. They
+appealed to London for intervention. The mob in Montreal burned the
+parliament buildings and stoned Lord Elgin himself because he gave the
+royal assent to the bill. He did so in the face of this fierce
+opposition, on the ground that, in Canadian domestic affairs, the
+Canadian parliament must be supreme.
+
+The union of the two provinces did not work well. Each was jealous of
+the other and deadlocks frequently occurred. Commercially, after 1849,
+Canada was prosperous. In 1854 Lord Elgin negotiated a reciprocity
+treaty with the United States which gave Canadian natural products free
+entrance to the American market. The outbreak of the Civil War in the
+United States in 1861 increased the demand for such products, and Canada
+enjoyed an extensive trade with her neighbour. But, owing largely to the
+unfriendly attitude of Great Britain to the northern side during the
+war, the United States cancelled the treaty, when its first term of ten
+years ended in 1865, and it has never been renewed.
+
+Under the party system in Canada cabinets changed as often as, until
+recently, they did in France, and the union of the two provinces did not
+give political stability. The French and English were sufficiently equal
+in strength to make the task of government well nigh impossible. In 1864
+came the opportunity for change, when New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and
+Prince Edward Island were considering a federal union. Canada suggested
+a wider plan to include herself and, in October 1864, a conference was
+held at Quebec. The conference outlined a plan of federation which
+subsequently, with slight modifications, passed the imperial parliament
+as "The British North America Act," and on the 1st of July 1867, the
+Dominion of Canada came into existence. It was born during the era of
+the American Civil War, and was planned to correct defects which time
+had revealed in the American federation. The provinces in Canada were
+conceded less power than have the states in the American union; the
+federal government retaining the residuum of power not conceded.
+     (G. M. W.)
+
+
+  Canada since federation.
+
+When federation was accomplished in 1867 the Dominion of Canada
+comprised only the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and
+Nova Scotia. Lord Monck was appointed the first governor-general, and at
+his request the Hon. John Alexander Macdonald undertook the formation of
+an administration. A coalition cabinet was formed, including the
+foremost Liberals and Conservatives drawn from the different provinces.
+Under a proclamation issued from Windsor Castle by Queen Victoria on the
+22nd of May the new constitution came into effect on the 1st of July.
+This birthday of the Dominion has been fixed by statute as a public
+holiday, and is annually observed under the name of "Dominion Day."
+Seventy-two senators--half Conservatives and half Liberals--were
+appointed, and lieutenant-governors were named for the four provinces.
+The prime minister was created a K.C.B., and minor honours were
+conferred on other ministers in recognition of their services in
+bringing about the union.
+
+
+  Nova Scotia question.
+
+The first general election for the Dominion House of Commons was held
+during the month of August, and except in the province of Nova Scotia
+was favourable to the administration, which entered upon its
+parliamentary work with a majority of thirty-two. The first session of
+parliament was opened on the 8th of November, but adjourned on the 21st
+of December till the 12th of March 1868, chiefly on account of the fact
+that members of the Dominion parliament were allowed, in Ontario and
+Quebec, to hold seats in the local legislatures, so that it was
+difficult for the different bodies to be in session simultaneously. It
+was not till 1873 that an act was passed making members of the local
+legislatures ineligible for seats in the House of Commons. Immediately
+after the completion of federation a serious agitation for repeal of the
+union arose in Nova Scotia, which had been brought into the federal
+system by a vote of the existing legislature, without any direct
+preliminary appeal to the people. Headed by Joseph Howe (q.v.), the
+advocates of repeal swept the province at the Dominion election. Out of
+19 members then elected 18 were pledged to repeal, Dr Tupper, the
+minister responsible for carrying the Act of Union, alone among the
+supporters of federation securing a seat. The local assembly, in which
+36 out of 38 members were committed to repeal, passed an address to Her
+Majesty praying her not to "reduce this free, happy and hitherto
+self-governed province to the degraded condition of a servile dependency
+of Canada," and sent Howe with a delegation to London to lay the
+petition at the foot of the throne. Howe enlisted the support of John
+Bright and other members of parliament, but the imperial government was
+firm, and the duke of Buckingham, as colonial secretary, soon informed
+the governor-general in a despatch that consent could not be given for
+the withdrawal of Nova Scotia from the Dominion. Meanwhile Howe,
+convinced of the impossibility of effecting separation, and fearing
+disloyal tendencies which had manifested themselves in some of its
+advocates, entered into negotiations with Dr Tupper in London, and later
+with the Dominion government, for better financial terms than those
+originally arranged for Nova Scotia in the federal system. The estimated
+amount of provincial debt assumed by the general government was
+increased by $1,186,756, and a special annual subsidy of $82,698 was
+granted for a period of ten years. These terms having been agreed to,
+Howe, as a pledge of his approval and support, accepted a seat as
+secretary of state in the Dominion cabinet. By taking this course he
+sacrificed much of his remarkable popularity in his native province, but
+confirmed the work of consolidating the Dominion. It was many years
+before the bitterness of feeling aroused by the repeal agitation
+entirely subsided in Nova Scotia.
+
+A gloom was cast over the first parliament of the Dominion by the
+assassination in 1868 of one of the most brilliant figures in the
+politics of the time, D'Arcy McGee (q.v.) His murderer, a Fenian acting
+under the instructions of the secret society to which he belonged, was
+discovered, and executed in 1869.
+
+The reorganization of the various departments of state, in view of the
+wider interests with which they had to deal, occupied much of the
+attention of the first parliament of the Dominion. In 1867 the postal
+rates were reduced and unified. In 1868 a militia system for the whole
+Dominion was organized, the tariff altered and systematized, and a Civil
+Service Act passed. The banking system of the country was put on a sound
+footing by a series of acts culminating in 1871, and in the same year a
+uniform system of decimal currency was established for the whole
+Dominion. While the new machinery of state was thus being put in
+operation other large questions presented themselves.
+
+
+  Inter-Colonial railway.
+
+The construction of the Inter-Colonial railway as a connecting link
+between the provinces on the seaboard and those along the St Lawrence
+and the Great Lakes was a part of the federation compact, a clause of
+the British North America Act providing that it should be begun within
+six months after the date of union. The guarantee of the imperial
+government made easy the provision of the necessary capital, but as
+this was coupled with a voice in the decision of the route, it
+complicated the latter question, about which a keen contest arose. The
+most direct and therefore commercially most promising line of
+construction passed near the boundary of the United States. Recent
+friction with that country made this route objected to by the imperial
+and many Canadian authorities. Ultimately the longer, more expensive,
+but more isolated route along the shores of the Gulf of St Lawrence was
+adopted. The work was taken in hand at once, and pressed steadily
+forward to completion. It has since been supplemented by other lines
+built for more distinctly commercial ends. Though not for many years a
+financial success, the Inter-Colonial railway, which was opened in 1876,
+has in a marked way fulfilled its object by binding together socially
+and industrially widely separated portions of the Dominion.
+
+
+  Hudson's Bay Company territories.
+
+Within a month of the meeting of the first parliament of the Dominion a
+question of vast importance to the future of the country was brought
+forward by the Hon. W. McDougall in a series of resolutions which were
+adopted, and on which was based an address to the queen praying that
+Majesty would unite Rupert's Land and the North-West Territories to
+Canada. A delegation consisting of Sir G.E. Cartier and the Hon. W.
+McDougall was in 1868 sent to England to negotiate with the Hudson's Bay
+Company (q.v.) for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the
+imperial government for the transfer of the territory. After prolonged
+discussions the company agreed to surrender to the crown, in
+consideration of a payment of £300,000, the rights and interests in the
+north-west guaranteed by its charter, with the exception of a
+reservation of one-twentieth part of the fertile belt, and 45,000 acres
+of land adjacent to the trading posts of the company. For the purposes
+of this agreement the "fertile belt" was to be bounded as follows:--"On
+the south by the U.S. boundary, on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on
+the north by the northern branch of the Saskatchewan river, on the east
+by Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connecting
+them." An act authorizing the change of control was passed by the
+imperial parliament in July 1868; the arrangement made with the Hudson's
+Bay Company was accepted by the Canadian parliament in June 1869; and
+the deed of surrender from the Hudson's Bay Company to Her Majesty is
+dated November 19th, 1869. In anticipation of the formal transfer to the
+Dominion an act was passed by the Canadian parliament in the same month
+providing for the temporary government of Rupert's Land and the
+North-West Territories. On the 28th of September the Hon. W. McDougall
+was appointed the first governor, and left at once to assume control on
+the 1st of December, when it had been understood that the formal change
+of possession would take place.
+
+
+  Red river rebellion.
+
+Meanwhile a serious condition of affairs was developing in the Red river
+settlement, the most considerable centre of population in the newly
+acquired territory. The half-breeds regarded with suspicion a transfer
+of control concerning which they had not been consulted. They resented
+the presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads and
+townships, and the tactless way in which some of these did their work
+increased the suspicion that long-established rights to the soil would
+not be respected. A population largely Roman Catholic in creed, and
+partly French in origin and language, feared that an influx of new
+settlers would overthrow cherished traditions. Some were afraid of
+increased taxation. A group of immigrants from the United States
+fomented disturbance in the hope that it would lead to annexation. Louis
+Riel, a fanatical half-breed, placed himself at the head of the
+movement. His followers established what they called a "provisional
+government" of which he was chosen president, and when the newly
+appointed governor reached the boundary line he was prevented from
+entering the territory. Several of the white settlers who resisted this
+rebellious movement were arrested and kept in confinement. One of these,
+a young man named Thomas Scott, having treated Riel with defiance, was
+court-martialled for treason to the provisional government, condemned,
+and on the 4th of March 1870, shot in cold blood under the walls of Fort
+Garry. This crime aroused intense excitement throughout the country,
+and the Orange body, particularly, to which Scott belonged, demanded the
+immediate punishment of his murderer and the suppression of the
+rebellion. An armed force, composed partly of British regulars and
+partly of Canadian volunteers, was made ready and placed under the
+command of Colonel Garnet Wolseley, afterwards Lord Wolseley. As a
+military force could not pass through the United States, the expedition
+was compelled to take the route up Lake Superior, and from the head of
+that lake through 500 m. of unbroken and difficult wilderness. In August
+1870, the force reached Fort Garry, to find the rebels scattered and
+their leader, Riel, a fugitive in the neighbouring states. Meanwhile,
+during the progress of the expedition, an act had been passed creating
+Manitoba a province, with full powers of self-government, and the
+arrival of the military was closely followed by that of the first
+governor, Mr (later Sir) Adams G. Archibald, who succeeded in organizing
+the administration on a satisfactory basis. Fort Garry became Winnipeg,
+and there were soon indications that it was destined to be a great city,
+and the commercial doorway to the vast prairies that lay beyond.
+Meanwhile, till adequate means of transportation were provided, it was
+seen that city and prairie alike must wait for any large inflow of
+population.
+
+
+  New provinces.
+
+Provision was made in the British North America Act to receive new
+provinces into the Dominion. Manitoba was the first to be constituted;
+in 1871 British Columbia, which had hitherto held aloof, determined,
+under the persuasion of a sympathetic governor, Mr (later Sir) Antony
+Musgrave, to throw in its lot with the Dominion. Popular feeling in
+British Columbia itself was not strongly in favour of union, and the
+terms under which the new province was to be received were the subject
+of much negotiation with the provincial authorities, and were keenly
+debated in parliament before the bill in which they were embodied was
+finally carried. The clause on which there was the widest divergence of
+opinion was one providing that a trans-continental railway, connecting
+the Pacific province with the eastern part of the Dominion, should be
+begun within two, and completed within ten years. To a province which at
+the time contained a population of only 36,000, and but half of this
+white, the inducement thus held out was immense. The Opposition in
+parliament claimed that the contract was one impossible for the Dominion
+to fulfil. The government of Sir John Macdonald felt, however, that the
+future of the Dominion depended upon linking together the Atlantic and
+the Pacific, and in view of the vast unoccupied spaces lying between the
+Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, open to immigration from the United
+States, their audacity in undertaking the work was doubtless justified.
+The construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, thus inaugurated,
+became for several years the chief subject of political contention
+between opposing parties.
+
+Anticipating the order of chronology slightly, it may be mentioned here
+that in 1873 Prince Edward Island (q.v.), which had in 1865 decisively
+rejected proposals of the Quebec conference and had in the following
+year repeated its rejection of federation by a resolution of the
+legislature affirming that no terms Canada could offer would be
+acceptable, now decided to throw in its lot with the Dominion. The
+island had become involved in heavy railway expenditure, and financial
+necessities led the electors to take a broader view of the question. In
+the end the federal government assumed the railway debt, arrangements
+were made for extinguishing certain proprietary rights which had long
+been a source of discontent, and on the 1st of July 1873 the Dominion
+was rounded off by the accession of the new province.
+
+Finally in 1878, in order to remove all doubts about unoccupied
+territory, an imperial order in council was passed in response to an
+address of the Canadian parliament, annexing to the Dominion all British
+possessions in North America, except Newfoundland. That small colony,
+which had been represented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the
+proposals of 1865, and, in spite of various efforts to arrange
+satisfactory terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has proved the only
+obstacle to the complete political unification of British North America.
+
+[Illustration: CANADA]
+
+
+  Difficulties with the United States.
+
+A signal proof was soon furnished of the new standing in the empire
+which federation had given to the Canadian provinces. A heritage of
+differences and difficulties had been left to be settled between
+England, Canada and the American Union as the result of the Civil War.
+In retaliation for the supposed sympathy of Canadians with the South in
+this struggle the victorious North took steps to abrogate in 1866 the
+reciprocity treaty of 1854, which had conferred such great advantages on
+both countries. It followed that the citizens of the United States lost
+the right which they had received under the treaty to share in the
+fisheries of Canada. American fishermen, however, showed so little
+inclination to give up what they had enjoyed so long, that it was found
+necessary to take vigorous steps to protect Canadian fishing rights, and
+frequent causes of friction consequently arose. During the progress of
+the Civil War American feeling had been greatly exasperated by the
+losses inflicted on commerce by the cruiser "Alabama," which, it was
+claimed, was allowed to leave a British port in, violation of
+international law. On the other hand, Canadian feeling had been equally
+exasperated by the Fenian raids, organized on American soil, which had
+cost Canada much expenditure of money and some loss of life. In,
+addition to these causes of difference there was an unsettled boundary
+dispute in British Columbia, and questions about the navigation of
+rivers common to the United States and Canada. In 1869 the government of
+Canada sent a deputation to England to press upon the imperial
+government the necessity of asserting Canada's position in regard to the
+fisheries, and the desirability of settling other questions in dispute
+with the republic. The outcome of this application was the appointment
+of a commission to consider and if possible settle outstanding
+differences between the three countries. The prime minister of the
+Dominion, Sir John Macdonald, was asked to act as one of the imperial
+commissioners in carrying on these negotiations. This was the first time
+that a colonist had been called upon to assist in the settlement of
+international disputes. The commission assembled at the American capital
+in February 1871, and after discussions extending over several weeks
+signed what is known as the treaty of Washington. By the terms of this
+treaty the "Alabama" claims and the San Juan boundary were referred to
+arbitration; the free navigation of the St Lawrence was granted to the
+United States in return for the free use of Lake Michigan and certain
+Alaskan rivers; and it was settled that a further commission should
+decide the excess of value of the Canadian fisheries thrown open to the
+United States over and above the reciprocal concessions made to Canada.
+Much to the annoyance of the people of the Dominion the claims for the
+Fenian raids were withdrawn at the request of the British government,
+which undertook, to make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To
+some of these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous
+opposition, and in finally signing the treaty stated that he did so
+chiefly for imperial interests, although in these he believed Canadian
+interests to be involved. The clauses relating to the fisheries and the
+San Juan boundary were reserved for the approval of the Canadian
+parliament, which, in spite of much violent opposition, ratified them by
+a large majority. Under the "Alabama" arbitration Great Britain paid to
+the United States damages to the amount of $15,500,000, while the German
+Emperor decided the San Juan boundary in favour of the United States.
+The Fishery Commission, on the other hand, which sat in Halifax, awarded
+Canada $5,500,000 as the excess value of its fisheries for twelve years,
+and after much hesitation this sum was paid by the United States into
+the Canadian treasury. An imperial guarantee of a loan for the
+construction of railways was the only compensation Canada received for
+the Fenian raids.
+
+
+  Canadian Pacific railway question.
+
+The second general election for the Dominion took place in 1872. It was
+marked by the complete defeat of the Anti-Unionist party in Nova Scotia,
+only one member of which secured his election, thus exactly reversing
+the vote of 1867. While Sir John Macdonald's administration was
+supported in Nova Scotia, it was weakened in Ontario on account of the
+clemency shown to Riel, and in Quebec by the refusal to grant a general
+amnesty to all who had taken part in the rebellion. Two important
+members of the cabinet, Sir G. Cartier and Sir F. Hincks, were defeated.
+Opposition to the Washington treaty and dread of the bold railway policy
+of the government also contributed to weaken its position. But a graver
+blow, ending in the complete overthrow of the administration, was soon
+to fall as the result of the election. In 1872 two companies had been
+formed and received charters to build the Canadian Pacific railway. Sir
+Hugh Allan of Montreal was at the head of the one, and the Hon. David
+Macpherson of Toronto was president of the other. The government
+endeavoured to bring about an amalgamation of these rival companies,
+believing that the united energies and financial ability of the whole
+country were required for so vast an undertaking. While negotiations to
+this end were still proceeding the election of 1872 came on with the
+result already mentioned. Soon after the meeting of parliament, a
+Liberal member of the House, Mr L.S. Huntingdon, formally charged
+certain members of the cabinet with having received large sums of money,
+for use in the election, from Sir Hugh Allan, on condition, as it was
+claimed, that the Canadian Pacific contract should be given to the new
+company, of which he became the head on the failure of the plan for
+amalgamation. These charges were investigated by a royal commission,
+which was appointed after it had been decided that the parliamentary
+committee named for that purpose could not legally take evidence under
+oath. Parliament met in October 1873, to receive the report of the
+commission. While members of the government were exonerated by the
+report from the charge of personal corruption, the payment of large sums
+of money by Sir Hugh Allan was fully established, and public feeling on
+the matter was so strong that Sir J. Macdonald, while asserting his own
+innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the vote, of
+parliament. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord Lisgar as
+governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the leader of the Opposition,
+Mr Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.), who succeeded in forming a Liberal
+administration which, on appealing to the constituencies, was supported
+by an overwhelming majority, and held power for the five following
+years.
+
+On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy was adopted
+for the construction of the trans-continental railway. It was proposed
+to lessen the cost of construction by utilizing the water stretches
+along the route, while, on the ground that the contract made was
+impossible of fulfilment, the period of completion was postponed
+indefinitely. Meanwhile the surveys and construction were carried
+forward not by a company, but as a government work. Under this
+arrangement British Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the
+Dominion to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the
+union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir James) Edgar,
+sent out to conciliate the province by some new agreement, failed to
+accomplish his object, and all the influence of the governor-general,
+Lord Dufferin, who paid a visit at this time to the Pacific coast, was
+required to quiet the public excitement, which had shown itself in a
+resolution passed by the legislature for separation from the Dominion
+unless the terms of union were fulfilled.
+
+
+  Economic "national policy."
+
+Meanwhile a policy destined to affect profoundly the future of the
+Dominion had, along with that of the construction of the Canadian
+Pacific railway, become a subject of burning political discussion and
+party division. During the period of Mr Mackenzie's administration a
+profound business depression affected the whole continent of America.
+The Dominion revenue showed a series of deficits for several years in
+succession. The factories of the United States, unduly developed by an
+extreme system of protection, sought in Canada a slaughter market for
+their surplus products, to the detriment or destruction of Canadian
+industries. Meanwhile the republic, which had for many years drained
+Canada of hundreds of thousands of artisans to work its factories,
+steadily declined to consider any suggestion for improving trade
+relations between the two countries. In these circumstances Sir J.
+Macdonald brought forward a proposal to adopt what was called a
+"national policy," or, in other words, a system of protection for
+Canadian industries. Mr Mackenzie and his chief followers, whose
+inclinations were towards free trade, pinned their political fortunes to
+the maintenance of a tariff for revenue only. After some years of fierce
+discussion in parliament and throughout the country the question was
+brought to an issue in 1878, when, with a large majority of followers
+pledged to carry out protection, Sir John Macdonald was restored to
+power. The new system was laid before parliament in 1879 by the finance
+minister, Sir Leonard Tilley; and the tariff then agreed upon, although
+it received considerable modification from time to time, remained, under
+both Conservative and Liberal administrations, the basis of Canadian
+finance, and, as Canadians generally believed, the bulwark of their
+industry. It had almost immediately the effect of lessening the exodus
+of artisans to the United States, and of improving the revenue and so
+restoring the national credit.
+
+
+  Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
+
+In October 1878 Lord Dufferin's term of office expired, and his place as
+governor-general was taken by the marquess of Lorne, whose welcome to
+the Dominion was accentuated by the fact that he was the son-in-law of
+the queen, and that his viceroyalty was shared by the princess Louise.
+The election of 1878 marked the beginning of a long period of
+Conservative rule--the premiership of Sir J. Macdonald continuing from
+that time without a break until his death in 1891, while his party
+remained in power till 1896. This long-continued Conservative supremacy
+was apparently due to the policy of bold and rapid development which it
+had adopted, and which appealed to a young and ambitious country more
+strongly than the more cautious proposals of the Liberal leaders. As
+soon as the government had redeemed its pledge to establish a system of
+protection a vigorous railway policy was inaugurated. A contract was
+made with a new company to complete the Canadian Pacific railway within
+ten years, on condition of receiving a grant of $25,000,000 and
+25,000,000 acres of land, together with those parts of the line already
+finished under government direction. After fierce debate in parliament
+these terms were ratified in the session of 1881. The financial
+difficulties encountered by the company in carrying out their gigantic
+task were very great, and in 1884 they were compelled to obtain from the
+Dominion government a loan of $20,000,000 secured on the company's
+property. This loan was repaid by 1887. Meanwhile the work was carried
+forward with so much energy that, five years before the stipulated
+period of completion, on the 7th of November 1886, the last spike was
+driven by Mr Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), whose fortune had been
+largely pledged to the undertaking, along with those of other prominent
+Canadian business men, especially Mr George Stephen (Lord Mountstephen),
+Mr Duncan McIntyre, and Mr R.B. Angus. Under the energetic management of
+Mr (later Sir) W.C. Van Home, who was appointed president of the company
+in 1888, the new railway soon became the most prominent feature in the
+development of the country; lines of steamships were established on the
+great lakes and the Pacific; a stream of immigration began to flow into
+the prairie region; and the increasing prosperity of the railway had a
+poverful influence in improving the public credit.
+
+
+  Riel's rebellion.
+
+Even before the Canadian Pacific railway was fully completed, it proved
+of great service in a national emergency which suddenly arose in the
+north-west. With the organization of Manitoba and the opening of
+improved communication immigrants began to move rapidly westward, and
+government surveyors were soon busy laying off lands in the Saskatchewan
+valley. The numbers of the half-breed settlers of this district had been
+increased by the migration of many of those who had taken part in the
+first uprising at Fort Garry. Influenced by somewhat similar motives,
+fearing from the advance of civilization the destruction of the buffalo,
+on which they chiefly depended for food, with some real grievances and
+others imaginary, the discontented population sent for Riel, who had
+been living, since his flight from Fort Garry, in the United States. He
+returned to put himself at the head of a second rebellion. At first he
+seemed inclined to act with moderation and on lines of constitutional
+agitation, but soon, carried away by fanaticism, ambition and vanity, he
+turned to armed organization against the government. To half-breed
+rebellion was added the imminent danger of an Indian uprising, to which
+Riel looked for support. The authorities at Ottawa were at first
+careless or sceptical in regard to the danger, the reality of which was
+only brought home to them when a body of mounted police, advancing to
+regain a small post at Duck Lake, of which the rebels had taken
+possession, was attacked and twelve of their number killed. Volunteers
+and militia were at once called out in all the old provinces of Canada,
+and were quickly conveyed by the newly constructed line of railway to
+the neighbourhood of the point of disturbance. Major-general Middleton,
+of the imperial army, who was then in command of the Canadian militia,
+led the expedition. Several minor engagements with half-breeds or
+Indians preceded the final struggle at Batoche, where Gabriel Dumont,
+Riel's military lieutenant, had skilfully entrenched his forces. After a
+cautious advance the eagerness of the troops finally overcame the
+hesitation of the commander in exposing his men, the rifle pits were
+carried with a rush, and the rebellion crushed at a single stroke.
+Dumont succeeded in escaping across the United States boundary; Riel was
+captured, imprisoned, and in due course tried for treason. This second
+rebellion carried on under his leadership had lasted about three months,
+had cost the country many valuable lives, and in money about five
+millions of dollars. Clear as was his guilt, Riel's trial, condemnation
+and execution on the 16th of November 1885, provoked a violent political
+storm which at one time threatened to overthrow the Conservative
+government. The balance of power between parties in parliament was held
+by the province of Quebec, and there racial and religious feeling evoked
+no slight sympathy for Riel. But while a section of Quebec was eager to
+secure the rebel's pardon, Ontario was equally bent on the execution of
+justice, so that in the final vote on the question in parliament the
+defection of French Conservatives was compensated for by the support of
+Ontario Liberals. In the end 25 out of 53 French members voted in
+justification of Kiel's punishment. With him were executed several
+Indian chiefs who had been concerned in a massacre of whites. Painful as
+were the circumstances connected with this rebellion, it is certain that
+the united action of the different provinces in suppressing it tended to
+consolidate Canadian sentiment, and the short military campaign had the
+effect of fixing public attention upon the immense fertile territory
+then being opened up.
+
+
+  Macdonald's fiscal policy.
+
+The general election of 1882 turned chiefly upon endorsement of the
+national policy of protection; in that of 1887 the electoral test was
+again applied to the same issue, while Sir John Macdonald also asked for
+approval of the government's action in exacting from Riel the full
+penalty of his guilt. On both issues the Conservative policy was upheld
+by the electors, and Macdonald was continued in power with a large
+parliamentary majority. From the election of 1887 the Riel agitation
+ceased to seriously influence politics, but the fiscal controversy
+continued under new forms. Between 1887 and 1891 a vigorous agitation
+was kept up under Liberal auspices in favour of closer trade relations
+with the United States, at first under the name of Commercial Union and
+later under that of Unrestricted Reciprocity. The object in both cases
+was to break down tariff barriers between the United States and Canada,
+even though that should be at the expense of discrimination against
+Great Britain. The Conservative party took the position that commercial
+union, involving as it would a common protective tariff against all
+other countries, including the motherland, would inevitably lead to
+political unification with the United States. The question after long
+and vehement discussion was brought to a final issue in the election of
+1891, and Sir John Macdonald's government was again sustained. From that
+time protection became the settled policy of the country. On their
+accession to power in 1896 it was adopted by the Liberals, who joined to
+it a preference for the products of the mother country. Under the
+protective policy thus repeatedly confirmed, Canada gradually became
+more independent of the American market than in earlier times, and
+enjoyed great commercial prosperity. Soon after the election of 1891 Sir
+John Macdonald (q.v.) died, after an active political career of more
+than forty years. Under his direction the great lines of policy which
+have governed the development of Canada as a confederated state within
+the empire were inaugurated and carried forward with great success, so
+that his name has become indissolubly connected with the history of the
+Dominion at its most critical stage.
+
+
+  Macdonald's successors.
+
+During the years which succeeded the death of Sir John Macdonald a
+succession of losses weakened the position of the Conservative party
+which had held power so long. The Hon. J.C.C. Abbott, leader of the
+party in the Senate, became prime minister on Macdonald's death in 1891,
+but in 1892 was compelled by ill-health to resign, and in 1893 he died.
+His successor, Sir John Thompson, after a successful leadership of about
+two years, died suddenly of heart disease at Windsor Castle, immediately
+after being sworn of the imperial privy council. Charges of corruption
+in the administration of the department of public works, which led to
+the expulsion of one member of parliament, involved also the resignation
+from the cabinet of Sir Hector Langevin, leader of the French
+Conservatives, against whom carelessness at least in administration had
+been established. The brief premiership of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, between
+1894 and 1896, was marked by much dissension in the Conservative ranks,
+ending finally in a reconstruction of the government in 1896 under Sir
+Charles Tupper. Breaks had been made in the Liberal ranks also by the
+death in 1892 of the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie and the withdrawal of the
+Hon. Edward Blake from Canadian politics to accept a seat in the British
+parliament as a member of the Home Rule party. But the appeal made to
+the electors in 1896 resulted in a decisive victory for the Liberal
+party, and marked the beginning of a long period of Liberal rule.
+
+
+  Laurier.
+
+Sir Wilfrid Laurier (q.v.) became prime minister, and strengthened the
+cabinet which he formed by drawing into it from provincial politics the
+premiers of Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The administration
+thus established underwent many changes, but after winning three general
+elections it was still in power in 1909. The period of Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier's rule was one of striking progress in material growth, and a
+marked development of national feeling. While the federation of the
+provinces favoured the growth of a strong sentiment of Canadian
+individuality, the result of unification had been to strengthen
+decidedly the ties that bind the country to the empire. This was as true
+under Liberal as under Conservative auspices--as Canadians understood
+the meaning of these party names. The outbreak of the South African war
+in 1899 furnished an occasion for a practical display of Canadian
+loyalty to imperial interests. Three contingents of troops were
+despatched to the seat of war and took an active part in the events
+which finally secured the triumph of the British arms. These forces were
+supplemented by a regiment of Canadian horse raised and equipped at the
+sole expense of Lord Strathcona, the high commissioner of the Dominion
+in London. The same spirit was illustrated in other ways. In bringing
+about a system of penny postage throughout the empire; in forwarding the
+construction of the Pacific cable to secure close and safe imperial
+telegraphic connexion; in creating rapid and efficient lines of
+steamship communication with the motherland and all the colonies; in
+granting tariff preference to British goods and in striving for
+preferential treatment of inter-imperial trade; in assuming
+responsibility for imperial defence at the two important stations of
+Halifax and Esquimalt,--Canada, under the guidance of Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier and his party, took a leading part and showed a truly national
+spirit.
+
+
+  Canadian expansion.
+
+The opening years of the 20th century were marked by a prolonged period
+of great prosperity. A steady stream of emigrants from Europe and the
+United States, sometimes rising in number to 300,000 in a single year,
+began to occupy the vast western prairies. So considerable was the
+growth of this section of the Dominion that in 1905 it was found
+necessary to form two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, from the
+North-West Territories, the area of each being 275,000 sq. m. Each
+province has a lieutenant-governor and a single legislative chamber,
+with a representation of four members in the Senate and five in the
+House of Commons of the Dominion parliament. The control of the public
+lands is retained by the general government on the ground that it has
+been responsible for the development of the country by railway
+construction and emigration. With the rapid increase of population,
+production in Canada also greatly increased; exports, imports and
+revenue constantly expanded, and capital, finding abundant and
+profitable employment, began to flow freely into the country for further
+industrial development. New and great railway undertakings were a marked
+feature of this period. The Canadian Pacific system was extended until
+it included 12,000 m. of line. The Canadian Northern railway, already
+constructed from the Great Lakes westward to the neighbourhood of the
+Rockies, and with water and rail connexions reaching eastward to Quebec,
+began to transform itself into a complete transcontinental system, with
+an extension to the Hudson Bay. That this line owed its inception and
+construction chiefly to the joint enterprise of two private individuals,
+Messrs Mackenzie and Mann, was a striking proof of the industrial
+capacities of the country. To a still more ambitious line, the Grand
+Trunk Pacific, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, aiming at
+extensive steamship connexion on both oceans, and closely associated
+with the Grand Trunk system of Ontario and Quebec, the government of
+Canada gave liberal support as a national undertaking. The eastern
+section of 1875 m., extending from Winnipeg to Moncton, where connexion
+is secured with the winter ports of Halifax and St John, was, under the
+act of incorporation, to be built by the government, and then leased for
+fifty years, under certain conditions, to the Grand Trunk Pacific
+Company. The western portion, of 1480 m., from Winnipeg to the Pacific,
+was to be built, owned and operated by the company itself, the
+government guaranteeing bonds to the extent of 75% of the whole cost of
+construction. The discovery of large deposits of nickel at Sudbury; of
+extremely rich gold mines on the head-waters of the Yukon, in a region
+previously considered well-nigh worthless for human habitation; of
+extensive areas of gold, copper and silver ores in the mountain regions
+of British Columbia; of immense coal deposits in the Crow's Nest Pass of
+the same province and on the prairies; of veins of silver and cobalt of
+extraordinary richness in northern Ontario--all deeply affected the
+industrial condition of the country and illustrated the vastness of its
+undeveloped resources. The use of wood-pulp in the manufacture of paper
+gave a greatly enhanced value to many millions of acres of northern
+forest country. The application of electricity to purposes of
+manufacture and transportation made the waterfalls and rapids in which
+the country abounds the source of an almost unlimited supply of energy
+capable of easy distribution for industrial purposes over wide areas.
+
+
+  Relations with the United States.
+
+Since confederation a series of attempts has been made with varying
+degrees of success to settle the questions in dispute between the
+Dominion and the United States, naturally arising from the fact that
+they divide between them the control of nearly the whole of a large
+continent and its adjoining waters. Considering the vastness of the
+interests involved, there is much cause for satisfaction in the fact
+that these differences have been settled by peaceful arbitrament rather
+than by that recourse to force which has so often marked the
+delimitation of rights and territory on other continents The Washington
+Treaty of 1871 has already been referred to. Its clauses dealing with
+the fisheries and trade lasted for fourteen years, and were then
+abrogated by the action of the United States. Various proposals on the
+part of Canada for a renewal of the reciprocity were not entertained.
+After 1885 Canada was therefore compelled to fall back upon the treaty
+of 1818 as the guarantee of her fishing rights. It became necessary to
+enforce the terms of that convention, under which the fishermen of the
+United States could not pursue their avocations within the three miles'
+limit, tranship cargoes of fish in Canadian ports, or enter them except
+for shelter, water, wood or repairs. On account of infractions of the
+treaty many vessels were seized and some were condemned. In 1887 a
+special commission was appointed to deal with the question. On this
+commission Mr Joseph Chamberlain, Sir Sackville West and Sir Charles
+Tupper represented British and Canadian interests; Secretary T.F.
+Bayard, Mr W. le B. Putnam and Mr James B. Angell acted for the United
+States. The commission succeeded in agreeing to the terms of a treaty,
+which was recommended to Congress by President Cleveland as supplying "a
+satisfactory, practical and final adjustment, upon a basis honourable
+and just to both parties, of the difficult and vexed questions to which
+it relates." This agreement, known as the Chamberlain-Bayard treaty, was
+rejected by the Senate, and as a consequence it became necessary to
+carry on the fisheries under a _modus vivendi_ renewed annually.
+
+In 1886 a difference about international rights on the high seas arose
+on the Pacific coast in connexion with the seal fisheries of Bering Sea.
+In that year several schooners, fitted out in British Columbia for the
+capture of seals in the North Pacific, were seized by a United States
+cutter at a distance of 60 m. from the nearest land, the officers were
+imprisoned and fined, and the vessels themselves subjected to
+forfeiture. The British government at once protested against this
+infraction of international right, and through long and troublesome
+negotiations firmly upheld Canada's claims in the matter. The dispute
+was finally referred to a court of arbitration, on which Sir John
+Thompson, premier of the Dominion, sat as one of the British
+arbitrators. It was decided that the United States had no jurisdiction
+in the Bering Sea beyond the three miles' limit, but the court also made
+regulations to prevent the wholesale slaughter of fur-bearing seals. The
+sum of $463,454 was finally awarded as compensation to the Canadian
+sealers who had been unlawfully seized and punished. This sum was paid
+by the United States in 1898.
+
+As the result of communications during 1897 between Sir Wilfrid Laurier
+and Secretary Sherman, the governments of Great Britain and the United
+States agreed to the appointment of a joint high commission, with a view
+of settling all outstanding differences between the United States and
+Canada. The commission, which included three members of the Canadian
+cabinet and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord
+Herschell was appointed chairman, met at Quebec on the 23rd of August
+1898. The sessions continued in Quebec at intervals until the 10th of
+October, when the commission adjourned to meet in Washington on the 1st
+of November, where the discussions were renewed for some weeks. Mr
+Nelson Dingley, an American member of the commission, died during the
+month of January, as did the chairman, Lord Herschell, in March, as the
+result of an accident, soon after the close of the sittings of the
+commission. The Alaskan boundary, the Atlantic and inland fisheries, the
+alien labour law, the bonding privilege, the seal fishery in the Bering
+Sea and reciprocity of trade in certain products were among the subjects
+considered by the commission. On several of these points much progress
+was made towards a settlement, but a divergence of opinion as to the
+methods by which the Alaskan boundary should be determined put an end
+for the time to the negotiations.
+
+In 1903 an agreement was reached by which the question of this boundary,
+which depended on the interpretation put upon the treaty of 1825 between
+Russia and England, should be submitted to a commission consisting of
+"six impartial jurists of repute," three British and three American. The
+British commissioners appointed were: Lord Alverstone, lord chief
+justice of England; Sir Louis Jette, K.C., of Quebec; and A.B.
+Aylesworth, K.C., of Toronto. On the American side were appointed: the
+Hon. Henry C. Lodge, senator for Massachusetts; the Hon. Elihu Root,
+secretary of war for the United States government; and Senator George
+Turner. Canadians could not be persuaded that the American members
+fulfilled the condition of being "impartial jurists," and protest was
+made, but, though the imperial government also expressed surprise, no
+change in the appointments was effected. The commission met in London,
+and announced its decision in October. This was distinctly unfavourable
+to Canada's claims, since it excluded Canadians from all ocean inlets as
+far south as the Portland Channel, and in that channel gave to Canada
+only two of the four islands claimed. A statement made by the Canadian
+commissioners, who refused to sign the report, of an unexplained change
+of opinion on the part of Lord Alverstone, produced a widespread
+impression for a time that his decision in favour of American claims was
+diplomatic rather than judicial. Later Canadian opinion, however, came
+to regard the decision of the commission as a reasonable compromise. The
+irritation caused by the decision gradually subsided, but at the moment
+it led to strong expressions on the part of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and
+others in favour of securing for Canada a fuller power of making her own
+treaties. While the power of making treaties must rest ultimately in the
+hands that can enforce them, the tendency to give the colonies chiefly
+interested a larger voice in international arrangements had become
+inevitable. The mission of a Canadian cabinet minister, the Hon. R.
+Lemieux, to Japan in 1907, to settle Canadian difficulties with that
+country, illustrated the change of diplomatic system in progress.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+Under the British North American Act the control of education was
+reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation that all
+rights enjoyed by denominational schools at the time of confederation
+should be respected. Provincial control has caused some diversity of
+management; the interpretation of the denominational agreement has led
+to acute differences of opinion which have invaded the field of
+politics. In all the provinces elementary, and in some cases secondary,
+education is free, the funds for its support being derived from local
+taxation and from government grants. The highly organized school system
+of Ontario is directed by a minister of education, who is a member of
+the provincial cabinet. The other provinces have boards of education,
+and superintendents who act under the direction of the provincial
+legislatures. In Quebec the Roman Catholic schools, which constitute the
+majority, are chiefly controlled by the local clergy of that church. The
+Protestant schools are managed by a separate board. In Ontario as well
+as in Quebec separate schools are allowed to Roman Catholics. In Nova
+Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba and British
+Columbia the public schools are strictly undenominational. This position
+was only established in New Brunswick and Manitoba after violent
+political struggles, and frequent appeals to the highest courts of the
+empire for decisions on questions of federal or provincial jurisdiction.
+The right of having separate schools has been extended to the newly
+constituted provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+
+Secondary education is provided for by high schools and collegiate
+institutes in all towns and cities, and by large residential institutions
+at various centres, conducted on the principle of the English public
+schools. The largest of these is Upper Canada College at Toronto. Each
+province has a number of normal and model schools for the training of
+teachers. For higher education there are also abundant facilities. M'Gill
+University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly endowed by the
+munificence of a few private individuals, Toronto University by the
+provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen's University at Kingston largely
+by the support of its own graduates and friends. University work in the
+maritime provinces, instead of being concentrated, as it might well be,
+in one powerful institution, is distributed among five small, but within
+their range efficient universities. The agricultural college at Guelph
+and the experimental farms maintained by the federal government give
+excellent training and scientific assistance to farmers. Sir William
+Macdonald in 1908 built and endowed, at an expenditure of at least
+£700,000, an agricultural college and normal school at St Anne's, near
+Montreal. While the older universities have increased greatly in
+influence and efficiency, the following new foundations have been made
+since confederation:--University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1877;
+Presbyterian College, Winnipeg, 1870; Methodist College, Winnipeg, 1888;
+Wesleyan College, Montreal, 1873; Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868;
+School of Practical Science, Toronto, 1877; Royal Military College,
+Kingston, 1875; M'Master University, Toronto, 1888. All the larger
+universities have schools of medicine in affiliation, and have the power
+of conferring medical degrees. Since 1877 Canadian degrees have been
+recognized by the Medical Council of Great Britain.
+
+
+  Indian tribes.
+
+In her treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country (numbering
+93,318 in 1901) Canada has met with conspicuous success. Since the
+advance of civilization and indiscriminate slaughter have deprived them
+of the bison, so long their natural means of subsistence, the north-west
+tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of the country. As a
+result of the great care now used in watching over them there has been a
+small but steady increase in their numbers. Industrial and boarding
+schools, established in several of the provinces, by separating the
+children from the degrading influences of their home life, have proved
+more effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and
+ideas of a higher civilization. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.)
+
+
+  Constitution.
+
+The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt made to
+adapt British principles and methods of government to a federal system.
+The chief executive authority is vested in the sovereign, as is the
+supreme command of the military and naval forces. The governor-general
+represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown, which appoints him.
+He holds office for five years, and his powers are strictly limited, as
+in the case of the sovereign, all executive acts being done on the
+advice of his cabinet, the members of which hold office only so long as
+they retain the confidence of the people as expressed by their
+representatives in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the
+independent right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers
+in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-general
+have represented the crown since the federation of the provinces, with
+the year of their appointment: Viscount Monck, 1867; Sir John Young
+(afterwards Baron Lisgar), 1868; the earl of Dufferin, 1872; the
+marquess of Lome (afterwards duke of Argyll), 1878; the marquess of
+Lansdowne, 1883; Lord Stanley of Preston (afterwards earl of Derby),
+1888; the earl of Aberdeen, 1893; the earl of Minto, 1898; Earl Grey,
+1904. The upper house, or Senate, is composed of members who hold office
+for life and are nominated by the governor-general in council. It
+originally consisted of 72 members, 24 from Quebec, 24 from Ontario, and
+24 from the maritime provinces, but this number has been from time to
+time slightly increased as new provinces have been added. The House of
+Commons consists of representatives elected directly by the people. The
+number of members, originally 196, is subject to change after each
+decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North America Act is
+that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives, and each of the other
+provinces such a number as will give the same proportion of members to
+its population as the number 65 bears to the population of Quebec at
+each census. In 1908 the number of members was 218.
+
+Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive an annual
+indemnity of $2500, with a travelling allowance. Legislation brought
+forward in 1906 introduced an innovation in assigning a salary of $7000
+to the recognized leader of the Opposition, and pensions amounting to
+half their official income to ex-cabinet ministers who have occupied
+their posts for five consecutive years. This pension clause has since
+been repealed. One principal object of the framers of the Canadian
+constitution was to establish a strong central government. An opposite
+plan was therefore adopted to that employed in the system of the United
+States, where the federal government enjoys only the powers granted to
+it by the sovereign states. The British North America Act assigns to the
+different provinces, as to the central parliament, their spheres of
+control, but all residuary powers are given to the general government.
+Within these limitations the provincial assemblies have a wide range of
+legislative power. In Nova Scotia and Quebec the bicameral system of an
+upper and lower house is retained; in the other provinces legislation is
+left to a single representative assembly. For purely local matters
+municipal institutions are organized to cover counties and townships,
+cities and towns, all based on an exceedingly democratic franchise.
+
+The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of Sir John
+Macdonald in the early years after federation, but was only finally
+accomplished in 1876, during the premiership of Alexander Mackenzie.
+This court is presided over by a chief justice, with five puisne judges,
+and has appellate civil and criminal jurisdiction for the Dominion. By
+an act passed in 1891 the government has power to refer to the supreme
+court any important question of law affecting the public interest. The
+right of appeal from the supreme court, thus constituted, to the
+judicial committee of the privy council marks, in questions judicial,
+Canada's place as a part of the British empire.
+
+The appointment, first made in 1897, of the chief justice of Canada,
+along with the chief justices of Cape Colony and South Australia, as
+colonial members of the judicial committee still further established the
+position of that body as the final court of appeal for the British
+people. The grave questions of respective jurisdiction which have from
+time to time arisen between the federal and provincial governments have
+for the most part been settled by appeal to one or both of these
+judicial bodies. Some of these questions have played a considerable part
+in Canadian politics, but are of too complicated a nature to be dealt
+with in the present brief sketch. They have generally consisted in the
+assertion of provincial rights against federal authority. The decision
+of the courts has always been accepted as authoritative and final.
+
+  An excellent bibliography of Canadian history will be found in the
+  volume _Literature of American History_, published by the American
+  Library Association. The annual _Review of Historical Publications
+  Relating to Canada_, published by the University of Toronto, gives a
+  critical survey of the works on Canadian topics appearing from year to
+  year.     (G. R. P.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+1. _English-Canadian Literature_ is marked by the weaknesses as well as
+the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence, the conquering
+of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad culture or scholarship,
+and the very fact that Canada is a colony, however free to control her
+own affairs, has stood in the way of the creation of anything like a
+national literature. And yet, while Canada's intellectual product is
+essentially an offshoot of the parent literature of England, it is not
+entirely devoid of originality, either in manner or matter. There is in
+much of it a spirit of freedom and youthful vigour characteristic of the
+country. It is marked by the wholesomeness of Canadian life and Canadian
+ideals, and the optimism of a land of limitless potentialities.
+
+The first few decades of the period of British rule were lean years
+indeed so far as native literature is concerned. This period of unrest
+gave birth to little beyond a flood of political pamphlets, of no
+present value save as material for the historian. We may perhaps except
+the able though thoroughly partisan writings of Sir John Beverley
+Robinson and Bishop Strachan on the one side, and Robert Fleming Gourlay
+and William Lyon Mackenzie on the other. In the far West, however, a
+little group of adventurous fur-traders, of whom Sir Alexander
+Mackenzie, David Thompson, Alexander Henry and Daniel Williams Harmon
+may be taken as conspicuous types, were unfolding the vast expanse of
+the future dominion. They were men of action, not of words, and had no
+thought of literary fame, but their absorbingly interesting journals
+are none the less an essential part of the literature of the country.
+
+Barring the work of Francis Parkman, who was not a Canadian, no history
+of the first rank has yet been written in or of Canada. Canadian
+historians have not merely lacked so far the genius for really great
+historical work, but they have lacked the point of view; they have stood
+too close to their subject to get the true perspective. At the same time
+they have brought together invaluable material for the great historian
+of the future. Robert Christie's _History of Lower Canada_ (1848-1854)
+was the first serious attempt to deal with the period of British rule.
+William Kingsford's (1819-1898) ambitious work, in ten volumes, comes
+down like Christie's to the Union of 1841, but goes back to the very
+beginnings of Canadian history. In the main it is impartial and
+accurate, but the style is heavy and sometimes slovenly. J.C. Dent's
+(1841-1888) _Last Forty Years_ (1880) is practically a continuation of
+Kingsford. Dent also wrote an interesting though one-sided account of
+the rebellion of 1837. Histories of the maritime provinces have been
+written by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Beamish Murdoch and James Hannay.
+Haliburton's is much the best of the three. The brief but stirring
+history of western Canada has been told by Alexander Begg (1840-1898);
+and George Bryce (b. 1844) and Beckles Willson (b. 1869) have written
+the story of the Hudson's Bay Company. Much scholarship and research
+have been devoted to local and special historical subjects, a notable
+example of which is Arthur Doughty's exhaustive work on the siege of
+Quebec. J. McMullen (b. 1820), Charles Roberts (b. 1860) and Sir John
+Bourinot (1837-1902) have written brief and popular histories, covering
+the whole field of Canadian history more or less adequately. Alpheus
+Todd's (1821-1884) _Parliamentary Government in England_ (1867-1869) and
+_Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies_ (1880) are standard
+works, as is also Bourinot's _Parliamentary Procedure and Practice_
+(1884).
+
+Biography has been devoted mainly to political subjects. The best of
+these are Joseph Pope's _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_ (1894), W.D. le
+Sueur's _Frontenac_ (1906), Sir John Bourinot's _Lord Elgin_ (1905),
+Jean McIlwraith's _Sir Frederick Haldimand_ (1904), D.C. Scott's _John
+Graves Simcoe_ (1905), A.D. de Celles' _Papineau and Cartier_ (1904),
+Charles Lindsey's _William Lyon Mackenzie_ (1862), J.W. Longley's
+_Joseph Howe_ (1905) and J.S. Willison's _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_ (1903).
+
+In _belles lettres_ very little has been accomplished, unless we may
+count Goldwin Smith (q.v.) as a Canadian. As a scholar, a thinker, and a
+master of pure English he has exerted a marked influence upon Canadian
+literature and Canadian life.
+
+While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most of what passes
+for poetry in Canada, a few writers have risen to a higher level. The
+conditions of Canadian life have not been favourable to the birth of
+great poets, but within the limits of their song such men as Archibald
+Lampman (1861-1891), William Wilfred Campbell (b. 1861), Charles
+Roberts, Bliss Carman (b. 1861) and George Frederick Cameron have
+written lines that are well worth remembering. Lampman's poetry is the
+most finished and musical. He fell short of being a truly great poet,
+inasmuch as great poetry must, which his does not, touch life at many
+points, but his verses are marked by the qualities that belonged to the
+man--sincerity, purity, seriousness. Campbell's poetry, in spite of a
+certain lack of compression, is full of dramatic vigour: Roberts has put
+some of his best work into sonnets and short lyrics, while Carman has
+been very successful with the ballad, the untrammelled swing and sweep
+of which he has finely caught; the simplicity and severity of Cameron's
+style won the commendation of even so exacting a critic as Matthew
+Arnold. One remarkable drama--Charles Heavysege's (1816-1876) _Saul_
+(1857)--belongs to Canadian literature. Though unequal in execution, it
+contains passages of exceptional beauty and power. The sweetness and
+maturity of Isabella Valency Crawford's (1851-1887) verse are also very
+worthy of remembrance. The _habitant_ poems of Dr W.H. Drummond
+(1854-1907) stand in a class by themselves, between English and French
+Canadian literature, presenting the simple life of the _habitant_ with
+unique humour and picturesqueness.
+
+The first distinctively Canadian novel was John Richardson's (1796-1852)
+_Wacousta_ (1832), a stirring tale of the war of 1812. Richardson
+afterwards wrote half a dozen other romances, dealing chiefly with
+incidents in Canadian history. Susanna Moodie (1803-1885) and Katharine
+Parr Traill (1802-1899), sisters of Agnes Strickland, contributed novels
+and tales to one of the earliest and best of Canadian magazines, the
+_Literary Garland_ (1838-1847). _The Golden Dog_, William Kirby's
+(1817-1906) fascinating romance of old Quebec, appeared in 1877, in a
+pirated edition. Twenty years later the first authorized edition was
+published. James de Mille (1833-1880) was the author of some thirty
+novels, the best of which is _Helena's Household_ (1868), a story of
+Rome in the 1st century. _The Dodge Club_ (1869), a humorous book of
+travel, appeared, curiously enough, a few months before _Innocents
+Abroad_. De Mille's posthumous novel, _A Strange Manuscript found in a
+Copper Cylinder_ (1888), describes a singular race whose cardinal
+doctrine is that poverty is honourable and wealth the reverse. Sir
+Gilbert Parker (b. 1862) stands first among contemporary Canadian
+novelists. He has made admirable use in many of his novels of the
+inexhaustible stores of romantic and dramatic material that lie buried
+in forgotten pages of Canadian history. Of later Canadian novelists
+mention may be made of Sara Jeannette Duncan (Mrs Everard Cotes, b.
+1862), Ralph Connor (Charles W. Gordon, b. 1866), Agnes C. Laut (b.
+1872), W.A. Fraser (b. 1859) and Ernest Thompson Seton (b. 1860). Thomas
+Chandler Haliburton (q.v.) stands in a class by himself. In many
+respects his is the most striking figure in Canadian literature. He is
+best known as a humorist, and as a humorist he ranks with the creators
+of "My Uncle Toby" and "Pickwick." But there is more than humour in
+Haliburton's books. He lacked, in fact, but one thing to make him a
+great novelist: he had no conception of how to construct a plot. But he
+knew human nature, and knew it intimately in all its phases; he could
+construct a character and endow it with life; his people talk naturally
+and to the point; and many of his descriptive passages are admirable.
+Those who read Haliburton's books only for the sake of the humour will
+miss much of their value. His inimitable _Clockmaker_ (1837), as well as
+the later books, _The Old Judge_ (1849), _The Attaché_ (1843), _Wise
+Saws and Modern Instances_ (1853) and _Nature and Human Nature_ (1855),
+are mirrors of colonial life and character.
+
+  For general treatment of English-Canadian literature, reference may be
+  made to Sir John Bourinot's _Intellectual Development of the Canadian
+  People_ (1881); G. Mercer Adam's _Outline History of Canadian
+  Literature_ (1887); "Native Thought and Literature," in J.E. Collins's
+  _Life of Sir John A. Macdonald_ (1883); "Canadian Literature," by J.M.
+  Oxley, in the _Encyclopaedia Americana_, vol. ix. (1904); A.
+  MacMurchy's _Handbook of Canadian Literature_ (1906); and articles by
+  J. Castell Hopkins, John Reade, A.B. de Mille and Thomas O'Hagan, in
+  vol. v. of _Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country_ (1898-1900);
+  also to Henry J. Morgan's _Bibliotheca Canadensis_ (1867) and
+  _Canadian Men and Women of the Time_ (1898); W.D. Lighthall, _Songs of
+  the Great Dominion_; Theodore Rand's _Treasury of Canadian Verse_
+  (1900); C.C. James's _Bibliography of Canadian Verse_ (1898); L.E.
+  Horning's and L.J. Burpee's _Bibliography of Canadian Fiction_ (1904);
+  S.E. Dawson's _Prose Writers of Canada_ (1901); "Canadian Poetry," by
+  J.A. Cooper, in _The National_, 29, p. 364; "Recent Canadian Fiction,"
+  by L.J. Burpee, in _The Forum_, August 1899. For individual authors,
+  see Haliburton's _A Centenary Chaplet_ (1897), with a bibliography;
+  "Haliburton," by F. Blake Crofton, in _Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the
+  Country_; C.H. Farnham's _Life of Francis Parkman_ and H.D. Sedgwick's
+  _Francis Parkman_ (1901); and articles on "Parkman," by E.L. Godkin,
+  in _The Nation_, 71, p. 441; by Justin Winsor in _The Atlantic_, 73,
+  p. 660; by W.D. Howells, _The Atlantic_, 34, p. 602; by John Fiske,
+  _The Atlantic_, 73, p. 664; by J.B. Gilder in _The Critic_, 23, p.
+  322; "Goldwin Smith as a Critic," by H. Spencer, _Contemp. Review_,
+  41, p. 519; "Goldwin Smith's Historical Works," by C.E. Norton, _North
+  American Review_, 99, p. 523; "Poetry of Charles Heavysege," by Bayard
+  Taylor, _Atlantic_, 16, p. 412; "Charles Heavysege," by L.J. Burpee,
+  in _Trans. Royal Society of Canada_, 1901; "Archibald Lampman," by
+  W.D. Howells, _Literature_ (N.Y.), 4, p. 217; "Archibald Lampman," by
+  L.J. Burpee, in _North American Notes and Queries_ (Quebec), August
+  and September 1900; "Poetry of Bliss Carman," by J.P. Mowbray,
+  _Critic_, 41, p. 308; "Isabella Valency Crawford," in _Poet-Lore_
+  (Boston), xiii. No. 4; _Roberts and the Influences of his Time_
+  (1906), by James Cappon; "William Wilfred Campbell," _Sewanee Review_,
+  October 1900; "Kingsford's History of Canada," by G.M. Wrong, _N.A.
+  Review_, I p. 550; "Books of Gilbert Parker," by C.A. Pratt, _Critic_,
+  33, p. 271.     (L. J. B.)
+
+2. _French-Canadian Literature_ at the opening of the 20th century might
+be described as entirely the work of two generations, and it was
+separated from the old régime by three more generations whose racial
+sentiment only found expression in the traditional songs and tales which
+their forefathers of the 17th century had brought over from the _mère
+patrie_. Folk-lore has always been the most essentially French of all
+imaginative influences in Canadian life; and the songs are the
+quintessence of the lore. Not that the folk-songs have no local
+variants. Indian words, like _moccasin_ and _toboggan_, are often
+introduced. French forms are freely turned into pure Canadianisms, like
+_cageux_, raftsman, _boucane_, brushwood smoke, _portage_, &c. New
+characters, which appeal more directly to the local audience, sometimes
+supplant old ones, like the _quatre vieux sauvages_ who have ousted the
+time-honoured _quatre-z-officiers_ from the Canadian version of
+_Malbrouk_. There are even a few entire songs of transatlantic origin.
+But all these variants together are mere stray curios among the crowding
+souvenirs of the old home over sea. No other bridge can rival _le Pont
+d'Avignon_. "_Ici_" in _C'est le ban vin qui danse ici_ can be nowhere
+else but in old France--_le ban vin_ alone proves this. And the Canadian
+folk-singer, though in a land of myriad springs, still goes _à la claire
+fontaine_ of his ancestral fancy; while the lullabies his mother sang
+him, like the love-songs with which he serenades his _blonde_, were
+nearly all sung throughout the Normandy of _le Grand Monarque_. The
+_habitant_ was separated from old-world changes two centuries ago by
+difference of place and circumstances, while he has hitherto been
+safeguarded from many new-world changes by the segregative influences of
+race, religion, language and custom; and so his folk-lore still remains
+the intimate _alter et idem_ of what it was in the days of the great
+pioneers. It is no longer a living spirit among the people at large; but
+in secluded villages and "back concessions" one can still hear some
+charming melodies as old and pure as the verses to which they are sung,
+and even a few quaint survivals of Gregorian tunes. The best collection,
+more particularly from the musical point of view, is _Les Chansons
+populaires du Canada_, started by Ernest Gagnon (1st ed. 1865).
+
+Race-patriotism is the distinguishing characteristic of French-Canadian
+literature, which is so deeply rooted in national politics that L.J.
+Papineau, the most insistent demagogue of 1837, must certainly be named
+among the founders, for the sake of speeches which came before written
+works both in point of time and popular esteem. Only 360 volumes had
+been published during 80 years, when, in 1845, the first famous book
+appeared--François Xavier Garneau's (1809-1866) _Histoire du Canada_. It
+had immense success in Canada, was favourably noticed in France, and has
+influenced all succeeding men of letters. Unfortunately, the imperfect
+data on which it is based, and the too exclusively patriotic spirit in
+which it is written, prevent it from being an authoritative history: the
+author himself declares "_Vous verrez si la défaite de nos ancêtres ne
+vaut pas toutes las victoires_." But it is of far-reaching importance as
+the first great literary stimulus to racial self-respect. "_Le Canada
+français avait perdu ses Ictlres de noblesse; Garneau les lui a
+rendues_." F.X. Garneau is also remembered for his poems, and he was
+followed by his son Alfred Garneau (1836-1904).
+
+A. Gérin-Lajoie was a mere lad when the exile of some compatriots
+inspired _Le Canadien errant_, which immediately became a universal
+folk-song. Many years later he wrote discriminatingly about those _Dix
+ans au Canada_ (1888) that saw the establishment of responsible
+government. But his fame rests on _Jean Rivard_ (1874), the prose
+bucolic of the _habitant_. The hero, left at the head of a fatherless
+family of twelve when nearly through college, turns from the glut of
+graduates swarming round the prospects of professional city-bred
+careers, steadfastly wrests a home from the wilderness, helps his
+brothers and sisters, marries a _habitante_ fit for the wife of a
+pioneer, brings up a large family, and founds a settlement which grows
+into several parishes and finally becomes the centre of the electoral
+district of "Rivardville," which returns him to parliament. These simple
+and earnest _Scènes de la vie réelle_ are an appealing revelation of
+that eternal secret of the soil which every people wishing to have a
+country of its own must early lay to heart; and _Jean Rivard, le
+défricheur_, will always remain the eponym of the new _colons_ of the
+19th century.
+
+Philippe de Gaspé's historical novel, _Les Anciens Canadiens_ (1863), is
+the complement of Garneau and Gérin-Lajoie. Everything about the
+author's life helped him to write this book. Born in 1784, and brought
+up among reminiscent eye-witnesses of the old régime, he was an eager
+listener, with a wonderful memory and whole-hearted pride in the glories
+of his race and family, a kindly _seigneur_, who loved and was loved by
+all his _censitaires_, a keen observer of many changing systems, down to
+the final Confederation of 1867, and a man who had felt both extremes of
+fortune (_Mémoires_, 1866). The story rambles rather far from its
+well-worn plot. But these very digressions give the book its intimate
+and abiding charm; for they keep the reader in close personal touch with
+every side of Canadian life, with songs and tales and homely forms of
+speech, with the best features of seigniorial times and the strong
+guidance of an ardent church, with _voyageurs, coureurs de bois_,
+Indians, soldiers, sailors and all the strenuous adventurers of a wild,
+new, giant world. The poet of this little band of authors was Octave
+Crémazie, a Quebec bookseller, who failed in business and spent his last
+years as a penniless exile in France. He is usually rather too
+derivative, he lacks the saving grace of style, and even his best
+Canadian poems hardly rise above fervent occasional verse. Yet he became
+a national poet, because he was the first to celebrate occasions of
+deeply felt popular emotion in acceptable rhyme, and he will always
+remain one because each occasion touched some lasting aspiration of his
+race. He sings what Garneau recounts--the love of mother country, mother
+church and Canada. The _Guerre de Crimée, Guerre d'ltalie_, even
+_Castel-fidardo_, are duly chronicled. An ode on _Mgr. de
+Montmorency-Laval_, first bishop of Quebec, brings him nearer to his
+proper themes, which are found in full perfection in the _Chant du vieux
+soldat canadien_, composed in 1856 to honour the first French man-of-war
+that visited British Quebec, and _Le Drapeau de Carillon_ (1858), a
+centennial paean for Montcalm's Canadians at Ticonderoga. Much of the
+mature work of this first generation, and of the juvenilia of the
+second, appeared in _Les Soirées canadiennes_ and _Le Foyer canadien_,
+founded in 1862 and 1863 respectively. The abbé Ferland was an
+enthusiastic editor and historian, and Etienne Parent should be
+remembered as the first Canadian philosopher.
+
+At Confederation many eager followers began to take up the work which
+the founders were laying down. The abbé Casgrain devoted a life-time to
+making the French-Canadians appear as the chosen people of new-world
+history; but, though an able advocate, he spoilt a really good case by
+trying to prove too much. His _Pèlerinage au pays d'Evangéline_ (1888)
+is a splendid defence of the unfortunate Acadians; and all his books
+attract the reader by their charm of style and personality. But his
+_Montcalm et Lévis_ (1891) and other works on the conquest, are all
+warped by a strong bias against both Wolfe and Montcalm, and in favour
+of Vandreuil, the Canadian-born governor; while they show an inadequate
+grasp of military problems, and practically ignore the vast determining
+factor of sea-power altogether. Benjamin Sulte's comprehensive _Histoire
+des Canadiens-français_ (1882) is a well-written, many-sided work.
+Thomas Chapais' monographs are as firmly grounded as they are finely
+expressed; his _Jean Talon_ (1904) is of prime importance; and his
+_Montcalm_ (1901) is the generous _amende honorable_ paid by
+French-Canadian literature to a much misrepresented, but admirably
+wrought, career. A. Gérin-Lajoie's cry of "back to the land" was
+successfully adapted to modern developments in _Le Saguenay_ (1896) and
+_L'Outaouais supérieur_ (1889) by Arthur Buies, who showed what immense
+inland breadths of country lay open to suitable "Jean Rivards" from the
+older settlements along the St Lawrence. In oratory, which most
+French-Canadians admire beyond all other forms of verbal art, Sir
+Wilfrid Laurier has greatly surpassed L.J. Papineau, by dealing with
+more complex questions, taking a higher point of view, and expressing
+himself with a much apter flexibility of style.
+
+Among later poets may be mentioned Pierre Chauveau (1820-1890), Louis
+Fiset, (b. 1827), and Adolphe Poisson (b. 1849). Louis Fréchette
+(1830-1908) has, however, long been the only poet with a reputation
+outside of Canada. In 1879 _Les Fleurs boréales_ won the Prix Monthyon
+from the French Academy. In 1887 _La Légende d'un peuple_ became the
+acknowledged epic of a race. He occasionally nods; is rather strident in
+the patriotic vein; and too often answers the untoward call of rhetoric
+when his subject is about to soar into the heights of poetry. But a rich
+vocabulary, a mastery of verse-forms quite beyond the range of Crémazie,
+real originality of conception, individual distinction of style, deep
+insight into the soul of his people, and, still more, the glow of
+warm-blooded life pulsing through the whole poem, all combine to give
+him the greatest place at home and an important one in the world at
+large. _Les Vengeances_ (1875), by Leon Pamphile Le May, and _Les
+Aspirations_ (1904), by W. Chapman, worthily represent the older and
+younger contemporaries. Dr Nérée Beauchemin keeps within somewhat narrow
+limits in _Les Floraisons matutinales_ (1897); but within them he shows
+true poetic genius, a fine sense of rhythm, rhyme and verbal melody, a
+_curiosa felicitas_ of epithet and phrase, and so sure an eye for local
+colour that a stranger could choose no better guide to the imaginative
+life of Canada.
+
+A Canadian drama hardly exists; among its best works are the pleasantly
+epigrammatic plays of F.G. Marchand. Novels are not yet much in vogue;
+though Madame Conan's _L'Oublié_ (1902) has been crowned by the Academy;
+while Dr Choquette's _Les Ribaud_ (1898) is a good dramatic story, and
+his _Claude Paysan_ (1899) is an admirably simple idyllic tale of the
+hopeless love of a soil-bound _habitant_, told with intense natural
+feeling and fine artistic reserve. Chief-Justice Routhier, a most
+accomplished occasional writer, is very French-Canadian when arraigning
+_Les Grands Drames_ of the classics (1889) before his ecclesiastical
+court and finding them guilty of Paganism.
+
+  The best bibliographies are Philéas Gagnon's _Essai de bibliographie
+  canadienne_ (1895), and Dr N.E. Dionne's list of publications from the
+  earliest times in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_
+  for 1905.     (W. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The census is taken every ten years, save in these three
+    provinces, where it is taken every five. Their population in 1906
+    was:--Manitoba, 360,000; Saskatchewan, 257,000; Alberta, 184,000.
+
+  [2] The areas assigned to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New
+    Brunswick and British Columbia are exclusive of the territorial seas,
+    that to Quebec is exclusive of the Gulf of St Lawrence (though
+    including the islands lying within it), and that to Ontario is
+    exclusive of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes. About 500,000
+    sq. m. belong to the Arctic region and 125,755 sq. m. are water.
+
+  [3] In Canada a city must have over 10,000 inhabitants, a town over
+    2000.
+
+  [4] The date of foundation is given in brackets.
+
+
+
+
+CANAL (from Lat. _canalis_, "channel" and "kennel" being doublets of the
+word), an artificial water course used for the drainage of low lands,
+for irrigation (q.v.), or more especially for the purpose of navigation
+by boats, barges or ships. Probably the first canals were made for
+irrigation, but in very early times they came also to be used for
+navigation, as in Assyria and Egypt. The Romans constructed various
+works of the kind, and Charlemagne projected a system of waterways
+connecting the Main and the Rhine with the Danube, while in China the
+Grand Canal, joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in
+the 13th century, formed an important artery of commerce, serving also
+for irrigation. But although it appears from Marco Polo that inclines
+were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways suffered in general
+from the defect that no method being known of conveniently transferring
+boats from one level to another they were only practicable between
+points that lay on nearly the same level; and inland navigation could
+not become generally useful and applicable until this defect had been
+remedied by the employment of locks. Great doubts exist as to the
+person, and even the nation, that first introduced locks. Some writers
+attribute their invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a century
+earlier than in Italy locks were used in Holland where canals are very
+numerous, owing to the favourable physical conditions. On the other
+hand, the contrivance has been claimed for engineers of the Italian
+school, and it is said that two brothers Domenico of Viterbo constructed
+a lock-chamber enclosed by a pair of gates in 1481, and that in 1487
+Leonardo da Vinci completed six locks uniting the canals of Milan. Be
+that as it may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th
+century gave a new character to inland navigation and laid the basis of
+its successful extension.
+
+The Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as the pioneer of
+the canals of modern Europe. Joining the Bay of Biscay and the
+Mediterranean it is 148 m. long and rises 620 ft. above sea-level with
+119 locks, its depth being about 6½ ft. It was designed by Baron Paul
+Riquet de Bonrepos (1604-1680) and was finished in 1681. With it and the
+still earlier Briare canal (1605-1642) France began that policy of canal
+construction which has provided her with over 3000 m. of canals, in
+addition to over 4600 m. of navigable rivers. In Russia Peter the Great
+undertook the construction of a system of canals about the beginning of
+the 18th century, and in Sweden a canal with locks, connecting
+Eskilstuna with Lake Malar, was finished in 1606. In England the oldest
+artificial canal is the Foss Dyke, a relic of the Roman occupation. It
+extends from Lincoln to the river Trent near Torksey (11 m.), and formed
+a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin but now filled up,
+which ran from Lincoln to Peterborough (40 m.). Camden in his
+_Britannia_ says that the Foss Dyke was deepened and to some extent
+rendered navigable in 1121. Little, however, was done in making canals
+in Great Britain until the middle of the 18th century, though before
+that date some progress had been made in rendering some of the larger
+rivers navigable. In 1759 the duke of Bridgewater obtained powers to
+construct a canal between Manchester and his collieries at Worsley, and
+this work, of which James Brindley was the engineer, and which was
+opened for traffic in 1761, was followed by a period of great activity
+in canal construction, which, however, came to an end with the
+introduction of railways. According to evidence given before the royal
+commission on canals in 1906 the total mileage of existing canals in the
+United Kingdom was 3901. In the United States the first canal was made
+in 1792-1796 at South Hadley, Massachusetts, and the canal-system,
+though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has attained
+a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New York, Ohio, and
+Pennsylvania. The splendid inland navigation system of Canada mainly
+consists of natural lakes and rivers, and the artificial waterways are
+largely "lateral" canals, cut in order to enable vessels to avoid rapids
+in the rivers. (See the articles on the various countries for accounts
+of the canal-systems they possess.)
+
+The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construction were
+mostly of the class known as _barge_ or _boat canals_, and owing to
+their limited depth and breadth were only available for vessels of small
+size. But with the growth of commerce the advantage was seen of cutting
+canals of such dimensions as to enable them to accommodate sea-going
+ships. Such _ship-canals_, which from an engineering point of view
+chiefly differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they
+involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the voyage
+between two seas by cutting through an intervening isthmus, or to
+convert important inland places into seaports. An early example of the
+first class is afforded by the Caledonian Canal (q.v.), while among
+later ones may be mentioned the Suez Canal (q.v.), the Kaiser Wilhelm,
+Nord-Ostsee or Kiel Canal, connecting Brunsbüttel at the mouth of the
+Elbe with Kiel (q.v.) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have
+been proposed across the isthmus that joins North and South America (see
+PANAMA CANAL). Examples of the second class are the Manchester Ship
+Canal and the canal that runs from Zeebrugge on the North Sea to Bruges
+(q.v.).
+
+_Construction._--In laying out a line of canal the engineer is more
+restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway. Since water
+runs downhill, gradients are inadmissible, and the canal must either be
+made on one uniform level or must be adapted to the general rise or fall
+of the country through which it passes by being constructed in a series
+of level reaches at varying heights above a chosen datum line, each
+closed by a lock or some equivalent device to enable vessels to be
+transferred from one to another. To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the
+reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings of
+valleys, but from time to time it will become necessary to cross a
+sudden depression by the aid of an embankment or aqueduct, while a piece
+of rising ground or a hill may involve a cutting or a tunnel. Brindley
+took the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell at Barton by means of an
+aqueduct of three stone arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft.,
+and T. Telford arranged that the Ellesmere canal should cross the Dee
+valley at Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly by aqueduct.
+The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft. above the ground, when
+it was succeeded by an aqueduct, 1000 ft. long and 127 ft. above the
+river, consisting of a cast iron trough supported on iron arches with
+stone piers. Occasionally when a navigable stream has to be crossed, a
+swing viaduct is necessary to allow shipping to pass. The first was that
+built by Sir E. Leader Williams to replace Brindley's aqueduct at
+Barton, which was only high enough to give room for barges (see
+MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). One of the earliest canal tunnels was made in
+1766-1777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and Mersey canal; it is
+2880 yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide, and has no tow-path, the
+boats being propelled by men lying on their backs and pushing with their
+feet against the tunnel walls ("leggers"). A second tunnel, parallel to
+this but 16 ft. high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by
+Telford in 1827. Standedge tunnel, on the Huddersfield canal, is over 3
+m. long, and is also worked by leggers.
+
+
+  Dimensions.
+
+The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of water-supply,
+are regulated by the size of the vessels which are to be used on it.
+According to J.M. Rankine, the depth of water and sectional area of
+waterway should be such as not to cause any material increase of the
+resistance to the motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered
+in open water, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling these
+conditions:--
+
+  Least breadth of bottom = 2 × greatest breadth of boat.
+  Least depth of water    = 1½ ft. + greatest draught of boat.
+  Least area of waterway  = 6 × greatest midship section of boat.
+
+The ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide at the
+bottom, which is flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water level, with a
+depth of 4 or 5 ft., the angle of slope of the sides varying with the
+nature of the soil. To retain the water in porous ground, and especially
+on embankments, a strong watertight lining of puddle or tempered clay
+must be provided on the bed and sides of the channel. Puddle is made of
+clay which has been finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being
+supplied until it is in a semi-plastic state. It is used in thin layers,
+each of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the lower
+stratum. The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft. To prevent the
+erosion of the sides at the water-line by the wash from the boats, it
+may be necessary to pitch them with stones or face them with brushwood.
+In some of the old canals the slopes have been cut away and vertical
+walls built to retain the towing-paths, with the result of adding
+materially to the sectional area of the waterway.
+
+
+  Water supply.
+
+A canal cannot be properly worked without a supply of water calculated
+to last over the driest season of the year. If there be no natural lake
+available in the district for storage and supply, or if the engineer
+cannot draw upon some stream of sufficient size, he must form artificial
+reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must be
+attended to in selecting the positions of these and in constructing them
+are the same as those for drinking-water supply, except that the purity
+of the water is not a matter of moment. They must be situated at such an
+elevation that the water from them may flow to the summit-level of the
+canal, and if the expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command
+a sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the canal
+by evaporation from the surface, percolation through the bed, and
+lockage. If the supply be inadequate, the draught of the boats plying on
+the canal may have to be reduced in a dry season, and the consequent
+decrease in the size of their cargoes will both lessen the carrying
+capacity of the canal and increase the working expenses in relation to
+the tonnage handled. Again, since the consumption of water in lockage
+increases both with the size of the locks and the frequency with which
+they are used, the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may
+put a limit to the density of traffic possible on a canal or may
+prohibit its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the
+size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under modern
+conditions. It may be pointed out that the up consumes more water than
+the down traffic. An ascending boat on entering a lock displaces a
+volume of water equal to its submerged capacity. The water so displaced
+flows into the lower reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through
+the lock is replaced by water flowing from the upper reach. A descending
+boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its submerged
+capacity, but in this case the water flows back into the higher reach
+where it is retained when the gates are closed.
+
+
+  Waste-weirs and stop-gates.
+
+An essential adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of waste-weirs to
+discharge surplus water accumulating during floods, which, if not
+provided with an exit, may overflow the tow-path, and cause a breach in
+the banks, stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining lands. The
+number and positions of these waste-weirs must depend on the nature of
+the country through which the canal passes. Wherever the canal crosses a
+stream a waste-weir should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently
+of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes of
+water may be apprehended, and must at such places form not only
+waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but also
+artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams. These
+waste-weirs are placed at the top water-level of the canal, so that when
+a flood occurs the water flows over them and thus relieves the banks.
+
+Stop-gates are necessary at short intervals of a few miles for the
+purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches, so that in the
+event of a breach the gates may be shut, and the discharge of water
+confined to the small reach intercepted between two of them, instead of
+extending throughout the whole line of canal. In broad canals these
+stop-gates may be formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates
+being made to shut in opposite directions. In small works they may be
+made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow points of
+the canal under road bridges, or at contractions made at intermediate
+points to receive them. Self-acting stop-gates have been tried, but have
+not proved trustworthy. When repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of
+the water being run off by "off-lets" from a short reach, and afterwards
+restored with but little interruption of the traffic. These off-lets are
+pipes placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided with
+valves which can be opened when required. They are generally formed at
+aqueducts or bridges crossing rivers, where the contents of the canal
+between the stop-gates can be run off into the stream.
+
+
+  Locks.
+
+Locks are chambers, constructed of wood, brickwork, masonry or concrete,
+and provided with gates at each end, by the aid of which vessels are
+transferred from one reach of the canal to another. To enable a boat to
+ascend, the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of water
+from the upper reach are closed. The sluices at the lower end of the
+lock are then opened, and when the level of the water in the lock has
+fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes in to the lock. The
+lower gates and sluices being then closed, the upper sluices are opened,
+and when the water rising in the lock has floated the boat up the level
+of the upper reach the upper gates are opened and it passes out. For a
+descending boat the procedure is reversed. The sluices by which the lock
+is filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks, or
+consist of openings in the gates in small ones. The gates are generally
+of oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when open, and closing
+against sills in the lock bottom when shut. In small narrow locks
+single gates only are necessary; in large locks pairs of gates are
+required, fitting together at the head or "mitre-post" when closed. The
+vertical timber at the end of the gate is known as the "heel-post," and
+at its foot is a casting that admits an iron pivot which is fixed in the
+lock bottom, and on which the gate turns. Iron straps round the head of
+the heel-post are let into the lock-coping to support the gate. The
+gates are opened and closed by balance beams projecting over the lock
+side, by gearing or in cases where they are very large and heavy by the
+direct action of a hydraulic ram. In order to economize water canal
+locks are made only a few inches wider than the vessels they have to
+accommodate. The English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or
+8 ft. in beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft. in
+width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit two of the
+narrower canal boats side by side. In general canal locks are just long
+enough to accommodate the longest vessels using the navigation. In some
+cases, however, provision is made for admitting a train of barges; such
+long locks have sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective
+length is reduced when a single vessel is passing. The lift of canal
+locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining reaches,
+is in general about 8 or 10 ft., but sometimes is as little as 1½ ft. On
+the Canal du Centre (Belgium) there are locks with a lift of 17 ft., and
+on the St Denis canal near La Villette basins in Paris there is one with
+a lift of 32½ ft. In cases where a considerable difference of level has
+to be surmounted the locks are placed close together in a series or
+"flight," so that the lower gates of one serve also as the upper gates
+of the next below. To save water, expecially where the lift is
+considerable, side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs
+into which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead of
+being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards used for
+partially filling the chamber again. Double locks, that is, two locks
+placed side by side and communicating by a passage which can be opened
+or closed at will, also tend to save water, since each serves as a side
+pond to the other. The same advantage is gained with double flights of
+locks, and time also is saved since vessels can pass up and down
+simultaneously.
+
+
+  Inclines.
+
+A still greater economy of water can be effected by the use of inclined
+planes or vertical lifts in place of locks. In China rude inclines
+appear to have been used at an early date, vessels being carried down a
+sloping plane of stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up
+it by capstans. On the Bude canal (England) this plan was adopted in an
+improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed being fitted with
+wheels to facilitate their course over the inclines. Another variant,
+often adopted as an adjunct to locks where many small pleasure boats
+have to be dealt with, is to fit the incline itself with rollers, upon
+which the boats travel. In some cases the boats are conveyed on a
+wheeled trolley or cradle running on rails; this plan was adopted on the
+Morris canal, built in 1825-1831, in the case of 23 inclines having
+gradients of about 1 in 10, the rise of each varying from 44 to 100 ft.
+Between the Ourcq canal and the Marne, near Meaux, the difference of
+level is about 40 ft., and barges weighing about 70 tons are taken from
+the one to the other on a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a wire rope
+over an incline nearly 500 yards long. But heavy barges are apt to be
+strained by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this
+objection they are sometimes drawn up the inclines floating in a tank or
+caisson filled with water and running on wheels. This arrangement was
+utilized about 1840 on the Chard canal (England), and 10 years later it
+was adapted at Blackhill on the Monkland canal (Scotland) to replace a
+double flight of locks, in consequence of the traffic having been
+interrupted by insufficiency of water. There the height to be overcome
+was 96 ft. Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. gauge, were laid down on a
+gradient of 1 in 10, and on these ran two carriages having wrought iron,
+water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each end, in which the barges
+floated partially but not wholly supported by water. The carriages, with
+the barge and water, weighed about 80 tons each, and were arranged to
+counterbalance each other, one going up as the other was going down. The
+power required was provided by two high pressure steam engines of 25
+h.p., driving two large drums round which was coiled, in opposite
+directions, the 2-inch wire rope that hauled the caissons. An incline
+constructed on the Union canal at Foxton (England) to replace 10 locks
+giving a total rise of 75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two
+canal boats of 33 tons. It is in some respects like the Monkland canal
+incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails on an
+incline of 1 in 14, broadside on, and the boats are entirely waterborne.
+Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic accumulator which enables
+hydraulic power to be used in keeping the caisson in position at the top
+of the incline while the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight
+joint being maintained with the final portion of the canal during the
+operation. The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked by
+hydraulic power. The incline is capable of passing 200 canal boats in 12
+hours, and the whole plant is worked by three men.
+
+
+  Lifts.
+
+Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage at
+places where the difference in level occurs in a short length of canal,
+since otherwise long embankments or aqueducts would be necessary to
+obtain sites for their construction. An early example was built in 1809
+at Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham canal. It consisted of a
+timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when full of water, counterpoised by
+heavy weights carried on timber platforms. The lift of 12 ft. was
+effected in about three minutes by two men working winches. Seven lifts,
+erected on the Grand Western canal between Wellington and Tiverton about
+1835, consisted of two chambers with a masonry pier between them. In
+each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended at either end of a
+chain hung over large pulleys above. As one caisson descended the other
+rose, and the apparatus was worked by putting about a ton more water in
+the descending caisson than in the ascending one. At Anderton a lift was
+erected in 1875 to connect the Weaver navigation with the Trent and
+Mersey canal, which at that point is 50 ft. higher than the river. The
+lift is a double one, and can deal with barges up to 100 tons. The
+change is made while the vessels are floating in 5 ft. of water
+contained in a wrought iron caisson, 75 ft. long and 15½ ft. wide. An
+hydraulic ram 3 ft. in diameter supports each caisson, the bottom of
+which is strengthened so as to transfer the weight to the side girders.
+The descending caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater
+depth of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240 tons)
+being otherwise constant, since the barge displaces its own weight of
+water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to overcome the loss of weight
+in the descending caisson when it begins to be immersed in the lower
+level of the river. The two presses in which the rams work are connected
+by a 5-in. pipe, so that the descent of one caisson effects the raising
+of the other. A similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the
+Neuffossé canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total
+weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example on
+the Canal du Centre at La Louvière in Belgium has a rise of 50 ft., with
+caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons, the total weight lifted
+amounting to over 1000 tons. This lift, with three others of the same
+character, overcomes the rise of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in
+the course of 4-1/3 m.
+
+
+  Animal power.
+
+_Haulage._--The horse or mule walking along a tow-path and drawing or
+"tracking" a boat or barge by means of a towing rope, still remains the
+typical method of conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on
+ship-canals vessels proceed under their own steam or are aided by tugs.
+Horse traction is very slow. The maximum speed on a narrow canal is
+about 3½ m. an hour, and the average speed, which, of course, depends
+largely on the number of locks to be passed through, very much less. It
+has been calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls one
+narrow canal boat about 2 m. an hour loaded or 3 m. empty, or two narrow
+canal boats 1½ m. loaded and 2½ m. empty. Efforts have accordingly been
+made not only to quicken the rate of transit, but also to move heavier
+loads, thus increasing the carrying capacity of the waterways. But at
+speeds exceeding about 3½ m. an hour the "wash" of the boat begins to
+cause erosion of the banks, and thus necessitates the employment of
+special protective measures, such as building side walls of masonry or
+concrete. For a canal of given depth there is a particular speed at
+which a boat can be hauled with a smaller expenditure of energy than at
+a higher or a lower speed, this maximum being the speed of free
+propagation of the primary wave raised by the motion of the boat (see
+WAVE). About 1830 when, in the absence of railways, canals could still
+aspire to act as carriers of passengers, advantage was taken of this
+fact on the Glasgow and Ardrossan canal, and subsequently on some
+others, to run fast passenger boats, made lightly of wrought iron and
+measuring 60 ft. in length by about 6 ft. in breadth. Provided with two
+horses they started at a low speed behind the wave, and then on a given
+signal were jerked on the top of the wave, when their speed was
+maintained at 7 or 8 m. an hour, the depth of the canal being 3 or 4 ft.
+This method, however, is obviously inapplicable to heavy barges, and in
+their case improved conditions of transport had to be sought in other
+directions.
+
+
+  Mechanical power.
+
+Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and Clyde canal in 1802,
+when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by W. Symington drew two
+barges for a distance of 19½ m. in 6 hours in the teeth of a strong
+headwind. As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed to
+employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the project fell through
+owing to the death of the duke of Bridgewater, and the directors of the
+Forth and Clyde canal also decided against this method because they
+feared damage to the banks. Steam tugs are only practicable on
+navigations on which there are either no locks or they are large enough
+to admit the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the
+advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at locks. On the
+Bridgewater canal, which has an average width of 50 ft. with a depth of
+5½ ft., is provided with vertical stone walls in place of sloping banks,
+and has no locks for its entire length of 40 m. except at Runcorn, where
+it joins the Mersey, tugs of 50 i.h.p., with a draught of 4 ft., tow
+four barges, each weighing 60 tons, at a rate of nearly 3 m. an hour. On
+the Aire and Calder navigation, where the locks have a minimum length of
+215 ft., a large coal traffic is carried in trains of boat-compartments
+on a system designed by W.H. Bartholomew. The boats are nearly square in
+shape, except the leading one which has an ordinary bow; they are
+coupled together by knuckle-joints fitted into hollow stern-posts, so
+that they can move both laterally and vertically, and a wire rope in
+tension on each side enables the train to be steered. No boat crews are
+required, the crew of the steamer regulating the train. If the number of
+boats does not exceed 11 they can be pushed, but beyond that number they
+are towed. Each compartment carries 35 tons, and the total weight in a
+train varies from 700 to 900 tons. On the arrival of a train at Goole
+the boats are detached and are taken over submerged cradles under
+hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle sufficiently high
+to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole cargo at once
+into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers. Another method of
+utilizing steam-power, which was also first tried on the Forth and Clyde
+canal by Symington in 1789, is to provide each vessel with a separate
+steam engine, and many barges are now running fitted in this way.
+Experiments have also been made with internal combustion engines in
+place of steam engines. In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a strong
+current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain passed round a drum
+on a tug: this drum is rotated by steam power and thus the tug is hauled
+up against the current. To obviate the inconvenience of passing several
+turns of the chain round the drum in order to get sufficient grip, the
+plan was introduced on the Seine and Oise in 1893 of passing the chain
+round a pulley which could be magnetized at will, the necessary
+adhesion being thus obtained by the magnetic attraction exercised on
+the iron chain; and it was also adopted about the same time in
+combination with electrical haulage on a small portion of the Bourgogne
+canal, electricity being employed to drive the motor that worked the
+pulley. Small locomotives running on rails along the towpath were tried
+on the Shropshire Union canal, where they were abandoned on account of
+practical difficulties in working, and also on certain canals in France
+and Germany, where, however, the financial results were not
+satisfactory. On portions of the Teltow canal, joining the Havel and the
+Spree, electrical tractors run on rails along both banks, taking their
+power from an overhead wire; they attain a speed of 2½ m. an hour when
+hauling two 600-ton barges. The electrical supply is also utilized for
+working the lock gates and for various other purposes along the route of
+the canal. In the Mont-de-Rilly tunnel, at the summit level of the
+Aisne-Marne canal, a system of cable-traction was established in 1894,
+the boats being taken through by being attached to an endless travelling
+wire rope supported by pulleys on the towpath.
+
+  When railways were being carried out in England some canal companies
+  were alarmed for their future, and sold their canals to the railway
+  companies, who in 1906 owned 1138 m. of canals out of a total length
+  in the United Kingdom of 3901 m. As some of these canals are links in
+  the chain of internal water communication complaints have frequently
+  arisen on the question of through traffic and tolls. The great
+  improvements carried out in America and on the continent of Europe by
+  state aid enable manufacturers to get the raw material they use and
+  goods they export to and from their ports at much cheaper rates than
+  those charged on British canals. The association of chambers of
+  commerce and other bodies having taken up the matter, a royal
+  commission was appointed in 1906 to report on the canals and
+  water-ways of the kingdom, with a view to considering how they could
+  be more profitably used for national purposes. Its Report was
+  published in December 1909.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L.F. Vernon-Harcourt, _Rivers and Canals_ (2nd ed.,
+  1896); Chapman, _Canal Navigation_; Firisi, _On Canals_; R. Fulton,
+  _Canal Navigation_; Tatham, _Economy of Inland Navigation_; Valancy,
+  _Treatise on Inland Navigation_; D. Stevenson, _Canal and River
+  Engineering_; John Phillips, _History of Inland Navigation_; J.
+  Priestley, _History of Navigable Rivers, Canals, &c. in Great Britain_
+  (1831); T. Telford, _Life_ (1838); John Smeaton, _Reports_ (1837);
+  _Reports of the International Congresses on Interior Navigation_;
+  _Report and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Canals_ (_Great
+  Britain_), 1906-9.     (E. L. W.)
+
+
+
+
+CANAL DOVER, a city of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the
+Tuscarawas river, about 70 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 3470;
+(1900) 5422 (930 foreign-born); (1910) 6621. It is served by the
+Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and by the Ohio canal,
+and is connected with Cleveland by an inter-urban electric line. It lies
+on a plateau about 880 ft. above sea-level and commands pleasant views
+of diversified scenery. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and
+the city manufactures iron, steel, tin plate, electrical and telephone
+supplies, shovels, boilers, leather, flour, brick and tile, salt,
+furniture and several kinds of vehicles. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works. Canal Dover was laid out as a town in 1807,
+and was incorporated as a village in 1842, but its charter was soon
+allowed to lapse and was not revived until 1867. Canal Dover became a
+city under the Ohio municipal code of 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CANALE (or CANALETTO), ANTONIO (1697-1768), Venetian painter, born on
+the 18th of October 1697, was educated under his father Bernard, a
+scene-painter of Venice, and for some time followed his father's line of
+art. In 1719 he went to Rome, where he employed himself chiefly in
+delineating ancient ruins, and particularly studied effects of light and
+shade, in which he became an adept. He was the first painter who made
+practical use of the camera lucida. On returning home he devoted his
+powers to views in his native city, which he painted with a clear and
+firm touch and the most facile mastery of colour in a deep tone,
+introducing groups of figures with much effect. In his latter days he
+resided some time in England. His pictures, in their particular range,
+still remain unrivalled for their magnificent perspective. The National
+Gallery, London, has five pictures by him, notably the "View on the
+Grand Canal, Venice," and the "Regatta on the Grand Canal." He died on
+the 20th of August 1768. Bellotto (commonly named Bernardo), who is also
+sometimes called CANALETTO (1724-1780), was his nephew and pupil, and
+painted with deceptive resemblance to the style of the more celebrated
+master.
+
+
+
+
+CANALIS (also "canal" and "channel"; from the Latin), in architecture,
+the sinking between the fillets of the volute of the Ionic capital: in
+the earliest examples, though sunk below the fillets, it is slightly
+convex in section.
+
+
+
+
+CANANDAIGUA, a village and the county-seat of Ontario county, New York,
+U.S.A., 30 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. (1890) 5868; (1900) 6151; (1910)
+7217. It is served by the New York Central and Hudson River, and the
+Northern Central (Pennsylvania system) railways, and is connected with
+Rochester by an inter-urban electric line. Among the manufactures are
+pressed bricks, tile, beer, ploughs, flour, agate and tin-ware. The
+village, picturesquely situated at the north end of Canandaigua Lake, a
+beautiful sheet of water about 15 m. long with a breadth varying from a
+mile to a mile and a half, is a summer resort. It has a county court
+house; the Canandaigua hospital of physicians and surgeons; the
+Frederick Ferris Thompson memorial hospital, with a bacteriological
+laboratory supported by the county; the Clark Manor House (a county home
+for the aged), given by Mrs Frederick Ferris Thompson in memory of her
+mother and of her father, Myron Holley Clark (1806-1892), president of
+the village of Canandaigua in 1850-1851 and governor of New York in
+1855-1857; the Ontario Orphan Asylum; Canandaigua Academy; Granger Place
+school for girls; Brigham Hall (a private sanatorium for nervous and
+mental diseases); Young Men's Christian Association building (1905); and
+two libraries, the Wood (public) library and the Union School library,
+founded in 1795. There is a public playground in the village with free
+instruction by a physical director; and a swimming school, endowed by
+Mrs F.F. Thompson, gives free lessons in swimming. The village owns its
+water-supply system. A village of the Seneca Indians, near the present
+Canandaigua, bearing the same name, which means "a settlement was
+formerly there" (not, as Lewis Morgan thought, "chosen spot"), was
+destroyed by Gen. John Sullivan in 1779. There are boulder memorials of
+Sullivan's expedition and of the treaty signed here on the 11th of
+November 1794 by Timothy Pickering, on behalf of the United States with
+the Six Nations--a treaty never ratified by the Senate. Canandaigua was
+settled in 1789 and was first incorporated in 1812.
+
+
+
+
+CANARD (the Fr. for "duck"), a sensational or extravagant story, a hoax
+or false report, especially one circulated by newspapers. This use of
+the word in France dates from the 17th century, and is supposed by
+Littré to have originated in the old expression, "_vendre un canard à
+moitié_" (to half-sell a duck); as it is impossible to "half-sell a
+duck," the phrase came to signify to take in, or to cheat.
+
+
+
+
+CANARY (_Serinus canarius_), a well-known species of passerine bird,
+belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ or finches (see FINCH). It is a
+native of the Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs abundantly in
+the wild state, and is of a greyish-brown colour, slightly varied with
+brighter hues, although never attaining the beautiful plumage of the
+domestic bird. It was first domesticated in Italy during the 16th
+century, and soon spread over Europe, where it is now the most common of
+cage-birds. During the years of its domestication, the canary has been
+the subject of careful artificial selection, the result being the
+production of a bird differing widely in the colour of its plumage, and
+in a few of its varieties even in size and form, from the original wild
+species. The prevailing colour of the most admired varieties of the
+canary is yellow, approaching in some cases to orange, and in others to
+white; while the most robust birds are those which, in the dusky green
+of the upper surface of their plumage, show a distinct approach to the
+wild forms. The least prized are those in which the plumage is
+irregularly spotted and speckled. In one of the most esteemed varieties,
+the wing and tail feathers are at first black--a peculiarity, however,
+which disappears after the first moulting. Size and form have also been
+modified by domestication, the wild canary being not more than 5½ in. in
+length, while a well-known Belgian variety usually measures 8 in. There
+are also hooped or bowed canaries, feather-footed forms and top-knots,
+the latter having a distinct crest on the head; but the offspring of two
+such top-knotted canaries, instead of showing an increased development
+of crest, as might be expected, are apt to be bald on the crown. Most of
+the varieties, however, of which no fewer than twenty-seven were
+recognized by French breeders so early as the beginning of the 18th
+century, differ merely in the colour and the markings of the plumage.
+Hybrids are also common, the canary breeding freely with the siskin,
+goldfinch, citril, greenfinch and linnet. The hybrids thus produced are
+almost invariably sterile. It is the female canary which is almost
+invariably employed in crossing, as it is difficult to get the females
+of the allied species to sit on the artificial nest used by breeders. In
+a state of nature canaries pair, but under domestication the male bird
+has been rendered polygamous, being often put with four or five females;
+still he is said to show a distinct preference for the female with which
+he was first mated. It is from the others, however, that the best birds
+are usually obtained. The canary is very prolific, producing eggs, not
+exceeding six in number, three or four times a year; and in a state of
+nature it is said to breed still oftener. The work of building the nest,
+and of incubation, falls chiefly on the female, while the duty of
+feeding the young rests mainly with the cock bird. The natural song of
+the canary is loud and clear; and in their native groves the males,
+especially during the pairing season, pour forth their song with such
+ardour as sometimes to burst the delicate vessels of the throat. The
+males appear to compete with each other in the brilliancy of their
+melody, in order to attract the females, which, according to the German
+naturalist Johann Matthaus Bechstein (1757-1822) always select the best
+singers for their mates. The canary readily imitates the notes of other
+birds, and in Germany and especially Tirol, where the breeding of
+canaries gives employment to a large number of people, they are usually
+placed for this purpose beside the nightingale.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+CANARY ISLANDS (_Canarias_), a Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic
+Ocean; about 60 m. W. of the African coast, between 27° 40' and 29° 30'
+N., and between 13° 20' and 18° 10' W. Pop. (1900) 358,564; area 2807
+sq. m. The Canary Islands resemble a roughly-drawn semicircle, with its
+convex side facing south-wards, and with the island of Hierro detached
+on the south-west. More precisely, they may be considered as two groups,
+one of which, including Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Palma, Hierro and
+Gomera, consists of mountain peaks, isolated and rising directly from an
+ocean of great depth; while the other, comprising Lanzarote,
+Fuerteventura and six uninhabited islets, is based on a single submarine
+plateau, of far less depth. Teneriffe and Gomera, the only members of
+the principal group which have a common base, may be regarded as the
+twin peaks of one great volcanic mass. Ever since the researches of
+Leopold von Buch the Canary Islands have been classical ground to the
+student of volcanic action. Buch considered them to be representative of
+his "craters of elevation." In common with the other West African
+islands they are of volcanic origin. The lavas consist chiefly of
+trachytes and basalts.
+
+[Illustration: CANARY ISLANDS MAP]
+
+_Climate_.--From April to October a north or north-east wind blows upon
+the islands, beginning about 10 A.M. and continuing until 5 or 6 P.M. In
+summer this wind produces a dense stratum of sea-cloud (_cumuloni_), 500
+ft. thick, whose lower surface is about 2500 ft. above the sea at
+Teneriffe. This does not reach up to the mountains, which have on every
+side a stratum of their own, about 1000 ft. thick, the lower surface
+being about 3500 ft. above the level of the sea. Between these two
+distinct strata there is a gap, through which persons on a vessel near
+the island may obtain a glimpse of the peak. The sea-cloud conceals from
+view the other islands, except those whose mountains pierce through it.
+On the south-west coasts there is no regular sea or land breeze. In
+winter they are occasionally visited by a hot south-east wind from
+Africa, which is called the _Levante_, and produces various disagreeable
+consequences on the exposed parts of the person, besides injuring the
+vegetation, especially on the higher grounds. Locusts have sometimes
+been brought by this wind. In 1812 it is said that locusts covered some
+fields in Fuerteventura to the depth of 4 ft. Hurricanes, accompanied by
+waterspouts, sometimes cause much devastation; but, on the whole, the
+islands are singularly free from such visitations. The climate generally
+is mild, dry and healthy. On the lower grounds the temperature is
+equable, the daily range seldom exceeding 6° Fahr. At Santa Cruz the
+mean for the year is about 71°. The rainy season occurs at the same
+period as in southern Europe. The dry season is at the time of the
+trade-winds, which extend a few degrees farther north than this
+latitude.
+
+_Fauna_.--The indigenous mammals of the Canary Islands are very few in
+number. The dog, swine, goat and sheep were alone found upon the island
+by the Spanish conquerors: The race of large dogs which is supposed to
+have given a name to the islands has been long extinct. A single
+skeleton has been found, which is deposited in one of the museums at
+Paris. The ferret, rabbit, cat, rat, mouse and two kinds of bat have
+become naturalized. The ornithology is more interesting, on account at
+once of the birds native to the islands, and the stragglers from the
+African coast, which are chiefly brought over in winter, when the wind
+has blown for some time from the east. Among the indigenous birds are
+some birds of prey, as the African vulture, the falcon, the buzzard, the
+sparrow-hawk and the kite. There are also two species of owl, three
+species of sea-mew, the stockdove, quail, raven, magpie, chaffinch,
+goldfinch, blackcap, canary, titmouse, blackbird, house-swallow, &c. As
+to the insects, mention may be made of a species of gnat or mosquito
+which is sometimes troublesome, especially to strangers. The list of
+reptiles is limited to three varieties of lizard and one species of
+frog. The only fresh-water fish is the eel. Marine fishes are not
+numerous, the reason perhaps being that the steepness of the coast does
+not allow seaweed to grow in sufficient quantity to support the lower
+forms of marine animal life. Whales and seals are occasionally seen. The
+cuttle-fish is abundant, and is sought for as an article of food.
+
+_Flora_.--The position of mountainous islands like the Canaries, in the
+subtropical division of the temperate zone, is highly favourable to the
+development, within a small space, of plants characteristic of both warm
+and cold climates. Von Buch refers to five regions of vegetation in
+Teneriffe:--(1) From the sea to the height of 1300 ft. This he styles
+the African region. The climate in the hottest parts is similar to that
+of Egypt. Here grow, among the introduced plants, the coffee tree, the
+date-palm, the sugar-cane, the banana, the orange tree, the American
+agave and two species of cactus; and among indigenous plants, the dragon
+tree on the north-west of Teneriffe. A leafless and fantastic euphorbia,
+_E. canariensis_, and a shrubby composite plant, _Cacalia kleinia_, give
+a character to the landscape about Santa Cruz. (2) Between 1300 ft. and
+2800 ft. This is the region of south European vegetation, the climate
+answering to that of southern France and central Italy. Here nourish
+vines and cereals. (3) The region of indigenous trees, including
+various species of laurel, an _Ardisia, Ilex, Rhamnus, Olea, Myrica_,
+and other trees found wild also at Madeira. The clouds rest on this
+region during the day, and by their humidity support a vegetation
+amongst the trees, partly of shrubs, and partly of ferns. It extends to
+the height of 4000 ft. (4) The region of the beautiful _Pinus
+canariensis_, extending to the height of 6400 ft.; here the broad-leaved
+trees have ceased to grow, but arborescent heaths are found throughout
+its whole extent, and specimens of _Juniperus oxycedrus_ may be met
+with. (5) The region of Retama (_Cytisus nubigenus_), a species of
+white-flowering and sweet-scented broom, which is found as high as
+11,000 ft. At the upper edge of this region a lilac-coloured violet
+clings to the soil, and above there is nothing but a little lichen. The
+number of wild flowering plants may be estimated at 900, upwards of 270
+of which are peculiar to the Canaries. The forms of vegetation must in
+the main be considered North African. The character of the vegetation in
+Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, islands composed of extensive plains and
+low hills, with few springs, is different from that of the other
+islands, which are more elevated and have many springs. The wood is less
+abundant, and the vegetation less luxuriant.
+
+_Inhabitants_.--The Guanches (q.v.), who occupied the Canaries at the
+time of the Spanish invasion, no longer exist as a separate race, for
+the majority were exterminated, and the remainder intermarried with
+their conquerors. The present inhabitants are slightly darker than the
+people of Spain, but in other respects are scarcely distinguishable from
+them. The men are of middle height, well-made and strong; the women are
+not striking in respect of beauty, but they have good eyes and hair.
+Spanish is the only language in use. The birth-rate is uniformly high
+and the death-rate low; and, despite the emigration of many families to
+South America and the United States, the census of 1900 showed that the
+population had increased by over 75,000 since 1877. The excess of
+females over males, which in 1900 amounted to upwards of 22,000, is
+partly explained by the fact that few women emigrate. Fully 80% of the
+inhabitants could neither read nor write in 1900; but education
+progresses more rapidly than in many other Spanish provinces. Good
+schools are numerous, and the return of emigrants and their children who
+have been educated in the United States, tends to raise the standard of
+civilization. The sustenance of the poorer classes is chiefly composed
+of fish, potatoes and _gofio_, which is merely Indian corn or wheat
+roasted, ground and kneaded with water or milk. The land is, in great
+part, strictly entailed.
+
+_Government_.--The archipelago forms one Spanish province, of which the
+capital is Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the residence of the civil governor,
+who has under his command one of the two districts into which the
+archipelago is divided, this first district comprising Teneriffe, Palma,
+Gomera and Hierro. The other district includes Grand Canary, Lanzarote,
+Fuerteventura, and has at its head a sub-governor, residing in Las
+Palmas, on Grand Canary, who is independent of the governor except in
+regard to elections and municipal administration. The chief finance
+office is at Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The court of appeal, created in
+1526, is in Las Palmas. The captain-general and second commandant of the
+archipelago reside in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and there is a
+brigadier-governor of Grand Canary, residing in Las Palmas, besides
+eight inferior military commandants. The province furnishes no men for
+the Spanish peninsular army, but its annual conscription provides men
+for the local territorial militia, composed of regiments of infantry,
+squadrons of mounted rifles and companies of garrison artillery--about
+5000 men all told. The archipelago is divided into two naval districts,
+commanded by royal navy captains. Roman Catholicism is the official
+religion, and ecclesiastical law is the same as in other Spanish
+provinces. The convents have been suppressed, and in many cases
+converted to secular uses. Laguna and Las Palmas are episcopal sees, in
+the archbishopric of Seville.
+
+_Industry and Commerce._--Owing to the richness of the volcanic soil,
+agriculture in the Canaries is usually very profitable. Land varies in
+value according to the amount of water available, but as a rule commands
+an extraordinarily high price. In the _Terrenos de secano_, or
+non-irrigable districts, the average price of an acre ranges from £7 to
+£17; in the _Terrenes de riego_, or irrigable land, it ranges from £100
+to £250. Until 1853 wine was the staple product, and although even the
+finest brand (known as _Vidonia_) never equalled the best Madeira
+vintages, it was largely consumed abroad, especially in England. The
+annual value of the wine exported often exceeded £500,000. In 1853,
+however, the grape disease attacked the vineyards; and thenceforward the
+production of cochineal, which had been introduced in 1825, took the
+place of viticulture so completely that, twenty years later, the exports
+of cochineal were worth £556,000. France and England were the chief
+purchasers. This industry declined in the later years of the 19th
+century, and was supplanted by the cultivation of sugar-cane, and
+afterwards of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and onions. Bananas are the
+most important crop. Other fruits grown in smaller quantities include
+oranges, figs, dates, pineapples, guavas, custard-apples and prickly
+pears. Tobacco-planting is encouraged by the Spanish government, and the
+sugar trade is maintained, despite severe competition. The grain harvest
+does not supply the needs of the islanders. Pigs and sheep of a small,
+coarse-woolled breed, are numerous; and large herds of goats wander in
+an almost wild state over the higher hills. Fishing is a very important
+industry, employing over 10,000 hands. The fleet of about 2200 boats
+operates along some 600 m. of the African coast, between Cape Cantin and
+the Arguin Bank. Shipbuilding is carried on at Las Palmas; and the minor
+industries include the manufacture of cloth, drawn-linen (_calado_)
+work, silk, baskets, hats, &c. A group of Indian merchants, who employ
+coolie labour, produce silken, jute and cotton goods, Oriental
+embroideries, wrought silver, brass-ware, porcelain, carved sandal-wood,
+&c. The United Kingdom heads the import trade in coal, textiles,
+hardware, iron, soap, candles and colonial products. Timber comes
+chiefly from North America and Scandinavia, alcohol from Cuba and the
+United States, wheat and flour from various British possessions, maize
+from Morocco and Argentina. Large quantities of miscellaneous imports
+are sent by Germany, Spain, France and Italy. Bananas, tomatoes,
+potatoes, sugar and wine are exported. The total value of the foreign
+trade fluctuates very greatly, and the difficulty of forming an estimate
+is enhanced in many years by the absence of official statistics; but
+imports and exports together probably amount in a normal year to about
+£1,000,000. The chief ports are Las Palmas and Santa Cruz, which
+annually accommodate about 7000 vessels of over 8,000,000 tons. In 1854
+all the ports of the Canaries were practically declared free; but on the
+1st of November 1904 a royal order prohibited foreign vessels from
+trading between one island and another. This decree deprived the
+outlying islands of their usual means of communication, and, in answer
+to a protest by the inhabitants, its operation was postponed.
+
+_History_.--There is ground for supposing that the Phoenicians were not
+ignorant of the Canaries. The Romans learned of their existence through
+Juba, king of Mauretania, whose account of an expedition to the islands,
+made about 40 B.C., was preserved by the elder Pliny. He mentions
+"Canaria, so called from the multitude of dogs of great size," and
+"Nivaria, taking its name from perpetual snow, and covered with clouds,"
+doubtless Teneriffe. Canaria was said to abound in palms and pine trees.
+Both Plutarch and Ptolemy speak of the Fortunate Islands, but from their
+description it is not clear whether the Canaries or one of the other
+island groups in the western Atlantic are meant; see ISLES OF THE BLEST.
+In the 12th century the Canaries were visited by Arab navigators, and in
+1334 they were rediscovered by a French vessel driven among them by a
+gale. A Portuguese expedition, undertaken about the same time, failed to
+find the archipelago, and want of means frustrated the project of
+conquest entertained by a grandson of Alphonso X. of Castile, named Juan
+de la Cerda, who had obtained a grant of the islands and had been
+crowned king of them at Avignon, by Pope Clement VI. Two or possibly
+more Spanish expeditions followed, and a monastic mission was
+established, but at the close of the 14th century the Guanches remained
+unconquered and unconverted. In 1402, however, Gadifer de la Salle and
+Jean de Béthencourt (q.v.) sailed with two vessels from Rochelle, and
+landed early in July on Lanzarote. The relations between these two
+leaders, and their respective shares in the work of conquest and
+exploration, have been the subject of much controversy. Between 1402 and
+1404 La Salle conquered Lanzarote and part of Fuerteventura, besides
+exploring other islands; Béthencourt meanwhile sailed to Cadiz for
+reinforcements. He returned in 1404 with the title of king, which he had
+secured from Henry III. of Castile. La Salle, thus placed in a position
+of inferiority, left the islands and appealed unsuccessfully for redress
+at the court of Castile. In 1405 Béthencourt visited Normandy, and
+returned with fresh colonists who conquered Hierro. In December 1406 he
+left the Canaries, entrusting their government to his nephew Maciot de
+Béthencourt, and reserving for himself a share in any profits obtained,
+and the royal title. Eight years of misrule followed before Queen
+Catherine of Castile intervened. Maciot thereupon sold his office to her
+envoy, Pedro Barba de Campos; sailed to Lisbon and resold it to Prince
+Henry the Navigator; and a few years afterwards resold it once more to
+Enrique de Guzman, count of Niebla. Jean de Béthencourt, who died in
+1422, bequeathed the islands to his brother Reynaud; Guzman sold them to
+another Spaniard named Paraza, who was forced to re-sell to Ferdinand
+and Isabella of Castile in 1476; and Prince Henry twice endeavoured to
+enforce his own claims. Meanwhile the Guanches remained unconquered
+throughout the greater part of the archipelago. In 1479 the sovereignty
+of Ferdinand and Isabella over the Canaries was established by the
+treaty of Alcaçova, between Portugal and Castile. After much bloodshed,
+and with reinforcements from the mother country, the Spaniards, under
+Pedro de Vera, became masters of Grand Canary in 1483. Palma was
+conquered in 1491, and Teneriffe in 1495, by Alonzo de Lugo. The
+archipelago was included for administrative purposes in the
+captaincy-general of Andalusia until 1833, when it was made a separate
+province. In 1902 a movement in favour of local autonomy was repressed
+by Spanish troops.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of the islands, see _Les Îles
+  Canaries_, by J. Pitard and L. Proust (Paris, 1909); _Madeira and the
+  Canary Islands_, by A. Samler Brown, a guide for travellers and
+  invalids, with coloured maps and plates (London, 1901); _A Guide to
+  the Canary Islands_, by J.H.T. Ellerbeck (London, 1892); _The Canary
+  Islands as a Winter Resort_, by J. Whitford (London, 1890, with maps
+  and illustrations); _De la Tierra Canaria_, by L. and A. Millares
+  Cubas (Madrid, 1894); and _Physikalische Beschreibung der kanarischen
+  Inseln_, by L. von Buch (Berlin, 1825). Besides the interesting folio
+  atlas of von Buch (Paris, 1836), good modern maps have been published
+  by E. Stanford (London, 1891, 12½ English m. to 1 in.), and M. Perez y
+  Rodriquez (Madrid, 1896-1898, 4 sheets). See also _Histoire naturelle
+  des îles Canaries_, by P. Barker-Webb and S. Berthelot (Paris,
+  1835-1849); and "Les Îles Canaries et les parages de pêche canariens,"
+  by Dr. A. Taquin, in the _B.S.R. Beige G. 26_ (1902), and 27 (1903);
+  and, for history and antiquities, the _Historia general de las islas
+  Canarias_, by A. Millares Cubas, in 10 vols. (Las Palmas,
+  1893-1895),and _Historia de la Inquisicion en las islas Canarias_, by
+  the same author (Las Palmas, 1874); _Antiquités canariennes_, by S.
+  Berthelot (Paris, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+CANCALE, a fishing port of north-western France in the department of
+Ille-et-Vilaine on the Bay of Cancale, 9 m. E.N.E. of St Malo by road.
+Pop. (1906) town 3827, commune 7061. It exports oysters, which are found
+in its bay in large numbers and of excellent quality, and equips a fleet
+for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The harbour is protected by the
+rocks known as the Rochers de Cancale. In 1758 an English army under the
+duke of Marlborough landed here for the purpose of attacking St Malo and
+pillaged the town. It was again bombarded by the English in 1779.
+
+
+
+
+CANCEL (from the Lat. _cancelli_, a plural diminutive of _cancer_, a
+grating or lattice, from which are also derived "chancel" and
+"chancellor"), a word meaning to cross out, from the crossed latticed
+lines drawn across a legal document to annul it, hence to delete or
+destroy.
+
+
+
+
+CANCELLI (plural of Lat. _cancellus_, dim. of _cancer_, a crossing bar),
+in architecture, the term given to barriers which correspond to the
+modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing the body of
+a church from the part occupied by the ministers; hence "chancel"
+(q.v.). By the Romans _cancelli_ were similarly employed to divide off
+portions of the courts of law (cf. the English "bar").
+
+
+
+
+CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549), Spanish missionary to Central America, was born
+at Barbastro near Saragossa. After working for some time in Dominica and
+Haiti, he crossed to the mainland, where he had great success in
+pacifying the Indians whom more violent methods had failed to subdue. He
+upheld the cause of the natives at an ecclesiastical assembly held in
+Mexico in 1546, and three years later, on the 26th of June, met his
+death at their hands on the west coast of Florida.
+
+
+
+
+CANCER ("THE CRAB"), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the zodiac,
+denoted by the symbol [Crab symbol]. Its name may be possibly derived
+from the fact that when the sun arrives at this part of the ecliptic it
+apparently retraces its path, resembling in some manner the sidelong
+motion of a crab. It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
+century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars
+in it, Tycho Brahe 15 and Hevelius 29. Its most interesting objects are:
+a large loose cluster of stars, known as _Praesepe_ or the Beehive,
+visible as a nebulous patch to the naked eye, and [zeta] _Cancri_, a
+remarkable multiple star, composed of two stars, of magnitudes 5 and
+5.7, revolving about each other in 60 years, and a third star of
+magnitude 5.5 which revolves about these two in an opposite direction in
+a period of 17½ years; from irregularities in the motion of this star,
+it is supposed to be a satellite of an invisible body which itself
+revolves about the two stars previously mentioned, in a period of 600 to
+700 years.
+
+
+
+
+CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. _cancer_, Gr. _[Greek: karkiuoma]_, an
+eating ulcer), the name given to a class of morbid growths or tumours
+which occur in man, and also in most or all vertebrate animals. The term
+"malignant disease" is commonly used as synonymous with "cancer." For
+the general pathology, &c., of tumours see TUMOUR.
+
+Cancer exists in various forms, which, although differing from each
+other in many points, have yet certain common characters to which they
+owe their special significance.
+
+1. In structure such growths are composed of nucleated cells and free
+nuclei together with a milky fluid called cancer juice, all contained
+within a more or less dense fibrous stroma or framework.
+
+2. They have no well-defined limits, and they involve all textures in
+their vicinity, while they also tend to spread by the lymphatics and
+veins, and to cause similar growths in distant parts or organs called
+"secondary cancerous growths."
+
+3. They are undergoing constant increase, and their progress is usually
+rapid.
+
+4. Pain is a frequent symptom. When present it is generally of a severe
+and agonizing character, and together with the local effects of the
+disease and the resulting condition of ill health or "cachexia," hastens
+the fatal termination to which all cancerous growths tend.
+
+5. When such growths are removed by the surgeon they are apt to return
+either at the same or at some other part.
+
+The chief varieties of cancer are _Scirrhus_ or hard cancer,
+_Encephaloid_ or soft cancer and _Epithelial cancer_.
+
+Scirrhus is remarkable for its hardness, which is due to the large
+amount of its fibrous, and relatively small proportion of its cell
+elements. It is of comparatively slow growth, but it tends to spread and
+to ulcerate. Its most common seat by far is the female breast, though it
+sometimes affects internal organs.
+
+Encephaloid is in structure the reverse of the last, its softness
+depending on the preponderance of its cell over its fibrous elements.
+Its appearance and consistence resemble brain substance (hence its
+name), and it is of such rapid growth as to have given rise to its being
+occasionally termed _acute cancer_. Its most frequent seats are
+internal organs or the limbs. Ulceration and haemorrhage are common
+accompaniments of this form of cancer.
+
+Epithelial cancer is largely composed of cells resembling the natural
+epithelium of the body. It occurs most frequently in those parts
+provided with epithelium, such as the skin and mucous membranes, or
+where those adjoin, as in the lips. This form of cancer does not spread
+so rapidly nor produce secondary growths in other organs to the same
+extent as the two other varieties, but it tends equally with them to
+involve the neighbouring lymphatic glands, and to recur after removal.
+
+Cancer affects all parts of the body, but is much more frequent in some
+tissues than in others. According to recent statistics prepared by the
+registrar-general for England and Wales (sixty-seventh annual report)
+the most frequent seats are, in numerical order, as
+follows:--_males_--stomach, liver, rectum, intestines, aesophagus,
+tongue; _females_--uterus, breast, stomach, liver, intestines, rectum.
+Other statistics give similar, though not identical results. It may be
+said, broadly, that the most frequent seats are the female sexual organs
+and after them the digestive tract in both sexes. In children, in whom
+cancer is rare, the most frequent seats appear to be--under five, the
+kidneys and supra-renal bodies; five to ten, the brain; ten to twenty,
+the arm and leg bones.
+
+Cancer tends to advance steadily to a fatal termination, but its
+duration varies in different cases according to the part affected and
+according to the variety of the disease. Soft cancer affecting important
+organs of the body often proves fatal in a few months, while, on the
+other hand, cases of hard or epithelial cancer may sometimes last for
+several years; but no precise limit can be assigned for any form of the
+disease. In some rare instances growths exhibiting all the signs of
+cancer may exist for a great length of time without making any progress,
+and may even dwindle and disappear altogether. This is called
+"spontaneous cure."
+
+
+  Cancer research.
+
+Cancer has been the subject of observation from time immemorial, and of
+the most elaborate investigation by innumerable workers in recent years;
+but the problems of its origin and character have hitherto baffled
+inquiry. Modern scientific study of them may be said to have begun with
+J. Müller's microscopic work in the structure of cancerous tissue early
+in the 19th century. A great impetus to this line of investigation was
+given by the cellular theory of R. Virchow and the pathological
+researches of Sir J. Paget, and general attention was directed to the
+microscopic examination of the cells of which cancer is composed. This
+led to a classification, on which much reliance was once placed, of
+different kinds of cancer, based on the character of the cells, and
+particularly to a distinction between _carcinoma_, in which the cells
+are of the epithelial type, and _sarcoma_, in which they are of the
+connective tissue type. The distinction, though still maintained, has
+proved barren; it never had any real significance, either clinical or
+pathological, and the tendency in recent research is to ignore it. The
+increased knowledge gained in numerous other branches of biological
+science has also been brought to bear on the problem of cancer and has
+led to a number of theories; and at the same time the apparently
+increasing prevalence of the disease recorded by the vital statistics of
+many countries has drawn more and more public attention to it. Two
+results have followed. One is the establishment of special endowed
+institutions devoted to cancer research; the other is the publication
+and discussion of innumerable theories and proposed methods of
+treatment. Popular interest has been constantly fanned by the
+announcement of some pretended discovery or cure, in which the public is
+invited to place its trust. Such announcements have no scientific value
+whatever. In the rare cases in which they are not pure quackery, they
+are always premature and based on inadequate data.
+
+Organized cancer research stands on a different footing. It may be
+regarded as the revival at the end of the 19th century of what was
+unsuccessfully attempted at the beginning. As early as 1792, at the
+suggestion of Mr. John Howard, surgeon, a ward was opened at the
+Middlesex hospital in London for the special benefit of persons
+suffering from cancer. It was fitted up and endowed anonymously by Mr.
+Samuel Whitbread, M.P. for Bedford, and according to the terms of the
+benefaction at least six patients were to be continually maintained in
+it until relieved by art or released by death. The purpose was both
+philanthropic and scientific, as Mr. Howard explained in bringing
+forward the suggestion. Two principal objects, he said, presented
+themselves to his mind, "namely, the relief of persons suffering under
+this disease and the investigation of a complaint which, although
+extremely common, is both with regard to its natural history and cure
+but imperfectly known." This benefaction was the origin of one of the
+most complete institutions for the scientific study of cancer that
+exists to-day.
+
+In 1804 a Society for Investigating the Nature of Cancer was formed by a
+number of medical men in London, Edinburgh and other towns at the
+instigation of John Hunter. The aim was collective investigation, and an
+attempt was made to carry it out by issuing forms of inquiry; but the
+imperfect means of communication then existing caused the scheme to be
+abandoned in a short time. Subsequent attempts at collective
+investigation also failed until recently. About 1900 a movement, which
+had been for some time gathering force, began to take visible shape
+simultaneously in different countries. The cancer ward at the Middlesex
+hospital had then developed into a cancer wing, and to it were added
+special laboratories for the investigation of cancer, which were opened
+on the 1st of March 1900. In this establishment the fully equipped means
+of clinical and laboratory research were united under one roof and
+manned by a staff of investigators under the direction of Dr W.S.
+Lazarus Barlow. In the same year the _Deutsche Comité fur
+Krebsforschung_ was organized in Berlin, receiving an annual subsidy of
+5000 marks (£250) from the imperial exchequer. This body devoted its
+energies to making a census of cancer patients in Germany on a definite
+date. A special ward for cancer was also set apart at the Charité
+hospital in Berlin, with a state endowment of 53,000 marks (£2560) per
+annum, and a laboratory for cancer research was attached to the first
+medical clinique under Professor Ernst von Leyden at the same hospital.
+A third institution in Germany is a special cancer department at the
+Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental Therapeutics at
+Frankfort-on-Main, which has been supported, like the Imperial Cancer
+Research Fund in England, by private contributions on a generous scale.
+The fund just mentioned was initiated in October 1901, and its
+operations took definite shape a year later, when Dr. E.F. Bashford was
+appointed general superintendent of research. The patron of the
+foundation was King Edward VII., and the president was the prince of
+Wales. It had in 1908 a capital endowment of about £120,000, subscribed
+by private munificence and producing an income of about £7000 a year.
+The central laboratory is situated in the examination building of the
+Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons in London, and the work is
+conducted under the superintendence of an executive committee formed by
+representatives of those bodies. In the United States a cancer
+laboratory, which had been established in Buffalo in 1899 under Dr
+Roswell Park, was formally placed under the control of New York state in
+June 1901, and is supported by an annual grant of $15,000 (£3000). There
+are other provisions in the United States connected with Harvard and
+Cornell universities. At the former the "Caroline Brewer Croft Fund for
+Cancer Research" started special investigations in the surgical
+department of the Harvard Medical School in 1900 or the previous year,
+and in connexion with the Cornell University Medical School there is a
+small endowment called the "Huntingdon Cancer Research Fund." There
+appear to be institutions of a similar character in other countries, in
+addition to innumerable investigators at universities and other ordinary
+seats of scientific research.
+
+Some attempt has been made to co-ordinate the work thus carried on in
+different countries. An international cancer congress was held at
+Heidelberg and Frankfort in 1906, and a proposal was put forward by
+German representatives that a permanent international conference on
+cancer should be established, with headquarters in Berlin. The committee
+of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund did not fall in with the proposal,
+being of opinion that more was to be gained in the existing stage of
+knowledge by individual intercourse and exchange of material between
+actual laboratory workers.
+
+
+  Theories of cancer.
+
+In spite of the immense concentration of effort indicated by the
+simultaneous establishment of so many centres of endowed research, and
+in spite of the light thrown upon the problem from many sides by modern
+biological science, our knowledge of the origin of cancer is still in
+such a tentative state that a detailed account of the theories put
+forward is not called for; it will suffice to indicate their general
+drift. The actual pathological process of cancer is extremely simple.
+Certain cells, which are apparently of a normal character and have
+previously performed normal functions, begin to grow and multiply in an
+abnormal way in some part of the body. They continue this process so
+persistently that they first invade and then destroy the surrounding
+tissues; nothing can withstand their march. They are moreover carried to
+other parts of the body, where they establish themselves and grow in the
+same way. Their activity is carried on with relentless determination,
+though at a varying pace, until the patient dies, unless they are bodily
+removed. Hence the word "malignant." The problem is--what are these
+cells, or why do they behave in this way? The principal answers put
+forward may be summarized:--(1) they are epithelial cells which grow
+without ceasing because the connective tissue has lost the capacity to
+hold their proliferative powers in check (H. Freund, following K.
+Thiersch and W. Waldeyer); (2) they are embryonic cells accidentally
+shut off (J.F. Cohnheim); (3) they are epithelial cells with a latent
+power of unlimited proliferation which becomes active on their being
+dislocated from the normal association (M.W.H. Ribbert and Borrmann);
+(4) they are stimulated to unlimited growth by the presence of a
+parasite (Plimmer, Sanfelice, Roncali and others); (5) they are
+fragments of reproductive tissue (G.T. Beatson); (6) they are cells
+which have lost their differentiated character and assumed elementary
+properties (von Hausemann, O. Hertwig). The very number and variety of
+hypotheses show that none is established. Most of them attempt to
+explain the growth but not the origin of the disease. The hypothesis of
+a parasitic origin, suggested by recent discoveries in relation to other
+diseases, has attracted much attention; but the observed phenomena of
+cancerous growths are not in keeping with those of all known parasitic
+diseases, and the theory is now somewhat discredited. A more recent
+theory that cancer is due to failure of the normal secretions of the
+pancreas has not met with much acceptance.
+
+Some generalizations bearing on the problem have been drawn from the
+work done in the laboratories of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. They
+may be summarily stated thus. Cancer has been shown to be an identical
+process in all vertebrates (including fishes), and to develop at a time
+which conforms in a striking manner to the limits imposed by the long or
+short compass of life in different animals. Cancerous tissue can be
+artificially propagated in the short-lived mouse by actual transference
+to another individual, but only to one of the same species. Cancerous
+tissue thus propagated presents all the characteristic features of the
+malignant growth of sporadic tumours; it infiltrates and produces
+extensive secondary growths. Under suitable experimental conditions the
+aggregate growth of a cancer is undefined, of enormous and, so far as we
+can judge, of limitless amount. This extraordinary growth is due to the
+continued proliferation of cancerous cells when transplanted. The
+processes by which growing cancer cells are transferred to a new
+individual are easily distinguishable and fundamentally different from
+all known processes of infection. The artificial propagation of cancer
+causes no specific symptoms of illness in the animal in which it
+proceeds. Under artificial propagation cancer maintains all the
+characters of the original tumours of the primary hosts. _Carcinoma_ and
+_sarcoma_ agree in possessing all the pathological and cellular
+features of malignant new growths.
+
+
+  Statistics of cancer.
+
+Simultaneously with the active pursuit of laboratory research much
+statistical work has been devoted to establishing the broad facts of the
+prevalence and incidence of cancer on a firm basis. The point of most
+general interest is the apparently steady increase of the disease in all
+countries possessing fairly trustworthy records. It will be sufficient
+to give the figures for England and Wales as an example.
+
+  ANNUAL DEATH-RATES FROM CANCER TO A MILLION LIVING. _England and
+  Wales._
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |1871-1875.|1876-1880.|1881-1885.|1886-1890.|1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1904.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |   445    |   493    |   547    |   631    |   711    |   800    |   861    |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+In forty years the recorded rate had risen from 403 to 861. The question
+how far these and similar statistics represent a real increase cannot be
+satisfactorily resolved, because it is impossible to ascertain how much
+of the apparent increase is due to more accurate diagnosis and improved
+registration. Some of it is certainly due to those causes, so that the
+recorded figures cannot be taken to represent the facts as they stand.
+At the same time it is certain that some increase has taken place in
+consequence of the increased average length of life; a larger proportion
+of persons now reach the ages at which cancer is most frequent. Increase
+due to this fact, though it is a real increase, does not indicate that
+the cause of cancer is more rife or more potent; it only means that the
+condition of the population in regard to age is more favourable to its
+activity. On the whole it seems probable that, when allowance has been
+made for this factor and for errors due to improved registration, a real
+increase due to other causes has taken place, though it is not so great
+as the recorded statistics would indicate.
+
+The long-established conclusions concerning the incidence of the disease
+in regard to age and sex have been confirmed and rendered more precise
+by modern statistics. Cancer is a disease of old age; the incidence at
+the ages of sixty-five to seventy-five is ten times greater than at the
+ages thirty-five to forty-five. This fact is the source of frequent
+fallacies when different countries or districts and different periods
+are compared with each other, unless account is taken of the differences
+in age and constitution. With regard to sex females are far more liable
+than males; the respective death-rates per million living for England
+and Wales in 1904 were--males 740; females 1006. But the two rates show
+a tendency to approximate; the increase shown over a series of years has
+been considerably more rapid among males than among females. One result
+of more careful examination of statistics has been to discredit, though
+perhaps somewhat hastily, certain observations regarding the prevalence
+of cancer in special districts and special houses. On the other hand the
+fuller statistics now available concerning the relative frequency of
+cancer in the several organs and parts of the body, of which some
+account is given above, go to confirm the old observation that cancer
+commonly begins at the seat of some local irritation. By far the most
+frequent seats of disease are the uterus and breast in women and the
+digestive tract in both sexes, and these are all particularly subject to
+such irritation. With regard to the influence of heredity the trend of
+modern research is to minimize or deny its importance in cancer, as in
+phthisis, and to explain family histories by other considerations. At
+most heredity is only thought to confer a predisposition.
+
+
+  Treatment.
+
+The only "cure" for cancer remains removal by operation; but improved
+methods of diagnosis enable this to be done in many cases at an earlier
+stage of the disease than formerly; and modern methods of surgery permit
+not only of operation in parts of the body formerly inaccessible, but
+also more complete removal of the affected tissues. Numerous forms of
+treatment by modern therapeutic means, both internal and external, have
+been advocated and tried; but they are all of an experimental nature and
+have failed to meet with general acceptance. One of the most recent is
+treatment by trypsin, a pancreatic ferment. This has been suggested by
+Dr John Beard of Edinburgh in conformity with the theory, mentioned
+above, that failure of the pancreatic secretions is the cause of cancer.
+It has been claimed that the drug exercises a favourable influence in
+conjunction with operation and even without it. The experience of
+different observers with regard to results is contradictory; but
+clinical investigations conducted at Middlesex hospital in a number of
+cases of undoubted cancer in strict accordance with Dr Beard's
+directions, and summarized by Dr Walter Ball and Dr Fairfield Thomas in
+the _Sixth Report from the Cancer Research Laboratories_ (_Archives of
+Middlesex Hospital_, vol. ix.) in May 1907, resulted in the conclusion
+"that the course of cancer, considered both as a disease and as a morbid
+process, is unaltered by the administration of trypsin and amylopsin."
+The same conclusion has been reached after similar trials at the cancer
+hospital. Another experimental method of treatment which has attracted
+much attention is application of the X-rays. The results vary in a
+capricious and inexplicable manner; in some cases marked benefit has
+followed, in others the disease has been as markedly aggravated. Until
+more is known both of cancer and of X-rays, their use must be considered
+not only experimental but risky.     (A. Sl.)
+
+
+
+
+CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON (1738-1812), German mineralogist and
+metallurgist, was born on the 21st of February 1738, at Breitenbach,
+Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1764 he entered the service of the landgrave of
+Hesse-Darmstadt at Hanau, becoming professor of mathematics at the
+military academy, head of the civil engineering department of the state,
+director of the theatre and (1774) of the mint. A work on the copper
+mines of Hesse (1767) earned him a European reputation, and in 1783 he
+accepted from Catherine II. of Russia the directorship of the famous
+Staraya salt-works, living thenceforth in Russia. In 1798 he became a
+councillor of state at St Petersburg. He published many works on
+mineralogy and metallurgy, of which the most important, the _Grundzüge
+der Berg- und Salzwerkskunde_ (13 vols., Frankfort, 1773-1791), has been
+translated into several languages. His son, Count Georg von Cancrin, or
+Kankrin (1774-1845), was the eminent Russian minister of finance.
+
+
+
+
+CANDELABRUM (from Lat. _candela_, a taper or candle), the stand on which
+ancient lamps were placed. The most ancient example is the bronze
+candelabrum made by Callimachus for the Erechtheum at Athens, to carry
+the lamp sacred to Minerva. In this case it is probable the lamp was
+suspended, as in the example from Pompeii, now in the Naples museum;
+this consisted of a stalk or reed, the upper part moulded with
+projecting feature to carry the lamps, and a base resting on three
+lions' or griffins' feet; sometimes there was a disk at the top to carry
+a lamp, and sometimes there was a hollow cup, in which resinous woods
+were burnt. The origin of the term suggests that on the top of the disk
+was a spike to carry a wax or tallow candle (_candela_ or _funalia_).
+Besides these bronze candelabra, of which there are many varieties in
+museums, the Romans used more ponderous supports in stone or marble, of
+which many examples were found in the Thermae. These consisted of a
+base, often triangular, and of similar design to the small sacrificial
+altars, and a shaft either richly moulded or carved with the acanthus
+plant and crowned with a large cup or basin. There is a fine example of
+the latter in the Vatican. The Roman examples seem to have served as
+models for many of the candelabra in the churches in Italy. The word
+"candelabrum" is also now used to describe many different forms of
+lighting with multiple points, and is often applied to hanging lights as
+well as to those which rise from a stand.
+
+
+
+
+CANDIA, formerly the capital and still the most populous city of Crete
+(q.v.), to which it has given its name. It is situated on the northern
+shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western end of the island, in
+35° 20' N. lat. and 25° 9' E. long. It is still surrounded by its
+extensive Venetian fortifications; but they have fallen into disrepair,
+and a good part of the town is in a dilapidated condition, mainly from
+the effects of earthquakes. The principal buildings are the Venetian
+loggia (barbarously mutilated by the new régime), the Konak (now
+Prefecture), the mosques, which are fourteen in number, the new
+cathedral, the two Greek churches, the Armenian church, the Capuchine
+monastery, the bazaars and the baths. There are also some beautiful
+Venetian fountains. The town is the seat of a Greek archbishop. A highly
+interesting museum has been formed here containing the antiquities found
+during the recent excavations. The chief trade is in oil and soap, both
+of which are of excellent quality. The coasting trade, which is of
+considerable importance, is mainly carried on in Turkish vessels. The
+manufacture of leather for home consumption is an extensive industry and
+wine of good quality is produced in the neighbourhood. The harbour,
+which had grown almost inaccessible, was deepened by Mustapha Pasha
+between 1820 and 1840. It is formed for the most part by the ancient
+moles, and was never deep enough to admit the larger vessels even of the
+Venetians, which were accustomed to anchor in the port of the
+neighbouring island of Standia. A short distance from St George's Gate
+there was a small village exclusively inhabited by lepers, who numbered
+about seventy families, but they have now been transported to
+Spinalonga. The population of the town is estimated at from 15,000 to
+18,000, about half being Mahommedan Greeks. The site of Candia, or, as
+it was till lately locally known, Megalo castro (the Great Fortress),
+has been supposed to correspond with that of the ancient _Heracleion_,
+the seaport of Cnossus, and this appellation has now been officially
+revived by its Greek inhabitants. The ruins of Cnossus are situated at
+the distance of about 3 m. to the south-east at the village of
+Makryteichos or Long Wall. Founded by the Saracens in the 9th century,
+Candia was fortified by the Genoese in the 12th, and was greatly
+extended and strengthened by the Venetians in the 13th, 14th and 15th
+centuries. It was besieged by the Turks under the vizier Achmet in 1667;
+and, in spite of a most heroic defence, in which the Venetians lost
+30,000 in killed and wounded, it was forced to surrender in 1669. (See
+also CRETE.)
+
+
+
+
+CANDIDATE, one who offers himself or is selected by others for an office
+or place, particularly one who puts up for election to parliament or to
+any public body. The word is derived from the Latin _candidatus_, clad
+in white (_candidus_). In Rome, candidates for election to the higher
+magistracies appeared in the Campus Martius, the Forum and other public
+places, during their canvass, in togas with the white of the natural
+wool brightened by chalk.
+
+
+
+
+CANDLE (Lat. _candela_, from _candere_, to glow), a cylindrical rod of
+solid fatty or waxy matter, enclosing a central fibrous wick, and
+designed to be burnt for giving light. The oldest materials employed for
+making candles are beeswax and tallow, while among those of more recent
+introduction are spermaceti, stearine and paraffin wax. Waxlights
+(_cereus_, sc. _funis_) were known to the Romans. In the midlde ages wax
+candles were little used, owing to their expense, except for the
+ceremonies of the church and other religious purposes (see LIGHTS,
+CEREMONIAL USE OF), but in the 15th century, with the cheapening of wax,
+they began to find wider employment. The tallow candle, mentioned by
+Apuleius as _sebaceus_, was long an article of domestic manufacture. The
+tallow was melted and strained, and then lengths of cotton or flax
+fibre, or rushes from which most of the external skin had been stripped,
+only sufficient being left to support the pith ("rushlights"), were
+dipped into it, the operation being repeated until the desired thickness
+had been attained. In Paris, in the 13th century, there was a gild of
+candlemakers who went from house to house to make tallow candles, the
+manufacture of wax candles being in the hands of another gild. This
+separation of the two branches of the trade is also exemplified by the
+existence of two distinct livery companies in the city of London--the
+Waxchandlers and the Tallowchandlers; the French _chandelle_ properly
+means tallow candle, candles made of materials less fusible than tallow
+being called _bougies_, a term said to be derived from the town of
+Bougie in Algeria, either because wax was produced there or because the
+Venetians imported wax candles thence into Europe. The old tallow "dips"
+gave a poor light, and tallow itself is now used only to a limited
+extent, except as a source of "stearine." This is the trade name for a
+mixture of solid fatty acids--mainly stearic and palmitic--manufactured
+not only from tallow and other animal fats, but also from such vegetable
+fats as palm-oil. Paraffin wax, a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained
+from crude North American and Rangoon petroleum, and also yielded in
+large quantities by the Scotch shale oil industry, is, at least in Great
+Britain, a still more important material of candle-manufacture, which
+came into use about 1854. Spermaceti, a crystalline fatty substance
+obtained from the sperm whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_), was introduced
+as a material for candles about a century earlier. In practice the
+candlemaker mostly uses mixtures of these materials. For instance, 5-10%
+of stearine, which is used alone for candles that have to be burnt in
+hot climates, is mixed with paraffin wax, to counteract the tendency to
+bend with heat exhibited by the latter substance. Again, the brittleness
+of spermaceti is corrected by the addition of beeswax, stearine,
+paraffin wax or ceresin (obtained from the mineral wax ozocerite). In
+some "composite" candles stearine is mixed with the hard fat ("cocoa-nut
+stearine") expressed from cocoa-nut oil by hydraulic pressure; and this
+cocoa-nut stearine is also used for night-lights, which are short thick
+candles with a thin wick, calculated to burn from six to ten hours.
+
+The stearine or stearic acid industry originated in the discovery made
+by M.E. Chevreul about 1815, that fats are glycerides or compounds of
+glycerin with fatty acids, mostly palmitic, stearic and oleic. The
+object of the candlemaker is to remove this glycerin, not only because
+it is a valuable product in itself, but also because it is an
+objectionable constituent of a candle; the vapours of acrolein formed by
+its decomposition in the flame are the cause of the unpleasant odours
+produced by tallow "dips." He also removes the oleic acid, which is
+liquid at ordinary temperatures, from the palmitic and stearic acids,
+mixtures of which solidify at temperatures varying from about 130° to
+155° F., according to the percentage of each present. Several methods
+are in use for the decomposition of the fats. In the autoclave process
+the fat, whether tallow, palm-oil or a mixture of the two, mixed with 25
+or 30% of water and about 3% of lime, is subjected in an autoclave to
+steam at a pressure of about 120 lb per square inch for eight or ten
+hours, when nearly all of it is saponified. On standing the product
+separates into two layers--"sweet water" containing glycerin below, and
+the fatty acids with a certain amount of lime soap above. The upper
+layer is then boiled and treated with enough sulphuric acid to decompose
+the lime soap, the calcium sulphate formed is allowed to subside, and
+the fatty acids are run off into shallow boxes to be crystallized or
+"seeded" prior to the separation of the oleic acid, which is effected by
+pressing the solid blocks from the boxes, first cold and then hot, by
+hydraulic machinery. In another process saponification is effected by
+means of concentrated sulphuric acid. The fat is mixed with 4-6% of the
+acid and treated with steam in boiling water till the hydrolysis is
+complete, when on standing the glycerin and sulphuric acid sink to the
+bottom and the fatty acids rise to the top. Owing to the darkness of
+their colour, when this process is employed, the latter usually have to
+be distilled before being crystallized. The autoclave process yields
+about 45% of stearine, one-third of which is recovered from the
+expressed oleic acid, but with sulphuric acid saponification the amount
+of stearine is higher--over 60%--and that of oleic acid less, part of it
+being converted into solid material by the action of the acid. The yield
+of glycerin is also less. In a combination of the two processes the fat
+may first be treated by the autoclave process, so as to obtain a full
+yield (about 10%) of glycerin, and the resulting fatty acids then
+subjected to acid saponification, so as to get the higher amount of
+stearine. At the best, however, some 30% of oleic acid remains, and
+though often sought, no satisfactory method of converting this residue
+into solid has been discovered. It constitutes "red oil," and is used in
+soap-making and in woollen manufacture. In the process patented by Ernst
+Twitchell in 1898, decomposition is effected by boiling the fat with
+half its bulk of water in presence of a reagent obtained by the action
+of sulphuric acid on oleic acid and an aromatic hydrocarbon such as
+benzene.
+
+The wick is a most important part of a candle, and unless it is of
+proper size and texture either too much or too little fuel will be
+supplied to the flame, and the candle will gutter or be otherwise
+unsatisfactory. The material generally employed is cotton yarn, plaited
+or "braided" by machinery, and treated or "pickled" with a solution of
+boracic acid, ammonium or potassium nitrate, or other salt. The
+tightness of the plaiting varies with the material used for the candle,
+wicks for stearine being looser than for paraffin, but tighter than for
+wax or spermaceti. The plaited wick is flat and curls over as the candle
+burns, and thus the end is kept projecting into the outer part of the
+flame where it is consumed, complete combustion being aided by the
+pickling process it has undergone. In the old tallow dips the strands of
+cotton were merely twisted together, instead of being plaited; wicks
+made in this way had no determinate bias towards the outside of the
+flame, and thus were not wholly consumed, the result being that there
+was apt to be an accumulation of charred matter, which choked the flame
+unless removed by periodical "snuffing."
+
+Four ways of making candles may be distinguished--dipping, pouring,
+drawing and moulding, the last being that most commonly employed.
+_Dipping_ is essentially the same as the domestic process already
+described, but the rate of production is increased by mounting a number
+of wicks in a series of frames, each of which in turn is brought over
+the tallow bath so that its wicks can be dipped. _Pouring_, used in the
+case of wax, which cannot well be moulded because it contracts in
+cooling and also has a tendency to stick to the moulds, consists in
+ladling molten wax upon the wicks suspended from an iron ring. When of
+the desired thickness the candles are rolled under a plate on a marble
+slab. In _drawing_, used for small tapers, the wick, rolled on a drum,
+is passed through the molten wax or paraffin, drawn through a circular
+hole and slowly wound on a second drum; it is then passed again through
+the molten material and through a somewhat larger hole, and reeled back
+on the first drum, this process being repeated with larger and larger
+holes until the coating is of the required thickness. In _moulding_, a
+number of slightly conical moulds are fixed by the larger extremity to a
+kind of trough, with their tapered ends projecting downwards and with
+wicks arranged down their centres. The molten material is poured into
+the trough and fills the moulds, from which the candles are withdrawn
+when solidified. Modern candle-moulding machines are continuous in their
+operation; long lengths of wick are coiled on bobbins, one for each
+mould, and the act of removing one set of candles from their moulds
+draws in a fresh set of wicks. "Self-fitting ends," which were invented
+by J.L. Field in 1864, and being shaped like a truncated cone enable the
+candles to be fixed in candlesticks of any diameter, are formed by means
+of an attachment to the tops of the moulds; spirally twisted candles
+are, as it were, unscrewed from their moulds. It is necessary to be able
+to regulate the temperature of the moulds accurately, else the candles
+will not come out freely and will not be of good appearance. For
+stearine candles the moulds are immersed in tepid water and the cooling
+must be slow, else the material will crystallize, though if it be too
+slow cracking will occur. For paraffin, on the other hand, the moulds
+must be rather hotter than the molten material (about 200° F.), and must
+be quickly cooled to prevent the candles from sticking.
+
+A candle-power, as a unit of light in photometry, was defined by the
+(London) Metropolis Gas Act of 1860 as the light given by a sperm
+candle, of which six weighed 1 lb and each burned 120 grains an hour.
+
+  See W. Lant Carpenter, _Soaps and Candles_ (London, 1895); C.E. Groves
+  and W. Thorp, _Chemical Technology_, vol. ii. "Lighting" (London,
+  1895); L.L. Lamborn, _Soaps, Candles and Glycerine_ (New York, 1906);
+  J. Lewkowitsch, _Oils, Fats, and Waxes_ (London, 1909).
+
+
+
+
+CANDLEMAS (Lat. _festum candelarum sive luminum_), the name for the
+ancient church festival, celebrated annually on the 2nd of February, in
+commemoration of the presentation of Christ in the Temple. In the Greek
+Church it is known as [Greek: Upapantê tou Kuriou] ("the meeting of the
+Lord," i.e. with Simeon and Anna), in the West as the Purification of
+the Blessed Virgin. It is the most ancient of all the festivals in
+honour of the Virgin Mary. A description is given of its celebration at
+Jerusalem in the _Peregrinatio_ of Etheria (Silvia), in the second half
+of the 4th century. It was then kept on the 14th of February, forty days
+after Epiphany, the celebration of the Nativity (Christmas) not having
+been as yet introduced; the Armenians still keep it on this day, as "the
+Coming of the Son of God into the Temple." The celebration gradually
+spread to other parts of the church, being moved to the 2nd of February,
+forty days after the newly established feast of Christmas. In 542 it was
+established throughout the entire East Roman empire by Justinian. Its
+introduction in the West is somewhat obscure. The 8th-century _Gelasian
+Sacramentary_, which embodies a much older tradition, mentions it under
+the title of Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which has led some
+to suppose that it was ordained by Pope Gelasius I. in 492[1] as a
+counter-attraction to the heathen Lupercalia; but for this there is no
+warrant. The procession on this day was introduced by Pope Sergius I.
+(687-701). The custom of blessing the candles for the whole year on this
+day, whence the name Candlemas is derived, did not come into common use
+until the 11th century.
+
+In the _Quadragesimae de Epiphania_ as described by Etheria there is, as
+Monsignor Duchesne points out (_Christian Worship_, p. 272), no
+indication of a special association with the Blessed Virgin; and the
+distinction between the festival as celebrated in the East and West is
+that in the former it is a festival of Christ, in the latter a festival
+pre-eminently of the Virgin Mother.
+
+  See L. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., London, 1904); art.
+  s.v. by F.G. Holweck in the _Catholic Encyclopaedia_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] So Baronius, _Ann. ad ann._ 544.
+
+
+
+
+CANDLESTICK, the receptacle for holding a candle, nowadays made in
+various art-forms. The word was formerly used for any form of support on
+which lights, whether candles or lamps, were fixed; thus a candelabrum
+(q.v.) is sometimes spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, e.g. as
+when Moses was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of
+hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting of a base with a shaft
+rising out of it and six arms, and with seven lamps supported on the
+summits of the six arms and central shaft. When Solomon built the
+temple, he placed in it ten golden candlesticks, five on the north and
+five on the south side of the Holy Place; but after the Babylonish
+captivity the golden candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it
+had been before in the tabernacle by Moses. On the destruction of
+Jerusalem by Titus, it was carried with other spoils to Rome.
+Representations of the seven-branched candlestick, as it is called,
+occur on the arch of Titus at Rome, and on antiquities found in the
+Catacombs at Rome. The primitive form of candlestick was a torch made of
+slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped in wax or tallow, tied
+together and held in the hand by the lower end, such as are frequently
+figured on ancient painted vases. The next step was to attach to them a
+cup (_discus_) to catch the dripping wax or tallow.
+
+A candlestick may be either "flat" or "tall." The former has a short
+stem, rising from a dish, and is usually furnished with an extinguisher
+fitting into a socket; the latter has a pillar which may be only a few
+inches in height or may rise to several feet, and rarely has an
+extinguisher. The flat variety is sometimes called a "bedroom
+candlestick." The beginnings of this interesting and often beautiful
+appliance are not exactly known, but it dates certainly as far back as
+the 14th century and is probably older. It is most usually of metal,
+earthenware or china, but originally it was made of some hard wood and
+had no socketed pillar, the candle fitting upon a metal spike, in the
+fashion still familiar in the case of many church candlesticks. It has
+been constantly influenced by mobiliary and architectural fashions, and
+has varied, as it still varies, from the severest simplicity of form and
+material to the most elaborate artistic treatment and the costliest
+materials--gold and silver, crystal, marble and enamel. Previous to the
+17th century, iron, latten, bronze and copper were chiefly used, but
+thenceforward the most elegant examples were chiefly of silver, though
+in more modern periods Sheffield plate, silver plate and china became
+exceedingly popular. Sometimes the base and sconce are of one material
+and the pillar of another, as when the former are of silver and the
+pillar of marble or china. The choice and combination of materials are,
+indeed, infinite. The golden age of the candlestick lasted, roughly
+speaking, from the third quarter of the 17th century to the end of the
+18th. The later Jacobean, Queen Anne and early Georgian forms were often
+extremely elegant, with broad bases, round, oval or square and swelling
+stems. Fine examples of these periods, especially when of silver, are
+much sought after and command constantly augmenting prices. As with most
+domestic appliances the history of the candlestick is an unceasing
+tendency towards simplicity, the most elaborate and fantastic forms,
+animals and reptiles, the monstrous creatures of mythology, lions and
+men-at-arms, angels and cupids, having gradually given place to
+architectural motives such as the baluster stem and to the classic grace
+of the Adam style. The candlestick in its modern form is, indeed,
+artistically among the least unsatisfactory of household plenishings.
+
+
+
+
+CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH (1806-1873), Scottish divine, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 23rd of March 1806, and spent his early years in
+Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. During the years 1823-1826 he went
+through the prescribed course at the divinity hall, then presided over
+by Dr Stevenson MacGill, and on leaving, accompanied a pupil as private
+tutor to Eton, where he stayed two years. In 1829 he entered upon his
+life's work, having been licensed to preach during the summer vacation
+of the previous year. After short assistant pastorates at St Andrew's,
+Glasgow, and Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, he obtained a settled charge as
+minister of the important parish of St George's, Edinburgh. Here he at
+once took the place he so long held as one of the ablest preachers in
+Scotland. Destitute of natural oratorical gifts and somewhat ungainly in
+his manner, he attracted and even riveted the attention of his audience
+by a rare combination of intellectual keenness, emotional fervour,
+spiritual insight and power of dramatic representation of character and
+life. His theology was that of the Scottish Calvinistic school, but his
+sympathetic character combined with strong conviction gathered round him
+one of the largest and most intelligent congregations in the city.
+
+From the very commencement of his ministry in Edinburgh, Candlish took
+the deepest interest in ecclesiastical questions, and he soon became
+involved as one of the chief actors in the struggle which was then
+agitating the Scottish church. His first Assembly speech, delivered in
+1839, placed him at once among the leaders of the party that afterwards
+formed the Free Church, and his influence in bringing about the
+Disruption of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers. Great
+as was his popularity as a preacher, it was in the arena of
+ecclesiastical debate that his ability chiefly showed itself, and
+probably no other single man had from first to last so large a share in
+shaping the constitution and guiding the policy of the Free Church. He
+took his stand on two principles: the right of the people to choose
+their ministers, and the independence of the church in things spiritual.
+On his advice Hugh Miller was appointed editor of the _Witness_, the
+powerful Free Church organ. He was actively engaged at one time or other
+in nearly all the various schemes of the church, but special mention
+should be made of his services on the education committee, of which he
+was convener from 1846 to 1863, and in the unsuccessful negotiations for
+union among the non-established Presbyterian denominations of Scotland,
+which were carried on during the years 1863-1873. In the Assembly of
+1861 he filled the moderator's chair.
+
+As a theologian the position of Candlish was perhaps inferior to that
+which he held as a preacher and ecclesiastic, but it was not
+inconsiderable. So early as 1841 his reputation in this department was
+sufficient to secure for him the government nomination to the newly
+founded chair of Biblical criticism in the university of Edinburgh.
+Owing to the opposition of Lord Aberdeen, however, the presentation was
+cancelled. In 1847 Candlish, who had received the degree of D.D. from
+Princeton, New Jersey, in 1841, was chosen by the Assembly of the Free
+Church to succeed Chalmers in the chair of divinity in the New College,
+Edinburgh. After partially fulfilling the duties of the office for one
+session, he was led to resume the charge of St George's, the clergyman
+who had been chosen by the congregation as his successor having died
+before entering on his work. In 1862 he succeeded William Cunningham as
+principal of New College with the understanding that he should still
+retain his position as minister of St George's. He died on the 19th of
+October 1873.
+
+Though his greatest power was not displayed through the press, Candlish
+made a number of contributions to theological literature. In 1842 he
+published the first volume of his _Contributions towards the Exposition
+of the Book of Genesis_, a work which was completed in three volumes
+several years later. In 1854 he delivered, in Exeter Hall, London, a
+lecture on the _Theological Essays_ of the Rev. F.D. Maurice, which he
+afterwards published, along with a fuller examination of the doctrine of
+the essays. In this he defended the forensic aspect of the gospel. A
+treatise entitled _The Atonement; its Reality, Completeness and Extent_
+(1861) was based upon a smaller work which first appeared in 1845. In
+1864 he delivered the first series of Cunningham lectures, taking for
+his subject _The Fatherhood of God_. Published immediately afterwards,
+the lectures excited considerable discussion on account of the peculiar
+views they represented. Further illustrations of these views were given
+in two works published about the same time as the lectures, one a
+treatise _On the Sonship and Brotherhood of Believers_, and the other an
+exposition of the first epistle of St John.
+
+  See William Wilson, _Memorials of R.S. Candlish, D.D._, with a chapter
+  on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy.
+
+
+
+
+CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE (1778-1841), Swiss botanist, was born at
+Geneva on the 4th of February 1778. He was descended from one of the
+ancient families of Provence, whence his ancestors had been expatriated
+for their religion in the middle of the 16th century. Though a weakly
+boy he showed great aptitude for study, and distinguished himself at
+school by his rapid attainments in classical and general literature, and
+specially by a faculty for writing elegant verse. He began his
+scientific studies at the college of Geneva, where the teaching of
+J.P.E. Vaucher first inspired him with the determination to make
+botanical science the chief pursuit of his life. In 1796 he removed to
+Paris. His first productions, _Historia Plantarum Succulentarum_ (4
+vols., 1799) and _Astragalogia_ (1802), introduced him to the notice of
+Cuvier, for whom he acted as deputy at the Collège de France in 1802,
+and to J.B. Lamarck, who afterwards confided to him the publication of
+the third edition of the _Flore française_ (1803-1815). The _Principes
+élémentaires de botanique_, printed as the introduction to this work,
+contained the first exposition of his principle of classification
+according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or artificial method.
+In 1804 he was granted the degree of doctor of medicine by the medical
+faculty of Paris, and published his _Essai sur les propriétés médicales
+des plantes comparées avec leurs formes extérieures et leur
+classification naturelle_, and soon after, in 1806, his _Synopsis
+plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum_. At the desire of the French
+government he spent the summers of the following six years in making a
+botanical and agricultural survey of the whole kingdom, the results of
+which were published in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of
+botany in the medical faculty of the university of Montpellier, and in
+1810 he was transferred to the newly founded chair of botany of the
+faculty of sciences in the same university. From Montpellier, where he
+published his _Théorie élémentaire de la botanique_ (1813), he removed
+to Geneva in 1816, and in the following year was invited by the now
+independent republic to fill the newly created chair of natural history.
+The rest of his life was spent in an attempt to elaborate and complete
+his "natural" system of botanical classification. The results of his
+labours in this department are to be found in his _Regni vegetabilis
+systema naturale_, of which two volumes only were completed (1821) when
+he found that it would be impossible for him to execute the whole work
+on so extensive a scale. Accordingly in 1824 he began a less extensive
+work of the same kind--his _Prodromus systematis regni vegetabilis_--but
+even of this he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of
+the whole. He had been for several years in delicate health when he died
+on the 9th of September 1841 at Geneva.
+
+His son, ALPHONSE LOUIS PIERRE PYRAME DE CANDOLLE, born at Paris on the
+28th of October 1806, at first devoted himself to the study of law, but
+gradually drifted to botany and finally succeeded to his father's chair.
+He published a number of botanical works, including continuations of the
+_Prodromus_ in collaboration with his son, Anne Casimir Pyrame de
+Candolle. He died at Geneva on the 4th of April 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CANDON, a town of South Ilocos province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on
+the W. coast, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 18,828. Its
+climate is hot, though healthy. Candon is surrounded by an extensive and
+fertile plain, and is defended by a small fort. Its inhabitants are
+noted for their honesty and industry, as well as for their regard for
+law and order. They carry on an extensive traffic with the wild tribes
+of the neighbouring mountains. Indigo is grown in considerable quantity,
+as are rice and tobacco. The weaving of blankets, handkerchiefs, and
+cotton and silk cloths constitutes quite an important industry. The
+language is Ilocanc.
+
+
+
+
+CANDYTUFT (_Iberis amara_, so called from Iberia, i.e. Spain, where many
+species of the genus are native, and _amara_, bitter, i.e. in taste), a
+small annual herb (natural order Cruciferae) with white or purplish
+flowers, the outer petals of which are longer than the rest. It is a
+native of western Europe and found wild on dry soil in cultivated ground
+in the centre and east of England. This and several other species of the
+genus are known as garden plants, and are of easy culture in ordinary
+garden soil if well exposed to sun and air. The common candytuft of
+gardens is _I. umbellata_, a hardy annual, native of southern Europe,
+and known in a number of varieties differing in colour of flowers. _I.
+coronaria_ (rocket candytuft) has long dense heads of white flowers and
+is also an annual. Some species have a shrubby growth and are evergreen
+perennials; the best-known is _I. sempervirens_, a native of southern
+Europe, a much-branched plant about a foot high with long racemes of
+white flowers. _I. gibraltarica_ is a showy, handsome half hardy
+evergreen.
+
+
+
+
+CANE, a name applied to many plants which have long, slender, reed-like
+stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane, the bamboo-cane or the
+reed-cane. From the use as walking-sticks to which many of these plants
+have been applied, the name "cane" is improperly given to sticks,
+irrespective of the source from which they are derived. Properly it
+should be restricted to a peculiar class of palms, known as rattans,
+included under the two closely allied genera _Calamus_ and
+_Daemonorops_, of which there are a large number of species. The plants
+are found widely extended throughout the islands of the Indian
+Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, China, India and Ceylon; and also in
+Australia and Africa. They were described by Georg Eberhard Rumpf or
+Rumphius (1627-1702), governor of Amboyna, and author of the _Herbarium
+Amboynense_ (6 vols. folio, Amsterdam, 1741-1755), under the name of
+Palmijunci, as inhabitants of dense forests into which the rays of the
+sun scarce can penetrate, where they form spiny bushes, obstructing the
+passage through the jungle. The slender stems rarely exceed an inch in
+diameter and are generally much smaller. They creep or trail to an
+enormous length, often reaching 500 or 600 ft., and support themselves
+on trees or bushes by recurved spines borne on the stalk or back of the
+midrib of the leaf, or by stiff hooks replacing the upper leaflets. In
+some cases the midrib is elongated beyond the leaflets to form a long
+whip-like structure, bearing recurved hooks at intervals. The natives,
+in preparing the canes for the market, strip off the leaves by pulling
+the cut plant through a notch made in a tree. The canes always present
+distinct rings at the junction of the sheathing leaves with the stem.
+They assume a yellow colour as they dry; and those imported from
+Calcutta have a glossy surface, while the produce of the Eastern
+Archipelago presents a dull exterior.
+
+Canes, on account of their lightness, length, strength and flexibility,
+are used for a great variety of purposes by the inhabitants of the
+countries in which they grow. Split into thin strips they are twisted to
+form ropes and ships' cables, an application mentioned by Captain
+Dampier in his _Voyages_. A more important application, however, is for
+basket-work, and for making chairs, couches, pillows, &c., as the great
+strength and durability of thin and easily prepared strips admit of such
+articles being made at once airy, strong and flexible. Much of the
+beautiful and elaborate basket-work of the Chinese and Japanese is made
+from thin strips of cane, which are also used by the Chinese for larger
+works, such as door-mats, houses and sheds.
+
+A very large trade with Western countries and the United States is
+carried on in canes and rattans, the principal centres of the trade
+being Batavia, Sarawak, Singapore, Penang and Calcutta. In addition to
+the varieties used for walking-sticks, whip and umbrella handles, &c.,
+the common rattans are in extensive demand for basket-making, the seats
+and backs of chairs, the ribs of cheap umbrellas, saddles and other
+harness-work; and generally for purposes where their strength and
+flexibility make them efficient substitutes for whalebone. The
+walking-stick "canes" of commerce include a great many varieties, some
+of which, however, are not the produce of trailing palms. The well-known
+Malacca canes are obtained from _Calamus Scipionum_, the stems of which
+are much stouter than is the case with the average species of _Calamus_.
+
+
+
+
+CANEA, or KHANIA, the principal seaport and since 1841 the capital of
+Crete, finely situated on the northern coast of the island, about 25 m.
+from its western extremity, on the isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula,
+which lies between the Bay of Canea and the Bay of Suda (latitude 35°
+31' N., longitude 24° 1' E.). Surrounded by a massive Venetian wall, it
+forms a closely built, irregular and overcrowded town, though of late
+years a few of its streets have been widened. The ordinary houses are of
+wood; but the more important buildings are of more solid materials. The
+Turks have a number of mosques; there are Greek churches and a Jewish
+synagogue; an old Venetian structure serves as a military hospital; and
+the prison is of substantial construction. The town is now the principal
+seat of government; the seat of a Greek bishop, who is suffragan to the
+metropolitan at Candia, and the official residence of the European
+consuls. The harbour, formed by an ancient transverse mole nearly 1200
+ft. long, and protected by a lighthouse and a fort, would admit vessels
+of considerable tonnage; but it has been allowed to silt up until it
+shoals off from 24 ft. to 10 or even 8, so that large vessels have to
+anchor about 4 or 5 m. out. The principal articles of trade are oil and
+soap, and there is a pretty extensive manufacture of leather. The fosse
+is laid out in vegetable gardens; public gardens have been constructed
+outside the walls; and artesian wells have been bored by the government.
+To the east of the town a large Arab village had grown up, inhabited for
+the most part by natives of Egypt and Cyrenaica, who acted as boatmen,
+porters and servants, but since the fall of the Turkish government most
+of these have quitted the island; while about a mile off on the rising
+ground is the village of Khalepa, where the consuls and merchants
+reside. The population of the town is estimated at 20,000. Canea
+probably occupies the site of the ancient Cydonia, a city of very early
+foundation and no small importance. During the Venetian rule it was one
+of the strongest cities in the island, but it fell into the hands of the
+Turks in 1646, several years before the capture of Candia. In 1856 it
+suffered from an earthquake. The neighbouring plain is famous for its
+fruitfulness, and the quince is said to derive its name _Cydonia_ from
+the town. (See also CRETE.)
+
+
+
+
+CANE-FENCING (the Fr. _canne_), the art of defending oneself with a
+walking-stick. It may be considered to be single-stick fencing without a
+guard for the hand, with the important difference that in cane-fencing
+the thrust is as important as the cut, and thus _canne_ approaches
+nearer to sabre-play. The cuts are practically identical with those of
+the single-stick (q.v.), but they are generally given after one or more
+rapid preliminary flourishes (_moulinets_, circles) which the lightness
+of the stick facilitates, and which serve to perplex and disconcert an
+assailant. The thrusts are similar to those in foil-play, but are often
+carried out with both hands grasping the stick, giving greater force and
+enabling it to be used at very close quarters. The canes used in French
+fencing schools are made of several kinds of tough wood and are about 3
+ft. long, tapering towards the point. As very severe blows are
+exchanged, masks, gloves, padded vests and shin-guards, similar to those
+used in football, are worn.
+
+  See Georges d'Amoric, _French Method of the Noble Art of Self-Defence_
+  (London, 1898); J. Charlemont, _L'Art de la Boxe française et de la
+  Canne_ (Paris, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CANEPHORAE (Gr. [Greek: kaneon], a basket, and [Greek: ferein], to
+carry), "basket-bearers," the title given of old to Athenian maidens of
+noble family, annually chosen to carry on their heads baskets with
+sacrificial implements and apparatus at the Panathenaic and other
+festivals. The term (also in the form _Canephori_) is applied in
+architecture to figures of either sex carrying on their heads baskets,
+containing edibles or material for sacrifices. The term might well be
+applied to the Caryatide figures of the Erechtheum. Those represented in
+the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon carry vases on their shoulders.
+
+
+
+
+CANES VENATICI ("The HOUNDS," or "the GREYHOUNDS"), in astronomy, a
+constellation of the northern hemisphere named by Hevelius in 1690, who
+compiled it from the stars between the older asterisms Ursa Major,
+Boötes and Coma Berenices. Interesting objects in this portion of the
+heavens are: the famous spiral nebula first described by Lord Rosse;
+_a-Canum Venaticorum_, a double star, of magnitudes 3 and 6; this star
+was named _Cor Caroli_, or The Heart of Charles II., by Edmund Halley,
+on the suggestion of Sir Charles Scarborough (1616-1694), the court
+physician; a cluster of stars of the 11th magnitude and fainter,
+extremely rich in variables, of the 900 stars examined no less than 132
+being regularly variable.
+
+
+
+
+CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSÉ (1770-1843), Spanish statesman, was born in 1770.
+He took an active part in the Spanish resistance to Napoleon in a civil
+capacity and was an energetic member of the cortes of 1812. On the
+return of the Bourbon line in 1814, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile
+in the province of Valencia. On the restoration in 1820 of the
+constitution of 1812, he was appointed minister of finance. He continued
+at this post till the spring of 1821, distinguishing himself by the zeal
+and ability with which he sought to reform the finances of Spain. It was
+high time; for the annual deficit was greater than the entire revenue
+itself, and landed and other property was, to an unheard-of extent,
+monopolized by the priests. The measures he proposed had been only
+partially enforced, when the action of the king with regard to the
+ministry, of which he was a member, obliged him to resign. Thereafter,
+as a member of the Moderate Liberal party, Canga-Arguelles advocated
+constitutional government and financial reform, till the overthrow of
+the constitution in 1823, when he fled to England. He did not return to
+Spain till 1829, and did not again appear in public life, being
+appointed keeper of the archives at Simancas. He died in 1843.
+Canga-Arguelles is the author of three works: _Elementos de la Ciencia
+de Hacienda_ (Elements of the Science of Finance), London, 1825;
+_Diccionario de Hacienda_ (Dictionary of Finance), London, 1827; and
+_Observaciones sobre la guerra de la Peninsula_ (Observations on the
+Peninsular War), in which he endeavoured to show that his countrymen had
+taken a far more effective part in the national struggle against the
+French than English historians were willing to admit.
+
+
+
+
+CANGAS DE ONÍS, or CANGAS, a town of northern Spain, in the province of
+Oviedo; situated on the right bank of the river Sella, in a fertile,
+well-watered, partly wooded, undulating region. Pop. (1900) 8537. The
+trade of Cangas de Onís is chiefly in live-stock and coal from the
+neighbouring mines. A Latin inscription on the town-hall records the
+fact that this place was the residence of the first Spanish kings after
+the spread of the Moors over the Peninsula. Here early in the 8th
+century lived King Pelayo, who started the Christian reconquest of
+Spain. His historic cave of Covadonga is only 8 m. distant (see
+ASTURIAS). The church of the Assumption, rebuilt in the 19th century, is
+on the model and site of an older church of the middle ages. Near Cangas
+are ruins and bridges of the Roman period.
+
+
+
+
+CANGAS DE TINÉO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo,
+and on the river Narcea. Pop. (1900) 22,742. There is no railway and the
+river is not navigable, but a good road runs through Tinéo, Grado and
+the adjacent coal-fields, to the ports of Cudillero and Avilés. The
+inhabitants have thus an easily accessible market for the farm produce
+of the fertile hills round Cangas de Tinéo, and for the cloth, leather,
+pottery, &c., manufactured in the town.
+
+
+
+
+CANGUE, or CANG, the European name for the Chinese _Kia_ or _Kea_, a
+portable pillory, carried by offenders convicted of petty offences. It
+consists of a square wooden collar weighing from 20 to 60 lb., through a
+hole in which the victim's head is thrust. It fits tight to the neck and
+must be worn day and night for the period ordered. The offender is left
+exposed in the street. Over the parts by which it fastens slips of paper
+bearing the mandarin's seal are pasted so that no one can liberate the
+condemned. The length of the punishment is usually from a fortnight to a
+month. As the cangue is 3 to 4 ft. across the convict is unable to feed
+himself or to lie down, and thus, unless fed by friends or passersby,
+often starves to death. As in the English pillory, the name of the man
+and the nature of his offence are inscribed on the cangue.
+
+
+
+
+CANINA, LUIGI (1795-1856), Italian archaeologist and architect, was born
+at Casale in Piedmont. He became professor of architecture at Turin, and
+his most important works were the excavation of Tusculum in 1829 and of
+the Appian Way in 1848, the results of which he embodied in a number of
+works published in a costly form by his patroness, the queen of
+Sardinia.
+
+
+
+
+CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO (1617-1666), Italian designer and engraver, was
+born at Rome. He was a pupil of Domenichino and afterwards of Antonio
+Barbalonga. He painted some altar-pieces at Rome, including two admired
+pictures for the church of San Martino a' Monti, representing the
+martyrdom of St Stephen and of St Bartholomew. Having accompanied
+Cardinal Chigi to France, he was encouraged by the minister Colbert to
+carry into execution his project of designing from medals, antique gems
+and similar sources a series of portraits of the most illustrious
+characters of antiquity, accompanied with memoirs; but shortly after the
+commencement of the undertaking Canini died at Rome. The work, however,
+was prosecuted by his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance of
+Picard and Valet, completed and published it in 1699, under the title of
+_Iconografia di Gio. Ag. Canini_. It contains 150 engravings. A reprint
+in Italian and French appeared at Amsterdam in 1731.
+
+
+
+
+CANIS MAJOR ("Great Dog"), in astronomy, a constellation placed south of
+the Zodiac, just below and behind the heels of Orion. _Canis minor_, the
+"little dog," is another constellation, also following Orion and
+separated from Canis major by the Milky Way. Both these constellations,
+or at least their principal stars, Sirius in the Great Dog and Procyon
+in the Little Dog, were named in very remote times, being referred to as
+the "dogs of Orion" or in equivalent terms. Sirius is the brightest star
+in the heavens; and the name is connected with the adjectives [Greek:
+seirhos] and [Greek: sehirios], scorching. It may possibly be related to
+the Arabic _Siraj_, thus meaning the "glittering one." Hommel has shown
+that Sirius and Procyon were "the two _Si'ray_" or glitterers. It is
+doubtful whether Sirius is referred to in the Old Testament. By some it
+has been identified with the Hebrew _mazzaroth_, the _Lucifer_ of the
+Vulgate; by others with _mazzaloth_, the _duodecim signa_ of the
+Vulgate; while Professor M.A. Stern identifies it with the Hebrew
+_kimah_, which is rendered variously in the Vulgate as Arcturus, Hyades
+and Pleiades.[1] The inhabitants of the Euphrates valley included both
+constellations in their stellar system; but considerable difficulty is
+encountered in the allocation of the Babylonian names to the dominant
+stars. The name _kak-ban_, which occurs on many tablets, has been
+determined by Epping and Strassmaier, and also by Jensen and Hommel, as
+equivalent to Sirius; etymologically this word means "dog-star" (or,
+according to R. Brown, _Primitive Constellations_, "bow-star"). On the
+other hand, _Kaksidi_ or _Kak-si-sa_, meaning the "leader," has been
+identified by Sayce and others with Sirius, while Hommel regards it as
+Procyon. The question is mainly philological, and the arguments seem
+inconclusive. We may notice, however, that connexions were made between
+Kaksidi and the weather, which have strong affinities with the ideas
+expressed at a later date by the Greeks. For example, its appearance in
+the morning with the sun heralded the "north winds," the [Greek: boreai
+etaesiai] or _aquilones etesiae_, the strong and dangerous
+north-westerly winds of Greece which blow for forty days from the rising
+of the star; again, when Sirius appeared misty the "locusts devour."
+Sirius also appears in the cosmogony of Zoroaster, for Plutarch records
+that Ormuzd appointed this star to be a guard and overseer in the
+heavens, and in the _Avesta_ we find that Tistrya (Sirius) is "the
+bright and happy star, that gives happy dwelling." With the Egyptians
+Sirius assumed great importance. Appearing with the sun when the Nile
+was rising, Sirius was regarded as a herald of the waters which would
+overspread the land, renewing its fertility and promising good harvests
+for the coming season. Hephaestion records that from its aspect the rise
+of the water was foretold, and the Roman historian Florus adds that the
+weather was predicted also. Its rising marked the commencement of their
+new year, the _annus canarius_ and _annus cynicus_ of the Romans. It was
+the star of Sept or Sothis, and, according to one myth, was identified
+with the goddess Hathor--the Aphrodite of the Greeks. It was the "second
+sun" of the heavens, and according to Maspero (_Dawn of Civilization_,
+1894) "Sahu and Sopdit, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this
+mysterious world of night and stars."
+
+The Greeks, borrowing most of their astronomical knowledge from the
+Babylonians, held similar myths and ideas as to the constellations and
+stars. Sirius was named [Greek: Seirios, Kuon] (the dog) and [Greek: to
+astron], the star; and its heliacal rising was associated with the
+coming of the dry, hot and sultry season. Hesiod tells us that "Sirius
+parches head and knees"; Homer speaks similarly, calling it [Greek:
+kakon saema], the evil star, and the star of late summer ([Greek:
+opora]), the rainy and stormy season. Procyon ([Greek: Prokuon]) was so
+named because it rose before [Greek: Kuon]. The Euphratean myth of the
+dogs has its parallel in Greece, Sirius being the hound of the hunter
+Orion, and as recorded by Aratus always chasing the Hare; Pindar refers
+to the chase of Pleione, the mother of the Pleiads, by Orion and his
+dogs. Similarly Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius, when Boötes
+became Icarius, and Virgo his daughter Erigone.
+
+The Romans adopted the Greek ideas. They named the constellation
+_Canis_, and Sirius was known as _Canis_ also, and as _Canicula_.
+Procyon became _Antecanem_ and _Antecanis_, but these names did not come
+into general use. They named the hottest part of the year associated
+with the heliacal rising of Sirius the _Dies caniculares_, a phrase
+which has survived in the modern expression "dog-days"; and the
+pestilences which then prevailed occasioned the offering of sacrifices
+to placate this inimical star. Festus narrates, in this connexion, the
+sacrificing of red dogs at the feast of Floralia, and Ovid of a dog on
+the Robigalia. The experience of the ancient Greeks that Sirius rose
+with the sun as the latter entered Leo, i.e. the hottest part of the
+year, was accepted by the Romans with an entire disregard of the
+intervening time and a different latitude. To quote Sir Edward Sherburne
+(_Sphere of Manilius_, 1675), "The greater part of the Antients assign
+the Dog Star rising to the time of the Sun's first entering into Leo,
+or, as Pliny writes, 23 days after the summer solstice, as Varro 29, as
+Columella 30.[2] ...At this day with us, according to Vulgar
+computation, the rising and setting of the said Star is in a manner
+coincident with the Feasts of St Margaret (which is about the 13th of
+our July) and St Lawrence (which falls on the 10th of our August)."
+
+Sirius is the most conspicuous star in the sky; it sends to the earth
+eleven times as much light as Aldebaran, the unit standard adopted in
+the revised Harvard Photometry; numerically its magnitude is -1.6. At
+the present time its colour is white with a tinge of blue, but
+historical records show that this colour has not always prevailed.
+Aratus designated it [Greek: poikilos], many coloured; the Alexandrian
+Ptolemy classified it with Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse as [Greek:
+upokirros], fiery red; Seneca describes it as "redder than Mars"; while,
+in the 10th century, the Arabian Biruni termed it "shining red." On the
+other hand Sufi, who also flourished in the 10th century, pointedly
+omits it from his list of coloured stars. The question has been
+thoroughly discussed by T.J.J. See, who shows that Sirius has shone
+white for the last 1000 to 1200 years.[3] The parallax has been
+determined by Sir David Gill and W.L. Elkin to be 0.37"; it is therefore
+distant from the earth over 5 × 10^13 miles, and its light takes 8.6
+years to traverse the intervening space. If the sun were at the same
+distance Sirius would outshine it 30 times, the sun appearing as a star
+of the second magnitude. It has a large proper motion, which shows
+recurrent undulations having a 50-year period. From this Bessel surmised
+the existence of a satellite or companion, for which C.A.F. Peters and
+A. Auwers computed the elements. T.H. Safford determined its position
+for September 1861; and on the 31st of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark, of
+Cambridgeport, Mass., telescopically observed it as a barely visible,
+dull yellow star of the 9th to 10th magnitude. The mean distance apart
+is about 20 astronomical units; the total mass of the pair is 3.7 times
+the mass of the sun, Sirius itself being twice as massive as its
+companion, and, marvellously enough, forty thousand times as bright. The
+spectrum of Sirius is characterized by prominent absorption lines due to
+hydrogen, the metallic lines being weak; other stars having the same
+spectra are said to be of the "Sirian type." Such stars are the most
+highly heated (see STAR).
+
+_Procyon_, or a Canis minoris, is a star of the 2nd magnitude, one-fifth
+as bright as Sirius, or numerically 0.47 when compared with Aldebaran.
+It is more distant than Sirius, its parallax being 0.33"; and its light
+is about six times that of the sun. Its proper motion is large, 1.25",
+and its velocity at right angles to the line of sight is about 11 m. per
+second. Its proper motion shows large irregularities, pointing to a
+relatively massive companion; this satellite was discovered on the 13th
+of November 1896 by J.M. Schaeberle, with the great Lick telescope, as a
+star of the 13th magnitude. Its mass is equal to about that of the sun,
+but its light is only one twenty-thousandth.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See G. Schiaparelli, _Astronomy in the Old Testament_ (1905).
+
+  [2] For other values of the interval between the summer solstice and
+    the rising of Sirius, see Smith's _Dict. of Greek and Roman
+    Antiquities_.
+
+  [3] See Thomas Barker, _Phil. Trans._, 1760, 51, p. 498, for
+    quotations from classical authors; also T.J.J. See, _Astronomy and
+    Astrophysics_. vol. xi. p. 269.
+
+
+
+
+CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1654-1699), German poet
+and diplomatist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of November 1654. He
+attended the universities of Leiden and Leipzig, travelled in England,
+France, Italy and Holland, and on his return was appointed groom of the
+bedchamber (Kammerjunker) to the elector Frederick William of
+Brandenburg, whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Pomerania and
+Sweden. In 1680 he became councillor of legation, and he was employed on
+various embassies. In 1697 the elector Frederick III. made him a privy
+councillor, and the emperor Leopold I. created him a baron of the
+Empire. Having fallen ill on an embassy to the Hague, he obtained his
+discharge and died at Berlin in 1699. Canitz's poems (_Nebenstunden
+unterschiedener Gedichte_), which did not appear until after his death
+(1700), are for the most part dry and stilted imitations of French and
+Latin models, but they formed a healthy contrast to the coarseness and
+bombast of the later Silesian poets.
+
+  A complete edition of Canitz's poems was published by U. König in
+  1727; see also L. Fulda, _Die Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule_,
+  ii. (1883).
+
+
+
+
+CAÑIZARES, JOSÉ DE (1676-1750), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on
+the 4th of July 1676, entered the army, and retired with the rank of
+captain in 1702 to act as censor of the Madrid theatres and steward to
+the duke of Osuna. In his fourteenth year Cañizares recast a play by
+Lope de Vega under the title of _Las Cuentas del Gran Capitán_, and he
+speedily became a fashionable playwright. His originality, however, is
+slight, and _El Dómine Lucas_, the only one of his pieces that is still
+read, is an adaptation from Lope de Vega. Cañizares produced a version
+of Racine's _Iphigénie_ shortly before 1716, and is to some extent
+responsible for the destruction of the old Spanish drama. He died on the
+4th of September 1750, at Madrid.
+
+
+
+
+CANNAE (mod. _Canne_), an ancient village of Apulia, near the river
+Aufidus, situated on a hill on the right bank, 6 m. S.W. from its mouth.
+It is celebrated for the disastrous defeat which the Romans received
+there from Hannibal in 216 B.C. (see PUNIC WARS). There is a
+considerable controversy as to whether the battle took place on the
+right or the left bank of the river. In later times the place became a
+_municipium_, and unimportant Roman remains still exist upon the hill
+known as Monte di Canne. In the middle ages it became a bishopric, but
+was destroyed in 1276.
+
+  See O. Schwab, _Das Schlachtfeld von Canna_ (Munich, 1898), and
+  authorities under PUNIC WARS.
+
+
+
+
+CANNANORE, or KANANORE, a town of British India, in the Malabar district
+of Madras, on the coast, 58 m. N. from Calicut and 470 m. by rail from
+Madras. Pop. (1901) 27,811. Cannanore belonged to the Kalahasti or
+Cherakal rajas till the invasion of Malabar by Hyder Ali. In 1498 it was
+visited by Vasco da Gama; in 1501 a Portuguese factory was planted here
+by Cabral; in 1502 da Gama made a treaty with the raja, and in 1505 a
+fort was built. In 1656 the Dutch effected a settlement and built the
+present fort, which they sold to Ali Raja in 1771. In 1783 Cannanore was
+captured by the British, and the reigning princess became tributary to
+the East India Company. Here is the residence of the Moplah chief, known
+as the Ali Raja, who owns most of the Laccadive Islands. Cannanore was
+the military headquarters of the British on the west coast until 1887.
+
+
+
+
+CANNES, a seaport of France, in the department of the Alpes Maritimes,
+on the Mediterranean, 19 m. S.W. of Nice and 120 m. E. of Marseilles by
+rail. Pop.(1906) 24,531. It enjoys a southern exposure on a seaward
+slope, and is defended from the northern winds by ranges of hills.
+Previous to 1831, when it first attracted the attention of Lord
+Brougham, it mainly consisted of the old quarter (named Sucquet), and
+had little to show except an ancient castle, and a church on the top of
+Mont Chevalier, dedicated in 1603 to Notre Dame du Mont Espérance; but
+since that period it has become a large and important town, and is now
+one of the most fashionable winter resorts in the south of France, much
+frequented by English visitors, the Americans preferring Nice. The
+neighbourhood is thickly studded with magnificent villas, which are
+solidly built of a stone so soft that it is sawn and not hewn. There is
+an excellent quay, and a beautiful promenade runs along the beach; and
+numerous sheltered roads stretch up the valleys amidst groves of olive
+trees. On the north the modern town climbs up to Le Cannet (2 m.), while
+on the east it practically extends along the coast to Golfe Jouan (3½
+m.), where Napoleon landed on the 1st of March 1815, on his return from
+Elba. From Cannes a railway runs north in 12½ m. to Grasse. On the top
+of the hill behind the town are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
+cemetery. In the most prominent part of the latter is the grave of Lord
+Brougham, distinguished by a massive stone cross standing on a double
+basement, with the simple inscription--"Henricus Brougham, Natus
+MDCCLXXVIII., Decessit MDCCCLXVIII."; and in the immediate vicinity lies
+James, fourth duke of Montrose, who died December 1874. The country
+around is very beautiful and highly fertile; orange and lemon trees are
+cultivated like peach trees in England, while olives, almonds, figs,
+peaches, grapes and other fruits are grown in abundance, and, along with
+the produce of the fisheries, form the chief exports of the town.
+Essences of various kinds are manufactured, and flowers are extensively
+cultivated for the perfumers. The climate of Cannes has been the subject
+of a considerable variety of opinion,--the preponderance being, however,
+in its favour. According to Dr de Valcourt, it is remarkable by reason
+of the elevation and regularity of the temperature during the height of
+the day, the clearness of the atmosphere and abundance of light, the
+rarity of rain and the absence of fogs.
+
+Cannes is a place of great antiquity, but its earlier history is very
+obscure. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the 8th and the 10th
+centuries; but it was afterwards repeopled by a colony from Genoa.
+Opposite the town is the island of Ste Marguerite (one of the Lérins),
+in the citadel of which the Man with the Iron Mask was confined from
+1686 to 1698, and which acquired notoriety as the prison whence Marshal
+Bazaine escaped in August 1874. On the other chief island (St Honorat)
+of the Lérins is the famous monastery (5th century to 1788), in
+connexion with which grew up the school of Lérins, which had a wide
+influence upon piety and literature in the 5th and 6th centuries.
+
+  See L. Alliez, _Histoire du monastère de Lérins_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1862); and _Les Îles de Lérins, Cannes, et les rivages environnants_
+  (Paris, 1860); _Cartulaire du monastère de Lérins_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1883 and 1905); de Valcourt, _Cannes and its Climate_ (London, 1873);
+  Joanne, special _Guide to Cannes_; J.R. Green, essay on Cannes and St
+  Honorat, in the first series of his _Stray Studies_ (1st ed., 1876);
+  A. Cooper-Marsdin, _The School of Lérins_ (Rochester, 1905).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CANNIBALISM, the eating of human flesh by men (from a Latinized form of
+Carib, the name of a tribe of South America, formerly found also in the
+West Indies), also called "anthropophagy" (Gr. [Greek: authrpspos], man,
+and [Greek: phaneiu], to eat). Evidence has been adduced from some of
+the palaeolithic cave-dwellings in France to show that the inhabitants
+practised cannibalism, at least occasionally. From Herodotus, Strabo and
+others we hear of peoples like the Scythian Massagetae, a nomad race
+north-east of the Caspian Sea, who killed old people and ate them. In
+the middle ages reports, some of them probably untrustworthy, by Marco
+Polo and others, attributed cannibalism to the wild tribes of China, the
+Tibetans, &c. In our own days cannibalism prevails, or prevailed until
+recently, over a great part of West and Central Africa, New Guinea,
+Melanesia (especially Fiji) and Australia. New Zealand and the
+Polynesian Islands were great centres of the practice. It is extensively
+practised by the Battas of Sumatra and in other East Indian islands and
+in South America; in earlier days it was a common feature of Indian wars
+in North America. Sporadic cannibalism occurs among more civilized
+peoples as a result of necessity or as a manifestation of disease (see
+LYCANTHROPY).
+
+_Classification._--Cannibalistic practices may be classified from two
+points of view: (1) the motives of the act; (2) the ceremonial
+regulations. A third division of subordinate importance is also
+possible, if we consider whether the victims are actually killed for
+food or whether only such are eaten as have met their death in battle or
+other ways.
+
+1. From a psychological point of view the term cannibalism groups
+together a number of customs, whose only bond of union is that they all
+involve eating of human flesh. (a) Food cannibalism, where the object is
+the satisfaction of hunger, may occur sporadically as a result of real
+necessity or may be kept up for the simple gratification of a taste for
+human flesh in the absence of any lack of food in general or even of
+animal food, (i.) Cannibalism from necessity is found not only among the
+lower races, such as the Fuegians or Red Indian tribes, but also among
+civilized races, as the records of sieges and shipwrecks show. (ii.)
+Simple food cannibalism is common in Africa; the Niam-Niam and Monbuttu
+carry on wars for the sake of obtaining human flesh; in West Africa
+human flesh could formerly be seen exposed for sale in the market like
+any other article of commerce; and among some tribes it is the practice
+to sell the corpses of dead relatives for consumption as food. (b) In
+curious contrast to this latter custom is the practice of devouring
+dead kinsfolk as the most respectful method of disposing of their
+remains. In a small number of cases this practice is combined with the
+custom of killing the old and sick, but in the great majority of peoples
+it is simply a form of burial; it seems to prevail in most parts of
+Australia, many parts of Melanesia, Africa and South America, and less
+frequently in other parts of the world. To this group belong the customs
+described by Herodotus; we may perhaps regard as a variant form the
+custom of using the skull of a dead man as a drinking-cup. This practice
+is widely found, and the statement of Herodotus that the skull was set
+in gold and preserved by the Issedones may point in this direction; from
+the account given of the Tibetans some seven hundred years ago by
+William of Ruysbruck (Rubruquis) it appears that they had given up
+cannibalism but still preserved the use of the skull as a drinking
+vessel. Another modification of an original ritual cannibalism is the
+custom of drinking the ashes of the dead, which is practised by some
+African and South American tribes. The custom of holding burial feasts
+has also been traced to the same origin. More incomprehensible to the
+European than any other form of cannibalism is the custom of partaking
+of the products of putrefaction as they run down from the body. The
+Australians smoke-dry the bodies of tribesmen; here, too, it is the
+custom to consume the portions of the body which are rendered liquid by
+the heat. (c) The ritual cannibalism just mentioned shades over into and
+may have been originally derived from magical cannibalism, of which
+three sub-species may be distinguished. (i.) Savages are accustomed, on
+the one hand, to abstain from certain foods in order that they may not
+acquire certain qualities; on the other hand other foods are eagerly
+desired in order that they may by partaking of the flesh also come to
+partake of the mental or bodily peculiarities of the man or animal from
+which the meat is derived; thus, after the birth of a child, especially
+the first-born, the parents are frequently forbidden the flesh of
+slow-moving animals, because that would prevent the child from learning
+to walk; conversely, eating the heart of a lion is recommended for a
+warrior to make him brave; from this point of view therefore we readily
+understand the motives which lead to the eating of those slain in
+battle, both friends and foes. (ii.) We may term protective an entirely
+different kind of magical cannibalism, which consists in the consumption
+of a small portion of the body of a murdered man, in order that his
+ghost may not trouble the murderer; according to Hans Egède, the Eskimo,
+when they kill a witch, eat a portion of her heart, that she may not
+haunt them. (iii.) The practice is also said to have the effect of
+causing the relatives of the murdered man to lose heart or to prevent
+them from exercising the right of revenge; in this case it may be
+brought into relation with the ceremony of the blood covenant in one of
+the forms of which the parties drink each other's blood; or, it may
+point to a reminiscence of a ritual eating of the dead kinsman. The late
+survival of this idea in Europe is attested by its mention by Dante in
+the _Purgatorio_. (d) The custom of eating food offered to the gods is
+widespread, and we may trace to this origin Mexican cannibalism,
+perhaps, too, that of Fiji. The Aztec worship of the god of war,
+Huitzilopochtli, led to the sacrifice of prisoners, and the custom of
+sacrifice to their frequent wars. The priest took out the heart, offered
+it to the sun, and then went through the ceremonies of feeding the idol
+with the heart and blood; finally the bodies of the victims were
+consumed by the worshippers. (e) We reach an entirely different set of
+motives in penal and revenge cannibalism. For the origin of these ideas
+we may perhaps look to that of protective magic, dealt with above; but
+it seems possible that there is also some idea of influencing the lot of
+the criminal in a future life; it may be noted that the whole of the
+body is seldom eaten in protective cannibalism; among the Battas,
+however, the criminal, and in parts of Africa the debtor, are entirely
+consumed. Other cases, especially where the victim is an enemy, may be
+due to mere fury and bravado. (f) In the west of North America a
+peculiar kind of cannibalism is found, which is confined to a certain
+body of magicians termed "Hametzen" and a necessary condition of
+admission to their order. Another kind of initiatory cannibalism
+prevailed in the south of Australia, where a magician had to eat a
+portion of a child's body before he was admitted. The meaning of these
+ceremonials is not clear.
+
+2. Most kinds of cannibalism are hedged round with ceremonial
+regulations. Certain tribes, as we have seen above, go to war to provide
+human flesh; in other cases it is only the nearest relatives who may not
+partake of a body; in other cases again it is precisely the nearest
+relatives on whom the duty falls. A curious regulation in south-east New
+Guinea prescribes that the killer of the victim shall not partake in the
+feast; in some cases the whole of the clan to which belonged the man for
+whom revenge is taken abstains also; in other cases this clan, together
+with any others of the same intermarrying group, takes part in the feast
+to the exclusion of (a) the clan or group with which they intermarry and
+(b) all outside clans. Some peoples forbid women to eat human flesh; in
+others certain classes, as the Muri of the Bambala, a tribe in the
+Kassai, may be forbidden to eat it. In Mindanao the only person who
+might eat of a slain enemy was the priest who led the warriors, and he
+was not permitted to escape this duty. In Grand Bassam all who had taken
+part in a festival at the foundation of a new village were compelled to
+eat of the human victim. But the variations are too numerous for any
+general account to be given of ceremonial limitations. S.R. Steinmetz
+has proposed a division into endo-and exo-cannibalism; but these
+divisions are frequently of minor importance, and he has failed to
+define satisfactorily the limits of the groups on which his
+classification is based.
+
+_Origin._--It will probably never be possible to say how cannibalism
+originated; in fact the multiplicity of forms and the diversity of
+ceremonial rules--some prescribing that tribesmen shall on no account be
+eaten, others that the bodies of none but tribesmen shall provide the
+meal of human flesh--point to a multiple origin. It has been maintained
+that the various forms of endo-cannibalism (eating of tribesmen) spring
+from an original practice of food cannibalism which the human race has
+in common with many animals; but this leaves unexplained _inter alia_
+the limitation of the right of participation in the funeral meal to the
+relatives of the dead man; at the same time it is possible to argue that
+the magical ideas now associated with cannibalism are of later growth.
+Against the view put forward by Steinmetz it may be urged that we have
+other instances of magical foods, such as the eating of a lion's heart,
+which do not point to an original custom of eating the animal as food.
+We shall probably be justified in referring all forms of
+endo-cannibalism to a ritual origin; otherwise the limitation is
+inexplicable; on the other hand exo-cannibalism, in some of its forms,
+and much of the extension of endo-cannibalism must be referred to a
+desire for human flesh, grown into a passion.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Steinmetz, in _Mitt. Anthrop. Ges. Wien_, N.F. xvi.;
+  Andree, _Die Anthropophagie_; Bergmann, _Die Verbreitung der
+  Anthropophagie_; Schneider, _Die Naturvölker_, i. 121-200;
+  Schaffhausen, _Anthropologische Studien, Internat. Archiv_ iii. 69-73;
+  xii. 78; E.S. Hartland, _Legend of Perseus_, vol. ii.; _Dictionnaire
+  des sci. méd., s.v._ "Anthropophagie"; Dr Seligmann in _Reports of the
+  Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea._     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862), English statesman,
+governor-general of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was the youngest
+child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton, near London, on the
+14th of December 1812. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where
+he graduated B.A. in 1833, as first class in classics and second class
+in mathematics. In 1836 he entered parliament, being returned as member
+for the town of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not,
+however, sit long in the House of Commons; for, on the death of his
+mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage which had been conferred on
+her with remainder to her only surviving son, and as Viscount Canning
+took his seat in the House of Lords. His first official appointment was
+that of under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, in the
+administration formed by Sir Robert Peel in 1841--his chief being the
+earl of Aberdeen. This post he held till January 1846; and from January
+to July of that year, when the Peel administration was broken up, Lord
+Canning filled the post of commissioner of woods and forests. He
+declined to accept office under the earl of Derby; but on the formation
+of the coalition ministry under the earl of Aberdeen in January 1853, he
+received the appointment of postmaster-general. In this office he showed
+not only a large capacity for hard work, but also general administrative
+ability and much zeal for the improvement of the service. He retained
+his post under Lord Palmerston's ministry until July 1855, when, in
+consequence of the death of Lord Dalhousie and a vacancy in the
+governor-generalship of India, he was selected by Lord Palmerston to
+succeed to that great position. This appointment appears to have been
+made rather on the ground of his father's great services than from any
+proof as yet given of special personal fitness on the part of Lord
+Canning. The new governor sailed from England in December 1855, and
+entered upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February
+1856. His strong common sense and sound practical judgment led him to
+adopt a policy of conciliation towards the native princes, and to
+promote measures tending to the betterment of the condition of the
+people.
+
+In the year following his accession to office the deep-seated discontent
+of the people broke out in the Indian Mutiny (q.v.). Fears were
+entertained, and even the friends of the viceroy to some extent shared
+them, that he was not equal to the crisis. But the fears proved
+groundless. He had a clear eye for the gravity of the situation, a calm
+judgment, and a prompt, swift hand to do what was really necessary. By
+the union of great moral qualities with high, though not the highest,
+intellectual faculties, he carried the Indian empire safely through the
+stress of the storm, and, what was perhaps a harder task still, he dealt
+wisely with the enormous difficulties arising at the close of such a
+war, established a more liberal policy and a sounder financial system,
+and left the people more contented than they were before. The name of
+"Clemency Canning," which was applied to him during the heated
+animosities of the moment, has since become a title of honour.
+
+While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation declaring
+the lands of the province forfeited; and this step gave rise to much
+angry controversy. A "secret despatch," couched in arrogant and
+offensive terms, was addressed to the viceroy by Lord Ellenborough, then
+a member of the Derby administration, which would have justified the
+viceroy in immediately resigning. But from a strong sense of duty he
+continued at his post; and ere long the general condemnation of the
+despatch was so strong that the writer felt it necessary to retire from
+office. Lord Canning replied to the despatch, calmly and in a
+statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating his censured policy. In
+April 1859 he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for his
+great services during the mutiny. He was also made an extra civil grand
+cross of the order of the Bath, and in May of the same year he was
+raised to the dignity of an earl. By the strain of anxiety and hard work
+his health and strength were seriously impaired, while the death of his
+wife was also a great shock to him; in the hope that rest in his native
+land might restore him, he left India, reaching England in April 1862.
+But it was too late. He died in London on the 17th of June following.
+About a month before his death he was created K.G. As he died without
+issue the title became extinct.
+
+  See Sir H.S. Cunningham, _Earl Canning_ ("Rulers of India" series),
+  1891; and A.J.C. Hare, _The Story of Two Noble Lilies_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827), British statesman, was born in London on
+the 11th of April 1770. The family was of English origin and had been
+settled at Bishop's Canynge in Wiltshire. In 1618 a George Canning, son
+of Richard Canning of Foxcote in Warwickshire, received a grant of the
+manor of Garvagh in Londonderry, Ireland, from King James I. The father
+of the statesman, also named George, was the eldest son of Mr Stratford
+Canning, of Garvagh. He quarrelled with and was disowned by his family.
+He came to London and led a struggling life, partly in trade and partly
+in literature. In May 1768 he married Mary Annie Costello, and he died
+on the 11th of April 1771, exactly one year after the birth of his son.
+Mrs Canning, who was left destitute, received no help from her husband's
+family, and went on the stage, where she was not successful. She married
+a dissolute and brutal actor of the name of Reddish. Her son owed his
+escape from the miseries of her household to another member of the
+company, Moody, who wrote to Mr Stratford Canning, a merchant in London
+and younger brother of the elder George Canning. Moody represented to Mr
+Stratford Canning that the boy, although full of promise, was on the
+high road to the gallows under the evil influence of Reddish. Mr
+Stratford Canning exerted himself on behalf of his nephew. An estate of
+the value of £200 a year was settled on the boy, and he was sent in
+succession to a private school at Hyde Abbey near Winchester, to Eton in
+1781, and to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1787. After leaving Eton and
+before going to Oxford, he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn. At
+Eton he edited the school magazine, _The Microcosm_, and at Oxford he
+took the leading part in the formation of a debating society. He made
+many friends, and his reputation was already so high that Sheridan
+referred to him in the House of Commons as a rising hope of the Whigs.
+According to Lord Holland, he had been noted at Oxford as a furious
+Jacobin and hater of the aristocracy. In 1792 he came to London to read
+for the bar. He had taken his B.A. in 1791 and proceeded M.A. on the 6th
+of July 1794.
+
+Soon after coming to London he became acquainted with Pitt in some
+uncertain way. The hatred of the aristocracy, for which Lord Holland
+says he was noted at Oxford, would naturally deter an ambitious young
+man with his way to make in the world, and with no fixed principles,
+from attaching his fortune to the Whigs. Canning had the glaring
+examples of Burke and Sheridan himself to show him that the great
+"revolution families"--Cavendishes, Russells, Bentincks--who controlled
+the Whig party, would never allow any man, however able, who did not
+belong to their connexion, to rise to the first rank. He therefore took
+his place among the followers of Pitt. It is, however, only fair to note
+that he always regarded Pitt with strong personal affection, and that he
+may very naturally have been influenced, as multitudes of other
+Englishmen were, by the rapid development of the French Revolution from
+a reforming to an aggressive and conquering force. In a letter to his
+friend Lord Boringdon (John Parker, afterwards earl of Morley), dated
+the 13th of December 1792, he explicitly states that this was the case.
+Enlightened self-interest was doubtless combined with honest conviction
+in ranking him among the followers of Pitt. By the help of the prime
+minister he entered parliament for the borough of Newtown in the Isle of
+Wight in July 1793. His maiden speech, on the subvention to the king of
+Sardinia, was made on the 31st of January 1794. It is by some said to
+have been a failure, but he satisfied himself, and he soon established
+his place as the most brilliant speaker on the ministerial side. It may
+be most conveniently noted here, that his political patrons exerted
+themselves to provide for his private as well as his official
+prosperity. Their favour helped him to make a lucrative marriage with
+Miss Joan Scott, who had a fortune of £100,000, on the 8th of July 1800.
+The marriage was a very happy one, though the bulk of the fortune was
+worn away in the expenses of public and social life. Mrs Canning, who
+survived her husband for ten years, was created a viscountess in 1828.
+Four children were born of the marriage--a son who died in his father's
+lifetime, and was lamented by him in very touching verse; another a
+captain in the navy, drowned at Madeira in 1827; a third son, Charles
+(q.v.), afterwards created Earl Canning; and a daughter Harriet, who
+married the marquess of Clanricarde in 1825.
+
+The public life of Canning may be divided into four stages. From 1793 to
+1801 he was the devoted follower of Pitt, was in minor though important
+office, and was the wittiest of the defenders of the ministry in
+parliament and in the press. From 1801 to 1809 he was partly in
+opposition, partly in office, fighting for the foremost place. Between
+1809 and 1822 there was a period of comparative eclipse, during which he
+was indeed at times in office, but in lesser places than he would have
+been prepared to accept between 1804 and 1809, and was regarded with
+general distrust. From 1822 till his death in 1827 he was the most
+powerful influence in English, and one of the most powerful in European,
+politics.
+
+In the spring of 1796 he was appointed under-secretary for the foreign
+office, and in the election of that year he was returned for Wendover.
+He was also appointed receiver-general of the alienation office, a
+sinecure post which brought him £700 a year. His position as
+under-secretary brought him into close relations with Pitt and the
+foreign secretary, Lord Grenville (q.v.). During the negotiations for
+peace at Lille (1797), Canning was actively concerned in the devices
+which were employed by Pitt and Grenville to keep the real character of
+the discussion secret from other members of the cabinet. Canning had a
+taste for mystery and disguises, which he had shown at Oxford, and which
+did much to gain him his unfortunate reputation for trickery. From the
+20th of November 1797, till the 9th of July 1798, he was one of the most
+active, and was certainly the most witty of the contributors to the
+_Anti-Jacobin_, a weekly paper started to ridicule the frothy
+philanthropic and eleutheromaniac rant of the French republicans, and to
+denounce their brutal rapacity and cruelty. But Canning's position as
+under-secretary was not wholly pleasant to him. He disliked his
+immediate chief Grenville, one of the Whigs who joined Pitt, and a man
+of thoroughly Whiggish aristocratic insolence. In 1799 he left the
+foreign office and was named one of the twelve commissioners for India,
+and in 1800 joint paymaster of the forces, a post which he held till the
+retirement of Pitt in 1801.
+
+During these years of subordinate activity Canning had established his
+position as an orator and a wit. His oratory cannot be estimated with
+absolute confidence. Speeches were then badly reported. The text of his
+own, published by Therry (6 volumes, London, 1828), were revised by
+himself, and not for the better. Though his favourite author was Dryden,
+whose prose is uniformly manly and simple, and though he had a keen eye
+for faults of taste in the style of others, Canning had himself a
+leaning to preciosity and tinsel. His wit was, and remains, above all
+question. In public life it did him some harm in the opinion of serious
+people, who could not believe that so jocose a politician had solid
+capacity. It exasperated opponents, some of whom, notably Peter Pindar
+(see WOLCOT, JOHN), retaliated by brutal personalities. Canning was
+constantly reminded that his mother was a strolling actress, and was
+accused of foisting his pauper family on the public funds. The
+accusation was perfectly untrue, but this style of political controversy
+was common, and was adopted by Canning. He put himself on a level with
+Peter Pindar when he assailed Pitt's successor Addington (see SIDMOUTH,
+VISCOUNT) on the ground that he was the son of a doctor.
+
+While out of office with Pitt, Canning proved a somewhat insubordinate
+follower. The snobbery and malignity of his attacks on Addington roused
+considerable feeling against him, and his attempts to act as a political
+go-between in ministerial arrangements were unfortunate. On the
+formation of Pitt's second ministry he took the post of treasurer of the
+navy on the 12th of May 1804. In office he continued to be
+insubordinate, and committed mistakes which got him into bad odour as
+untrustworthy. He endeavoured to persuade Lord Hawkesbury (see
+LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF) to join in a scheme for turning an old friend out
+of the India Office. Though his relations with Pitt began to be somewhat
+strained towards the end, he left office on the minister's death on the
+21st of January 1806.
+
+Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of Commons on the
+3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox's ministry of "all the
+talents." Attempts were made to secure him, and he was offered the
+leadership of the House of Commons, under the supervision of Fox, an
+absurd proposal which he had the good sense to decline. After the death
+of Fox, and the dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville's ministry, he
+joined the administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state
+for foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807 till
+the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a large share
+in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret articles of the treaty
+of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet. As foreign secretary it
+fell to him to defend the ministry when it was attacked in parliament.
+He refused to tell how he became aware of the secret articles, and the
+mystery has never been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the
+prosecution of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in
+resignation in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He
+became entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In view of
+the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his colleague,
+Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a new prime minister
+must be found, that he must be in the House of Commons, that the choice
+lay between them, adding that he might not be prepared to serve as
+subordinate. In April of 1809 he had told the duke of Portland that Lord
+Castlereagh, secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion
+unfit for his post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a
+sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and took no
+steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague. When he found that
+no measures were being taken to make a change of office, Canning
+resigned on the 7th of September. Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and
+after resigning sent Canning a challenge on the 19th of September. In
+the duel on Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the
+thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against the charge
+of double dealing, but there can be no question that Castlereagh had
+just ground to be angry. Public opinion was strong against Canning, and
+in the House of Commons he was looked upon with distrust. For twelve
+years he remained out of office or in inferior places. His ability made
+it impossible that he should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the
+Bullion Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery of
+the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic knowledge which
+chiefly recommended him to the electors of Liverpool in 1812. He had
+been elected for Tralee in 1803, for Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for
+Harwich in 1807. But in parliament he had lost all influence, and is
+described as wandering about neglected and avoided. In 1812 he committed
+the serious mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to
+Lisbon, which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He
+remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to enter
+office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liverpool's cabinet,
+in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now become reconciled, was
+secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1820 he resigned his post in
+order to avoid taking any part in the proceedings against Queen
+Caroline, the wife of George IV.
+
+Canning's return to great office and influence dates from the suicide of
+Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-generalship of India,
+which would have implied his retirement from public life at home, and
+refused to remain unless he was promised "the whole inheritance" of
+Castlereagh,--the foreign office and the leadership of the House of
+Commons. His terms were accepted, and he took office in September 1822.
+He held the office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime
+minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had broken down.
+Even before this he was the real director of the policy of the
+cabinet--as Castlereagh had been from 1812 to 1822. It may be noted that
+he resigned his seat for Liverpool in 1823, and was elected for Harwich,
+which he left for Newport in 1826. Few English public men have
+represented so many constituencies.
+
+His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy which he
+pursued in those years--the policy of non-intervention, and of the
+patronage, if not the actual support, of national and liberal movements
+in Europe (see the historical articles under EUROPE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL,
+TURKEY, GREECE). To this policy he may be said to have given his name,
+and he has enjoyed the reputation of having introduced a generous spirit
+into British politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor
+at the foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of
+despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning followed
+his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without the
+possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of proof, that
+he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the fact remains that
+when Canning came into office in September 1822, he found the
+instructions to be given to the representative of the British government
+at the congress of Verona already drawn up by his predecessor, who had
+meant to attend the congress himself (see LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART,
+2ND MARQUESS OF). These instructions were handed on without change by
+Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as representative, and they
+contain all the principles which have been said to have been peculiarly
+Canning's. Indeed this policy was dictated by the character and position
+of the British government, and had been followed in the main since the
+conference of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and
+minister rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated
+with his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No
+speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he claimed the
+initiative in recognizing the independence of the revolted Spanish
+colonies in South America in 1823--"I resolved that, if France had
+Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World
+into existence to redress the balance of the Old" (December 12, 1826).
+
+When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of February
+1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only possible successor.
+He was not indeed accepted by all the party which had followed
+Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir Robert Peel and several other
+members of the ministry, moved perhaps by personal animosity, and
+certainly by dislike of his known and consistent advocacy of the claims
+of the Roman Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in
+constructing a ministry in April--but the hopes and the fears of friends
+and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His health had already begun
+to give way, and broke down altogether under the strain of the effort
+required to form his ministry. He had caught cold in January at the
+funeral of the duke of York, and never recovered. He died on the 8th of
+August 1827, at Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where
+Fox had died, and in the same room.
+
+  See _Speeches_, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.G.
+  Stapleton, _Political Life of Canning_, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London,
+  1831); _Canning and His Times_ (London, 1859); Lord Dalling and
+  Bulwer, _Historical Characters_ (London, 1868); F.H. Hill, _George
+  Canning_ (London, 1887); _Some Political Correspondence of George
+  Canning_, ed. E.J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); J.A.R. Marriott, _George
+  Canning and His Times, a Political Study_ (London, 1903); W. Alison
+  Phillips, _George Canning_ (London, 1903), with reproductions of
+  contemporary portraits and caricatures; H.W.V. Temperley, _George
+  Canning_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO (1826-1910), Italian chemist, was born at Palermo
+on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he entered the university of his
+native place with the intention of making medicine his profession, but
+he soon turned to the study of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as
+assistant to Rafaelle Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin,
+who was then professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied
+the same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served as
+an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for
+Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of Messina in
+September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina. On the collapse of the
+insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in May 1849, and after visiting
+various French towns reached Paris in October. There he gained an
+introduction to M.E. Chevreul's laboratory, and in conjunction with F.S.
+Cloëz (1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research in
+1851, when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia on cyanogen
+chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year he was appointed
+professor of physical chemistry at the National College of Alexandria,
+where he discovered that aromatic aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic
+potash into a mixture of the corresponding acid and alcohol, e.g.
+benzaldehyde into benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol ("Cannizzaro's
+reaction"). In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at
+Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professorships
+at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and organic
+chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying the aromatic
+compounds and continuing to work on the amines, until in 1871 he was
+appointed to the chair of chemistry at Rome university. Apart from his
+work on organic chemistry, which includes also an investigation of
+santonin, he rendered great service to the philosophy of chemistry when
+in his memoir _Sunto di un corso di Filosofia chemica_ (1858) he
+insisted on the distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between
+molecular and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of
+elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from the
+molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic weights of
+elements of whose compounds the vapour densities are unknown can be
+ascertained from a knowledge of their specific heats. For this
+achievement, of fundamental importance for the atomic theory in
+chemistry, he was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1891.
+Cannizzaro's scientific eminence in 1871 secured him admission to the
+Italian senate, of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the
+Council of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important
+services to the cause of scientific education in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CANNOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary division of
+Staffordshire, England, in the district known as Cannock Chase, 130 m.
+N.W. from London by the London and North Western railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1891) 20,613; (1901) 23,974. The church of St Luke is
+Perpendicular, enlarged in modern times. The famous political preacher,
+Henry Sacheverell, held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock
+has tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract generally
+exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis from north-west to
+south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was a royal preserve, and remains
+for the most part an uncultivated waste, but it is also a rich
+coalfield, and there are mines in every direction. Brownhills, Burntwood
+and Chase Town, Great Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are
+townships or villages of the mining population.
+
+
+
+
+CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. _canna_, a
+reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination _-on,
+-one_), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word, first found about 1400
+(there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407 referring to _"canones, seu
+instrumenta Anglicè gunnes vocata"_), is commonly applied to any form of
+firearm which is fired from a carriage or fixed mounting, in
+contradistinction to "small-arms," which are fired without a rest or
+support of any kind.[1] An exception must be made, however, in the case
+of _machine guns_ (q.v.), and the word as used in modern times may be
+defined as follows: "a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or movable
+carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than 1½ in." In
+French, however, _canon_ is the term applied to the barrel of small
+arms, and also, as an alternative to _mitrailleuse_ or _mitrailleur_, to
+machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly so-called. The Hotchkiss
+machine gun used in several navies is officially called "revolving
+cannon." For details see ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, MACHINE GUNS, &c. Amongst
+the many derived senses of the word may be mentioned "cannon curls," in
+which the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the
+other. For "cannon" in billiards see BILLIARDS.
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries the "cannon" in England was distinctively
+a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance being called by various
+special names such as culverin, saker, falcon, demi-cannon, &c. We hear
+of Cromwell taking with him to Ireland (1649) "two cannon of eight
+inches, two cannon of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders,"
+&c.
+
+Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier contemporary with
+Cromwell, says: "The cannon or battering ordnance is divided by the
+English into Cannon Royal, Whole Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is
+likewise called the Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and
+shoots a bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs
+7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound. The
+Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet of 28 or 30
+pound. ... These three several guns are called cannons of eight, cannons
+of seven and cannons of six." The generic sense of "cannon," in which
+the word is now exclusively used, is found along with the special sense
+above mentioned as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by
+Edward IV. of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide
+"_bumbardos, canones, culverynes ... et alias canones quoscumque, ac
+pulveres, sulfer ... pro eisdem canonibus necessarias_." "Artillery" and
+"ordnance," however, were the more usual terms up to the time of Louis
+XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance began to be classified
+according to the weight of its shot, and the special sense of "cannon"
+disappears.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand
+    cannon.
+
+
+
+
+CANNON-BALL TREE (_Couroupita guianensis_), a native of tropical South
+America (French Guiana), which bears large spherical woody fruits,
+containing numerous seeds, as in the allied genus _Bertholletia_ (Brazil
+nut).
+
+
+
+
+CANNSTATT, or KANNSTATT, a town of Germany in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley on both banks of
+the Neckar, 2½ m. from Stuttgart, with which it has been incorporated
+since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is a railway centre, has two
+Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, two bridges across the Neckar,
+handsome streets in the modern quarter of the town and fine promenades
+and gardens. There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway
+plant, automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and weaving
+are carried on; and there are chemical works and a brewery here. Fruit
+and vines are largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. A large
+population is temporarily attracted to Cannstatt by the fame of its
+mineral springs, which are valuable for diseases of the throat and
+weaknesses of the nervous system. These springs were known to the
+Romans. Besides the usual bathing establishments there are several
+medical institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the
+palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851) for
+King William of Württemberg in the Moorish style, is surrounded by
+beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also are immense caves in the
+limestone where numerous bones of mammoths and other extinct animals
+have been found. On the Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral
+castle of the house of Württemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and
+his wife.
+
+Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as the place
+where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the trial of the
+rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians. From the emperor
+Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights and privileges as were
+enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and until the middle of the 14th
+century it was the capital of the county of Württemberg. Cannstatt was
+the scene of a victory gained by the French over the Austrians on the
+21st of July 1796.
+
+  See Veiel, _Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen_ (Cannstatt,
+  1875).
+
+
+
+
+CANO, ALONZO (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and sculptor, was
+born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very great number of specimens
+of his genius, which display the boldness of his design, the facility of
+his pencil, the purity of his flesh-tints and his knowledge of
+chiaroscuro. He learned architecture from his father, Miguel Cano,
+painting from Pacheco and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montañes. As a
+statuary, his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church
+of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo. As an
+architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and gave way too
+much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made him royal architect and
+king's painter, and gave him the church preferment of a canon. His more
+important pictures are at Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable
+temper; and it is said that once he risked his life by committing the
+then capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when in
+a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded. His known
+passionateness also (according to another story) caused him to be
+suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of his wife, though all
+other circumstances pointed to his servant as the culprit.
+
+
+
+
+CANO, MELCHIOR (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at Tarançon, in New
+Castile, joined the Dominican order at an early age at Salamanca, where
+in 1546 he succeeded to the theological chair in that university. A man
+of deep learning and originality, proud and a victim to the _odium
+theologicum_, he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time
+could compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a
+Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university the
+schools were divided between the partisans of the two professors; but
+Cano pursued his rival with relentless virulence, and took part in the
+condemnation for heresy of his brother-friar. The new society of the
+Jesuits, as being the forerunners of Antichrist, also met with his
+violent opposition; and he was not grateful to them when, after
+attending the council of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence,
+in 1552, as bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal
+influence with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made
+provincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous
+_Consultatio theologica_, in which he advised the king to resist the
+temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, to defend
+his rights by bringing about a radical change in the administration of
+ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain less dependent on Rome. With
+this in his mind Paul IV. styled him "a son of perdition." The
+reputation of Cano, however, rests on a posthumous work, _De Locis
+theologicis_ (Salamanca, 1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its
+own line. In this, a genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to
+free dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and, by
+clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, to
+bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, method,
+co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific treatment of
+theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of September 1560.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOE (from Carib. _canáoa_, the West Indian name found in use by
+Columbus; the Fr. _canot_, boat, and Ger. _Kahn_, are derived from the
+Lat. _canna_, reed, vessel), a sort of general term for a boat sharp at
+both ends, originally designed for propulsion by one or more paddles
+(not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, the paddler facing the bow. As
+the historical native name for certain types of boat used by savages, it
+is applied in such cases to those which, like other boats, are open
+within from end to end, and the modern "Canadian canoe" preserves this
+sense; but a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ
+essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck, except for
+a "well" where the paddler sits. Modern developments are the cruising
+canoe, combining the use of paddle and sails, and the racing canoe,
+equipped with sails only.
+
+The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which skins (as in
+the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the North American
+lndians' birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched. The modern painted
+canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was a natural development of this
+idea. The Indian also used, and the African still uses, the "dug-out,"
+made from a tree hollowed by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe.
+Many of these are of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the
+New York Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte's Island is 63 ft.
+long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The "war
+canoe" of paddling races is its modern successor. In the islands of the
+Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by the natives, who
+make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening them by attaching
+another hull (see CATAMARAN).
+
+In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a "canoe" in
+England was the short covered-in craft, with a "well" for the paddler to
+sit in, which was popularly used for short river practice; and this type
+still survives. But the sport of canoeing in any real sense dates from
+1865, when John MacGregor (q.v.) designed the canoe "Rob Roy" for long
+journeys by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light
+enough (about 70 lb) to be carried over land. The general type of this
+canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from 12 ft. to
+15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in. to 16 in. The
+paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade, the canoeist sits low
+in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades first on one side and then
+the other. The rig is generally yawl.
+
+In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the prince of
+Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore. Its headquarters are at
+Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the leading organization. There is
+also the British Canoe Association, devoted to cruising. After the
+English canoes were seen in Paris at the Exhibition of 1867, others like
+them were built in France. Branches and clubs were formed also at the
+English universities, and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The
+New York Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal Canoe
+Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the Irish Channel
+from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were explored in inaccessible
+parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and the Abana and the Pharpar at
+Damascus, as well as the Lake Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the
+Lake of Galilee and Waters of Merom in Syria.
+
+W. Baden Powell modified the type of the "Rob Roy" in the "Nautilus,"
+intended only for sailing. From this time the two kinds of pleasure
+canoe--paddling and sailing--parted company, and developed each on its
+own lines; the sailing canoe soon (1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a
+smaller and smaller cockpit, and a larger and larger sail area, with the
+consequent necessary air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul
+Butler of Lowell, Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat,
+allowing the canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the
+racing machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the
+annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the St Lawrence
+river, or at the more frequent race days of its constituent divisions,
+associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic (32 clubs), Central (26
+clubs) and Western.
+
+The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also
+represented in single, tandem and crew ("war canoe") races, and this
+form of the sport remains more of the amateur type. The "Canadian," a
+clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or bass-wood canoe, or the
+painted canvas, bark or compressed paper canoe, all on the general lines
+of the Indian birch bark, are as common on American rivers as the punt
+is on the Thames, and are similarly used.
+
+  See MacGregor, _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_ (1866), _The
+  Rob Roy on the Baltic_, &c.; W. Baden Powell, _Canoe Travelling_
+  (1871); W.L. Alden, _Canoe and the Flying Proa_ (New York, 1878); J.D.
+  Hayward, _Camping out with the British Canoe Association_; C.B. Vaux,
+  _Canoe Handling_ (New York, 1888); Stephens, _Canoe and Boat Building_
+  (New York, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+CANON. The Greek word [Greek: kanon] means originally a straight rod or
+pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing upright or
+straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in Gal. vi. 16, and 2
+Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former passage a measure, in the
+latter what is measured, a district. The general applications of the
+word fall mainly into two groups, in one of which the underlying meaning
+is that of rule, in the other that of a list or catalogue, i.e. of books
+containing the rule. Of the first, such uses as that of a standard or
+rule of conduct or taste, or of a particular form of musical composition
+(see below) may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of
+the laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see CANON LAW). In the
+second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below),
+that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints by
+the Church (see CANONIZATION), and that of the authoritative body of
+Scriptures (see below) are examples.
+
+_Music._--A canon in part-music is the form taken by the earliest
+compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts having the same
+melody, but each beginning at a stated period after its precursor or
+antecedent. In many early polyphonic compositions, one or more voices
+were imitated note for note by the others, so that the other parts did
+not need to be written out at all, but were deduced from the leaders by
+a rule or canon. Sir Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way
+the term "canon" came to supersede the old name of the art-form, _Fuga
+ligata_. (See also under FUGUE, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS and Music.) When the
+first part completes its rhythmical sentence before the second enters,
+and then continues the melody as an accompaniment to the second, and so
+on for the third or fourth, this form of canon in England was styled a
+"round" or "catch"; the stricter canon being one in which the succession
+of parts did not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England
+catches and canons were undifferentiated. The "round" derived its name
+from the fact that the first part returned to the beginning while the
+others continued the melody; the "catch" meant that each later part
+caught up the tune. The problem of the canon, as an artistic
+composition, is to find one or more points in a melody at which one or
+more successive parts may start the same tune harmoniously. Catches were
+familiar in English folk music until after the Restoration; different
+trades having characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of
+Charles II they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental.
+Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now survives
+mainly in its historical interest.     (H. Ch.)
+
+_The Church Dignitary_.--A canon is a person who possesses a prebend, or
+revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or
+collegiate church. Though the institute of canons as it at present
+exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it has a long history
+behind it. The name is derived from the list (_matricula_) of the clergy
+belonging to a church, [Greek: kanon] being thus used in the council of
+Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea the adjective [Greek:
+kanonikos] is found in this sense (c. 15); and during the 6th century
+the word _canonicus_ occurs commonly in western Europe in relation to
+the clergy belonging to a cathedral or other church. Eusebius of
+Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to introduce the system whereby the
+cathedral clergy dwelt together, leading a semi-monastic life in common
+and according to rule; and St Augustine established a similar manner of
+life for the clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely
+over Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory's
+injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his clergy
+should live a common life together, similar to the monastic life in
+which he had been trained; that these "clerics" at Canterbury were not
+monks is shown by the fact that those of them in the lower clerical
+grades were free to marry and live at home, without forfeiting their
+position or emoluments as members of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede,
+_Hist. Eccl._ i. 27). This mode of life for the secular clergy, which
+became common in the west, seems never to have taken root in the east.
+It came to be called _vita canonica_, canonical life, and it was the
+object of various enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th
+centuries. The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it
+to rule was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (c. 750), who composed
+a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure an
+adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular clergy living
+in common. Chrodegang's Rule was adopted in many churches, both
+cathedral and collegiate (i.e. those served by a body of clergy). In 816
+the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see _Mon. Germ. Concil._ ii. 307) made
+further regulations for the canonical life, which became the law in the
+Frankish empire for cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of
+Chrodegang was taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some
+points mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a common
+dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon was allowed a
+dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh meat was permitted,
+and the clothing was of better quality than that of monks. Each canon
+retained the use of his private property and money, but the revenues of
+the cathedral or church were treated as a common fund for the
+maintenance of the whole establishment. The chief duty of the canons was
+the performance of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks,
+but secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic vows
+or resigning their private means--a form of life somewhat resembling
+that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham Oratory in our day. The
+bishop was expected to lead the common life along with his clergy.
+
+The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted in the
+9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this intermediate form
+of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a constant tendency to
+relax the bonds of the common life, and attempts in various directions
+to restore it. In England, by the middle of the 10th century, the
+prescriptions of the canonical life seem to have fallen into desuetude,
+and in nine cathedrals the canons were replaced by communities of
+Benedictines. In the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced
+into certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation
+of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The turning point
+came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the Lateran, exhorted the
+clergy of all cathedral and collegiate churches to live in community, to
+hold all property and money in common, and to "lead the life of the
+Apostles" (cf. Acts ii. 44, 45). The clergy of numerous churches
+throughout Western Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set
+themselves to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement
+grew the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons (q.v.).
+The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced the institute of
+secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral were divided into two
+parts, that of the bishop and that of the clergy; this latter was again
+divided among the clergy themselves, so that each member received his
+own separate income, and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical
+grade, were the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at
+leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In England the
+final establishment of this order of things was due to St Osmund (1090).
+The nature and functions of the institute of secular canons are
+described in the article CATHEDRAL.
+
+  See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, under "Canonicus"; Amort, _Vetus
+  Disciplina Canonicorum_ (1747), to be used with caution for the
+  earlier period; C. du Molinet, _Réflexions historiques et curieuses
+  sur les antiquités des chanoines tant séculiers que réguliers_ (1674);
+  Herzog, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Kapitel"; Wetzer und
+  Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonica vita" and
+  "Canonikat." The history of the canonical institute is succinctly
+  told, and the best literature named, by Max Heimbucher, _Orden und
+  Kongregationen_, 1896, i. § 55; also by Otto Zöckler, _Askese und
+  Mönchtum_, 1897, pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard
+  work is Chr. Wordsworth's _Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral_ (1892-1897);
+  see also an article thereon by Edm. Bishop in _Dublin Review_, July
+  1898.     (E. C. B.)
+
+In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate churches
+retain their traditional character and functions, though they are now,
+of course, permitted to marry. Their duties were defined by the Canons
+of 1603, and included that of residence at the cathedrals according to
+"their local customs and statutes," and preaching in the cathedral and
+in the churches of the diocese, "especially those whence they or their
+church receive any yearly rent or profit." A canonry not being legally a
+"cure of souls," a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his prebend,
+in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons of 1603 he was
+subject to discipline if he made his canonry an excuse for neglecting
+his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming cathedral chapters the number of
+canonries was greatly reduced, while some were made applicable to the
+endowment of archdeaconries and professorships. At the same time it was
+enacted that a canon must have been six years in priest's orders, except
+in the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or other
+office in any university. The obligatory period of residence, hitherto
+varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform period of
+three months. The right of presentation to canonries is now vested in
+some cases in the crown, in others in the lord chancellor, the
+archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese.
+
+Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or other
+emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the case of old
+cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving clergymen by the bishop
+as a mark of distinction. In new cathedrals, e.g. Manchester or
+Birmingham, where no endowment exists for a chapter, the bishop is
+empowered to appoint honorary canons, who carry out the ordinary
+functions of a cathedral body (see CATHEDRAL).
+
+Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed by the
+dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to sing the service, and they
+are selected therefore mainly for their voices and musical
+qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if it lies within 6 m. of the
+cathedral.
+
+In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical
+officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony, however, certain
+chapters, secularized at the Reformation, still exist. The canons
+(_Domherren_) are, however, laymen with no ecclesiastical character
+whatever, and their rich prebends are merely sources of endowment for
+the cadets of noble families.
+
+  See Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, 2 vols. (London, 1895).     (W. A. P.)
+
+_The Scriptures._--There are three opinions as to the origin of the
+application of the term "canon" to the writings used by the Christian
+Church. According to Semler, Baur and others, the word had originally
+the sense of list or catalogue--the books publicly read in Christian
+assemblies. Others, as Steiner, suppose that since the Alexandrian
+grammarians applied it to collections of old Greek authors as models of
+excellence or classics, it meant classical (canonical) writings.
+According to a third opinion, the term included from the first the idea
+of a regulating principle. This is the more probable, because the same
+idea lies in the New Testament use of the noun, and pervades its
+applications in the language of the early Fathers down to the time of
+Constantine, as Credner has shown.[1] The "[Greek: kanon] of the church"
+in the Clementine homilies,[2] the "ecclesiastical [Greek: kanon]"[3]
+and the "[Greek: kanon] of the truth" in Clement and Irenaeus,[4] the
+[Greek: kanon] of the faith in Polycrates,[5] the _regula fidei_ of
+Tertullian,[6] and the _libri regulares_ of Origen[7] imply a _normative
+principle_. Credner's view of [Greek: kanon] as an abbreviation of
+[Greek: grachai kanonos], equivalent to _Scripturae legis_ in
+Diocletian's Act,[8] is too artificial, and is unsanctioned by usage.
+
+The earliest example of its application to a catalogue of the Old or New
+Testament books occurs in the Latin translation of Origen's homily on
+Joshua, where the original seems to have been [Greek: kanon]. The word
+itself is certainly in Amphilochius,[9] as well as in Jerome[10] and
+Rufinus.[11] As the Latin translation of Origen has _canonicus_ and
+_canonizatus_, we infer that he used [Greek: kanonikos], opposed as it
+is to _apocryphus_ or _secretus_. The first occurrence of [Greek:
+kanonikos] is in the 59th canon of the council of Laodicea, where it is
+contrasted with [Greek: idiotikos] and [Greek: akanonistos]. [Greek:
+Kanonixomena], "_canonized_ books," is first used in Athanasius's festal
+epistle.[12] The kind of rule which the earliest Fathers thought the
+Scriptures to be can only be conjectured; it is certain that they
+believed the Old Testament books to be a divine and infallible guide.
+But the New Testament was not so considered till towards the close of
+the 2nd century, when the conception of a Catholic Church was realized.
+The collection of writings was not called _Scripture_, or put on a par
+with the Old Testament as sacred and inspired, till the time of
+Theophilus of Antioch (about 180 A.D.). Hence Irenaeus applies the
+epithets divine and perfect to the Scriptures; and Clement of Alexandria
+calls them inspired.
+
+When distinctions were made among the Biblical writings other words were
+employed, synonymous with [Greek: kanonixomena] or [Greek:
+kekanonismena], such as [Greek: endiathaeka], [Greek: orismena]. The
+canon was thus a catalogue of writings, forming a rule of truth, sacred,
+divine, revealed by God for the instruction of men. The rule was perfect
+for its purpose. (See BIBLE: section _Canon_.)
+
+The term "canonical," i.e. that which is approved or ordered by the
+"canon" or rule, is applied to ecclesiastical vestments, "canonicals,"
+and to those hours set apart by the Church for prayer and devotion, the
+"Canonical Hours" (see BREVIARY).     (S. D.)
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Zur Geschichte des Kanons_, pp. 3-68.
+
+  [2] _Clement Hom._, ap. Coteler. vol. i. p. 608.
+
+  [3] _Stromata_, vi. 15, p. 803, ed. Potter.
+
+  [4] _Adv. Haeres._ i. 95.
+
+  [5] Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24.
+
+  [6] _De praescript. Haereticorum_, chs. 12, 13.
+
+  [7] _Comment. in Mat._ iii. p. 916, ed. Delarue.
+
+  [8] _Monumenta vetera ad Donatistarum historiam pertinentia_, ed.
+    Dupin, p. 168.
+
+  [9] At the end of the _Iambi ad Seleucum_, on the books of the New
+    Testament, he adds, [Greek: outos acheudestatos kanon an ein ton
+    theopneuston grachon].
+
+  [10] _Prologus galeatus in ii. Reg._
+
+  [11] _Expos. in Symb. Apost._ 37, p. 374, ed. Migne.
+
+  [12] After the word is added [Greek: kai paradothenta, pioteuthenta
+    te theia einai]. _Opp._ vol. i. p. 961, ed. Benedict.
+
+
+
+
+CANONESS (Fr. _chanoinesse_, Ger. _Kanonissin_, Lat. _canonica_ or
+_canonica virgo_), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In the
+8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish empire,
+and in imitation of these certain women took common vows of obedience
+and chastity, though not of poverty. Like nuns they had common table and
+dormitory, and recited the breviary, but generally the rule was not so
+strict as in the case of nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and
+were also employed in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and
+transcribing liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular
+and secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not
+practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable feudal
+princesses. In Germany several foundations of this kind (e.g.
+Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were practically secular
+institutions before the Reformation, adopted the Protestant faith, and
+still exist, requiring of their members the simple conditions of
+celibacy and obedience to their superior during membership. These
+institutions (_Stifter_) are now practically almshouses for the
+unmarried daughters of noble families. In some cases the right of
+presentation belongs to the head of the family, sometimes admission is
+gained by purchase; but in modern times a certain number of prebends
+have been created for the daughters of deserving officials. The
+organization of the _Stift_ is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient
+titles of abbess, prioress or provostess (_Pröbstin_), and the
+canonesses (_Stiftsdamen_) meet periodically in _Konvent_ for the
+discussion of the affairs of the community. The ladies are not bound to
+residence. In many of these _Stifter_ quaint pre-Reformation customs and
+ceremonies still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at
+Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the
+_Konvent_ is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax head
+of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table round which
+the canonesses sit.
+
+
+
+
+CANONIZATION, in its widest sense, an act by which in the Christian
+Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased believer the
+honour of public _cultus_. In the early Church there was no formal
+canonization. The _cultus_ applied at first to local martyrs, and it was
+only in exceptional circumstances that a kind of judiciary inquiry and
+express decision became necessary to legitimate this _cultus_. The
+peculiar situation of the Church of Africa explains the _Vindicatio
+martyrum_, which was early practised there (_Optatus Milevit._, i. 16).
+In the _cultus_ rendered to confessors, the authorization of the Church
+had long been merely implicit. But when an express decision was given,
+it was the bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came
+to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the pope
+the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest
+acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of Ulric of
+Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in A.D. 993. From that
+time the pontifical intervention became more and more frequent, and, in
+practice, the right of the bishops in the matter of canonization
+continued to grow more restricted. In 1170 the new right was
+sufficiently established for Pope Alexander III. to affirm that the
+bishops could not institute the _cultus_ of a new saint without the
+authority of the Roman Church (Cap. _Audivimus_, Decret. _De Rell. et
+venerat. Sanctorum_, iii. 115). The 12th and, especially, the 13th
+centuries furnish many examples of canonizations pronounced by the
+popes, and the procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much
+more summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of those
+who had known the holy personages was collected on the spot. The inquiry
+was as rapid as the judgment, and both often took place a short time
+after the death of the saint, as in the cases of St Thomas of Canterbury
+(died 1170, canonized 1173), St Peter of Castelnau (died on the 15th of
+January 1208, canonized on the 12th of March of the same year), St
+Francis of Assisi (died on the 4th of October 1226, canonized on the
+19th of July 1228), and St Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June
+1231, canonized on the 3rd of June 1232).
+
+At this period there was no marked difference between canonization and
+beatification. In modern practice, as definitively settled by the
+decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the two acts are totally
+distinct. Canonization is the solemn and definitive act by which the
+pope decrees the plenitude of public honours. Beatification consists in
+permitting a _cultus_, the manifestations of which are restricted, and
+is merely a step towards canonization.
+
+The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either
+_exceptional_ or _common_. The approval of immemorial _cultus_ comes
+within the category of exceptional procedure. Urban VIII., while
+forbidding the rendering of a public _cultus_ without authorization from
+the Holy See, made an exception in favour of the blessed who were at
+that time (1625) in possession of an immemorial _cultus_, i.e. dating
+back at least a century (1525). The procedure _per viam casus excepti_
+consists in the legitimation of a _cultus_ which has been rendered to a
+saint for a very long time. The causes of the martyrs (_declarationis
+martyrii_) also are exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the
+_fact_ of the martyrdom and of its _cause_, i.e. it must be established
+that the servant of God was put to death through hatred of the faith.
+These are the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure.
+
+The _common_ procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted _per
+viam non cultus_. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded before the
+tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent commission
+of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of subordinate officers and
+presided over by a cardinal. The supreme judge in the matter is the pope
+himself. The _postulator_, who is the mandatory of a diocese or
+ecclesiastical commonalty, is the solicitor. He must furnish the proofs,
+which are collected according to very stringent rules. The _promoter of
+the faith_, popularly called the "devil's advocate" (_advocatus
+diaboli_), is the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the
+tribunal the weak points of the case.
+
+The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the historical
+explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system, and which
+considerably delay the progress of the causes. The first decisive step
+is the _introduction of the cause_. If, by the advice of the cardinals
+who have examined the documents, the pope pronounce his approval, the
+servant of God receives the title of "Venerable," but is not entitled to
+any manifestation of _cultus_. Only in the event of the claimant passing
+this test successfully can the essential part of the procedure be begun,
+which will result in conferring on the Venerable the title of "Blessed."
+This part consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a
+reputation for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the
+virtues, (3) to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on
+all three of these tests is called the decree _de tuto_, by which the
+pope decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification of
+the servant of God (_Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V.S.D.N.
+beatificationem_). In the ceremony of beatification the essential part
+consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the Venerable
+in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a solemn mass,
+celebrated with special rites in the great hall above the vestibule of
+the basilica of St Peter.
+
+The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification, is
+usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of the
+miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession of the
+Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great number of
+formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the sentence, and indicates
+eventually the day on which he will proceed to the ceremony of
+canonization, which takes place with great solemnity in the basilica of
+St Peter.
+
+The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for the conduct
+of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for exercising rigour
+and discretion, considerably retards the progress of the causes, and
+necessitates a numerous staff. This circumstance, together with the
+custom of ornamenting the basilica of St Peter very richly on the day of
+the ceremony, accounts for the considerable cost which a canonization
+entails. To prevent abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up
+during the pontificate of Leo XIII.
+
+The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constantinople, and
+the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod, also canonize their
+saints after a preliminary examination of their titles to public
+_cultus_. Their procedure is less rigorous than that of the Roman
+Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly studied.
+
+  See J. Fontanini, _Codex Constitutionum quas summi pontifices
+  ediderunt in solemni canonizatione sanctorum_ (Rome, 1729, a
+  collection of original documents); Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict
+  XIV.), _De servorum Dei beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione_
+  (Bologna, 1734-1738), several times reprinted, and more remarkable for
+  erudition and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism;
+  Al. Lauri, _Codex pro postulatoribus causarum beatificationis et
+  canonizationis, recognovit Joseph Fornari_ (Romae, 1899); F.W. Faber,
+  _Essay on Beatification, Canonization, &c._ (London, 1848); A.
+  Boudinhon, _Les Procès de béatification et de canonisation_ (Paris,
+  1905); E. Golubinskij, _Istorija Kanonizaçii sviatich v russko j
+  çerkvi_ (Moscow, 1903).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+CANON LAW. Canon law, _jus canonicum_, is the sum of the laws which
+regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is also called
+ecclesiastical law, _jus ecclesiasticum_. It is also referred to under
+the name of _canones, sacri canones_, a title of great antiquity, for
+the [Greek: kanones], _regulae_, were very early distinguished from the
+secular laws, the [Greek: nomoi], _leges_.
+
+
+  Word "canon." Different meanings.
+
+The word [Greek: kanon], canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical
+literature in several different senses (see CANON above). The
+disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for example (can. 1, 2,
+&c.), employ it in the sense of an established rule, ecclesiastical in
+its origin and in its object. But the expression is most frequently used
+to designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished
+from dogmatic definitions. With regard to form, the decisions of
+councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the definitions of
+the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which generally begin with the
+words "_Si quis dixerit_," and end with the anathema, are canons; while
+the long chapters, even when dealing with matters of discipline, retain
+the name of chapters or decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to
+give the name of canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical
+compilations such as the _Decretum_ of Gratian, while the name of
+chapters is given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the
+Decretals. It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the
+expression _jus canonicum_, it implies the systematic codification of
+ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the labours
+which resulted in the _Corpus juris canonici_.
+
+
+  Divisions.
+
+Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the former is
+concerned with the constitution of the Church, and, consequently, with
+the relations between her and other bodies, religious and civil; the
+latter has as its object the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical
+body and its members. This division, which has been found convenient for
+the study of canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts.
+With regard to the texts now in force, the name of _jus antiquum_,
+ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the _Corpus juris
+canonici_; the legislation of this _Corpus_ has been called _jus novum_,
+new law; and finally, the name of recent law, _jus novissimum_, has been
+given to the law established by the council of Trent and subsequent
+papal constitutions. There is a further distinction between the written
+law, _jus scriptum_, laws made by the councils or popes, which are to be
+found in the collections, and the unwritten law, _jus non scriptum_, a
+body of practical rules arising rather from natural equity and from
+custom than from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law.
+In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the unwritten
+customary law has undergone a gradual diminution in importance, as a
+consequence of centralization and the accumulation of written laws;
+nowadays it need not be reckoned with, save in cases where local customs
+are involved. The common law is that which is intended to regulate the
+whole body; special or local law is that which is concerned with certain
+districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation from or
+addition to the common law.
+
+
+  Sources.
+
+By the _sources_ or authors of the canon law are meant the authorities
+from which it is derived; they must obviously be of such a nature as to
+be binding upon the whole religious body, or at least upon a specified
+portion of it. In the highest rank must be placed Christ and the
+Apostles, whose dispositions for the constitution and government of the
+Church are contained in the New Testament, completed by tradition; for
+the Church did not accept the disciplinary and ritual provisions of the
+Old Testament as binding upon her (see Acts xi., xv.). To the apostles
+succeeded the episcopal body, with its chief the bishop of Rome, the
+successor of St. Peter, whose legislative and disciplinary power, by a
+process of centralization, underwent a slow but uninterrupted
+development. It is then to the episcopate, assembled in ecumenical
+council, and to its chief, that the function of legislating for the
+whole Church belongs; the inferior authorities, local councils or
+isolated bishops and prelates, can only make special laws or statutes,
+valid only for that part of the Church under their jurisdiction. Most of
+the canons, however, which constitute the ancient law, and notably those
+which appear in the _Decretum_ of Gratian, emanate from local councils,
+or even from individual bishops; they have found a place in the common
+law because the collections of canons, of which they formed the most,
+notable part, have been everywhere adopted.
+
+Having made these general observations, we must now consider the history
+of those texts and collections of canons which to-day form the
+ecclesiastical law of the Western Church: (1) up to the _Decretum_ of
+Gratian, (2) up to the council of Trent, (3 and 4) up to the present
+day, including the codification ordered by Pius X.
+
+1. _From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian._--At no time, and
+least of all during the earliest centuries, was there any attempt to
+draw up a uniform system of legislation for the whole of the Christian
+Church. The various communities ruled themselves principally according
+to their customs and traditions, which, however, possessed a certain
+uniformity resulting from their close connexion with natural and divine
+law. Strangely enough, those documents which bear the greatest
+resemblance to a small collection of canonical regulations, such as the
+Didache, the Didascalia and the Canons of Hippolytus, have not been
+retained, and find no place in the collections of canons, doubtless for
+the reason that they were not official documents. Even the Apostolical
+Constitutions (q.v.), an expansion of the Didache and the Didascalia,
+after exercising a certain amount of influence, were rejected by the
+council in Trullo (692). Thus the only pseudo-epigraphic document
+preserved in the law of the Greek Church is the small collection of the
+eighty-five so-called "Apostolic Canons" (q.v.). The compilers, in their
+several collections, gathered only occasional decisions, the outcome of
+no pre-determined plan, given by councils or by certain great bishops.
+
+
+  Greek collection.
+
+These compilations began in the East. It appears that in several
+different districts canons made by the local assemblies[1] were added to
+those of the council of Nicaea which were everywhere accepted and
+observed. The first example seems to be that of the province of Pontus,
+where after the twenty canons of Nicaea were placed the twenty-five
+canons of the council of Ancyra (314), and the fifteen of that of
+Neocaesarea (315-320). These texts were adopted at Antioch, where there
+were further added the twenty-five canons of the so-called council _in
+encaeniis_ of that city (341). Soon afterwards, Paphlagonia contributed
+twenty canons passed at the council of Gangra (held, according to the
+_Synodicon orientale_, in 343),[2] and Phrygia fifty-nine canons of the
+assembly of Laodicea (345-381?), or rather of the compilation known as
+the work of this council.[3] The collection was so well and so widely
+known that all these canons were numbered in sequence, and thus at the
+council of Chalcedon (451) several of the canons of Antioch were read
+out under the number assigned to them in the collection of the whole. It
+was further increased by the twenty-eight (thirty) canons of Chalcedon;
+about the same time were added the four canons of the council of
+Constantinople of 381, under the name of which also appeared three (or
+seven) other canons of a later date. Towards the same date, also, the
+so-called "Apostolic Canons" were placed at the head of the group. Such
+was the condition of the Greek collection when it was translated and
+introduced into the West.
+
+
+  Its final form.
+
+In the course of the 6th century the collection was completed by the
+addition of documents already in existence, but which had hitherto
+remained isolated, notably the canonical letters of several great
+bishops, Dionysius of Alexandria, St Basil and others. It was at this
+time that the Latin collection of Dionysius Exiguus became known; and
+just as he had given the Greek councils a place in his collection, so
+from him were borrowed the canons of councils which did not appear in
+the Greek collection--the twenty canons of Sardica (343), in the Greek
+text, which differs considerably from the Latin; and the council of
+Carthage of 410, which itself included, more or less completely, in 105
+canons, the decisions of the African councils. Soon after came the
+council _in Trullo_ (692), also called the _Quinisextum_, because it was
+considered as complementary to the two councils (5th and 6th ecumenical)
+of Constantinople (553 and 680), which had not made any disciplinary
+canons. This assembly elaborated 102 canons, which did not become part
+of the Western law till much later, on the initiative of Pope John VIII.
+(872-881). Now, in the second of its canons, the council in Trullo
+recognized and sanctioned the Greek collection above mentioned; it
+enumerates all its articles, insists on the recognition of these canons,
+and at the same time prohibits the addition of others. As thus defined,
+the collection contains the following documents: firstly, the
+eighty-five Apostolic Canons, the Constitutions having been put aside as
+having suffered heretical alterations; secondly, the canons of the
+councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Laodicea,
+Constantinople (381), Ephesus (the disciplinary canons of this council
+deal with the reception of the Nestorians, and were not communicated to
+the West), Chalcedon, Sardica, Carthage (that of 419, according to
+Dionysius), Constantinople (394); thirdly, the series of canonical
+letters of the following great bishops--Dionysius of Alexandria, Peter
+of Alexandria (the Martyr), Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil,
+Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Amphilochus of Iconium,
+Timotheus of Alexandria, Theophilus of Alexandria, Cyril of Alexandria,
+Gennadius of Constantinople; the canon of Cyprian of Carthage (the
+Martyr) is also mentioned, but with the note that it is only valid for
+Africa. With the addition of the twenty-two canons of the ecumenical
+council of Nicaea (787), this will give us the whole contents of the
+official collection of the Greek Church; since then it has remained
+unchanged. The law of the Greek Church was in reality rather the work of
+the Byzantine emperors.[4]
+
+
+  Nomocanon.
+
+The collection has had several commentators; we need only mention the
+commentaries of Photius (883), Zonaras (1120) and Balsamon (1170). A
+collection in which the texts are simply reproduced in their
+chronological order is obviously inconvenient; towards 550, Johannes
+Scholasticus, patriarch of Constantinople, drew up a methodical
+classification of them under fifty heads. Finally should be mentioned
+yet another kind of compilation still in use in the Greek Church,
+bearing the name of _nomocanon_, because in them are inserted, side by
+side with the ecclesiastical canons, the imperial laws on each subject:
+the chief of them are the one bearing the name of Johannes Scholasticus,
+which belongs, however, to a later date, and that of Photius (883).
+
+
+  In the West.
+
+The canon law of the other Eastern Churches had no marked influence on
+the collections of the Western Church, so we need not speak of it here.
+While, from the 5th century onwards a certain unification in the
+ecclesiastical law began to take place within the sphere of the see of
+Constantinople, it was not till later that a similar result was arrived
+at in the West. For several centuries there is no mention of any but
+local collections of canons, and even these are not found till the 5th
+century; we have to come down to the 8th or even the 9th century before
+we find any trace of unification. This process was uniformly the result
+of the passing on of the various collections from one region to another.
+
+
+  Africa.
+
+The most remarkable, and the most homogeneous, as well as without doubt
+the most ancient of these local collections is that of the Church of
+Africa. It was formed, so to speak, automatically, owing to the plenary
+assemblies of the African episcopate held practically every year, at
+which it was customary first of all to read out the canons of the
+previous councils. This gave to the collection an official character. At
+the time of the Vandal invasion this collection comprised the canons of
+the council of Carthage under Gratus (about 348) and under Genethlius
+(390), the whole series of the twenty or twenty-two plenary councils
+held during the episcopate of Aurelius, and finally, those of the
+councils held at Byzacene. Of the last-named we have only fragments, and
+the series of the councils under Aurelius is very incomplete. The
+African collection has not come to us directly: we have two incomplete
+and confused arrangements of it, in two collections, that of the
+_Hispana_ and that of Dionysius Exiguus. Dionysius knows only the
+council of 419, in connexion with the affair of Apiarius; but in this
+single text are reproduced, more or less fully, almost all the synods of
+the collection; this was the celebrated _Concilium Africanum_, so often
+quoted in the middle ages, which was also recognized by the Greeks. The
+Spanish collection divides the African canons among seven councils of
+Carthage and one of Mileve; but in many cases it ascribes them to the
+wrong source; for example, it gives under the title of the fourth
+council of Carthage, the _Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua_, an Arlesian
+compilation of Saint Caesarius, which has led to a number of incorrect
+references. Towards the middle of the 6th century a Carthaginian deacon,
+Fulgentius Ferrandus, drew up a _Breviatio canonum_,[5] a methodical
+arrangement of the African collection, in the order of the subjects.
+From it we learn that the canons of Nicaea and the other Greek councils,
+up to that of Chalcedon, were also known in Africa.
+
+
+  Rome.
+
+  Dionysius Exiguus and his collection.
+
+  Dionysio-Hadriana.
+
+The Roman Church, even more than the rest, governed itself according to
+its own customs and traditions. Up to the end of the 5th century the
+only canonical document of non-Roman origin which it officially
+recognized was the group of canons of Nicaea, under which name were also
+included those of Sardica. A Latin version of the other Greek councils
+(the one referred to by Dionysius as _prisca_) was known, but no
+canonical use was made of it. The local law was founded on usage and on
+the papal letters called decretals. The latter were of two kinds: some
+were addressed to the bishops of the ecclesiastical province immediately
+subject to the pope; the others were issued in answer to questions
+submitted from various quarters; but in both cases the doctrine is the
+same. At the beginning of the 6th century the Roman Church adopted the
+double collection, though of private origin, which was drawn up at that
+time by the monk Dionysius, known by the name of Dionysius Exiguus,
+which he himself had assumed as a sign of humility. He was a Scythian by
+birth, and did not come to Rome till after 496, his learning was
+considerable for his times, and to him we owe the employment of the
+Christian era and a new way of reckoning Easter. At the desire of
+Stephen, bishop of Salona, he undertook the task of making a new
+translation, from the original Greek text, of the canons of the Greek
+collection. The manuscript which he used contained only the first fifty
+of the Apostolic Canons; these he translated, and they thus became part
+of the law of the West. This part of the work of Dionysius was not added
+to later; it was otherwise with the second part. This embodied the
+documents containing the local law, namely 39 decretals of the popes
+from Siricius (384-398) to Anastasius II. (496-498). As was natural this
+collection received successive additions as further decretals appeared.
+The collection formed by combining these two parts remained the only
+official code of the Roman Church until the labours undertaken in
+consequence of the reforming movement in the 11th century. In 774 Pope
+Adrian I. gave the twofold collection of the Scythian monk to the future
+emperor Charlemagne as the canonical book of the Roman Church; this is
+what is called the _Dionysio-Hadriana_. This was an important stage in
+the history of the centralization of canon law; the collection was
+officially received by the Frankish Church, imposed by the council of
+Aix-la-Chapelle of 802, and from that time on was recognized and quoted
+as the _liber canonum_. If we consider that the Church of Africa, which
+had already suffered considerably from the Vandal invasion, was at this
+period almost entirely destroyed by the Arabs, while the fate of Spain
+was but little better, it is easy to see why the collection of Dionysius
+became the code of almost the whole of the Western Church, with the
+exception of the Anglo-Saxon countries; though here too it was known.
+
+The other collections of canons, of Italian origin, compiled before the
+10th century, are of importance on account of the documents which they
+have preserved for us, but as they have not exercised any great
+influence on the development of canon law, we may pass them over.
+
+
+  In Gaul.
+
+  Quesnel collection.
+
+The Dionysio-Hadriana did not, when introduced into Gaul, take the place
+of any other generally received collection of canons. In this country
+the Church had not been centralized round a principal see which would
+have produced unity in canon law as in other things; even the political
+territorial divisions had been very unstable. The only canonical centre
+of much activity was the Church of Arles, which exercised considerable
+influence over the surrounding region in the 5th and 6th centuries. The
+chief collection known throughout Gaul before the Dionysio-Hadriana was
+the so-called collection of Quesnel, named after its first editor.[6] It
+is a rich collection, though badly arranged, and contains 98
+documents--Eastern and African canons and papal letters, but no Gallic
+councils; so that it is not a collection of local law. We might expect
+to find such a collection, in view of the numerous and important
+councils held in Gaul, but their decisions remained scattered among a
+great number of collections none of which had ever a wide circulation or
+an official character.
+
+
+  Councils.
+
+It would be impossible to enumerate here all the Gallic councils which
+contributed towards the canon law of that country; we will mention only
+the following:--Arles (314), of great importance; a number of councils
+in the district of Arles, completed by the _Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua_
+of St Caesarius;[7] the councils of the province of Tours; the
+assemblies of the episcopate of the three kingdoms of the Visigoths at
+Agde (506), of the Franks at Orleans (511), and of the Burgundians at
+Epaone (517); several councils of the kingdoms of the Franks, chiefly at
+Orleans; and finally, the synods of the middle of the 8th century, under
+the influence of St Boniface. Evidently the impulse towards unity had to
+come from without; it began with the alliance between the Carolingians
+and the Papacy, and was accentuated by the recognition of the _liber
+canonum_.
+
+
+  In Spain.
+
+  The Hispana.
+
+In Spain the case, on the contrary, is that of a strong centralization
+round the see of Toledo. Thus we find Spanish canon law embodied in a
+collection which, though perhaps not official, was circulated and
+received everywhere; this was the Spanish collection, the _Hispana_.[8]
+The collection is well put together and includes almost all the
+important canonical documents. In the first part are contained the
+councils, arranged according to the regions in which they were held:
+Greek councils, following a translation of Italian origin, but known by
+the name of _Hispana_; African councils, Gallican councils and Spanish
+councils. The latter, which form the local section, are further divided
+into several classes: firstly, the synods held under the Roman empire,
+the chief being that of Elvira[9] (c. 300); next the texts belonging to
+the kingdom of the Suevi, after the conversion of these barbarians by St
+Martin of Braga: these are, the two councils of Braga (563 and 572), and
+a sort of free translation or adaptation of the canons of the Greek
+councils, made by Martin of Braga; this is the document frequently
+quoted in later days under the name of _Capitula Martini papae_;
+thirdly, the decisions of the councils of the Visigothic Church, after
+its conversion to Catholicism. Nearly all these councils were held at
+Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589. The series continued up
+to 694 and was only interrupted by the Mussulman invasion. Finally, the
+second part of the _Hispana_ contains the papal decretals, as in the
+collection of Dionysius.
+
+From the middle of the 9th century this collection was to become even
+more celebrated; for, as we know, it served as the basis for the famous
+collection of the False Decretals.
+
+
+  Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+The Churches of Great Britain and Ireland remained still longer outside
+the centralizing movement. Their contribution towards the later system
+of canon law consisted in two things: the Penitentials and the influence
+of the Irish collection, the other sources of local law not having been
+known to the predecessors of Gratian nor to Gratian himself.
+
+
+  Penitentials.
+
+The Penitentials[10] are collections intended for the guidance of
+confessors in estimating the penances to be imposed for various sins,
+according to the discipline in force in the Anglo-Saxon countries. They
+are all of Anglo-Saxon or Irish origin, and although certain of them
+were compiled on the continent, under the influence of the island
+missionaries, it seems quite certain that a Roman Penitential has never
+existed.[11] They are, however, of difficult and uncertain ascription,
+since the collections have been largely amended and remodelled as
+practice required. Among the most important we may mention those bearing
+the names of Vinnianus (d. 589), Gildas (d. 583), Theodore of Canterbury
+(d. 690), the Venerable Bede (d. 735) and Egbert of York (732-767); the
+Penitentials which are ascribed to St Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil
+and Bobbio (d. 615), and Cumean (Cumine Ailbha, abbot of Iona); in the
+Prankish kingdom the most interesting work is the Penitential of
+Halitgar, bishop of Cambrai[12] from 817 to 831. As penances had for a
+long time been lightened, and the books used by confessors began to
+consist more and more of instructions in the style of the later moral
+theology (and this is already the case of the books of Halitgar and
+Rhabanus Maurus), the canonical collections began to include a greater
+or smaller number of the penitential canons.
+
+
+  Irish collection.
+
+The Irish collection,[13] though it introduced no important documents
+into the law of the Western Church, at least set canonists the example
+of quoting passages from the Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers.
+This collection seems to date from the 8th century; besides the usual
+sources, the author has included several documents of local origin,
+beginning with the pretended synod of St Patrick.
+
+
+  The false decretals.
+
+  Systematic collections.
+
+In the very middle of the 9th century a much enlarged edition of the
+_Hispana_ began to be circulated in France. To this rich collection the
+author, who assumes the name of Isidore, the saintly bishop of Seville,
+added a good number of apocryphal documents already existing, as well as
+a series of letters ascribed to the popes of the earliest centuries,
+from Clement to Silvester and Damasus inclusive, thus filling up the gap
+before the decretal of Siricius, which is the first genuine one in the
+collection. The other papal letters only rarely show signs of alteration
+or falsification, and the text of the councils is entirely
+respected.[14] From the same source and at the same date came two other
+forged documents--firstly, a collection of Capitularies, in three books,
+ascribed to a certain Benedict (Benedictus Levita),[15] a deacon of the
+church of Mainz; this collection, in which authentic documents find very
+little place, stands with regard to civil legislation exactly in the
+position of the False Decretals with regard to canon law. The other
+document, of more limited scope, is a group of _Capitula_ given under
+the name of Angilram, bishop of Metz. It is nowadays admitted by all
+that these three collections come from the same source. For a study of
+the historical questions connected with the famous False Decretals, see
+the article DECRETALS (FALSE); here we have only to consider them with
+reference to the place they occupy in the formation of ecclesiastical
+law. In spite of some hesitation, with regard rather to the official
+character than to the historical authenticity of the letters attributed
+to the popes of the earlier centuries, the False Decretals were accepted
+with confidence, together with the authentic texts which served as a
+passport for them. All later collections availed themselves
+indiscriminately of the contents of this vast collection, whether
+authentic or forged, without the least suspicion. The False Decretals
+did not greatly modify nor corrupt the Canon Law, but they contributed
+much to accelerate its progress towards unity. For they were the last of
+the chronological collections, i.e. those which give the texts in the
+order in which they appeared. From this time on, canonists began to
+exercise their individual judgment in arranging their collections
+according to some systematic order, grouping their materials under
+divisions more or less happy, according to the object they had in view.
+This was the beginning of a codification of a common canon law, in which
+the sources drawn upon lose, as it were, their local character. This is
+made even more noticeable by the fact that, in a good number of the
+works extant, the author is not content merely to set forth and classify
+the texts; but he proceeds to discuss the point, drawing conclusions and
+sometimes outlining some controversy on the subject, just as Gratian was
+to do more fully later on.
+
+
+  Regino.
+
+  Burchard.
+
+  Anselm Deusdedit.
+
+  Ivo of Chartres.
+
+During this period, which extended from the end of the 9th century to
+the middle of the 12th, we can enumerate about forty systematic
+collections, of varying value and circulation, which all played a
+greater or lesser part in preparing the juridical renaissance of the
+12th century, and most of which were utilized by Gratian. We need
+mention only the chief of them--the _Collectio Anselmo dedicata_, by an
+unknown author of the end of the 9th century; the _Libri duo de
+synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis_,[16] compiled about
+906 by Regino, abbot of Prüm, and dedicated to Hatto of Mainz,
+relatively a very original treatise; the enormous compilation in twenty
+books of Burchard, bishop of Worms (1112-1122), the _Decretum_ or
+_Collectarium_,[17] very widely spread and known under the name of
+_Brocardum_, of which the 19th book, dealing with the process of
+confession, is specially noteworthy. Towards the end of the 11th
+century, under the influence of Hildebrand, the reforming movement
+makes itself felt in several collections of canons, intended to support
+the rights of the Holy See and the Church against the pretensions of the
+emperor. To this group belong an anonymous collection, described by M.P.
+Fournier as the first manual of the Reform;[18] the collection of
+Anselm, bishop of Lucca,[19] in 13 books (1080-1086); that of Cardinal
+Deusdedit,[20] in 4 books, dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-1087);
+and lastly that of Bonizo,[21] bishop of Sutri, in 10 books (1089). In
+the 12th century, the canonical works of Ivo of Chartres[22] are of
+great importance. His _Panormia_, compiled about 1095 or 1096, is a
+handy and well-arranged collection in 8 books; as to the _Decretum_, a
+weighty compilation in 17 books, there seems sufficient proof that it is
+a collection of material made by Ivo in view of his _Panormia_. To the
+12th century belong the collection in the MS. of Saragossa
+(_Caesaraugustana_) to which attention was drawn by Antonio Agustin;
+that of Cardinal Gregory, called by him the _Polycarpus_, in 8 books
+(about 1115); and finally the _Liber de misericordia et justitia_ of
+Algerus,[23] scholasticus of Liége, in 3 books, compiled at latest in
+1123.
+
+But all these works were to be superseded by the _Decretum_ of Gratian.
+
+
+  The Decretum of Gratian.
+
+2. _The Decretum of Gratian and the Corpus Juris Canonici._--The work of
+Gratian, though prepared and made possible by those of his predecessors,
+greatly surpasses them in scientific value and in magnitude. It is
+certainly the work which had the greatest influence on the formation of
+canon law; it soon became the sole manual, both for teaching and for
+practice, and even after the publication of the Decretals was the chief
+authority in the universities. The work is not without its faults;
+Gratian is lacking in historical and critical faculty; his theories are
+often hesitating; but on the whole, his treatise is as complete and as
+perfect as it could be; so much so that no other work of the same kind
+has been compiled; just as there has never been made another Book of the
+Sentences. These two works, which were almost contemporary (Gratian is
+only about two years earlier),[24] were destined to have the same fate;
+they were the manuals, one for theology, the other for canon law, in use
+in all the universities, taught, glossed and commented on by the most
+illustrious masters. From this period dates the more marked and
+definitive separation between theology and ecclesiastical law.
+
+
+  Dicta Gratiani.
+
+  Contents.
+
+  Mode of citation.
+
+Of Gratian we know practically nothing. He was a Camaldulensian monk of
+the convent of St Felix at Bologna, where he taught canon law, and
+published, probably in 1148, his treatise called at first _Concordantia
+discordantium canonum_, but soon known under the name of the _Decretum_.
+Nowadays, and for some time past, the only part of the _Decretum_
+considered is the collection of texts; but it is actually a treatise, in
+which the author endeavours to piece together a coherent juridical
+system from the vast body of texts, of widely differing periods and
+origin, which are furnished by the collections. These texts he inserts
+bodily in the course of his dissertation; where they do not agree, he
+divides them into opposite groups and endeavours to reconcile them; but
+the really original part of his work are the _Dicta Gratiani_, inserted
+between the texts, which are still read. Gratian drew his materials from
+the existing collections, and especially from the richer of them; when
+necessary, he has recourse to the Roman laws, and he made an extensive
+use of the works of the Fathers and the ecclesiastical writers; he
+further made use of the canons of the recent councils, and the recently
+published decretals, up to and including the Lateran council of 1139.
+His immense work consists of three parts (_partes_). The first, treating
+of the sources of canon law and of ecclesiastical persons and offices,
+is divided according to the method of Paucapalea, Gratian's pupil, into
+101 _distinctiones_, which are subdivided into _canones_. The second
+part consists of 36 _causae_ (cases proposed for solution), subdivided
+into _quaestiones_ (the several questions raised by the case), under
+each of which are arranged the various _canones_ (canons, decretals,
+&c.) bearing on the question. But _causa_ xxxiii. _quaestio_ 3, headed
+_Tractatus de Poenitentia_, is divided like the main part into seven
+_distinctiones_, containing each several _canones_. The third part,
+which is entitled _De Consecratione_, gives, in five _distinctiones_,
+the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The following is
+the method of citation. A reference to the first part indicates the
+initial words or number of the _canon_ and the number of the
+_distinctio_, e.g. can. Propter ecclesiasticas, dist. xviii. or c. 15,
+d. xviii. The second part is cited by the _canon, causa_ and _quaestio_,
+e.g. can. Si quis suadente, C. 17, qu. 4, or c. 29, C. xvii., qu. 4. The
+treatise _De Poenitentia_, forming the 3rd _quaestio_ of the 33rd
+_causa_ of the second part, is referred to as if it were a separate
+work, e.g. c. Principium, D. ii. de poenit. or c. 45, D. ii. de poenit.
+In quoting a passage from the third part the _canon_ and _distinctio_
+are given, e.g. c. Missar. solenn. D.I. de consecrat., or c. 12, D.I.
+de consecr.
+
+
+  Authority.
+
+Considered from the point of view of official authority, the _Decretum_
+occupies an intermediate position very difficult to define. It is not
+and cannot be a really official code, in which every text has the force
+of a law. It has never been recognized as such, and the pretended
+endorsement of it by Pope Eugenius III. is entirely apocryphal.
+Moreover, it could not have become an official code; it would be
+impossible to transform into so many laws either the discordant texts
+which Gratian endeavoured to reconcile or his own _Dicta_; a treatise on
+canon Law is not a code. Further, there was as yet no idea of demanding
+an official compilation. The _Decretum_ has thus remained a work of
+private authority, and the texts embodied in it have only that legal
+value which they possess in themselves. On the other hand, the
+_Decretum_ actually enjoys a certain public authority which is unique;
+for centuries it has been the text on which has been founded the
+instruction in canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed
+and commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it has become,
+without being a body of laws, the first part of the _Corpus juris
+canonici_, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited by the
+popes. It has thus, by usage, obtained an authority perfectly recognized
+and accepted by the Church.[25]
+
+
+  After Gratian.
+
+Gratian's collection, for the very reason that it had for its aim the
+creation of a systematic canon law, was a work of a transitional
+character. Henceforth a significant differentiation began to appear; the
+collections of texts, the number of which continued to increase, were
+clearly separated from the commentaries in which the canonists continued
+the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the way was prepared
+for official collections. The disciples of Gratian, in glossing or
+commenting on the _Decretum_, turned to the papal decretals, as they
+appeared, for information and the determination of doubtful points.
+Their idea, then, was to make collections of these points, to support
+their teaching; this is the origin of those _Compilationes_ which were
+soon to be embodied in the collection of Gregory IX. But we must not
+forget that these compilations were intended by their authors to
+complete the _Decretum_ of Gratian; in them were included the decretals
+called _extravagantes_, i.e. _quae vagabantur extra Decretum_. This is
+why we find in them hardly any documents earlier than the time of
+Gratian, and also why canonists have continued to refer to the
+decretals of Gregory IX. by the abbreviation X (_Extra_, i.e. _extra
+Decretum_).
+
+
+  "Quinque compilationes."
+
+  Bernard of Pavia, "Breviarium."
+
+  "Compilatio tertia."
+
+  "Secunda."
+
+  "Quarta."
+
+  "Quinta."
+
+There were numerous collections of this kind towards the end of the 12th
+and at the beginning of the 13th century. Passing over the first
+_Additiones_ to the _Decretum_ and the _Appendix concilii Lateranensis_
+(council of 1179), we will speak only of the _Quinque compilationes_,[26]
+which served as a basis for the works of Raymond of Pennaforte. The first
+and most important is the work of Bernard, provost and afterwards bishop
+of Pavia, namely, the _Breviarium extravagantium_, compiled about 1190;
+it included the decretals from Alexander III. to Clement III., together
+with certain "useful chapters" omitted by Gratian. The important feature
+of the book is the arrangement of the decretals or sections of decretals
+in five books, divided into titles (_tituli_) logically arranged. The
+five books treat of (1) ecclesiastical persons and dignitaries or judges;
+(2) procedure; (3) rights, duties and property of the clergy, i.e.
+benefices, dues, sacraments, &c., with the exception of marriage, which
+is the subject of book (4); (5) of penalties. There is a well-known
+hexameter summing up this division:
+
+  _Judex, judicium, clerus, connubia, crimen._
+
+This is the division adopted in all the official collections of the
+_Corpus juris_. By a bull of the 28th of December 1210 Innocent III.
+sent to the university of Bologna an authentic collection of the
+decretals issued during the first twelve years of his pontificate; this
+collection he had caused to be drawn up by his notary, Petrus
+Collivacinus of Benevento, his object being to supersede the collections
+in circulation, which were incomplete and to a certain extent spurious.
+This was the _Compilatio tertia_; for soon after, Joannes Galensis (John
+of Wales) collected the decretals published between the collection of
+Bernard of Pavia and the pontificate of Innocent III.; and this, though
+of later date, became known as the _Compilatio secunda_. The _quarta_,
+the author of which is unknown, contained the decretals of the last six
+years of Innocent III., and the important decrees of the Lateran council
+of 1215. Finally, in 1226, Honorius III. made an official presentation
+to Bologna of his own decretals, this forming the _Compilatio quinta_.
+
+
+  Decretals of Gregory IX.
+
+The result of all these supplements to Gratian's work, apart from the
+inconvenience caused by their being so scattered, was the accumulation
+of a mass of material almost as considerable as the _Decretum_ itself,
+from which they tended to split off and form an independent whole,
+embodying as they did the latest state of the law. From 1230 Gregory IX.
+wished to remedy this condition of affairs, and gave to his
+penitentionary, the Dominican Raymond of Pennaforte, the task of
+condensing the five compilations in use into a single collection, freed
+from useless and redundant documents. The work was finished in 1234, and
+was at once sent by the pope to Bologna with the bull _Rex pacificus_,
+declaring it to be official. Raymond adopts Bernard of Pavia's division
+into five books and into titles; in each title he arranges the decretals
+in chronological order, cutting out those which merely repeat one
+another and the less germane parts of those which he preserves; but
+these _partes decisae_, indicated by the words "_et infra_" or "_et j,_"
+are none the less very useful and have been printed in recent editions.
+Raymond does not attempt any original work; to the texts already
+included in the _Quinque compilationes_, he adds only nine decretals of
+Innocent III. and 196 chapters of Gregory IX. This first official code
+was the basis of the second part of the _Corpus juris canonici_. The
+collection of Gregory IX. is cited as follows: the opening words of the
+chapter are given, or else its order or number, then the title to which
+it belongs; earlier scholars added X (_extra_); nowadays, this
+indication is omitted, and the order or number of the title in the book
+is given instead, e.g. _Quum olim, de Consuetudine_, X.; or cap. 6, _de
+consuet._ (I. iv.); that is to say, book I., title iv., _de
+consuetudine_, chapter 6, beginning with the words _Quum olim_.
+
+
+  Their relation to the general law.
+
+  The "Liber Sextus."
+
+Though Gregory IX. wished to supersede the _compilationes_, he had no
+idea of superseding the _Decretum_ of Gratian, still less of codifying
+the whole of the canon law. Though his collection is still in theory the
+chief monument of ecclesiastical law, it only marked a certain stage and
+was before long to receive further additions. The reason for this is
+that in most cases the decretals did not formulate any law, but were
+merely solutions of particular cases, given as models; to arrive at the
+abstract law it was necessary to examine the solution in each case with
+regard to the circumstances and thus formulate a rule; this was the work
+of the canonists. The "decretalists" commented on the new collection, as
+the "decretists" had done for that of Gratian; but the canonists were
+not legislators: even the summaries which they placed at the head of the
+chapters could not be adduced as legislative texts. The abstract law was
+to be found rather in the _Summae_ of the canonists than in the
+decretals. Two important results, however, were achieved: on the one
+hand, supplementary collections on private authority ceased to be made,
+for this Gregory IX. had forbidden; on the other hand, the collections
+were no longer indefinitely swelled by the addition of new decisions in
+particular cases, those already existing being enough to form a basis
+for the codification of the abstract law; and for this reason subsequent
+collections contain as a rule only the "constitutions" of popes or
+councils, i.e. rules laid down as of general application. Hence arose a
+separation, which became more and more marked, between legislation and
+jurisprudence. This change was not produced suddenly, the old method
+being at first adhered to. In 1245 Innocent IV. sent to the universities
+a collection of 45 decretals, with the order that they should be
+inserted under their proper titles in the collection of Gregory IX. In
+1253 he sent a further list of the first words (_principia_) of the
+complementary constitutions and decretals; but the result was
+practically _nil_ and the popes gave up this system of successive
+additions. It was, however, found expedient to publish a new official
+collection. At the instance of the university of Bologna, Boniface
+VIII., himself an eminent canonist, had this prepared by a committee of
+canonists and published it in 1298. As it came as an addition to the
+five books of Gregory IX., it was called the sixth book, the _Liber
+Sextus_. It includes the constitutions subsequent to 1234, and notably
+the decrees of the two ecumenical councils of Lyons, and is arranged in
+books and titles, as above described; the last title, _de regulis
+juris_, contains no less than eighty-eight legal axioms, mostly borrowed
+from Roman law. The _Liber Sextus_ is cited like the decretals of
+Gregory IX., only with the addition of: _in sexto_ (in VI^o.).
+
+
+  The "Clementinae."
+
+The same observations apply to the next collection, the _Clementinae_.
+It was prepared under the care of Clement V., and even promulgated by
+him in consistory in March 1314; but in consequence of the death of the
+pope, which took place almost immediately after, the publication and
+despatch of the collection to the universities was postponed till 1317,
+under John XXII. It includes the constitutions of Clement V., and above
+all, the decrees of the council of Vienne of 1311, and is divided, like
+preceding collections, into books and titles; it is cited in the same
+way, with the additional indication _Clem-(entina)_.
+
+
+  "Extravagantes" of John XXII.
+
+  And "communes."
+
+At this point the official collections stop. The two last, which have
+found a place in the editions of the _Corpus_, are collections of
+private authority, but in which all the documents are authentic.
+Evidently the strict prohibition of the publishing of collections not
+approved by the Holy See had been forgotten. The _Extravagantes_ (i.e.
+_extra collectiones publicas_) of John XXII. number 20, and are
+classified under fourteen titles. The _Extravagantes communes (i.e._
+coming from several popes) number 73, from Boniface VIII. to Sixtus IV.
+(1484), and are classified in books and titles. These two collections
+were included in the edition of Jean Chappuis in 1500; they passed into
+the later editions, and are considered as forming part of the _Corpus
+juris canonici_. As such, and without receiving any complementary
+authority, they have been corrected and re-edited, like the others, by
+the _Correctores romani_. They are cited, like the decretals, with a
+further indication of the collection to which they belong: _Extrav. Jo.
+XXII._, or _inter-comm-(unes)._
+
+
+  The "Corpus juris canonici."
+
+Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the _Corpus juris canonici_; but
+this expression, which is familiar to us nowadays, is only a
+bibliographical term. Though we find in the 15th century, for example,
+at the council of Basel the expression _corpus juris_, obviously
+suggested by the _Corpus juris civilis_, not even the official edition
+of Gregory XIII. has as its title the words _Corpus juris canonici_. and
+we do not meet with this title till the Lyons edition of 1671.
+
+
+  The study of canon law.
+
+  The glosses.
+
+  The "Summae."
+
+The history of the canonical collections forming the _Corpus juris_
+would not be complete without an account of the labours of which they
+were the object. We know that the universities of the middle ages
+contained a Faculty of Decrees, with or without a Faculty of Laws, i.e.
+civil law. The former made _doctores decretorum_, the latter _doctores
+legum_. The teaching of the _magistri_ consisted in oral lessons
+(_lecturae_) directly based on the text. The short remarks explanatory
+of words in the text, originally written in the margin, became the gloss
+which, formed thus by successive additions, took a permanent form and
+was reproduced in the manuscripts of the _Corpus_, and later in the
+various editions, especially in the official Roman edition of 1582; it
+thus acquired by usage a kind of semi-official authority. The chief of
+the _glossatores_ of the _Decretum_ of Gratian were Paucapalea, the
+first disciple of the master, Rufinus (1160-1170), John of Faenza (about
+1170), Joannes Teutonicus (about 1210), whose glossary, revised and
+completed by Bartholomeus Brixensis (of Brescia) became the _glossa
+ordinaria decreti_. For the decretals we may mention Vincent the
+Spaniard and Bernard of Botone (Bernardus Parmensis, d. 1263), author of
+the _Glossa ordinaria_. That on the _Liber Sextus_ is due to the famous
+Joannes Andreae (c. 1340); and the one which he began for the
+Clementines was finished later by Cardinal Zabarella (d. 1417). The
+commentaries not so entirely concerned with the text were called
+_Apparatus_; and _Summae_ was the name given to general treatises. The
+first of these works are of capital importance in the formation of a
+systematic canon law. Such were the _Summae_ of the first disciples of
+Gratian: Paucapalea (1150),[27] Rolando Bandinelli[28] (afterwards
+Alexander III., c. 1150), Rufinus[29] (c. 1165), Étienne of Tournai[30]
+(Stephanus Tornacensis, c. 1168), John of Faenza (c. 1170), Sicard,
+bishop of Cremona (c. 1180), and above all Huguccio (c. 1180). For the
+Decretals we should mention: Bernard of Pavia[31] (c. 1195), Sinibaldo
+Fieschi (Innocent IV., c. 1240), Henry of Susa (d. 1271), commonly
+called (cardinalis) Hostiensis, whose _Summa Hostiensis_ or _Summa
+aurea_ is a work of the very highest order; Wilhelmus Durantis or
+Durandus, Joannes Andreae, Nicolas de Tudeschis (_abbas siculus_), &c.
+The 15th century produced few original treatises; but after the council
+of Trent the _Corpus juris_ was again commented on by distinguished
+canonists, e.g. the Jesuit Paul Laymann (1575-1635), the Portuguese
+Agostinho Barbosa (1590-1649), Manuel Gonzalez Tellez (d. 1649) and
+Prospero Fagnani (1598-1687), who, although blind, was secretary to the
+Congregation of the Council. But as time goes on, the works gradually
+lose the character of commentaries on the text, and develop into
+expositions of the law as a whole.
+
+
+  Editions.
+
+  The "Correctores romani."
+
+  "Institutiones Lancelotti."
+
+We can mention here only the chief editions of the _Corpus_. The council
+of Trent, as we know, ordered that the official books of the Roman
+Church--sacred books, liturgical books, &c.--should be issued in
+official and more correct editions; the compilations of ecclesiastical
+law were also revised. The commission of the _Correctores romani_,[32]
+established about 1563 by Pius IV., ended its work under Gregory XIII
+and the official edition, containing the text and the glosses, appeared
+at Rome in 1582. Richter's edition (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839) remains
+valuable, but has been greatly surpassed by that of E. Friedberg
+(Leipzig, 1879-1881). Many editions contain also the _Institutiones_
+composed at the command of Paul IV. (1555-1559) by Giovanni Paolo
+Lancelotti, a professor of Bologna, on the model of the Institutes of
+Justinian. The work has merits, but has never been officially approved.
+
+Though the collections of canon law were to receive no more additions,
+the source of the laws was not dried up; decisions of councils and popes
+continued to appear; but there was no attempt made to collect them.
+Canonists obtained the recent texts as they could. Moreover, it was an
+epoch of trouble: the great Schism of the West, the profound divisions
+which were its result, the abuses which were to issue in the
+Reformation, were conditions little favourable for a reorganization of
+the ecclesiastical laws. Thus we are brought to the third period.
+
+3. _After the Council of Trent._--The numerous important decrees made by
+the council of Trent, in the second part of its sessions, called _de
+reformatione_, are the starting-point of the canon law in its latest
+stage, _jus novissimum_; it is this which is still in force in the Roman
+Church. It has in no way undermined the official status of the _Corpus
+juris_; but it has completed the legislation of the latter in many
+important respects, and in some cases reformed it.
+
+
+  Final state of the law.
+
+The law during this period, as abstracted from the texts and
+compilations, suggests the following remarks. The laws are formulated in
+general terms, and the decisions in particular cases relegated to the
+sphere of jurisprudence; and the canonists have definitely lost the
+function which fell to them in the 12th and 13th centuries: they receive
+the law on authority and no longer have to deduce it from the texts. The
+legislative power is powerfully centralized in the hands of the pope:
+since the reforming decrees of the council of Trent it is the pontifical
+constitutions alone which have made the common law; the ecumenical
+council, doubtless, has not lost its power, but none were held until
+that of the Vatican (1870), and this latter was unable to occupy itself
+with matters of discipline. Hence the separation, increasingly marked,
+between the common law and the local laws, which cannot derogate from
+the common law except by concession of the Holy See, or by right of a
+lawfully authorized custom. This centralization, in its turn, has
+greatly increased the tendency towards unity and uniformity, which have
+reached in the present practice of the Roman Church a degree never known
+before, and considered by some to be excessive.
+
+
+  Dispersion of the texts.
+
+If we now consider the laws in themselves, we shall find that the
+dispersed condition of the legislative documents has not been modified
+since the closure of the _Corpus juris_; on the contrary the enormous
+number of pontifical constitutions, and of decrees emanating from the
+Roman Congregations, has greatly aggravated the situation; moreover, the
+attempts which have been made to resume the interrupted process of
+codification have entirely failed. As regards the texts, the canon law
+of to-day is in a very similar position to that of English law, which
+gave rise to J.S. Mill's saying: "All ages of English history have given
+one another rendezvous in English law; their several products may be
+seen all together, not interfused, but heaped one upon another, as many
+different ages of the earth may be read in some perpendicular section of
+its surface."[33] Nothing has been abrogated, except in so far as this
+has been implicitly demanded by subsequent laws. From this result
+insoluble controversies and serious uncertainties, both in the study and
+practice of the law; and, finally, it has become impossible for most
+people to have a first-hand knowledge of the actual laws.
+
+
+  Decrees of the Council of Trent.
+
+  Pontifical constitutions.
+
+  Decrees of the Curia.
+
+For this third period, the most important and most considerable of the
+canonical texts is the body of disciplinary decrees of the council of
+Trent (1545-1563). In consequence of the prohibition issued by Pius IV.,
+they have not been published separately from the dogmatic texts and
+other acts, and have not been glossed;[34] but their official
+interpretation has been reserved by the popes to the "Congregation of
+the cardinal interpreters of the Council of Trent," whose decisions form
+a vast collection of jurisprudence. Next in importance come the
+pontifical constitutions, which are collected together in the
+_Bullarium_; but this is a collection of private authority, if we except
+the _Bullarium_ of Benedict XIV., officially published by him in 1747;
+further, the _Bullarium_ is a compilation arranged in chronological
+order, and its dimensions make it rather unwieldy. In the third place
+come the decrees of the Roman Congregations, which have the force of
+law. Several of these organs of the papal authority have published
+official collections, in which more place is devoted to jurisprudence
+than to laws; several others have only private compilations, or even
+none at all, among others the most important, viz. the Holy Office (see
+CURIA ROMANA). The resulting confusion and uncertainty may be imagined.
+
+
+  "Liber septimus" of P. Mathieu.
+
+  of Clement VIII.
+
+These drawbacks were felt a long time back, and to this feeling we owe
+two attempts at a supplementary codification which were made in the 16th
+century, both of which are known under the name of _Liber Septimus_. The
+first was of private origin, and had as its author Pierre Mathieu, the
+Lyons jurist (1563-1621); it appeared in 1590 at Lyons. It is a
+continuation of the _Extravagantes communes_, and includes a selection
+of papal constitutions, from Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to Sixtus V.
+(1585-1590) inclusive, with the addition of a few earlier documents. It
+follows the order of the decretals. This collection has been of some
+service, and appears as an appendix in many editions of the _Corpus
+juris_; the chief reason for its failure is that it has no official
+sanction. The second attempt was official, but it came to nothing. It
+was connected with the movement of reform and revision which followed
+the council of Trent. Immediately after the publication of the official
+edition of the _Corpus juris_, Gregory XIII. appointed a committee of
+cardinals charged with the task of drawing up a _Liber septimus_. Sixtus
+V. hurried on its execution, which was rapidly proceeded with, mainly
+owing to Cardinal Pinelli, who submitted the draft of it to Clement
+VIII. The pope had this Liber VII. printed as a basis for further
+researches; but after long deliberations the volume was suppressed, and
+the idea of a fresh codification was abandoned. The collection included
+the decrees of the council of Trent, and a number of pontifical
+constitutions, arranged in the order of the titles of the decretals.[35]
+But even had it been promulgated, it is doubtful whether it would have
+improved the situation. It would merely have added another collection to
+the previous ones, which were already too voluminous, without resulting
+in any useful abrogations.
+
+
+  Demand for codification.
+
+  Decision of Pius X.
+
+  Method.
+
+4. _The Future Codification._--Neither Clement VIII. nor, at a later
+date, Benedict XIV., could have dreamt of the radical reform at present
+in course of execution. Instead of accumulating the texts of the laws in
+successive collections, it is proposed entirely to recast the system of
+editing them. This codification in a series of short articles was
+suggested by the example of the French codes, the history of which
+during the 19th century is well known. From all quarters the Catholic
+episcopate had submitted to the Vatican council petitions in this sense.
+"It is absolutely clear," said some French bishops, "and has for a long
+time past been universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision
+and reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As matters now
+stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes in human affairs and
+in society, many laws have become useless, others difficult or
+impossible to obey. With regard to a great number of canons, it is a
+matter of dispute whether they are still in force or are abrogated.
+Finally, in the course of so many centuries, the number of
+ecclesiastical laws has increased to such an extent, and these laws have
+accumulated in such immense collections, that in a certain sense we can
+well say: We are crushed beneath the laws, _obruimur legibus_. Hence
+arise infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study of
+canon law; an immense field for controversy and litigation; a thousand
+perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for the laws."[36] We
+know how the Vatican council had to separate without approaching the
+question of canonical reform; but this general desire for a recasting of
+the ecclesiastical code was taken up again on the initiative of Rome. On
+the 19th of March 1904, Pius X. published a _Motu proprio, "de ecclesiae
+legibus in unum redigendis_." After briefly reviewing the present
+condition of the canonical texts and collections, he pointed out its
+inconvenience, referred to the many requests from the episcopate, and
+decreed the preparation of a general code of canon law. This immense
+undertaking involved the codification of the entire canon law, drawing
+it up in a clear, short and precise form, and introducing any expedient
+modifications and reforms. For this purpose the pope appointed a
+commission of cardinals, of which he himself became president; also a
+commission of "consultors" resident at Rome, which asked for a certain
+amount of assistance from canonists at various universities and
+seminaries. Further, the assembled bishops of each province were invited
+to give their opinion as to the points in which they considered the
+canon law might profitably be modified or abrogated. Two consultors had
+the duty of separately drawing up a preliminary plan for each title,
+these projects being twice submitted for the deliberation of the
+commission (or sub-commission) of consultors, the version adopted by
+them being next submitted to the commission of cardinals, and the whole
+finally sent up for the papal sanction. These commissions started work
+at the end of 1904.
+
+
+  Local law.
+
+_Local Law._--The common law of the Roman Church cannot by itself
+uniformly regulate all the churches of the different nations; each of
+them has its own local law, which we must briefly mention here. In
+theory, this law has as its author the local ecclesiastical authorities,
+councils or bishops; but this is true only for laws and regulations
+which are in harmony with the common law, merely completing or defining
+it. But if it is a question of derogating from the common law, the
+authority of the Holy See must intervene to legalize these derogations.
+This intervention takes the form either of "indults," i.e. graceful
+concessions granted at the request of the episcopate, or of special
+approbation of conciliary resolutions. It would, however, be impossible
+to mention any compilations containing only local law. Whether in the
+case of national or provincial councils, or of diocesan synods, the
+chief object of the decrees is to reinforce, define or apply the law;
+the measures which constitute a derogation have only a small place in
+them. It is, then, only in a limited sense that we can see a local canon
+law in the councils of the various regional churches. Having made this
+remark, we must distinguish between the countries which are still
+subject to the system of concordats and other countries.
+
+
+  Countries subject to concordats.
+
+In the case of the former, the local law is chiefly founded on the
+concordat (q.v.), including the derogations and privileges resulting
+from it. The chief thing to note is the existence, for these countries,
+of a civil-ecclesiastical law, that is to say, a body of regulations
+made by the civil authority, with the consent, more or less explicit, of
+the Church, about ecclesiastical matters, other than spiritual; these
+dispositions are chiefly concerned with the nomination or confirmation
+by the state of ecclesiastics to the most important benefices, and with
+the administration of the property of the Church; sometimes also with
+questions of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, concerning the
+persons or property of the Church. It is plain that the agreements under
+the concordats have a certain action upon a number of points in the
+canonical laws; and all these points go to constitute the local
+concordatory law. This is the case for Austria, Spain, Portugal,
+Bavaria, the Prussian Rhine provinces, Alsace, Belgium, and, in America,
+Peru. Up to 1905 it was also the case in France, where the ancient local
+customs now continue, pending the reorganization of the Church without
+the concordat.
+
+We do not imply that in other countries the Church can always find
+exemption from legislative measures imposed upon her by the civil
+authorities, for example, in Italy, Prussia and Russia; but here it is a
+situation _de facto_ rather than _de jure_, which the Church tolerates
+for the sake of convenience; and these regulations only form part of the
+local canon law in a very irregular sense.
+
+
+  Other Countries.
+
+In other countries the episcopal assemblies lay down the local law.
+England has its council of Westminster (1852), the United States their
+plenary councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866, 1884), without mentioning the
+diocesan synods; and the whole of Latin America is ruled by the special
+law of its plenary council, held at Rome in 1899. The same is the case
+with the Eastern Churches united to the Holy See; following the example
+of the famous council of Lebanon for the Maronites, held in 1730, and
+that of Zamosc for the Ruthenians, in 1720, these churches, at the
+suggestion of Leo XIII., have drawn up in plenary assembly their own
+local law: the Syrians at Sciarfa in 1888; the Ruthenians at Leopol in
+1891; and a little later, the Copts. The framing of local law will
+certainly be more clear and more easy when the general code of canon law
+has been published.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the texts and collections: the dissertations of Dom
+  Coustant, _De antiquis canonum collectionibus, deque variis
+  epistolarum Rom. Pont, editionibus_ (Paris, 1721); P. de Marca, _De
+  veteribus collectionibus canonum_ (Paris, 1681); the brothers Peter
+  and Jerome Ballerini, _De antiquis tum editis tum ineditis
+  collectionibus et collectoribus canonum ad Gratianum usque_ (Venice,
+  1757). This is the best of all these works; it is reproduced in Migne,
+  _P.L._, vol. 56; C. Seb. Berardi, _De variis sacrorum canonum
+  collectionibus ante Gratianum_ (Turin, 1752); P. Quesnel, _De codice
+  canonum Ecclesiae Romanae; de variis fidei libellis in antiquo Rom.
+  Eccl. codice contentis; de primo usu codicis canonum Dionysii Exigui
+  in Gallicanis regionibus_ (Paris, 1675; with the critical notes of the
+  brothers Ballerini, also in Migne, _loc. cit._); and finally, Florent,
+  _De methodo atque auctoritate collectionis Gratiani_ (Paris, 1679),
+  and Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tarragona, _De emendatione
+  Gratiani_ (Tarragona, 1586); these have all been brought together in
+  Gallandi, _De vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge_
+  (Venice, 1778). The most complete work on the texts up to the 9th
+  century is F. Maassen, _Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des
+  canonischen Rechts im Abendlande_, vol. i. (all that has yet appeared,
+  Gratz, 1870). For the period between the False Decretals and Gratian,
+  there is no work of this sort, but the materials have been put
+  together and published in part by M.P. Fournier. After Gratian, the
+  classic work is Schulte, _Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des
+  canonischen Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart_ (3 vols.,
+  Stuttgart, 1875 et. seq.). Manuals for the study of the sources: Ph.
+  Schneider, _Die Lehre von den Kirchenrechtsquellen_ (Regensburg,
+  1892); F. Laurin, _Introductio in Corpus juris canonici_ (Freiburg,
+  1889); Tardif, _Histoire des sources du droit canonique_ (Paris,
+  1887). Most of the German manuals on canon law devote considerable
+  space to the history of the sources: see Phillips, vol. ii (3rd ed.,
+  1857; French translation by the abbé Crouzet); Vering, 3rd ed.
+  (Freiburg, 1893); Schulte, _Das katholische Kirchenrecht_, pt. i.
+  (Giessen, 1860), &c. For the Greek Church: Pitra, _Juris ecclesiae
+  graecorum historia et monumenta_ (Rome, 1864); the later history of
+  the Greek law: Zachariae, _Historiae juris graecorum delineatio_
+  (Heidelberg, 1839); Mortreuil, _Histoire du droit byzantin_ (Paris,
+  1843-1846); the recent texts in the _Conciliorum Collectio lacensis_,
+  vol. ii.; _Acta et decreta s. conciliorum, quae ab episcopis rituum
+  orientalium ab a. 1682 usque ad a. 1789 indeque ad a. 1869 sunt
+  celebrata_ (Freiburg, 1876). Short manual of Institutions: Jos.
+  Papp-Szilagyi, _Enchiridion juris eccl. orientalis catholicae_
+  (Magno-Varadini, 1862). For recent canonical texts: Richter's edition
+  of the council of Trent (Leipzig, 1863); the _Collectanea S.C. de
+  Propaganda Fide_ (Rome, 1893); the _Bullarium_, a collection of papal
+  acts and constitutions; the editions of Cocquelines (28 vols., Rome,
+  1733-1756), and of Cherubini (19 vols., Luxemburg, 1727-1758), which
+  are better than the enlarged reprint of Turin, which was unfinished
+  (it goes up to 1730). The official edition of the _Bullarium_ of
+  Benedict XIV. (4 vols., Rome, 1754-1758) has been reprinted several
+  times and is of great importance; the continuation of the _Bullarium_
+  since Benedict XIV. has been published by Barberi, _Bullarii romani
+  continuatio_, in 20 vols., going up to the fourth year of Gregory XVI.
+  Every year, since 1854, has been printed a collection of pontifical
+  acts, _Acta Pii IX., Acta Leonis XIII._, &c., which are the
+  equivalents of the _Bullarium_. Dictionaries: Durand de Maillane,
+  _Dictionnaire canonique_ (Paris, 1786), re-edited by André under the
+  title, _Cours alphabétique et méthodique de droit canonique_, and by
+  Wagner (Paris, 1894), has Gallican tendencies; Ferraris, _Prompta
+  bibliotheca canonica_, &c., several new and enlarged editions; the
+  best is that of Migne (1866), completed by Father Bucceroni, _Ferraris
+  Supplementum_ (Rome, 1899). Articles on canon law in Wetzer und
+  Welte's _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1880 et seq.); Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie für prot. Theologie und Kirche_ (2nd ed., Leipzig,
+  1877-1888); Vacant-Mangenot's _Dictionnaire de théologie catholique_,
+  in course of publication (Paris, 1899 et seq.). Periodicals: _Analecta
+  juris pontificii_, ed. by Mgr. Chaillot (1863-1889); _Analecta
+  ecclesiastica_ (since 1893); _Acta Sanctae sedis_ (since 1865);
+  _Archiv fur kathol. Kirchenrecht_ (since 1857); _Le Canoniste
+  contemporain_ (since 1878).     (A. Bo.*)
+
+_Canon Law in England and in the Anglican Communion_.--There were
+matters in which the local English and Irish canon law, even before the
+16th century, differed from that obtaining on the western part of the
+European continent. Thus (1), it has been said that--whereas the
+continental canon law recognized a quadripartite division of Church
+revenue of common right between (a) the bishop, (b) the clergy, (c) the
+poor, (d) the fabric--the English law maintained a tripartite
+division--(a) clergy, (b) the poor, (c) the fabric. Lord Selborne
+(_Ancient Facts and Fictions concerning Churches and Tithes_, 2nd ed.,
+1892) denies that there was any division of tithe in England. (2) By the
+general canon law the burden of repairing the nave, as well as the
+chancel of the church, was upon the parson or rector who collected the
+whole tithe. But the custom of England transferred this burden to the
+parishioners, and some particular local customs (as in the city of
+London) placed even the burden of repair of the chancel on them. To meet
+this burden church rates were levied. (3) A church polluted by the
+shedding of blood, as by suicide or murder, was reconsecrated on the
+continent. In England the custom was (and is) simply to "reconcile." (4)
+A much more important difference, if the decision of the Irish court of
+exchequer chamber upheld in the House of Lords, where the peers were
+equally divided, correctly stated the English Canon law (_Reg._ v.
+_Millis_, 10 Cl. & Fin., 534) was in regard to the essentials of
+marriage. By the general Western canon law before the council of Trent,
+the parties themselves were said to be the "ministers of the Sacrament"
+in the case of holy matrimony. The declared consent of the parties to
+take each other there and then constituted at once (although
+irregularly) holy matrimony. The presence of priest or witnesses was not
+necessary. In _Reg._ v. _Millis_, however, it was held that in England
+it was always otherwise and that here the presence of a priest was
+necessary. High authorities, however, have doubted the historical
+accuracy of this decision. (5) The addition of houses of priests to the
+provincial synods seems peculiar to England and Ireland.
+
+The historical position of the general canon law of the Catholic Church
+in the English provinces has, since the separation from Rome, been the
+subject of much consideration by English lawyers and ecclesiastics. The
+view taken by the king's courts, and acquiesced in by the ecclesiastical
+courts, since Henry VIII., is that the Church of England was always an
+independent national church, subject indeed to the general principles of
+the _jus commune ecclesiasticum_ (Whitlock J. in _Ever_ v. _Owen_,
+Godbolt's Reports, 432), but unbound by any particular constitutions of
+council or pope; unless those constitutions had been "received" here by
+English councils, or so recognized by English courts (secular or
+spiritual) as to become part of the ecclesiastical custom of the realm.
+Foreign canon law never bound (so it has been taught) _proprio vigore_.
+
+The sources of English ecclesiastical law (purely ecclesiastical) were
+therefore (1) the principles of the _jus commune ecclesiasticum_; (2)
+foreign particular constitutions received here, as just explained; (3)
+the constitutions and canons of English synods (cf. _Phill. Ecc. Law_,
+part i. ch. iv., and authorities there cited).
+
+1. On the existence of this _jus commune ecclesiasticum_ and that the
+Church of England, in whatever sense independent, takes it over until
+she repeals it, see _Escott_ v. _Mastin_, 4 Moo. _P.C.C._ 119. Lord
+Brougham, in delivering the judgment, speaks of the "common law
+prevailing for 1400 years over Christian Europe," and (p. 137) says that
+"nothing but express enactment can abrogate the common law of all
+Christendom before the Reformation of the Anglican Church."
+
+2. As to foreign particular constitutions in England, there are a great
+number of them, of which it has been and is admitted, that they have
+currency in England. However papal in their origin, post-Reformation
+lawyers have regarded them as valid, unless they can be shown to be
+contrary to the king's prerogative, or to the common or statute law of
+the realm. To this doctrine express statutory authority (as the events
+have happened) has been given by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, sect. 7. A
+striking example of the doctrine is furnished by the decree of Innocent
+III. in the Fourth Lateran Council against pluralities. This decree was
+enforced in the court of Arches against a pluralist clerk in 1848
+(_Burder_ v. _Mavor_, I Roberts, 614). The courts of common law from
+Lord Coke's time downwards have recognized this "constitution of the
+pope" (as the queen's bench called it in 1598). The exchequer chamber,
+in 1837, declared it to have "become part of the common law of the land"
+(_Alstan_ v. _Atlay, 7 A._ and _E._ 289).
+
+3. The particular constitutions of English synods are numerous and cover
+a large field. At least in legal theory, the only distinction between
+pre-Reformation and post-Reformation constitutions is in favour of the
+former--so long as they do not contravene the royal prerogative or the
+law of the land (see 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). The most important are
+collected together and digested (so far as regards England) in
+Lyndwood's _Provinciale_, a work which remains of great authority in
+English courts. These constitutions are again divided into two classes:
+(a) provincial constitutions promulgated by provincial synods, usually
+in the name of the presiding archbishop or bishop; and (b) decrees of
+papal legates, Otho in 1236 and Othobon (Ottobuono de' Fieschi,
+afterwards Pope Adrian V.) in 1269. Canons passed since 25 Hen. VIII. c.
+19 have not the parliamentary confirmation which that act has been held
+to give to previous canons, and do not necessarily bind the laity,
+although made under the king's licence and ratified by him. This
+doctrine laid down by Lord Hardwicke in _Middleton_ v. _Croft_ (2
+_Stra_. 1056) was approved in 1860 in _Marshall_ v. _Bp. of Exeter_
+(L.R. 3 H.L. 17). Nevertheless, there are many provisions in these
+post-Reformation canons which are declaratory of the ancient usage and
+law of the Church, and the law which they thus record is binding on the
+laity. The chief body of English post-Reformation canon law is to be
+found in the canons of 1603, amended in 1865 and 1888. The canons of
+1640 are apparently upon the same footing as those of 1603;
+notwithstanding objections made at the time that they were void because
+convocation continued to sit after the dissolution of parliament. The
+opinion of all the judges taken at the time was in favour of the
+legality of this procedure. 13 Car. ii. c. 12 simply provided that these
+canons should not be given statutory force by the operation of that act.
+
+In addition to the enactment of canons (strictly so-called) the English
+provincial synods since the Henrician changes have legislated--in 1570
+by the enactment of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in 1661 by approving the
+present Book of Common Prayer, and in 1873 by approving shorter forms of
+matins and evensong.
+
+The distinction between pre-Henrician and post-Henrician procedure lies
+in the requirement, since 25 Hen. VIII., of the royal licence and
+confirmation. Apparently diocesan synods may still enact valid canons
+without the king's authority; but these bodies are not now called.
+
+The prevailing legal view of the position of the Church of England in
+regard to canon law has been just stated, and that is the view taken by
+judicial authority for the past three centuries. On the other hand, it
+is suggested by, e.g., the late Professor Maitland, that it was not, in
+fact, the view taken here in the later middle ages--that in those ages
+there was no theory that "reception" here was necessary to validate
+papal decrees. It is said by this school of legal historians that, from
+the Conquest down to Henry VIII., the Church of England was regarded by
+churchmen not as in any sense as separate entity, but as two provinces
+of the extra-territorial, super-national Catholic Church, and that the
+pope at this period was contemplated as the _princeps_ of this Catholic
+Church, whose edicts bound everywhere, as those of Augustus had bound in
+the Roman empire.
+
+It is right that this view should be stated, but it is not that of the
+writer of this article.
+
+As to _Ireland_, in a national synod of the four Irish provinces held at
+Dublin before the four archbishops, in 1634, a hundred canons were
+promulgated with the royal licence, containing much matter not dealt
+with by similar constitutions in England. In 1711, some further canons
+were promulgated (with royal licence) by another national synod. Some
+forms of special prayer were appended to these canons.
+
+In 1869 the Irish Church Act (32 and 33 Vict. c. 42) "disestablished"
+the Irish Church, sect. 19 repealed any act of parliament, law or custom
+whereby the bishops, clergy or laity of the said church were prohibited
+from holding synods or electing representatives thereto for the purpose
+of making rules for the well-being and ordering of the said church, and
+enacted that no such law, &c., should hinder the said bishops, clergy
+and laity, by such representatives, lay and clerical, and so elected as
+they shall appoint, from meeting in general synod or convention and in
+such general synod or convention forming constitutions and providing for
+future representation of the members of the church in diocesan synods,
+general convention or otherwise. The Church of Ireland, so set free,
+created for herself new legislative authorities, unknown to the old
+canon law, viz. mixed synods of clergy and laity, and a system of
+representation by election, unknown to primitive or medieval times.
+Similar changes had, however, been introduced during the preceding
+century in some parts of the Anglican communion outside the British
+Isles (see _infra_). Sect. 20 of the same statute kept alive the old
+ecclesiastical law of Ireland by way of assumed contract (cf.
+ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION).
+
+Under the provisions of this statute, the "archbishops and bishops of
+the ancient Apostolic and Catholic Church of Ireland" (so they describe
+themselves), together with representatives of the clergy and laity,
+assembled in 1870, in "General Convention," to "provide for the
+regulation" of that church. This Convention declared that a General
+Synod of the archbishops and bishops, with representatives of the clergy
+and laity, should have chief legislative power in the Irish Church, with
+such administrative power as might be necessary and consistent with the
+church's episcopal constitution. This General Synod was to consist of
+two Houses--the House of Bishops and the House of Lay and Clerical
+Representatives. No question was to be carried unless there were in its
+favour a majority of the clerical and lay representatives, voting either
+conjointly or by orders, and also a majority of the bishops, should they
+desire to vote. This General Synod was given full power to alter or
+amend canons, or to repeal them, or to enact new ones. For any
+alteration or amendment of "articles, doctrines, rites or rubrics," a
+two-thirds majority of each order of the representative house was
+required and a year's delay for consultation of the diocesan synods.
+Provisions were made as to lay representation in the diocesan synods.
+The Convention also enacted some canons and a statute in regard to
+ecclesiastical tribunals (see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). It expressly
+provided that its own legislation might be repealed or amended by future
+general synods.
+
+In 1871 the General Synod attempted to codify its canon law in
+forty-eight canons which, "and none other," were to have force and
+effect as the canons of the Church of Ireland. Since 1871 the General
+Synod has, from time to time, put forth other canons.
+
+The post-Reformation history of canon law in the Anglican communion in
+_Scotland_ has differed from the story of that law in the last four
+centuries in Ireland. After the legislation under William and Mary
+disestablishing episcopacy in Scotland and subjecting its professors to
+civil penalties, little attention was given to canon law for many years.
+Synods of bishops at Edinburgh in 1724 and 1731 dealt with some disputed
+questions of ritual and ceremonial. In 1743 an assembly of five bishops
+enacted sixteen canons. A "primus" was to be chosen indifferently from
+the bishops, but to have no other powers than those of convoking and
+presiding over synods. He was to hold office only during pleasure of the
+other bishops. Bishops were to be elected by the presbyters of the
+district. Such election was subject to the confirmation of the majority
+of the bishops. In 1811, a "Code of Canons" was enacted by a "General
+Ecclesiastical Synod," consisting of the bishops, the deans (viz.
+presbyters appointed by the bishops in each diocese to defend the
+interests of the presbyters and now for the first time given "decisive"
+voice in synods) and certain clerical representatives from the
+"districts" or dioceses. Future synods, called for the purpose of
+altering the code, were to consist of two chambers. The first was to be
+composed of the bishops; the second to consist of the "deans" and
+clerical representatives. No law or canon was to be enacted or
+abrogated, save by the consent of both chambers. These canons were
+revised in 1828, 1829 and 1838. The code of this last year created
+diocesan synods, to be held annually and to consist of the bishop, dean
+and all instituted clergy of the diocese. It also provided for the
+annual meeting of a purely episcopal synod, which was to receive appeals
+from either clergy or laity. In 1862-1863, another General Synod further
+revised and amended the Code of Canons. This revised code enabled the
+bishop to appoint a learned and discreet layman to act as his
+chancellor, to advise him in legal matters and be his assessor at
+diocesan synods. Assistant curates and mission priests were, under
+certain restrictions, given seats in diocesan synods. Male communicants
+were also permitted to be present at such synods, with a deliberative
+but not "decisive" voice; unless in special circumstances the bishop
+excluded them. Canon 46 provides that "if any question shall arise as to
+the interpretation of this Code of Canons or of any part thereof, the
+general principles of canon law shall be alone deemed applicable
+thereto." This provision was reenacted in Canon 47 of 1876. Canon 51 of
+1890, however, weakens this provision. It enacts that: "The preceding
+canons shall in all cases be construed in accordance with the principles
+of the civil law of Scotland. Nevertheless, it shall be lawful, in cases
+of dispute or difficulty concerning the interpretation of these canons,
+to appeal to any generally recognized principles of canon law." The
+canons of 1862-1863 also provided for a lay share in the election of
+bishops. In 1890 the 32nd canon enacted that the "General Synod" should
+thereafter be called the Provincial Synod.
+
+The canon law in Scotland before the 16th century was generally that of
+the continent of Europe. The usages of the church were similar to those
+in France, and had not the insular character of those in England and
+Ireland. The canon law regulating marriage, legitimacy and succession
+was taken over by the Scottish secular courts (see ECCLESIASTICAL
+JURISDICTION) and survived as part of the common law of the land almost
+unimpaired. Thus, the courts recognize marriages by _verba de
+praesenti_ or by _verba de futuro cum copula_--in this last matter
+following a decree of Gregory IX.--and also legitimation _per subsequens
+matrimonium_. But though one of the _fontes juris Scotiae_, canon law
+never was of itself authoritative in Scotland. In the canons of her
+national provincial councils (at whose yearly meetings representatives
+attended on behalf of the king) that country possessed a canon law of
+her own, which was recognized by the parliament and the popes, and
+enforced in the courts of law. Much of it, no doubt, was borrowed from
+the _Corpus juris canonici_ and the English provincial canons. But the
+portions so adopted derived their authority from the Scottish Church.
+The general canon law, unless where it has been acknowledged by act of
+parliament, or a decision of the courts, or sanctioned by the canons of
+a provincial council, is only received in Scotland according to equity
+and expediency.
+
+The "Protestant Episcopal Church _in the United States_" is the
+organization of the Anglican Communion in the American colonies before
+the separation. This communion was subject to "all the laws of the
+Church of England applicable to its situation" (Murray Hoffman, _A
+Treatise on the Law of the Protestant Episcopal Church_, New York, 1850,
+p. 17). This body of law the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United
+States took over (_op. cit._ p. 41 et seq.; F. Vinton, _A Manual
+Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the
+Protestant Episcopal Church_, New York, 1870, p. 16 et seq.). Much,
+however, of the English post-Reformation canonical legislation was not
+applicable to the United States, because of different circumstances, as
+e.g. a very large portion of the canons of 1603 (Vinton, p. 32). In
+1789, a General Convention, consisting of clerical and lay deputies as
+well as of bishops, assumed for itself and provided for its successors
+supreme legislative power. The concurrence of both "orders," clerical
+and lay, was required for the validity of any vote. Since 1853 a lay
+deputy to the Convention has been required to be a communicant (_ib._ p.
+102). Upon the American bishops numbering more than three, they became a
+separate "House" from the "Convention." The House of Bishops was given a
+right to propose measures to the "House of Deputies," and to negative
+acts of the House of Deputies, provided they complied with certain
+forms. Similar "constitutions" providing for representation of the laity
+have been adopted by the different dioceses (Hoffman, _op. cit._ p. 184
+et seq.). Deacons are also admitted to a deciding voice in every diocese
+but New Jersey, where they may speak but not vote. A great body of
+legislation has been put forth by these bodies during the past century.
+
+Since 1870, at least, the "Church of the Province of _South Africa_" has
+secured autonomy while yet remaining a part of the Anglican Communion.
+By its constitution of that year the English Church in South Africa
+adopts the laws and usages of the Church of England, as far as they are
+applicable to an unestablished church, accepts the three creeds, the
+Thirty-Nine Articles, the Book of Common Prayer, the decisions of the
+undisputed general councils, the Authorized English Version of the
+Scriptures, disclaims the right of altering any of these standards of
+faith and doctrine, except in agreement with such alterations as may be
+adopted by a general synod of the Anglican Communion. But in
+interpreting these standards of faith and doctrine, the Church of the
+Province of South Africa is not bound by decisions other than those of
+its own Church courts, or such court as the Provincial Synod may
+recognize as a tribunal of appeal. The Provincial Synod is the
+legislative authority subject to a general synod of the Anglican
+Communion, provided such latter synod include representatives from the
+Church of South Africa. The Provincial Synod consists of (1) the House
+of Bishops, (2) the House of the Clergy, (3) the House of the Laity. No
+resolution can be passed which is not accepted by all three orders.
+Bishops are elected by the clergy with the assent of lay
+representatives, subject to the confirmation of the metropolitan and
+comprovincial bishops. The metropolitan is to be consecrated in England
+by the archbishop of Canterbury. He now bears the title of archbishop.
+All bishops are to enter into a contract to obey and maintain the
+constitution and canons of the province. Canon 18 of the Code of 1870
+recognizes the offices of catechist, reader and sub-deacon (Wirgman,
+_The English Church and People in South Africa_, p. 223 et seq.).
+
+In the West Indies, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, provincial and
+diocesan synods or conventions have been formed on one or other of the
+types above mentioned and have enacted canons.     (W. G. F. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th
+    century, have been published several times, notably in the great
+    collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &c.; they will be found brought
+    together in one small volume in Bruns, _Canones apostolorum et
+    conciliorum_ (Berlin, 1839).
+
+  [2] The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed to
+    343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by M.
+    Chabot, _Synodicon Orientale_, p. 278, note 4.
+
+  [3] See Boudinhon, "Note sur le concile de Laodicée," in the _Compte
+    rendu du premier congrès des savants catholiques à Paris_, 1888
+    (Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420.
+
+  [4] For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that
+    of the Eastern Churches, see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_, §§ 14-183 (ed.
+    1893). The Russian Church, as we know, adopted the Greek
+    ecclesiastical law.
+
+  [5] Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chifflet,
+    _Fulg. Ferrandi opera_ (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne, _Patr.
+    Lat._ vol. 67, col. 949.
+
+  [6] Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo, vol.
+    ii. (Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with learned
+    dissertations, _Opera S. Leonis_, vol. iii., Migne, _P.L. 56._
+
+  [7] Malnory, _Saint Césaire d'Arles_ (Paris, 1894).
+
+  [8] _Collectio canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae_ (Madrid, 1808); reproduced
+    in Migne, _P.L. 84._
+
+  [9] L. Duchesne, "Le Concile d'Elvire" in the _Mélanges Renier_.
+
+  [10] For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, _Die Bussordnungen der
+    abendländischen Kirche_ (Halle, 1851); Mgr. H.J. Schmitz, _Die
+    Bussbücher und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche_ (2 vols., Mainz, 1883,
+    1898).
+
+  [11] This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of
+    Wasserschleben and Schmitz, by M. Paul Fournier, "Étude sur les
+    Pénitentiels," in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature
+    religieuses_, vol. vi. (1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp.
+    59-70 and 121-127.
+
+  [12] In Migne, _P.L._ 105, col. 651.
+
+  [13] Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 1874). See also P. Fournier,
+    "De l'influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des
+    collections canoniques," in _Nouvelle Revue historique de droit
+    français et étranger_, vol. xxiii, note I.
+
+  [14] The collection of the False Decretals has been published with a
+    long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, _Decretales
+    Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (Leipzig, 1863). For the
+    rest of the bibliography, see DECRETALS (FALSE).
+
+  [15] The latest edition is in Pertz, _Monumenta Germaniae_, vol. ii.
+    part ii.
+
+  [16] Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840); reproduced by Migne,
+    _P.L. 132._
+
+  [17] Edited several times; in Migne, _P.L. 140._
+
+  [18] P. Fournier, "Le Premier Manuel canonique de la réforme du XIe
+    siècle," in _Mélanges de l'École française de Rome_, xiv. (1894).
+
+  [19] Unpublished.
+
+  [20] Edited by Mgr. Pio Martinucci (Venice, 1869). On this collection
+    see Wolf von Glanvell, _Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit_
+    (Paderborn, 1905).
+
+  [21] Unpublished.
+
+  [22] Several times edited; in Migne, _P.L._ 161. See P. Fournier,
+    "Les Collections canoniques attribuées à Yves de Chartres,"
+    _Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartres_ (1896 and 1897).
+
+  [23] Printed in Martene, _Nov. Thesaur. anecdot._ vol. v. col. 1019.
+
+  [24] See P. Fournier, "Deux Controverses sur les origines du Décret
+    de Gratien," in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses_,
+    vol. iii. (1898), pp. n. 2 and 3.
+
+  [25] See Laurin, _Introductio in corpus juris canonici_, c. vii. p.
+    73.
+
+  [26] By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts
+    inserted there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged
+    edition of the _Quinque compilationes_ (Leipzig, 1882).
+
+  [27] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summa des Paucapaiea_ (Giessen, 1890).
+
+  [28] Edited by Thaner, _Die Summa Magistri Rolandi_ (Innsbruck,
+    1874); later by Gietl, _Die Sentenzen Rolands_ (Freiburg im B.,
+    1891).
+
+  [29] Edited by H. Singer, _Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus_
+    (Paderborn, 1902).
+
+  [30] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis_
+    (Giessen, 1891).
+
+  [31] He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres,
+    _Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium_ (Mainz, 1860). The
+    commentaries of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently
+    published.
+
+  [32] The history of this commission and the rules which it followed
+    for editing the _Decretum_, will be found in Laurin, _Introductio in
+    corpus juris canonici_, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg's
+    edition of the _Decretum_.
+
+  [33] Quoted by Hogan, _Clerical Studies_, p. 235.
+
+  [34] There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That
+    which is favoured by canonists is Richter's edition (Leipzig, 1863),
+    in which each chapter _de reformatione_ is followed by a selection of
+    decisions of the S.C. of the council.
+
+  [35] Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have
+    escaped destruction: _Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo
+    nunenpantur Liber septimus Decretalium Clementis VIII._ (Freiburg im
+    B., 1870).
+
+  [36] _Omnium concilii Vaticani ... documentorum collectio_, per
+    Conradum Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152.
+
+
+
+
+CANOPUS, or CANOBUS, an ancient coast town of Lower Egypt, a hundred and
+twenty stadia, or 15 m. east of Alexandria, the principal port in Egypt
+for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, situated at the
+mouth of the westernmost (Canopic or Heracleotic) branch of the Nile, on
+the western bank. The channel, which entered the Mediterranean at the
+western end of the Bay of Aboukir, is entirely silted up, but on the
+shore at Aboukir there are extensive traces of the city with its quays,
+&c. Excavation has disclosed granite monuments with the name of Rameses
+II., but they may have been brought at a late period for the adornment
+of the place. It is not certain that Canopus was an old Egyptian town,
+but it appears in Herodotus as an ancient port. In the 9th year of
+Ptolemy Euergetes (239 B.C.) a great assembly of priests at Canopus
+passed an honorific degree, _inter alia_, conferring the title [Greek:
+Euergetaes] "Benefactor" on the king. Two examples of this decree are
+known, inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. From it we learn
+that the native form of the name of Canopus was Karob. A temple of
+Osiris was built by Euergetes, but very near to Canopus was an older
+shrine, a temple of Heracles mentioned by Herodotus as an asylum for
+fugitive slaves. The decree shows that Heracles here stands for Ammon.
+Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, a vase with a
+human head, and was identified with Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who
+was said to have been buried here: the name canopic has been applied,
+through an old misunderstanding, to the vases with human and animal
+heads in which the internal organs were placed by the Egyptians after
+embalming. In the Roman epoch the town was notorious for its
+dissoluteness. Aboukir means "father Cyrus," referring to a Coptic saint
+of that name.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOPY (through Fr. _canapé_, from Med. Lat. _canapeum_, classical
+_conopeum_, a mosquito curtain, Gr. [Greek: konops], a gnat), the upper
+part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over an altar or
+scat or tomb. Early English canopies are generally simple, with
+trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later styles they are very
+rich, and divided into compartments with pendants, knots, pinnacles, &c.
+The triangular arrangement over an Early English and Decorated doorway
+is often called a canopy. The triangular canopies in the north of Italy
+are peculiar. Those in England are generally part of the arrangement of
+the arch mouldings of the door, and form, as it were, the hood-moulds to
+them, as at York. The former are above and independent of the door
+mouldings, and frequently support an arch with a tympanum, above which
+is a triangular canopy, as in the Duomo at Florence. Sometimes the
+canopy and arch project from the wall, and are carried on small jamb
+shafts, as at San Pietro Martire, at Verona. There is an extremely
+curious canopy, being a sort of horseshoe arch, surmounting and breaking
+into a circular arch, at Tournai. Similar canopies are often over
+windows, as at York, over the great west window, and lower tiers in the
+towers. These are triangular, while the upper windows in the towers have
+ogee canopies.
+
+
+
+
+CANOSA (anc. _Canusium_), a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
+Bari, situated on the right bank of the Ofanto (anc. _Aufidus_), 505 ft.
+above sea-level, 15 m. S.W. of Barletta by rail. Pop. (1901) 24,230. It
+was rebuilt in 963 below the Roman city, which had been abandoned after
+its devastation by the Saracens in the 9th century. The former cathedral
+of S. Sabino (the bishopric passed in 1818 to Andria), in the southern
+Romanesque style, was consecrated in 1101: it has five domes (resembling
+St Mark's at Venice, except that it is a Latin cross, instead of a Greek
+cross, in plan) and many ancient columns. The archiepiscopal throne and
+pulpit of the end of the 11th century are also fine. On the south side
+of the building is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert
+Guiscard, who died in 1111, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in
+the local style. It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions; the
+exterior is entirely faced with _cipollino_ (Carystian) marble. The
+conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this period, was
+undoubtedly derived from the _turbeh_ before a mosque; these turbehs are
+square, domed-roofed tombs in which the sultans and distinguished
+Mahommedans are buried (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie mêridionale_,
+Paris, 1904, i. 312). A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of
+which the city stands. (See CANUSIUM.)     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOSSA, a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia, Italy, 12
+m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of the Apennines. It
+belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany (d. 1115), and is famous as
+the scene of the penance performed by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope
+Gregory VII. in 1077. The castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of
+Reggio in 1255.
+
+
+
+
+CANOVA, ANTONIO (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born on the 1st of
+November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village situated amid the
+recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these form the last undulations of
+the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains of Treviso. At three
+years of age Canova was deprived of both parents, his father dying and
+his mother remarrying. Their loss, however, was compensated by the
+tender solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother,
+the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest personal
+attention from her grandson, who, when he had the means, gave her an
+asylum in his house at Rome. His father and grandfather followed the
+occupation of stone-cutters or minor statuaries; and it is said that
+their family had for several ages supplied Passagno with members of that
+calling. As soon as Canova's hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated
+into the principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter
+possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, designed
+well, and showed considerable taste in the execution of ornamental
+works. He was greatly attached to his art; and upon his young charge he
+looked as one who was to perpetuate, not only the family name, but also
+the family profession.
+
+The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of his mind was
+to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the gratification of this
+predilection in the workshop of his grandfather were eagerly improved.
+In his ninth year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which
+are still extant. Soon after this period he appears to have been
+constantly employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized
+the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by this means
+young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that name, who
+afterwards became his most zealous patron. Between the younger son,
+Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a friendship commenced which terminated
+only with life. The senator Falier was induced to receive him under his
+immediate protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since
+repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to a trivial
+circumstance--the moulding of a lion in butter--for the warm interest
+which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote may or may not be true.
+By his patron Canova was placed under Bernardi, or, as he is generally
+called by filiation, Torretto, a sculptor of considerable eminence, who
+had taken up a temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity
+of the senator's mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his
+thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two years, making
+in many respects considerable progress. This master returned to Venice,
+where he soon afterwards died; but by the high terms in which he spoke
+of his pupil to Falier, the latter was induced to bring the young artist
+to Venice, whither he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of
+Torretto. With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with
+the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement he began
+to work on his own account, and received from his patron an order for a
+group, "Orpheus and Eurydice." The first figure, which represents
+Eurydice in flames and smoke, in the act of leaving Hades, was completed
+towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his
+patron and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to
+appear before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied him
+with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery. Here
+for nearly four years he laboured with the greatest perseverance and
+industry. He was also regular in his attendance at the academy, where he
+carried off several prizes. But he relied far more on the study and
+imitation of nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for
+their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he reverted to
+living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation. A large
+portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which science was
+regarded by him as "the secret of the art." He likewise frequented
+places of public amusement, where he carefully studied the expressions
+and attitudes of the performers. He formed a resolution, which was
+faithfully adhered to for several years, never to close his eyes at
+night without having produced some design. Whatever was likely to
+forward his advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On
+archaeological pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With ancient
+and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted and he also began
+to acquire some of the continental languages.
+
+Three years had now elapsed without any production coming from his
+chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for his patron, and the
+Orpheus which followed evinced the great advance he had made. The work
+was universally applauded, and laid the foundation of his fame. Several
+groups succeeded this performance, amongst which was that of "Daedalus
+and Icarus," the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The simplicity
+of style and the faithful imitation of nature which characterized them
+called forth the warmest admiration. His merits and reputation being now
+generally recognized, his thoughts began to turn from the shores of the
+Adriatic to the banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the
+commencement of his twenty-fourth year.
+
+Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the Venetian
+senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies without
+embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. The stipend
+amounted to three hundred ducats (about £60 per annum), and was limited
+to three years. Canova had obtained letters of introduction to the
+Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous
+protector of the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner.
+His arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era in
+his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the most
+splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the severest
+test by a competition with the living masters of the art. The result was
+equal to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his
+friends. The work which first established his fame at Rome was "Theseus
+vanquishing the Minotaur." The figures are of the heroic size. The
+victorious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body of the
+monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves
+the terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged.
+Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized Canova's
+style; with these were now united more exalted conceptions of grandeur
+and of truth. The Theseus was regarded with fervent admiration.
+
+Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honour of Clement XIV.; but
+before he proceeded with it he deemed it necessary to request permission
+from the Venetian senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in
+consideration of the pension. This he solicited in person, and it was
+granted. He returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated
+studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years of
+unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the models for
+the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, other two years
+were employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally opened to
+public inspection in 1787 The work, in the opinion of enthusiastic
+_dilettanti_, stamped the author as the first artist of modern times.
+After five years of incessant labour, he completed another cenotaph to
+the memory of Clement XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works
+now came rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a
+butterfly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with
+the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of man's
+immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect the most
+faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two different groups, and
+with opposite expression, the sculptor has represented Cupid with his
+bride; in the one they are standing, in the other recumbent. These and
+other works raised his reputation so high that the most flattering
+offers were sent him from the Russian court to induce him to remove to
+St Petersburg, but these were declined. "Italy," says he, in writing of
+the occurrence to a friend, "Italy is my country--is the country and
+native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was nurtured
+here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other land, they must be
+of some utility to Italy; and ought not her claim to be preferred to all
+others?"
+
+Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of which several
+were repetitions of previous productions. One was the celebrated group
+representing the "Parting of Venus and Adonis." This famous production
+was sent to Naples. The French Revolution was now extending its shocks
+over Italy; and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native
+Passagno. Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a
+year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had some
+knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings about this time. One
+of his productions is a picture representing the dead body of the
+Saviour just removed from the cross, surrounded by the three Marys, S.
+John, Joseph of Arimathea, and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus.
+Above appears the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory,
+and surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was
+greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his native
+place. Events in the political world having come to a temporary lull, he
+returned to Rome; but his health being impaired from arduous
+application, he took a journey through a part of Germany, in company
+with his friend Prince Rezzonico. He returned from his travels much
+improved, and again commenced his labours with vigour and enthusiasm.
+
+Canova's sculptures have been distributed under three heads:--(1) Heroic
+compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and elegance; and (3) Sepulchral
+monuments and relievos. In noticing the works which fall under each of
+these divisions, it will be impossible to maintain a strict
+chronological order, but perhaps a better idea of his productions may
+thus be obtained. Their vast number, however, prevents their being all
+enumerated.
+
+(1) His "Perseus with the Head of Medusa" appeared soon after his
+return. The moment of representation is when the hero, flushed with
+conquest, displays the head of the "snaky Gorgon," whilst the right hand
+grasps a sword of singular device. By a public decree, this fine work
+was placed in one of the _stanze_ of the Vatican hitherto reserved for
+the most precious works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say
+that it wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier
+realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini. In
+1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired to Paris to
+model a bust of the first consul. The artist was entertained with
+munificence, and various honours were conferred upon him. The statue,
+which is colossal, was not finished till six years after. On the fall of
+the great Napoleon, Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British
+government, by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington.
+"Palamedes," "Creugas and Damoxenus," the "Combat of Theseus and the
+Centaur," and "Hercules and Lichas" may close the class of heroic
+compositions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the enumeration
+of various others, such as "Hector and Ajax," and the statues of
+Washington, King Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of "Hercules
+and Lichas" is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova's
+mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled.
+
+(2) Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the statue of
+Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times has the artist
+embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each time with some
+variation. The only material improvement, however, is the substitution
+of a support more suitable to the simplicity of the art. Each of the
+statues is, in all its details, in expression, attitude and delicacy of
+finish, strikingly elegant. The "Dancing Nymphs" maintain a character
+similar to that of the Hebe. The "Graces" and the "Venus" are more
+elevated. The "Awakened Nymph" is another work of uncommon beauty. The
+mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa (as Concord), to model whom
+the author made a further journey to Paris in 1810, the princess
+Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia (Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in
+this class, as do the ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura,
+Beatrice and Helen of Troy.
+
+(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid is the
+monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, consisting of
+nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman pontiffs already mentioned,
+there is one for Alfieri, another for Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a
+small model of a cenotaph for Nelson, besides a great variety of
+monumental relievos.
+
+The events which marked the life of the artist during the first fifteen
+years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned works
+scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely absorbed in the labours of
+his studio, and, with the exception of his journeys to Paris, one to
+Vienna, and a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts
+of Italy, he never quitted Rome. In his own words, "his statues were the
+sole proofs of his civil existence." There was, however, another proof,
+which modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence,
+especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to
+superintend the transmission from Paris of those works of art which had
+formerly been conveyed thither under the direction of Napoleon. By his
+zeal and exertions, for there were many conflicting interests to
+reconcile, he adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his
+judgment and fortunate for his country. In the autumn of this year he
+gratified a wish he had long entertained of visiting London, where he
+received the highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed
+particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who might at the
+time be counted the sole representative of historical painting there,
+and whom he especially honoured for his championship of the Elgin
+marbles, then recently transported to England, and ignorantly
+depreciated by polite connoisseurs. Canova returned to Rome in the
+beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his country's genius.
+Immediately after, he received several marks of distinction,--by the
+hand of the Pope himself his name was inscribed in "the Golden Volume of
+the Capitol," and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with an
+annual pension of 3000 crowns, about £625.
+
+He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of Religion. The
+model filled Italy with admiration; the marble was procured, and the
+chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied to it, when the jealousy of
+churchmen as to the site, or some other cause, deprived the country of
+the projected work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warmest
+sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance he resolved to
+consecrate a shrine to the cause. In his native village he began to make
+preparations for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the
+above statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were to
+repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired to
+Passagno in 1810. At a sumptuous entertainment which he gave to his
+workmen, there occurred an incident which marks the kindliness of his
+character. When the festivities of the day had terminated, he requested
+the shepherdesses and peasantgirls of the adjacent hamlets to pass in
+review before him, and to each he made a present, expending on the
+occasion about £400. We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few
+years afterwards, when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in
+their last asylum, the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was
+in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity of
+more pompous mourning.
+
+After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova
+returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit
+Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and encourage them with
+pecuniary rewards and medals. In the meantime the vast expenditure
+exhausted his resources, and compelled him to labour with unceasing
+assiduity notwithstanding age and disease. During the period which
+intervened between commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he
+executed or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were
+the group "Mars and Venus," the colossal figure of Pius VI., the
+"Pietà," the "St John," the "recumbent Magdalen." The last performance
+which issued from his hand was a colossal bust of his friend, the Count
+Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to Naples, to superintend the
+construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of the perjured
+Bourbon king Ferdinand. This journey materially injured his health, but
+he rallied again on his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the
+year he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he
+experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the
+13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease was
+one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the continual
+use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. The most
+distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains, which were
+deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of the same month.
+
+Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in Italy, and
+brought it back to that standard from which it had declined when the
+sense both of classical beauty and moderation, and of Titanic invention
+and human or superhuman energy as embodied by the unexampled genius of
+Michelangelo, had succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of
+the 17th and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a
+special method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble. He
+formed his models of the same size as the work was intended to be. The
+prominent defect of Canova's attractive and highly trained art is that
+which may be summed up in the word artificiality,--that quality, so
+characteristic of the modern mind, which seizes upon certain properties
+of conception and execution in the art of the past, and upon certain
+types of beauty or emotion in life, and makes a compound of the
+two--regulating both by the standard of taste prevalent in contemporary
+"high society," a standard which, referring to cultivation and
+refinement as its higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of
+his moral character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most
+prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized by his
+works was distributed in acts of this description. He established prizes
+for artists and endowed all the academies of Rome. The aged and
+unfortunate were also the objects of his peculiar solicitude. His titles
+were numerous. He was enrolled amongst the nobility of several states,
+decorated with various orders of knighthood, and associated in the
+highest professional honours.
+
+  See the _Life of Canova_ by Memes; that by Missirini; the _Biografia_
+  by the Count Cicognara; _Canova et ses ouvrages_, by Quatremère de
+  Quincy (1834); _Opere scelte di Antonio Canova_, by Anzelmi (Naples,
+  1842); _Canova_, by A.G. Meyer (1898); and _La Relazione del Canova
+  con Napoli ... memorie con documenti inediti_, by Angelo Borzelli
+  (1901).     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO (1828-1897), Spanish statesman, was born
+in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828. Educated in his native town, he
+went to Madrid in 1845, bent upon finding means to complete his literary
+and philosophical studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebañez Calderon,
+found him a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but
+Canovas soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to
+support himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University.
+During this period he published his two best works--an historical novel,
+_Las Campanas de Huesca_, and the history of the decay of Spain from
+Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria. He became a
+politician through his Junius-like letters to the "Murcielago"--_The
+Bat_, a satirical political journal--and by drawing up the manifesto of
+Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal O'Donnell, of whom he always remained a
+loyal adherent. Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor
+of Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858,
+under-secretary at the home office in 1860, minister of the interior in
+1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of finance in 1866, and
+was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same year, afterwards becoming a
+bitter opponent of all the reactionary cabinets until the revolution of
+1868. He took no part in preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes
+Constituyentes of 1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all
+Radical and democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but
+he abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on the
+16th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his political
+friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets of King
+Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would depend on the
+concessions which government would make to Conservative principles.
+After the abdication of Amadeus and the proclamation of the federal
+republic, Canovas took the lead of the propaganda in favour of the
+restoration of the Bourbons, and was their principal agent and adviser.
+He drew up the manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XII.,
+at that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the military
+men who were actively conspiring to organize an Alphonsist
+_pronunciamiento_. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del Duero, he would have
+preferred to let events develop enough to allow of the dynasty being
+restored without force of arms, and he severely blamed the conduct of
+the generals when he first heard of the _pronunciamiento_ of Marshal
+Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (30th
+of December 1874); but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed
+Alphonso XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received
+from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a regency
+ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who confirmed his
+appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier except during the
+short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in 1875 and Marshal Campos for
+a few months in 1879. Canovas was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration.
+He had to reconstruct a Conservative party out of the least reactionary
+parties of the days of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate
+elements of the revolution. With such followers he made the constitution
+of 1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise in
+the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience,
+rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking
+democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, conciliating
+the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican, the Church
+and the religious orders, pandering to the protectionists by his tariff
+policy, and courting abroad the friendship of Germany and Austria after
+contributing to the marriage of his king to an Austrian princess.
+Canovas crowned his policy by countenancing the formation of a Liberal
+party under Sagasta, flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal
+generals, which took office in 1881. He again became premier in 1883,
+and remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very unpopular,
+and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his violent repression of
+popular and press demonstrations, and of student riots in Madrid and the
+provinces. At the death of Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen
+regent to send for Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he
+looked on quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and
+most of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of
+free trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the
+queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff policy
+of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce, and passing in
+1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the starting-point of the
+decline in foreign trade, the advance of foreign exchanges, the decay of
+railway traffic, and the monetary and financial crisis which continued
+from 1892 to 1898. Splits in the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to
+resign at the end of 1893, and Sagasta came in for eighteen months,
+Canovas resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of
+the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts, with
+characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and means for
+sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out his stern and
+unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions and no reforms. He
+was making up his mind for another effort to enable General Weyler to
+enforce the reforms that had been wrung from the Madrid government, more
+by American diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the
+bullet of an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda,
+cut short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the
+greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He was not
+only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of considerable
+merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic and philosophical
+questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a member of all the
+Madrid academies and a patron of art and letters.     (A. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN (1809-1895), marshal of France, was born at
+St Céré (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and educated at St Cyr; he
+received a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1828, becoming lieutenant in
+1833. He went to Algeria in 1835, served in the expedition to Mascara,
+at the capture of Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year
+he was wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of
+Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing a
+battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841 he was
+again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1846 and colonel
+of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the expedition against Ahmed
+Sghir in 1848, and defeated the Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to
+the Zouaves, he defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage
+and energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in
+command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December 1849). For
+his valour on the latter occasion he received the rank of general of
+brigade and the commandership of the Legion of Honour. He led the
+expedition against Narah in 1850 and destroyed the Arab stronghold.
+Summoned to Paris, he was made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis
+Napoleon, and took part in the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December
+1851. In the Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he
+was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling him to command
+in case of St Arnaud's death, and he thus succeeded to the chief command
+of the French army a few days after the battle. He was slightly wounded
+and had a horse killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of
+Zouaves. Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in
+general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the siege of
+Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he did not return
+to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old division almost up to
+the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to France he was sent on
+diplomatic missions to Denmark and Sweden, and made a marshal and
+senator of France (grand cross Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.).
+He commanded the III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing
+himself at Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp at
+Châlons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris. In the
+Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps, which won the
+greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte, where Canrobert
+commanded on the St Privat position. The VI. corps was amongst those
+shut up in Metz and included in the surrender of that fortress. After
+the war Canrobert was appointed a member of the superior council of war,
+and was also active in political life, being elected senator for Lot in
+1876 and for Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the
+28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral. His
+_Souvenirs_ were published in 1898 at Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CANT, ANDREW (1590?-1663), a leader of the Scottish Covenanters. About
+1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to be their minister, but he was
+rejected by James I. Ten years later he was minister of Pitsligo in
+Aberdeenshire, a charge which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in
+Mid-Lothian. In July of that year he went with other commissioners to
+Aberdeen in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery
+of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the following
+November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow which abolished
+episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was chaplain to the Scottish army and
+then settled as minister at Aberdeen. Though a stanch Covenanter, he was
+a zealous Royalist, preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and
+stoutly advocating the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the
+Commonwealth. Cant's frequent and bitter attacks on various members of
+his congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magistrates,
+in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son Andrew was
+principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685).
+
+
+
+
+CANT, (1) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. _cantos_, corner), in
+architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut off,
+octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of which are not
+parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said to be canted. (2)
+(From the Lat. _cantare_, to sing, very early in use, in a depreciatory
+sense, of religious services), a word appearing in English in the 16th
+century 'for the whining speech of beggars; hence it is applied to
+thieves' or gipsies' jargon, to the peculiar language of any class or
+sect, to any current phrase or turn of language, and particularly to the
+hypocritical use of pious phraseology.
+
+
+
+
+CANTABRI, an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast of Spain near
+Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind--a district hence known as
+Cantabria. Savage and untameable mountaineers, they long defied the
+Roman arms and made themselves a name for wild freedom. They were first
+attacked by the Romans about 150 B.C.; they were not subdued till
+Agrippa and Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 B.C.)
+which ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land was
+part of the province Hispania Tarraconensis with some measure of local
+self-government. They became slowly Romanized, but developed little town
+life and are rarely mentioned in history. They provided recruits for the
+Roman _auxilia_, like their neighbours the Astures, and their land
+contained lead mines, of which, however, little is known.
+
+
+
+
+CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS (Span. _Cordillera Cantabrica_), a mountain chain
+which extends for more than 300 m. across northern Spain, from the
+western limit of the Pyrenees to the borders of Galicia, and on or near
+the coast of the Bay of Biscay. The Cantabrians stretch from east to
+west, nearly parallel to the sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos,
+afterwards trending southward between Leon and Galicia. Their western
+boundary is marked by the valley of the river Miño (Portuguese Minho),
+by the lower Sil, which flows into the Miño, and by the Cabrera, a small
+tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the mountains of Galicia
+beyond the Miño as an integral part of the same system; others confine
+the name to the eastern half of the highlands between Galicia and the
+Pyrenees, and call their western half the Asturian Mountains. There are
+also many local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a
+whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their intricate
+ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in the east, it is
+possible to distinguish two principal ranges, from which the lesser
+ridges and mountain masses radiate. One range, or series of ranges,
+closely follows the outline of the coast; the other, which is loftier,
+forms the northern limit of the great tableland of Castile and Leon, and
+is sometimes regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal
+range rises in some parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so
+abrupt a declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and
+swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus of
+Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the Ebro,
+rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the Cantabrian
+chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about 60 m. in the
+east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are upwards of 6000 ft.
+high, but the greatest altitudes are attained in the central ridges on
+the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia and Santander. Here are the Peña
+Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta (8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an
+unnamed summit in the Peñas de Europa, to which range the Peña Vieja
+also belongs, rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045
+ft.; farther west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubiña, Rubia and Cuiña all
+exceed 7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent
+tableland, is the number of its _parameras_, isolated plateaus shut in
+by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At the
+south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a lake-bed, now
+a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by mountains which
+bifurcate from the main range south of the pass of Leitariegos--the
+Sierra de Justredo and Montañas de Leon curving towards the east and
+south-west, the Sierra de Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges
+curving towards the west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in
+coal and iron; an account of their geological structure is given under
+SPAIN. They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their
+eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of Pájares,
+the railway from Leon to Gijón passes through the Perruca tunnel, which
+is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level; the railway descends
+northward through fifty-eight smaller tunnels. The line from Leon to
+Orense also traverses a remarkable series of tunnels, bridges and deep
+cuttings.
+
+
+
+
+CANTACUZINO, CANTACUZEN or CANTACUZENE, the name of a family which
+traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and writers of the same name
+(see under JOHN V., Cantacuzene). The founder of the family, Andronik,
+migrated to Rumania in 1633, and from his two sons Constantine and
+Gheorge sprang the two principal lines which afterwards branched into
+numerous families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars
+(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were represented in
+every branch of administration and in the world of letters. Under their
+influence the Rumanian language and literature in the 17th century
+reached their highest development. Among the more prominent members of
+the family the following may be mentioned, (1) SHERBAN CANTACUZINO
+(1640-1688), appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the
+Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is alleged
+that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople to drive the
+Turks out of Europe, the western powers having promised him their moral
+support. In the midst of his preparations he died suddenly, poisoned, it
+is said, by the boyars who were afraid of his vast plans. Far more
+important was his activity in economic and literary directions. He
+introduced the maize into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the
+country. He founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted
+liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and under
+his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in Bucharest in 1688.
+Through his influence also the Slavonic language was officially and
+finally abolished from the liturgy and the Rumanian language substituted
+for it. (2) STEFAN CANTACUZINO, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia,
+1714-1716. (3) DEMETRIUS CANTACUZINO, prince of Moldavia, 1674-1676. He
+left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and Sherban have
+emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there as governors of
+Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4) Of the Moldavian
+Cantacuzinos, THEODORE is well known as a chronicler of his times (c.
+1740). (5) GHEORGE CANTACUZINO (b. 1837), son of GREGORI (1800-1849). He
+was appointed in 1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in
+1889, president of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from
+1899 he was head of the Conservative party, and from 1905 to 1907 prime
+minister (see also RUMANIA: _History_).     (M. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTAGALLO, an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, about
+100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro, with which it is
+connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop. (1890) of the municipality,
+26,067, of whom less than one-fourth live in the town. Cantagallo is
+situated in the fertile Parahyba valley and is the commercial centre of
+a rich coffee-producing district. There are exhausted gold placer mines
+in its vicinity, but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable
+development in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry, but
+sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention is given to
+the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an excellent fruit
+region.
+
+
+
+
+CANTAL, a department of central France, formed from Haute-Auvergne, the
+southern portion of the old province of Auvergne. It is bounded N. by
+the department of Puy-de-Dôme, E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozère, S. by
+Aveyron and Lozère, and W. by Corrèze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 228,600. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central plateau
+of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal, a volcanic group
+occupying its central region, and continued towards the north and east
+by ranges of lower altitude. The Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit
+of the department, attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the
+Puy Mary and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft.
+respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies the
+lofty but fertile plateau of Planèze, which merges into the Monts de la
+Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the Truyère skirts the
+Planèze on the south and divides it from the Monts d'Aubrac, at the foot
+of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted for its thermal springs, the most
+important in the department. Northwards the Monts du Cantal are
+connected with the Monts Dore by the volcanic range of Cézallier and the
+arid plateaus of Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus
+and beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central heights.
+Most of the streams of the department have their sources in this central
+ridge and fall by a short and rapid course into the rivers which
+traverse the extensive valleys on either side. The principal rivers are
+the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier; the Celle and Truyère,
+tributaries of the Lot; and the Cère and Rue, tributaries of the
+Dordogne. The climate of the department varies considerably in the
+different localities. In the alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour,
+and in the south-west in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally
+mild and dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are
+long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The cold and damp
+of the climate in these districts are great obstacles to the cultivation
+of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown in considerable quantities,
+and in natural pasture Cantal is extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly
+reared with profit, especially around Salers and in the Monts d'Aubrac,
+while butter and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large
+flocks of sheep pasture in the Monts d'Aubrac and elsewhere in the
+department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple and
+primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare. Many of them
+migrate for part of the year to Paris and the provinces, where they
+engage in the humblest occupations. The principal articles of food are
+rye, buckwheat and chestnuts. The internal resources of the department
+are considerable; but the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them
+being sufficiently developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and
+the streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic and
+medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal, antimony and
+lime. The department has no prominent manufactures. Live-stock, cheese,
+butter and coal are the principal exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour
+and earthenware are imported. The department is served by the railways
+of the Orléans and Southern companies, the construction of which at some
+points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the case of
+the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyère. Cantal is
+divided into four arrondissements--Aurillac, Mauriac, Murat and St
+Flour--23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs to the region of the
+XIII. army corps and to the académie (educational division) of
+Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is at St Flour and depends on the
+archbishopric of Bourges. Its court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is
+Aurillac (q.v.), and St Flour (q.v.) is the other principal town.
+
+
+
+
+CANTARINI, SIMONE (1612-1648), called SIMONE DA PESARO, painter and
+etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 1612. He was a disciple of
+Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domenichino and Albano. The
+irritability of his temper and his vanity were extreme; and it is said
+that his death, which took place at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by
+chagrin at his failure in a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others
+relate that he was poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured.
+His pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in
+originality. Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido
+Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the
+extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are "St
+Anthony," at Cagli; the "Magdalene," at Pesaro; the "Transfiguration,"
+in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the "Portrait of Guido," in the Bologna
+gallery; and "St Romuald," in the Casa Paolucci. His most celebrated
+etching is "Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal
+Borghese."
+
+
+
+
+CANTATA (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal composition
+accompanied by instruments and generally containing more than one
+movement. In the 16th century, when all serious music was vocal, the
+term had no reason to exist, but with the rise of instrumental music in
+the 17th century cantatas began to exist under that name as soon as the
+instrumental art was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the
+middle of the 17th till late in the 18th century a favourite form of
+Italian chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with
+accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo instruments.
+It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative,
+held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples
+may be found in the church music of Carissimi; and the English vocal
+solos of Purcell (such as _Mad Tom_ and _Mad Bess_) show the utmost that
+can be made of this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the
+cantata became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative.
+Handel's numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a rather large
+scale. His Latin motet _Silete Venti_, for soprano solo, shows the use
+of this form in church music.
+
+The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large scale, to
+become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera. In the same way the
+church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable from a small
+oratorio or portion of an oratorio. This is equally evident whether we
+examine the unparalleled church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200
+are extant, or the _Chandos Anthems_ of Handel. In Bach's case many of
+the larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the _Christmas
+Oratorio_ is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended for
+performance on six different days, though together forming as complete
+an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.
+
+The essential point, however, in Bach's church cantatas is that they
+formed part of a church service, and moreover of a service in which the
+organization of the music was far more coherent than is possible in the
+Anglican church. Many of Bach's greatest cantatas begin with an
+elaborate chorus followed by a couple of arias and recitatives, and end
+with a plain chorale. This has often been commented upon as an example
+of Bach's indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no
+one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church cantata
+occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was carefully based
+upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless the cantata was short the
+sermon probably took place after the first chorus or one of the arias,
+and the congregation joined in the final chorale. Thus the unity of the
+service was the unity of the music; and, in the cases where all the
+movements of the cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune,
+this unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century masses
+and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones of the festival
+for which they are written.
+
+In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively to
+choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has, perhaps, been
+only one kind of cantata since Bach which can be recognized as an art
+form and not as a mere title for works otherwise impossible to classify.
+It is just possible to recognize as a distinct artistic type that kind
+of early 19th-century cantata in which the chorus is the vehicle for
+music more lyric and songlike than the oratorio style, though at the
+same time not excludeing the possibility of a brilliant climax in the
+shape of a light order of fugue. Beethoven's _Glorreiche Augenblick_ is
+a brilliant "pot-boiler" in this style; Weber's _Jubel Cantata_ is a
+typical specimen, and Mendelssohn's _Walpurgisnacht_ is the classic.
+Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata," the _Lobgesang_, is a hybrid work,
+partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic
+movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven's ninth symphony;
+but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven's work is a symphony of
+which the fourth movement is a choral finale of essentially single
+design, whereas Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata" is a cantata with three
+symphonic preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral
+songs were realized at last by Brahms in his _Rinaldo_, set to a text
+which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of the
+_Walpurgisnacht_. The point of Brahms's work (his only experiment in
+this _genre_) has naturally been lost by critics who expected in so
+voluminous a composition the qualities of an elaborate choral music with
+which it has nothing whatever to do. Brahms has probably said the last
+word on this subject; and the remaining types of cantata (beginning with
+Beethoven's _Meeres-stille_, and including most of Brahms's and many
+notable English small choral works) are merely so many different ways of
+setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be comprised in
+one movement.     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTEEN (through the Fr. _cantine_, from Ital. _cantina_, a cellar), a
+word chiefly used in a military sense for an official sutler's shop,
+where provisions, &c., are sold to soldiers. The word was formerly
+applied also to portable equipments for carrying liquors and food, or
+for cooking in the field. Another sense of the word, which has survived
+to the present day, is that of a soldier's water-bottle, or of a small
+wooden or metal can for carying a workman's liquor, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CANTEMIR, the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin, which came
+from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled in Moldavia.
+
+CONSTANTINE CANTEMIR became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-1693. He was a
+good and conscientious ruler, who protected the people from the rapacity
+of the tax-gatherers and introduced peace into his country. He was
+succeeded on the throne by his son Antioch, who ruled twice, 1696-1700
+and 1705-1707.
+
+His youngest brother, DEMETRIUS or DEMETER CANTEMIR (b. October 26,
+1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 1710; he ruled only one year,
+1710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great in his campaign against the
+Turks and placed Moldavia under Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks,
+Cantemir emigrated to Russia, where he and his family finally settled.
+He died at Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest
+linguists of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being
+well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and original
+writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his writings range
+over many subjects. The best known is his _History of the Growth and
+Decay of the Ottoman Empire_. He also wrote a history of oriental music,
+which is no longer extant; the first critical history of Moldo-Walachia;
+the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of
+Moldavia, _Descriptio Moldaviae_, under the name of _Historia
+Hieroglyphica_, to which he furnished a key, and in which the principal
+persons are represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling
+houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical treatise on the
+old theme of the disputation between soul and body, written in Greek and
+Rumanian under the title _Divanul Lumii_.
+
+The latter's son, ANTIOCH CANTEMIR (born in Moldavia, 1700; died in
+Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great Britain, and in
+1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He brought to London the Latin
+MS. from whence the English translation of his father's history of the
+Turkish empire was made by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an
+exhaustive biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He
+was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in modern
+Russian literature.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Operele Principelui D. Cantemir_, ed. Academia Româna
+  (1872 foll.); A. Philippide, _Introducere in istoria limbei si
+  literat. romane_ (Iasi, 1888), pp. 192-202; O.G. Lecca, _Familiile
+  boeresti romane_ (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M. Gaster, _Chrestom.
+  româna_, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic).     (M. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON, 1ST VISCOUNT (1780-1845), speaker of
+the House of Commons, was the elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton
+(q.v.), afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and was born on the 29th of
+January 1780. Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he
+graduated B.A. in 1802, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in
+1806. At the general election of this year he was returned to parliament
+in the Tory interest as member for Scarborough, and in 1809 became
+judge-advocate-general in the ministry of Spencer Perceval. He retained
+this position until June 1817, when he was elected speaker in succession
+to Charles Abbot, created Baron Colchester, refusing to exchange this
+office in 1827 for that of home secretary. In 1832 he abandoned
+Scarborough and was returned to parliament as one of the members for the
+university of Cambridge. Before the general election of 1832
+Manners-Sutton had intimated his desire to retire from the position of
+speaker and had been voted an annuity of £4000 a year. The ministry of
+Earl Grey, however, reluctant to meet the reformed House of Commons with
+a new and inexperienced occupant of the chair, persuaded him to retain
+his office, and in 1833 he was elected speaker for the seventh time.
+Some feeling had been shown against him on this occasion owing to his
+Tory proclivities, and the Whigs frequently complained that outside the
+House he was a decided partisan. The result was that when a new
+parliament met in February 1835 a sharp contest ensued for the
+speakership, and Manners-Sutton was defeated by James Abercromby,
+afterwards Lord Dunfermline. In March 1835 the retiring speaker was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Bottesford and Viscount Canterbury. In
+1835 he was appointed high commissioner for Canada, but owing to
+domestic reasons he never undertook the appointment. He died in London
+on the 21st of July 1845 and was buried at Addington. His first wife was
+Lucy (d. 1815), daughter of John Denison of Ossington, by whom he had
+two sons and a daughter. Both his sons, Charles John (1812-1869), and
+John Henry Thomas (1814-1877), succeeded in turn to the viscounty. By
+his second wife, Ellen (d. 1845), widow of John Home-Purves, he had a
+daughter.
+
+
+
+
+CANTERBURY, a city and county of a city, the metropolis of an
+archdiocese of the Church of England, and a municipal, county and
+parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 62 m. E.S.E, of London by the
+South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 24,889. It lies on the
+river Stour, which here debouches from a beautiful narrow valley of the
+North Downs, the low but abrupt elevations of which command fine views
+of the city from the west and south, while the river presently enters
+upon the flat belt of land which separates the elevated Isle of Thanet
+from the rest of Kent. This belt represents the existence, in early
+historic times, of a sea-strait, and Fordwich, little more than 2 m.
+north-east of Canterbury, was once accessible for shipping. The city
+surrounds the precincts of the great cathedral.
+
+_The Cathedral_.--It was to Canterbury, as the capital of Aethelberht,
+the fourth Saxon king of Kent, that in 597 Augustine and his
+fellow-missionaries came from Rome, and their settlement by Aethelberht
+in his capital became the origin of its position, held ever since, as
+the metropolis of the Church of England. Aethelberht, whose queen,
+Bertha, was already a Christian, gave the missionaries a church whose
+mythical founder was King Lucius. Augustine was a Benedictine and
+established the monastery of that order attached to the cathedral; this
+foundation was set upon a firm basis after the Norman Conquest by
+Archbishop Lanfranc, who placed its charge (as distinct from that of the
+diocese) in the hands of a prior.
+
+
+  History of the building.
+
+Preparatory to the description of the cathedral, the principal epochs in
+the history of its erection may be noted. The Romano-British church
+occupied by St Augustine, of basilica form, remained long in use, though
+it was largely rebuilt by Archbishop Odo, c. 950; after further
+vicissitudes it was destroyed by fire in 1067. Archbishop Lanfranc,
+taking up his office in 1070, undertook the building of an entirely new
+church, but under Anselm (c. 1100) Prior Ernulf rebuilt the eastern
+part, and his successor Conrad carried on the work. A fire destroyed
+much of this part of the building in 1174, and from that year the
+architect, William of Sens, took up the work of rebuilding until 1178,
+when, on his suffering serious injury by falling from a scaffold,
+another William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carried on
+the work and completed it in 1184. In 1376 Archbishop Sudbury entered
+upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior Chillenden continued this
+under Archbishop Courtenay. The building of the central tower was
+undertaken c. 1495 by Prior Goldstone, with the counsel of Selling, his
+predecessor, and Archbishop Morton.
+
+
+  Exterior.
+
+This Perpendicular tower is the most notable feature of the exterior. It
+rises in two storeys to a height of 235 ft. from the ground, and is
+known variously as Bell Harry tower from the great bell it contains, or
+as the Angel steeple from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly
+adorned the summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front
+by towers, whose massive buttresses, rising in tiers, serve to enhance
+by contrast the beautiful effect of the unbroken straight lines of Bell
+Harry tower. The south-western of these towers is an original
+Perpendicular structure by Prior Goldstone, while the north-western was
+copied from it in 1834-1840, replacing a Norman tower which had carried
+a spire until 1705 and had become unsafe. The north-west and south-west
+transepts are included in Chillenden's Perpendicular reconstruction; but
+east of these earlier work is met with. The south-east transept exhibits
+Norman work; the projecting chapel east of this is known as Anselm's
+tower. The cathedral terminates eastward in a graceful apsidal form,
+with the final addition of the circular eastern chapel built by William
+the Englishman, and known as the Corona or Becket's Crown. St Andrew's
+tower or chapel on the north side, corresponding to Anselm's on the
+south, is the work of Ernulf. From this point westward the various
+monastic buildings adjoin the cathedral on the north side, so that the
+south side is that from which the details of the exterior must be
+examined.
+
+
+  Interior.
+
+When the nave of the cathedral is entered, the complete separation of
+the interior into two main parts, not only owing to the distinction
+between the two main periods of building; but by an actual structural
+arrangement, is realized as an unusual and, as it happens, a most
+impressive feature. In most English cathedrals the choir is separated
+from the nave by a screen; at Canterbury not only is this the case, but
+the separation is further marked by a broad flight of steps leading up
+to the screen, the choir floor (but not its roof) being much higher than
+that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding the nave, retained only the
+lower parts of some of the early Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers
+of the central tower arches. These piers were encased or altered on
+Perpendicular lines. In the choir, the late 12th-century work of the two
+Williams, the notable features are its great length, the fine
+ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed, a remarkable
+illustration of the transition between the Norman and Early English
+styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the shafts and mouldings
+strongly contrasting with the light stone which is the material
+principally used; and, finally, the graceful incurve of the main arcades
+and walls at the eastern end of the choir where it joins the chapel of
+the Trinity, an arrangement necessitated by the preservation of the
+earlier flanking chapels or towers of St Anselm and St Andrew. From the
+altar eastward the floor of the church is raised again above that of the
+choir. The choir screen was built by Prior de Estria, c. 1300. The
+organ is not seen, being hidden in the triforium and played from the
+choir. There are several tombs of archbishops in the choir. The
+south-east transept serves as the chapel of the King's school and
+exhibits the work of William of Sens in alteration of that of Ernulf.
+Anselm's chapel or tower, already mentioned, may be noticed again as
+containing a Decorated window (1336). This style is not common in the
+cathedral.
+
+
+  Becket's shrine. Pilgrimages.
+
+Behind the altar is Trinity Chapel, in the centre of which stood the
+celebrated shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The priory owed its chief
+fame to the murder of Archbishop Becket (1170) in the church, his
+canonization as St Thomas of Canterbury, and the resort of the Christian
+world on pilgrimage to his shrine. Miracles were almost immediately said
+to be worked at his grave in the crypt and at the well in which his
+garments had been washed; and from the time when Henry II. did his
+penance for the murder in the church, and the battle of Alnwick was
+gained over the Scots a few days afterwards--it was supposed as a
+result--the fame of the martyr's power and the popularity of his
+worship became established in England. On the rebuilding of the
+cathedral after the fire of 1174, a magnificent shrine was erected for
+him in Trinity Chapel, which was built for the purpose, and became
+thronged for three centuries by pilgrims and worshippers of all classes,
+from kings and emperors downward. Henceforward the interests of the city
+became bound up in those of the cathedral, and were shown in the large
+number of hostels for the accommodation of pilgrims, and of shops
+containing wares especially suited to their tastes. A pilgrimage to
+Canterbury became not only a pious exercise, but a favourite summer
+excursion; and the poet Chaucer, writing in the 14th century, gives an
+admirable picture of such pilgrimages, with the manners and behaviour of
+a party of pilgrims, leisurely enjoying the journey and telling stories
+on the road. The English language even preserved two words originating
+in these customs--a "canterbury," or a "canterbury tale," a phrase used
+for a fiction, and a "canter," which is a short form for a "canterbury
+gallop," an allusion to the easy pace at which these pilgrimages were
+performed. The shrine with its vast collected wealth was destroyed, and
+every reminiscence connected with it as far as possible effaced, by King
+Henry VIII.'s commissioners in 1538. But some of the beautiful old
+windows of stained glass, illustrating the miracles wrought in connexion
+with the saint, are preserved. The north-west transept was the actual
+scene of Becket's murder; the spot where he fell is shown on the floor,
+but this part of the building is of later date than the tragedy.
+
+Close to the site of the shrine is the fine tomb of Edward the Black
+Prince, with a remarkable portrait effigy, and above it his helmet,
+shield and other equipment. There is also in this chapel the tomb of
+King Henry IV. The Corona, at the extreme cast of the church, contains
+the so-called St Augustine's chair in which the archbishops are
+enthroned. It is of marble, but its name is not deserved, as it dates
+probably from c. 1200. The western part of the crypt, beneath the choir,
+is the work of Ernulf, and perhaps incorporates some of Lanfranc's work.
+The chapel of St John or St Gabriel, beneath Anselm's tower, is still
+used for service, in which the French language is used; it was devoted
+to this purpose in 1561, on behalf of French Protestant refugees, who
+were also permitted to carry on their trade as weavers in the crypt. The
+eastern and loftier part of the crypt, with its apsidal termination, is
+the work of William the Englishman. Here for some time lay the body of
+Becket, and here the celebrated penance of Henry II. was performed.
+
+
+  Monastic buildings.
+
+The chief entrance to the precincts is through an ornate gateway at the
+south-west, called Christchurch gateway, and built by Prior Goldstone in
+1517. Among the remains of the monastic buildings there may be mentioned
+the Norman ruins of the infirmary, the fine two-storeyed treasury and
+the lavatory tower, Norman in the lower part and Perpendicular in the
+upper. The cloisters are of various dates, containing a little rich
+Norman work, but were very largely rebuilt by Prior Chillenden. The
+upper part of the chapter-house is also his work, but the lower is by
+Prior de Estria. The library is modern. The site of the New Hall of the
+monastery is covered by modern buildings of King's school, but the
+Norman entry-stair is preserved--a magnificent example of the style,
+with highly ornate arcading.
+
+The principal dimensions of the cathedral arc: length (outside) 522 ft.,
+nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in breadth and 80 ft. in
+height.
+
+
+  Province and diocese.
+
+The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the
+ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England and Wales south of
+Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the diocese covers a great part of Kent with
+a small part of Sussex. The following is a list of archbishops of
+Canterbury:--
+
+   1. Augustine, 597 to 605.           55. Thomas  Bradwardin, 1349.
+   2. Lawrence (Laurentius), 605       56. Simon Islip, 1349 to 1366.
+        to 619.                        57. Simon Langham, 1366 to
+   3. Mellitus, 619 to 624.                 1368.
+   4. Justin. 624 to 627.              58. William Whittlesea, 1368
+   5. Honorius, 627 to 653.                  to 1374.
+   6. Deusdedit (Frithona), 655        59. Simon Sudbury, 1375 to
+        to 664.                              1381.
+   7. Theodore, 668 to 690.            60. William Courtenay, 1381 to
+   8. Brethwald (Berhtuald), 693             1396.
+        to 731.                        61. Thomas Arundel, 1396 to
+   9. Taetwine. 731 to 734.                  1414.
+  10. Nothelm, 734 to 740.             62. Henry Chicheley, 1414 to
+  11. Cuthbert, 740 to 758.                  1443.
+  12. Breogwine, 759 to 762.           63. John Stafford, 1443 to 1452.
+  13. Jaenberht, 763 to 790.           64. John Kemp, 1452 to 1454.
+  14. Aethelhard, 790 to 803.          65. Thomas Bourchier, 1454 to
+  15. Wulfred, 803 to 829.                   1486.
+  16. Fleogild, 829 to 830.            66. John Morton, 1486 to 1500.
+  17. Ceolnoth, 830 to 870.            67. Henry Dean (Dene), 1501 to
+  18. Æthelred, 870 to 889.                 1503.
+  19. Plegemund, 889 to 914.           68. William Warham, 1503 to
+  20. Aethelm, 914 to 923.                   1532.
+  21. Wulfelm, 923 to 942.             69. Thomas Cranmer, 1533 to
+  22. Odo, 942 to 959.                       1556.
+  23. Aelsine, 959.                    70. Reginald Pole, 1556 to 1558.
+  24. Dunstan, 960 to 988.             71. Matthew Parker, 1559 to
+  25. Aethelgar, 988 to 989.                 1575.
+  26. Sigeric, 990 to 994.             72. Edmund Grindal, 1575 to
+  27. Aelfric, 995 to 1005.                  1583.
+  28. Alphege (Aelfeah), 1005  to      73. John Whitgift, 1583 to 1604.
+        1012.                          74. Richard Bancroft, 1604 to
+  29. Lyfing, 1013 to 1020.                  1610.
+  30. Aethelnoth, 1020 to 1038.        75. George Abbot, 1610 to 1633.
+  31. Eadsige, 1038 to 1050.           76. William Laud, 1633 to 1645.
+  32. Robert of Jumièges, 1051 to      77. William Juxon, 1660 to 1663.
+        1052.                          78. Gilbert Sheldon, 1663 to
+  33. Stigand, 1052 to 1070.                 1677.
+  34. Lanfranc, 1070 to 1089.          79. William Sancroft, 1678 to
+  35. Anselm, 1093 to 1109.                  1691.
+  36. Ralph de Turbine,  1114 to       80. John Tillotson, 1691 to 1694.
+        1122.                          81. Thomas Tenison, 1694 to
+  37. William de Corbeuil                    1715.
+        (Curbellio), 1123 to 1136.     82. William Wake, 1716 to 1737.
+  38. Theobald, 1139 to 1161.          83. John Potter, 1737 to 1747.
+  39. Thomas Becket, 1162 to 1170.     84. Thomas Herring, 1747 to
+  40. Richard, 1174 to 1184.                 1757.
+  41. Baldwin, 1185 to 1190.           85. Matthew Hutton, 1757 to
+  42. Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn, 1191.           1758.
+  43. Hubert Walter, 1193 to 1205.     86. Thomas Secker, 1758 to
+  44. Stephen Langton, 1207 to               1768.
+        1228.                          87. Frederick Cornwallis, 1768
+  45. Richard Wethershed, 1229               to 1783.
+        to 1231.                       88. John Moore, 1783 to 1805.
+  46. Edmund Rich (de Abbendon)         89. Charles Manners-Sutton,
+        1234 to 1240.                        1805 to 1828.
+  47. Boniface of Savoy, 1241 to       90. William Howley, 1828 to
+        1270.                                1848.
+  48. Robert Kilwardby, 1273 to        91. John Bird Sumner, 1848 to
+        1278.                                1862.
+  49. John Peckham, 1279 to 1292.      92. Charles Thomas Longley,
+  50. Robert Winchelsea, 1293 to             1862 to 1868.
+        1313.                          93. Archibald Campbell Tait,
+  51. Walter Reynolds, 1313 to               1868 to 1882.
+        1327.                          94. Edward White Benson, 1882
+  52. Simon de Meopham, 1328 to              to 1896.
+        1333.                          95. Frederick Temple, 1896 to
+  53. John Stratford, 1333 to 1348.          1903
+  54. John de Ufford, 1348 to 1349.    96. Randall Thomas Davidson.
+
+The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth Palace, London. There are fragments
+in Palace Street of the old archbishop's palace which have been
+incorporated with a modern palace.
+
+_Other Ecclesiastical Foundations._--Canterbury naturally abounded in
+religious foundations. The most important, apart from the cathedral, was
+the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine. This was erected on a site
+granted by King Aethelberht outside his capital, in a tract called
+Longport. Augustine dedicated it to St Peter and St Paul, but Archbishop
+Dunstan added the sainted name of the founder to the dedication, and in
+common use it came to exclude those of the apostles. The site is now
+occupied by St Augustine's Missionary College, founded in 1844 when the
+property was acquired by A.J.B. Beresford Hope. Some ancient remnants
+are preserved, the principal being the entrance gateway (1300), with the
+cemetery gate, dated a century later, and the guest hall, now the
+refectory; but the scanty ruins of St Pancras' chapel are of high
+interest, and embody Roman material. The chapel is said to have received
+its dedication from St Augustine on account of the special association
+of St Pancras with children, and in connexion with the famous story of
+St Gregory, w hose attention was first attracted to Britain when he saw
+the fair-faced children of the Angles who had been brought to Rome, and
+termed them "not Angles but angels."
+
+There were lesser houses of many religious orders in Canterbury, but
+only two, those of the Dominicans near St Peter's church in St Peter's
+Street, and the Franciscans, also in St Peter's Street, have left
+notable remains. The Dominican refectory is used as a chapel. Among the
+many churches, St Martin's, Longport, is of the first interest. This was
+the scene of the earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury, and had seen
+Christian service before his arrival. Its walls contain Roman masonry,
+but whether it is in part a genuine remnant of a Romano-British
+Christian church is open to doubt. There are Norman, Early English and
+later portions; and the font may be in part pre-Norman, and is indeed
+associated by tradition with the baptism of Aethelberht himself. St
+Mildred's church exhibits Early English and Perpendicular work, and the
+use of Roman material is again visible here. St Paul's is of Early
+English origin; St Dunstan's, St Peter's and Holy Cross are mainly
+Decorated and Perpendicular. The village of Harbledown, on the hill west
+of Canterbury on the London road, from the neighbourhood of which a
+beautiful view over the city is obtained, has many associations with the
+ecclesiastical life of Canterbury. It is mentioned by Chaucer in his
+pilgrimage under the name, appropriate to its site, of "Bob up and
+down." The almshouses, which occupy the site of Lanfranc's hospital for
+lepers, include an ancient hall and a chapel in which the west door and
+northern nave arcade are Norman, and are doubtless part of Lanfranc's
+buildings. The neighbouring parish church is in great part rebuilt.
+Among the numerous charitable institutions in Canterbury there are
+several which may be called the descendants of medieval ecclesiastical
+foundations.
+
+_City Buildings, &c._--The old city walls may be traced, and the public
+walk called the Dane John (derived probably from _donjon_) follows the
+summit of a high artificial mound within the lines. The cathedral is
+finely seen from this point. Only the massive turreted west gate, of the
+later part of the 14th century, remains out of the former six city
+gates. The site of the castle is not far from the Dane John, and enough
+remains of the Norman keep to show its strength and great size. Among
+other buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the guildhall in
+High Street, of the early part of the 18th century; the museum, which
+includes a fine collection of local, including many Roman, relics; and
+the school of art, under municipal management, but founded by the
+painter T. Sidney Cooper (d. 1902), who was a resident at Harbledown. A
+modern statue of a muse commemorates the poet Christopher Marlowe
+(1564-1593), a native of the city; and a pillar indicates the place
+where a number of persons were burnt at the stake in the reign of Mary.
+
+The King's school, occupying buildings adjacent to the cathedral,
+developed out of the early teaching furnished by the monastery. It was
+refounded by Henry VIII. in 1541 (whence its name), and is managed on
+the lines of ordinary public schools. It has about 250 boys; and there
+is besides a junior or preparatory school. The school is still connected
+with the ecclesiastical foundation, the dean and chapter being its
+governors.
+
+A noted occasion of festivity in Canterbury is the Canterbury
+cricket-week, when the Kent county cricket eleven engages in matches
+with other first-class teams, and many visitors are attracted to the
+city.
+
+Canterbury has a considerable agriculture trade, breweries, tanneries,
+brickworks and other manufactures. The parliamentary borough returns one
+member. The city is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 3955 acres.
+
+_History of the City._--The existence of a Romano-British town on the
+site of Canterbury has already been indicated. It was named
+_Durovernum_, and was a flourishing county town on the road from the
+Kentish ports to London. Mosaic pavements and other remains have been
+found in considerable abundance. The city, known by the Saxons as
+_Cantwaraburh_, the town of the men of Kent, was the metropolis of
+Aethelberht's kingdom. At the time of the Domesday survey Canterbury
+formed part of the royal demesne and was governed by a portreeve as it
+had been before the Conquest. In the 13th and 14th centuries, two
+bailiffs presided over the burghmote, assisted by a larger and smaller
+council. Henry II., by an undated charter, confirmed former privileges
+and granted to the citizens that no one should implead them outside the
+city walls and that the pleas of the crown should be decided according
+to the customs of the city. In 1256 Henry III. granted them the city at
+an annual fee farm of £60, also the right of electing their bailiffs.
+Confirmations of former charters with additional liberties were granted
+by later sovereigns, and Henry VI. incorporated Canterbury, which he
+called "one of our most ancient cities," under the style of the mayor
+and commonalty, the mayor to be elected by the burgesses. James I. in
+1609 confirmed these privileges, giving the burgesses the right to be
+called a body corporate and to elect twelve aldermen and a common
+council of twenty-four. Charles II., after calling in the charters of
+corporations, granted a confirmation in 1684. Canterbury was first
+represented in parliament in 1283, and it continued to return two
+members until 1885, when the number was reduced to one. A fair was
+granted by Henry VI. to the citizens to be held in the city or suburbs
+on the 4th of August and the two days following; other fairs were in the
+hands of the monasteries; the corn and cattle markets and a general
+market have been held by prescription from time immemorial. Canterbury
+was a great centre of the silk-weaving trade in the 17th century, large
+numbers of Walloons, driven by persecution to England, having settled
+there in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1676 Charles II. granted a charter
+of incorporation to the Walloon congregation under style of the master,
+wardens and fellowship of weavers in the city of Canterbury. The market
+for the sale of corn and hops was regulated by a local act in 1801.
+
+  See A.P. Stanley, _Historical Memorials of Canterbury_ (London, 1855);
+  J. Brent, _Canterbury in the Olden Time_ (Canterbury, 1879); J.W. Legg
+  and W.H. St J. Hope, _Inventories of Christchurch, Canterbury_
+  (London, 1902); _Victoria County History, Kent_.
+
+
+
+
+CANTHARIDES, or SPANISH FLIES, the common blister-beetles (_Cantharis
+vesicatoria_) of European pharmacy. They are bright, iridescent,
+golden-green or bluish-coloured beetles (see COLEOPTERA), with the
+breast finely punctured and pubescent, head and thorax with a
+longitudinal channel, and elytra with two slightly elevated lines. The
+insect is from half-an-inch to an inch in length, and from one to two
+lines broad, the female being broader in the abdomen and altogether
+larger than the male. It is a native of the south of Europe, being found
+in Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the south of Russia, and
+it is also obtained in Siberia. The Spanish fly is also occasionally
+found in the south of England. The insects feed upon ash, lilac, privet
+and jasmine leaves, and are found more rarely on elder, rose, apple and
+poplar trees. Their presence is made known by a powerful disagreeable
+odour, which penetrates to a considerable distance. They are collected
+for use at late evening or early morning, while in a dull bedewed
+condition, by shaking them off the trees or shrubs into cloths spread on
+the ground; and they are killed by dipping them into hot water or
+vinegar, or by exposing them for some time over the vapour of vinegar.
+They are then dried and put up for preservation in glass-stoppered
+bottles; and they require to be very carefully guarded against mites and
+various other minute insects, to the attacks of which they are
+peculiarly liable. It has been shown by means of spectroscopic
+observations that the green colour of the elytra, &c., is due to the
+presence of chlorophyll; and that the variations of the spectral bands
+are sufficient, after the lapse of many years, to indicate with some
+certainty the kind of leaves on which the insects were feeding shortly
+before they were killed.
+
+Cantharides owe their value to the presence of a peculiar chemical
+principle, to which the name _cantharidin_ has been given. It is most
+abundant in large full-grown insects, while in very young specimens no
+cantharidin at all has been found. From about one-fourth to rather more
+than one-half per cent, of cantharidin has been obtained from different
+samples; and it has been ascertained that the elytra or wing-sheaths of
+the insect, which alone are used in pharmacy, contain more of the active
+principle than the soft parts taken together; but apparently
+cantharidin is most abundant in the eggs and generative organs.
+
+Cantharidin constitutes from ½ to 1% of cantharides. It has the formula
+C10H14O4, and on hydrolysis is converted into cantharinic acid,
+C10H14O5. It crystallizes in colourless plates and is readily soluble in
+alcohol, ether, &c., but not in water. The British Pharmacopeia contains
+a large number of preparations of cantharides, but the only one needing
+special mention is the tincture, which is meant for internal
+administration; the small dose is noteworthy, five minims being probably
+the maximum for safety.
+
+The external action of cantharides or cantharidin is extremely
+characteristic. When it is applied to the skin there are no obvious
+consequences for some hours. Thereafter the part becomes warm and
+painful, owing to marked local vascular dilatation. This is the typical
+_rubefacient_ action. Soon afterwards there is an accumulation under the
+epidermis of a serum derived from the dilated blood-vessels. The
+numerous small blisters or vesicles thus derived coalesce, forming a
+large sac full of "blister-fluid." The drug is described as a
+counter-irritant, though the explanation of this action is very
+doubtful. Apparently there is an influence on the afferent nerves of the
+part which causes a reflex contraction--some authors say dilatation--of
+the vessels in the internal organs that are under the control of the
+same segment of the nervous system as that supplying the area of skin
+from which the exciting impulse comes. When applied in this fashion a
+certain quantity of the cantharides is absorbed.
+
+Taken internally in any but minute doses, the drug causes the most
+severe gastro-intestinal irritation, the vomited and evacuated matters
+containing blood, and the patient suffering agonizing pain and extreme
+depression. The further characteristic symptoms are displayed in the
+genito-urinary tract. The drug circulates in the blood in the form of an
+albuminate and is slowly excreted by the kidneys. The effect of large
+doses is to cause great pain in the renal region and urgent wish to
+micturate. The urine is nevertheless small in amount and contains
+albumen and blood owing to the local inflammation produced in the kidney
+by the passage of the poison through that organ. The drug often has a
+marked aphrodisiac action, producing priapism, or in the female sex the
+onset of the catamenia or abortion.
+
+Cantharides is used externally for its counter-irritant action. There
+are certain definite contra-indications to its use. It must not be
+employed in cases of renal disease, owing to the risks attendant upon
+absorption. It must always be employed with caution in the case of
+elderly persons and children; and it must not be applied to a paralysed
+limb (in which the power of healing is deficient), nor to parts upon
+which the patient lies, as otherwise a bed-sore is likely to follow its
+use. The drug is administered internally in certain cases of impotence
+and occasionally in other conditions. Its criminal employment is usually
+intended to heighten sexual desire, and has frequently led to death.
+
+The toxic symptoms have already been detailed, the patient usually dying
+from arrest of the renal functions. The treatment is far from
+satisfactory, and consists in keeping up the strength and diluting the
+poison in the blood and in the urine by the administration of bland
+fluids, such as soda-water, milk and plain water, in quantities as large
+as possible. External warmth should also be applied to the regions
+specially affected by the drug.
+
+A very large number of other insects belonging to the same family
+possess blistering properties, owing to their containing cantharidin. Of
+these the most remarkable is the Telini "fly" of India (_Mylabris
+cichorii_), the range of which extends from Italy and Greece through
+Egypt and central Asia as far as China. It is very rich in cantharidin,
+yielding fully twice as much as ordinary cantharides. Several
+green-coloured beetles are, on account of their colour, used as
+adulterants to cantharides, but they are very easily detected by
+examination with the eye, or, if powdered, with the microscope.
+
+
+
+
+CANTICLES. The Old Testament book of Canticles, or the Song of Solomon,
+is called in Hebrew _The Song of Songs_ (that is, _the choicest of
+songs_), or, according to the full title which stands as the first verse
+of the book, _The choicest of the songs of Solomon_. In the Western
+versions the book holds the third place among the so-called Solomonic
+writings, following Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. In Hebrew Bibles it
+stands among the _Megilloth_, the five books of the Hagiographa which
+have a prominent place in the Synagogue service. In printed Bibles and
+in German MSS. it is the first of these because it is read at the
+Passover, which is the first great feast of the sacred year of the Jews.
+
+No part of the Bible has called forth a greater diversity of opinions
+than the Song of Solomon, and this for two reasons. In the first place,
+the book holds so unique a position in the Old Testament, that the
+general analogy of Hebrew literature is a very inadequate key to the
+verbal difficulties, the artistic structure, and the general conception
+and purpose of the poem. In point of language the departures from
+ordinary Hebrew are almost always in the direction of Aramaic. Many
+forms unique in Biblical Hebrew are at once explained by the Aramaic
+dialects, but not a few are still obscure. The philological difficulties
+of the book are, however, less fundamental than those which lie in the
+unique character of the Song of Solomon in point of artistic form, and
+in the whole atmosphere of thought and feeling in which it moves. Even
+in these respects it is not absolutely isolated. Parallels to the
+peculiar imagery may be found in the book of Hosea, in Ezekiel xvi. and
+xxiii. and above all in the 45th Psalm; but such links of union to the
+general mass of the Old Testament literature are too slight to be of
+material assistance in the solution of the literary problem of the book.
+Here, again, as in the lexical difficulties already referred to, we are
+tempted or compelled to argue from the distant and insecure analogy of
+other Eastern literatures, or are thrown back upon traditions of
+uncertain origin and ambiguous authority.
+
+The power of tradition has been the second great source of confusion of
+opinion about the Song of Solomon. To tradition we owe the title, which
+apparently indicates Solomon as the author and not merely as the subject
+of the book. The authority of titles in the Old Testament is often
+questionable, and in the present case it is certain on linguistic
+grounds that the title is not from the hand that wrote the poem; while
+to admit that it gives a correct account of the authorship is to cut
+away at one stroke all the most certain threads of connexion between the
+book and our historical knowledge of the Old Testament people and
+literature.
+
+To tradition, again, we owe the prejudice in favour of an allegorical
+interpretation, that is, of the view that from verse to verse the Song
+sets forth the history of a spiritual and not merely of an earthly love.
+To apply such an exegesis to Canticles is to violate one of the first
+principles of reasonable interpretation. True allegories are never
+without internal marks of their allegorical design. The language of
+symbol is not so perfect that a long chain of spiritual ideas can be
+developed without the use of a single spiritual word or phrase; and even
+were this possible it would be false art in the allegorist to hide away
+his sacred thoughts behind a screen of sensuous and erotic imagery, so
+complete and beautiful in itself as to give no suggestion that it is
+only the vehicle of a deeper sense. Apart from tradition, no one, in the
+present state of exegesis, would dream of allegorizing poetry which in
+its natural sense is so full of purpose and meaning, so apt in
+sentiment, and so perfect in imagery as the lyrics of Canticles. We are
+not at liberty to seek for allegory except where the natural sense is
+incomplete. This is not the case in the Song of Solomon. On the
+contrary, every form of the allegorical interpretation which has been
+devised carries its own condemnation in the fact that it takes away from
+the artistic unity of the poem and breaks natural sequences of
+thought.[1] The allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon bad
+its rise in the very same conditions which forced a deeper sense, now
+universally discarded, upon so many other parts of scripture. Yet
+strangely enough there is no evidence that the Jews of Alexandria
+extended to the book their favourite methods of interpretation. The
+arguments which have been adduced to prove that the Septuagint
+translation implies an allegorical exegesis are inadequate;[2] and Philo
+does not mention the book. Nor is there any allusion to Canticles in the
+New Testament. The first trace of an allegorical view identifying Israel
+with the "spouse" appears to be in the Fourth Book of Ezra, near the
+close of the 1st Christian century (v. 24, 26; vii. 26). Up to this time
+the canonicity of the Canticles was not unquestioned; and the final
+decision as to the sanctity of the book, so energetically carried
+through by R. Aqiba, when he declared that "the whole world is not worth
+the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; for all the
+scriptures (or Hagiographa) are holy, but the Canticles most holy," must
+be understood as being at the same time a victory of the allegorical
+interpretation over the last remains of a view which regarded the poem
+as simply erotic.[3]
+
+The form in which the allegorical theory became fixed in the synagogue
+is contained in the Midrash _Chazita_ and in the Targum, which is a
+commentary rather than a translation. The spouse is Israel, her royal
+lover the divine king, and the poem is explained as tracing the great
+events of the people's history from the Exodus to the Messianic glory
+and final restoration.[4]
+
+The authority of Origen, who, according to Jerome, surpassed himself in
+his commentary of ten volumes on this book, established the allegorical
+theory in the Christian church in the two main forms in which it has
+since prevailed. The bridegroom is Christ, the bride either the church
+or the believing soul. The latter conception is, of course, that which
+lends itself most readily to purposes of mystical edification, and which
+has made Canticles the manual in all ages of a wide-spread type of
+religious contemplation. But the other view, which identifies the bride
+with the church, must be regarded as the standard of orthodox exegesis.
+Of course the allegorical principle admitted of very various
+modifications, and readily adapted itself to new religious developments,
+such as the rise of Mariolatry. Within the limits of the orthodox
+traditions the allegory took various colours, according as its mystical
+or its prophetical aspect was insisted on. Among medieval commentators
+of the former class S. Bernard holds a pre-eminent place; while the
+second class is represented by Nicolaus de Lyra, who, himself a
+converted Jew, modified the Jewish interpretation so as to find in the
+book an account of the _processus ecclesiae_ under the Old and New
+Testaments. The prophetic exegesis reached its culminating point in the
+post-Reformation period, when Cocceius found in the Canticles a complete
+conspectus of church history. But the relaxation of traditional
+authority opened the door to still stranger vagaries of interpretation.
+Luther was tempted to understand the book of the political relations of
+Solomon and his people. Others detected the loves of Solomon and
+Wisdom--a view which found a supporter in Rosenmüller.
+
+The history of the literal interpretation begins with the great
+"commentator" of the Syrian Church, Theodorus of Mopsuestia (died 429),
+who condemned equally the attempt to find in the book a prophecy of the
+blessings given to the church, and the idea even at that time expressed
+in some quarters that the book is immoral. Theodorus regarded the
+Canticles as a poem written by Solomon in answer to the complaints of
+his people about his Egyptian marriage; and this was one of the heresies
+charged upon him after his death, which led to his condemnation at the
+second council of Constantinople (553 A.D.). A literal interpretation
+was not again attempted till in 1544 Chateillon (Castellio or Castalion)
+lost his regency at Geneva for proposing to expel the book from the
+canon as impure. Grotius (_Annot. in V.T._, 1644) took up a more
+moderate position. Without denying the possibility of a secondary
+reference designed by Solomon to give his poem a more permanent value,
+he regards the Canticles as primarily an [Greek: oaristys] (conjugal
+prattle) between Solomon and Pharaoh's daughter. The distinction of a
+primary and secondary sense gradually became current not only among the
+Remonstrants, but in England (Lightfoot, Lowth) and even in Catholic
+circles (Bossuet, 1693). In the actual understanding of the book in its
+literal sense no great progress was made. Solomon was still viewed as
+the author, and for the most part the idea that the poem is a dramatic
+epithalamium was borrowed from Origen and the allegorists, and applied
+to the marriage of Pharaoh's daughter.
+
+From Grotius to Lowth the idea of a typical reference designed by
+Solomon himself appears as a mere excrescence on the natural
+interpretation, but as an excrescence which could not be removed without
+perilling the place of Canticles in the canon, which, indeed, was again
+assailed by Whiston in 1723. But in his notes on Lowth's lectures, J.D.
+Michaelis, who regarded the poem as a description of the enduring
+happiness of true wedded love long after marriage, proposed to drop the
+allegory altogether, and to rest the canonicity of the book, as of those
+parts of Proverbs which treat of conjugal affection, on the moral
+picture it presents (1758).
+
+Then came Herder's exquisite little treatise on _Solomon's Songs of
+Love, the Oldest and Sweetest of the East_ (1778). Herder, possessing
+delicacy of taste and sympathetic poetical genius, delighted in the
+Canticles as the transparently natural expression of innocent and tender
+love. He expressed the idea that the poem is simply a sequence of
+independent songs without inner unity, grouped so as to display various
+phases and stages of love in a natural order, culminating in the placid
+joys of wedded life. The theory of Herder, which refuses to acknowledge
+any continuity in the book, was accepted by Eichhorn on the part of
+scholars, and with some hesitation by Goethe on the part of the poets.
+Commentaries based on this view are those of Döpke (1829), Magnus
+(1842), Noyes (1846).
+
+The prevalent view of the 19th century, however, recognizes in the poem
+a more or less pronounced dramatic character, and following Jacobi
+(1771) distinguishes the shepherd, the true love of the Shulamite, from
+King Solomon, who is made to play an ignominious part. Propounded by
+Stäudlin (1792) and Ammon (1795), this view was energetically carried
+out by Umbreit (1820), and above all by Ewald, whose acuteness gave the
+theory a new development, while his commanding influence among Hebrew
+scholars acquired for it general recognition. Ewald assumed a very
+simple dramatic structure, and did not in his first publication (1826)
+venture to suppose that the poem had ever been acted on a stage. His
+less cautious followers have been generally tempted to dispose of
+difficulties by introducing more complicated action and additional
+interlocutors (so, for example, Hitzig, 1855; Ginsburg, 1857; Renan,
+1860); while Böttcher (1850) did his best to reduce the dramatic
+exposition to absurdity by introducing the complexities and stage
+effects of a modern operetta. Another view is that of Delitzsch (1851
+and 1875) and his followers, who also plead for a dramatic form--though
+without supposing that the piece was ever acted--but adhere to the
+traditional notion that Solomon is the author, who celebrates his love
+to a peasant maiden, whom he made his wife, and in whose company the
+proud monarch learned to appreciate the sweetness of a true affection
+and a simple rustic life.
+
+In view of the prevalence of the "dramatic" theory of Canticles during
+the 19th century, and its retention by some comparatively recent writers
+(Oettli, Driver, Adeney, Harper), it seems desirable that this theory
+should be presented in some detail. A convenient summary of the form it
+assumed in the hands of Ewald (the shepherd-hypothesis) and of Delitzsch
+(the king-hypothesis) is given by Driver (_Literature of the Old
+Testament_, ch. x. § 1). The following presentation of the theory, on
+the general lines of Ewald, gives that form of it which Robertson Smith
+was able to accept in 1876.
+
+The centre of attraction is throughout a female figure, and the unity of
+this figure is the chief test of the unity of the book. In the long
+canto, i. 1-ii. 7, the heroine appears in a royal palace (i. 4) among the
+daughters of Jerusalem, who are thus presumably ladies of the court of
+Zion. At i. 9, an additional interlocutor is introduced, who is plainly a
+king, and apparently Solomon (i. 9, 12). He has just risen from table,
+and praises the charms of the heroine with the air of a judge of beauty,
+but without warmth. He addresses her simply as "my friend" (not as
+English version, "my love"). The heroine, on the contrary, is
+passionately in love, but nothing can be plainer than that the object of
+her affection is not the king. She is not at home in the palace, for she
+explains (i. 6) that she has spent her life as a peasant girl in the care
+of vineyards. Her beloved, whom she knows not where to find (i. 7), but
+who lies constantly on her heart and is cherished in her bosom like a
+spray of the sweet henna flowers which Oriental ladies delight to wear
+(i. 13, 14), is like herself a peasant--a shepherd lad (i. 7)--with whom
+she was wont to sit in the fresh greenwood under the mighty boughs of
+the cedars (i. 16, 17). Even before the king's entrance the ladies of the
+court are impatient at so silly an affection, and advise her, "if she is
+really so witless," to begone and rejoin her plebeian lover (i. 8). To
+them she appeals in ii. 5, 6, where her self-control, strung to the
+highest pitch as she meets the compliments of the king with
+reminiscences of her absent lover, breaks down in a fit of
+half-delirious sickness. The only words directed to the king are those
+of i. 12, which, if past tenses are substituted for the presents of the
+English version, contain a pointed rebuff. Finally, ii. 7 is, on the
+plainest translation, a charge not to arouse love till it please. The
+moral of the scene is the spontaneity of true affection.
+
+Now, at viii. 5, a female figure advances leaning upon her beloved, with
+whom she claims inseparable union,--"for love is strong as death, its
+passion inflexible as the grave, its fire a divine flame which no waters
+can quench or floods drown. Yea, if a man would give all his wealth for
+love he would only be contemned." This is obviously the sentiment of ii.
+7, and the suitor, whose wealth is despised, must almost of necessity be
+identified with the king of chapter i., if, as seems reasonable, we
+place viii. ii, 12 in the mouth of the same speaker--"King Solomon has
+vineyards which bring him a princely revenue, and enrich even the
+farmers. Let him and them keep their wealth; my vineyard is before me"
+(i.e. I possess it in present fruition). The last expression is plainly
+to be connected with i. 6. But this happiness has not been reached
+without a struggle. The speaker has proved herself an impregnable
+fortress (ver. 10), and, armed only with her own beauty and innocence,
+has been in his eyes as one that found peace. The sense is that, like a
+virgin fortress, she has compelled her assailant to leave her in peace.
+To these marks of identity with the heroine of ch. i. are to be added
+that she appears here as dwelling in gardens, there as a keeper of
+vineyards (i. 6, and viii. 13), and that as there it was her brethren
+that prescribed her duties, so here she apparently quotes words in which
+her brothers, while she was still a child, speculated as to her future
+conduct and its reward (viii. 8, 9).
+
+If this analysis of the commencement and close of the book is correct,
+it is certain that the poem is in a sense dramatic, that is, that it
+uses dialogue and monologue to develop a story. The heroine appears in
+the opening scene in a difficult and painful situation, from which in
+the last chapter she is happily extricated. But the dramatic progress
+which the poem exhibits scarcely involves a plot in the usual sense of
+that word. The words of viii. 9, 10 clearly indicate that the
+deliverance of the heroine is due to no combination of favouring
+circumstances, but to her own inflexible fidelity and virtue.
+
+The constant direction of the maiden's mind to her true love is partly
+expressed in dialogue with the ladies of the court (the daughters of
+Jerusalem), who have no dramatic individuality, and whose only function
+in the economy of the piece is to give the heroine opportunity for a
+more varied expression of her feelings. In i. 8 we found them
+contemptuous. In chapter iii. they appear to be still indifferent; for
+when the heroine relates a dream in which the dull pain of separation
+and the uneasy consciousness of confinement and danger in the
+unsympathetic city disappear for a moment in imagined reunion with her
+lover, they are either altogether silent or reply only by taking up a
+festal part song describing the marriage procession of King Solomon
+(iii. 6-11), which stands in jarring contrast to the feelings of the
+maiden.[5] A second dream (v. 2-8), more weird and melancholy, and
+constructed with that singular psychological felicity which
+characterizes the dreams of the Old Testament, gains more sympathy, and
+the heroine is encouraged to describe her beloved at large (v. 10-vi.
+3). The structure of these dialogues is so simple, and their purpose is
+so strictly limited to the exhibition of the character and affection of
+the maiden, that it is only natural to find them supplemented by a free
+use of pure monologue, in which the heroine recalls the happiness of
+past days, or expresses her rising hope of reunion with her shepherd,
+and restoration to the simple joys of her rustic life. The vivid
+reminiscence of ii. 8-17 takes the form of a dialogue within the main
+dialogue of the poem, a picture within a picture--the picture of her
+beloved as he stood at her window in the early spring time, and of her
+own merry heart as she laughingly answered him in the song with which
+watchers of the vineyards frighten away the foxes. It is, of course, a
+fault of perspective that this reminiscence is as sharp in outline and
+as strong in colour as the main action. But no one can expect
+perspective in such early art, and recollection of the past is clearly
+enough separated from present reality by ii. 16, 17. The last monologue
+(vii. 10-viii. 3), in which the hope of immediate return with her lover
+is tempered by maidenly shame, and a maiden's desire for her mother's
+counsel, is of special value for a right appreciation of the psychology
+of the love which the poem celebrates, and completes a picture of this
+flower of the northern valleys which is not only firm in outline, but
+delicate in touch. The subordinate action which supports the portraiture
+of the maiden of Galilee is by no means easy to understand.
+
+We come next to chapter vi., which again sings the praises of the
+heroine, and takes occasion in this connexion to introduce, with the
+same want of perspective as we observed in ch. ii., a dialogue
+descriptive of Solomon's first meeting with the maiden. We learn that
+she was an inhabitant of Shulem or Shunem in Issachar, whom the king and
+his train surprised in a garden on the occasion of a royal progress
+through the north. Her beauty drew from the ladies of the court a cry of
+admiration. The maiden shrinks back with the reply--"I was gone down
+into my garden to see its growth.... I know not how my soul hath brought
+me among the chariots of princes"; but she is commanded to turn and let
+herself be seen in spite of her bashful protest--"Why do ye gaze on the
+Shulamite as at a dance of Mahanaim (a spectacle)?" Now the person in
+whose mouth this relation is placed must be an eye-witness of the scene,
+and so none other than the king. But in spite of the verbal repetition
+of several of the figures of ch. iv.... the tone in which the king now
+addresses the Shulamite is quite changed. She is not only beautiful but
+terrible, her eyes trouble him, and he cannot endure their gaze. She is
+unique among women, the choice and only one of her mother. The unity of
+action can only be maintained by ignoring vii. 1-9, and taking the words
+of Solomon in chapter vi. in their obvious sense as implying that the
+king at length recognizes in the maiden qualities of soul unknown in the
+harem, a character which compels respect, as well as a beauty that
+inflames desire. The change of feeling which was wrought in the
+daughters of Jerusalem in the previous scene now extends to Solomon
+himself, and thus the glad utterances of vii. 10, seq., have a
+sufficient motive, and the _dénouement_ is no longer violent and
+unprepared.
+
+The _nodus_ of the action is fully given in chapter i., the final issue
+in chapter viii. The solution lies entirely in the character and
+constancy of the heroine, which prevail, in the simplest possible way,
+first over the ladies of the court and then over the king.
+
+The attractiveness of the above theory cannot be denied; but it may be
+asked whether the attraction does not lie in the appeal to modern taste
+of a story which is largely the product of modern imagination. It
+supposes a freedom of intercourse between lovers inconceivable for the
+East. The initial situation of the maiden in the harem of Solomon is
+left as a problem for the reader to discover, until he comes to its
+supposed origin in vi. 11; the expedient might be granted in the case of
+one of Browning's _Men and Women_, but seems very improbable in the
+present case. The more elaborate dramatic theories can find no parallel
+in Semitic literature to the "drama" of Canticles, the book of Job being
+no exception to this statement; whilst even the simpler theories ask us
+to believe that the essential parts of the story--the rape of the
+Shulamite, the change in Solomon's disposition, her release from the
+harem--are to be supplied by the reader from obscure and disputable
+references. More serious still is the fact that any progress of action
+from first to last is so difficult to prove. In the first chapter we
+listen to a woman speaker desiring to be kissed by the man who has
+brought her into his chambers, and speaking of "our bed"; in the last we
+leave her "leaning upon her beloved." The difficulties of detail are
+equally great. To suppose that all the male love-making, by hypothesis
+unsuccessful, belongs to Solomon, whilst the heroine addresses her
+passionate words to the continuously absent shepherd, is obviously
+unconvincing; yet, if this shepherd speaks in iv. 8-v. 1, how are we to
+explain his appearance in the royal harem? This and other difficulties
+were acknowledged by Robertson Smith, notably the presence of vii. 1-9,
+which he proposed to set aside as an interpolation, because of its
+sensuality and of the difficulty of working it into the dramatic scheme.
+The fact that this passage has subsequently become the central element
+in the new interpretation of the book is, perhaps, a warning against
+violent measures with difficulties.
+
+Attention has already been drawn to Herder's proposal, accepted by some
+later writers, including Diestel and Reuss, to regard the book as a
+collection of detached songs. This received new and striking
+confirmation from the anthropological data supplied by J.G. Wetstein
+(1873), Prussian consul at Damascus. His observations of the wedding
+customs of Syrian peasants led him to believe that Canticles is
+substantially a collection of songs originally sung at such festivities.
+Wetstein's contribution was republished shortly afterwards by Delitzsch,
+in an appendix to his _Commentary_; but it received little attention.
+The first amongst Old Testament scholars to perceive its importance
+seems to have been Stade, who accepted Wetstein's view in a footnote to
+his _History of the Jewish People_ (ii. p. 197), published in 1888; to
+Budde, however, belongs the distinction of the systematic and detailed
+use of Wetstein's suggestions, especially in his _Commentary_ (1898).
+This interpretation of the book is accepted by Kautzsch (1896),
+Siegfried (1898), Cheyne (1899), and other eminent scholars. The
+last-named states the theory tersely as follows: "The book is an
+anthology of songs used at marriage festivals in or near Jerusalem,
+revised and loosely connected by an editor without regard to temporal
+sequence" (_Ency. Bibl._ 691). The character of the evidence which has
+contributed to the acceptance of this view may be indicated in
+Wetstein's own statements:--
+
+  "The finest time in the life of the Syrian peasant consists of the
+  first seven days after his wedding, in which he and his young wife
+  play the part of king (_melik_) and queen (_melika_), both being so
+  treated and served by their village and the invited communities of the
+  neighbourhood. The majority of the greater village weddings fall in
+  the month of March, the finest of the Syrian year. The winter rains
+  being over, and the sun still refreshing, not oppressive as in the
+  following months, the weddings are celebrated in the open air on the
+  village threshing-floor, which at this time of the year is with few
+  exceptions a flowery mead. ...We pass over the wedding-day itself with
+  its displays, the sword-dance of the bride, and the great feast. On
+  the morrow, bridegroom and bride awake as king and queen. Already
+  before sunrise they receive the leader of the bridesmen, as their
+  vizier, and the bridesmen themselves; the latter thereupon fetch the
+  threshing-board and bring it to the threshing-floor, singing a rousing
+  song of battle or love, generally both. There it is erected as a
+  throne, and after the royal couple have taken their seats and the
+  necessary formalities are gone through, a great dance in honour of the
+  young couple begins; the accompanying song is concerned only with
+  themselves, its principal element being the inevitable _wasf_, i.e. a
+  description of the physical perfections of both and their ornaments.
+  The eulogy of the queen is more moderate, and praises her visible,
+  rather than veiled, charms; this is due to the fact that she is to-day
+  a married woman, and that the _wasf_ sung on the previous day during
+  her sword-dance has left nothing to desire. This _wasf_ is the weak
+  element in Syrian wedding-songs according to our taste; its
+  comparisons are to us frequently too clumsy and reveal the stereotyped
+  pattern. It is the same with the little collection of charming
+  wedding-songs and fragments of them which has been received into the
+  canon of the Old Testament under the name of Canticles; the _wasf_
+  (iv.--vii.) is considerably below the rest in poetical value. With
+  this dance begin the sports, lasting seven days, begun in the morning
+  on the first, shortly before midday on the other days, and continuing
+  far into the night by the light of the fires that are kindled; on the
+  last day alone all is over by sunset. During the whole week both
+  royalties are in marriage attire, must do no work and have no cares;
+  they have only to look down from the _merteba_ (throne) on the sports
+  carried on before them, in which they themselves take but a moderate
+  part; the queen, however, occasionally gives a short dance to attract
+  attention to her bridal attire."[6]
+
+For the general application of these and the related customs to the
+interpretation of the book, reference should be made to Budde's
+_Commentary_, which recognizes four _wasfs_, viz. iv. 1-7 (describing
+the bride from head to breasts), v. 10-16 (the bridegroom), vi. 4-7
+(similar to and partly repeating iv. 1-7), and vii. 1-9, belonging to
+the sword-dance of the bride, her physical charms being sung from feet
+to head (cf. vii. 1; "Why look ye on the Shulamite as (on) a dance of
+camps?" i.e. a war-dance). This dance receives its name from the fact
+that she dances it with a sword in her hand in the firelight on the
+evening of her wedding-day, and amid a circle of men and women, whilst
+such a _wasf_ as this is sung by the leader of the choir. The passage
+relating to the litter of Solomon (iii. 6-11)--an old difficulty with
+the dramatizers--relates to the erection of the throne on the
+threshing-floor.[7] The terms "Solomon" and "the Shulamite" are
+explained as figurative references to the famous king, and to Abishag
+the Shulamite, "fairest among women," on the lines of the use of "king"
+and "queen" noted above. Other songs of Canticles are referred by Budde
+to the seven days of festivities. It need hardly be said that
+difficulties still remain in the analysis of this book of wedding-songs;
+whilst Budde detects 23 songs, besides fragments, Siegfried divides the
+book into 10.[8] Such differences are to be expected in the case of a
+collection of songs, some admittedly in dialogue form, all concerned
+with the common theme of the love of man and woman, and without any
+external indication of the transition from one song to the next.
+
+Further, we must ask whether the task has been complicated by any
+editorial rearrangement or interpolation; the collector of these songs
+has certainly not reproduced them in the order of their use at Syrian
+weddings. Can we trace any principle, or even any dominant thought in
+this arrangement? In this connexion we touch the reason for the
+reluctance of some scholars to accept the above interpretation, viz. the
+alleged marks of literary unity which the book contains (e.g. Driver,
+_loc. cit._). These are (1) general similarity of treatment, seen in the
+use of imagery (the bride as a garden, iv. 12; vi. 2, 3), the frequent
+references to nature and to particular places, and the recurrence of
+descriptions of male and female beauty; (2) references to "Solomon" or
+"the king," to "the Shulamite" and to "the daughters of Jerusalem" (from
+which, indeed, the dramatic theory has found its chief inspiration); (3)
+indications that the same person is speaking in different places (cf.
+the two dreams of a woman, and the vineyard references, i. 6; viii. 12);
+(4) repetitions of words and phrases especially of the refrains,
+"disturb not love" (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and "until the day break"
+(ii. 17; iv. 6). But of these (1) is no more than should be expected,
+since the songs all relate to the same subject, and spring from a common
+world of life and thought of the same group of people; (2) finds at
+least a partial parallel and explanation in the use of "king" and
+"queen" noted above; whilst (3) and (4) alone seem to require something
+more than the work of a mere collector of the songs. It is, of course,
+true that, in recurrent ceremonies, the same thought inevitably tends to
+find expression in the same words. But this hardly meets the case of the
+refrains, whilst the reference to the vineyard at beginning and end does
+suggest some literary connexion. It is to be noted that the three
+refrains "disturb not love" severally follow passages relating to the
+consummation of the sexual relation, whilst the two refrains "until the
+day break" appear to form an invitation and an answer in the same
+connexion, whilst the "Omnia vincit Amor" passage in the last chapter
+forms a natural climax (cf. Haupt's translation). So far, then, as this
+somewhat scanty evidence goes, it may point to some one hand which has
+given its semblance of unity to the book by underlining the joy of
+consummated love--to which the vineyard and garden figures throughout
+allude--and by so arranging the collection that the descriptions of this
+joy find their climax in viii. 6-7.[9]
+
+Whatever conclusion, however, may be reached as to the present
+_arrangement_ of Canticles, the recognition of wedding-songs as forming
+its nucleus marks an important stage in the interpretation of the book;
+even Rothstein (1902), whilst attempting to resuscitate a dramatic
+theory, "recognizes ... the possibility that older wedding-songs (as,
+for instance, the _wasfs_) are worked up in the Song of Songs"
+(Hastings' _D.B._ p. 594b). The drama he endeavours to construct might,
+indeed, be called "The Tokens of Virginity," since he makes it culminate
+in the procedure of Deut. xxii. 13 f., which still forms part of the
+Syrian ceremonies. But his reconstruction is open to the same objection
+as all similar attempts, in that the vital moments of the dramatic
+action have to be supplied from without. Thus between v. 1 and v. 2, the
+baffled king is supposed to have disappeared, and to have been replaced
+by the happy lover; between viii. 7 and viii. 8, we are required to
+imagine "the bridal night and its mysteries"; whilst between viii. 9 and
+viii. 10, we must suppose the evidence that the bride has been found a
+virgin is exhibited. He also attempts, with considerable ingenuity, to
+trace the legend involved in the supposed drama to the fact that Abishag
+remained a virgin in regard to David (1 Kings i. 4) whilst nothing is
+said of her marriage to Solomon.[10]
+
+On the view accepted above, Canticles describes in a number of separate
+poems the central passion of human life, and is wholly without didactic
+tendencies. Of its earliest history as a book we have no information. It
+is already included in the Hebrew canon (though its right to be there is
+disputed) when the first explicit mention of the book occurs. We have no
+evidence, therefore, of the theory of interpretation prevalent at the
+time of its incorporation with the other books of the canon. It seems,
+however, fair to infer that it would hardly have found acceptance but
+for a Solomonic theory of authorship and a "religious" theory of
+meaning. The problem raised by its present place in the canon occurs in
+relation to mistaken Jewish theories about other books also; it
+suggests, at least, that divine inspiration may belong to the life of a
+people rather than to the letter of their literature. Of that life
+Canticles portrays a central element--the passion of love--in striking
+imagery and graceful language, however far its oriental standard of
+taste differs from that of the modern West.
+
+From the nature of the book, it is impossible to assign a precise date
+for its origin; the wedding-songs of which it chiefly consists must
+belong to the folklore of more than one century. The only evidence we
+possess as to date is drawn from the character of the Hebrew in which
+the book is written, which shows frequent points of contact with new
+Hebrew.[11] On this ground, we may suppose the present form of the work
+to date from the Greek period, i.e. after 332 B.C. This is the date
+accepted by most recent writers, e.g. Kautzsch, Cheyne, Budde,
+Rothstein, Jacob, Haupt. This late date finds some confirmation in the
+fact that Canticles belongs to the third and latest part of the Old
+Testament canon, and that its canonicity was still in dispute at the end
+of the 1st century A.D. The evidence offered for a north Israelite
+origin, on the ground of linguistic parallels and topographical
+familiarity (Driver, _loc. cit._), does not seem very convincing; Haupt,
+however, places the compilation of the book in the neighbourhood of
+Damascus.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Most of the older books of importance are named above;
+  Ginsburg, _The Song of Songs_ (1857), gives much information as to the
+  history of the exegesis of Canticles; Diestel's article, "Hohes Lied,"
+  in Schenkel's _Bibel Lexikon_ (1871), reviews well the history of
+  interpretation prior to Wetstein; cf. also Riedel, _Die Auslegung des
+  Hohenliedes in der jüdischen Gemeinde und der griechischen Kirche_
+  (1898). The most important commentary is that by Budde, in Marti's
+  _Kurzer Hand-Commentar (Die fünf Megilloth)_ (1898), where references
+  to the literature of the 19th century are given. To his list add
+  Siegfried, "Prediger und Hoheslied," in Nowack's _Handkommentar_
+  (1898); Cheyne's article "Canticles," in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_
+  (1899); Dalman, _Palästinischer Diwan_ (1901), parallels to the songs;
+  Rothstein's article, "Song of Songs," in Hastings' _Dictionary of the
+  Bible_ (1902); G. Jacob, _Das Hohelied auf Grund arabischer und
+  anderer Parallelen von neuem Untersucht_ (1902); A. Harper, _The Song
+  of Songs_ (1902); Haupt, "The Book of Canticles," in _The American
+  Journal of Semitic Languages_ (July 1902); Scholz, _Kommentar über das
+  Hohelied und Psalm 45_ (1904) (written from the Roman Catholic
+  dogmatic standpoint of allegorical interpretation, with a vigorous
+  criticism of other positions). No commentator in English, except
+  Haupt, in the article named above, has yet worked on the lines of the
+  above anthology theory. Haupt gives valuable notes, with a translation
+  and rearrangement of the separate songs.     (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] An argument for the allegorical interpretation has been often
+    drawn from Mahommedan mysticism--from the poems of Hafiz, and the
+    songs still sung by dervishes. See Jones, _Poëseos Asiaticae Com._
+    pt. in. cap. 9; Rosenmüller's remarks on Lowth's _Praelectio_, xxxi.,
+    and Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, ch. xxiv. But there is no true analogy
+    between the Old Testament and the pantheistic mysticism of Islam, and
+    there is every reason to believe that, where the allegory takes a
+    form really analogous to Canticles, the original sense of these songs
+    was purely erotic.
+
+  [2] Repeated recently by Scholz, _Kommentar_, pp. iii. and iv.
+
+  [3] The chief passages of Jewish writings referring to this dispute
+    are Mishna _Jadaim_, iii. 5 and Tosifta _Sanhedrin_, xii. For other
+    passages see Grätz's _Commentary_, p. 115, and in control of his
+    criticism the introduction to the commentary of Delitzsch.
+
+  [4] The text of the Targum in the Polyglots and in Buxtorf's Rabbinic
+    Bible is not complete. The complete text is given in the Venice
+    editions, and in Lagarde's _Hagiographa Chaldaice_ (Lipsiae, 1873).
+    The Polyglots add a Latin version. A German version is given by
+    Riedel in his very useful book, _Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes_
+    (1898), which also reviews the interpretation of Canticles by
+    Hippolytus, Origen and later Greek writers.
+
+  [5] Ewald and others make this song a distinct scene in the action of
+    the poem, supposing that the author here exhibits the honourable form
+    of espousal by which Solomon thought to vanquish the scruples of the
+    damsel. This view, however, seems to introduce a complication foreign
+    to the plan of the book.
+
+  [6] Wetstein, _Zeitschrift f. Ethn._, 1873, pp. 270-302; quoted and
+    condensed by Budde as above in _Comm_. p. xvii.; for a fuller
+    reproduction of Wetstein in English see Harper, _The Song of Songs_,
+    pp. 74-76.
+
+  [7] For the connexion of the threshing-floor with marriage through
+    the idea of sexual fertility, we may compare many primitive ideas and
+    customs, such as those described by Frazer (_The Golden Bough_, ii.
+    p. 181 f., 186).
+
+  [8] Castelli (_Il Cantico dei Cantici_, 1892) has written a very
+    attractive little book on Canticles (quite apart from the Wetstein
+    development) regarded as "a poem formed by a number of dialogues
+    mutually related by a certain succession"; they require for their
+    understanding nothing but some indication of the speaker at each
+    transition (such as we find in codex A of the Septuagint).
+
+  [9] On the erotic meaning of many of the figures employed see the
+    notes of Haupt in _The American Journal of Semitic Languages_ (July
+    1902); also G. Jacob, _Das Hohelied_ (1902), who rightly protests
+    against the limitation in the _Comm_. of Budde and Siegfried (p. 10)
+    of all the songs to the marriage relation. Haupt thinks that the
+    songs were not originally composed for weddings, though used there
+    (p. 207, _op. cit._). Diestel had pointed out, in another connexion
+    (_B.L._ 125), that nothing is said in the book of the blessing of
+    children, the chief end of _marriage_ from a Hebrew standpoint.
+
+  [10] Rothstein's criticism of Budde turns chiefly on the latter's
+    admission of redactional elements, introducing "movement and action,"
+    and may be summed up in the statement that "Budde himself by the
+    characteristics he assigns to the redactor points the way again past
+    his own hypothesis to the dramatical view of the Song" (_loc cit._
+    594b). A. Harper, "The Song of Songs" (_Cambridge Bible_) also
+    criticizes Budde at length in favour of the conventional dramatical
+    theory (Appendix).
+
+  [11] _E.g._ the late form of the relative pronoun used throughout
+    except in title; foreign words, Persian and Greek; Aramaic words and
+    usages (details in the _Comm_. or in _E.B._ 693).
+
+
+
+
+CANTILEVER (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived from "lever," in
+its ordinary meaning, and "cant," an angle or edge, or else from modern
+Lat. _quanta libra_, of what weight), a building term for a stone, iron
+or wooden bracket, considerably greater in length than depth, used to
+support a gallery, &c.; and for a system of bridge-building (see
+BRIDGES).
+
+
+
+
+CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE (c. 1218-1282), English saint and prelate, was a
+son of William de Cantilupe, the 2nd baron (d. 1251), one of King John's
+ministers, and a nephew of Walter de Cantilupe, bishop of Worcester. He
+was educated at Paris and Orleans, afterwards becoming a teacher of
+canon law at Oxford and chancellor of the university in 1262. During the
+Barons' War Thomas favoured Simon de Montfort and the baronial party. He
+represented the barons before St Louis of France at Amiens in 1264; he
+was made chancellor of England in February 1265, but was deprived of
+this office after Montfort's death at Evesham, and lived out of England
+for some time. Returning to England, he was again chancellor of Oxford
+University, lectured on theology, and held several ecclesiastical
+appointments. In 1274 he attended the second council of Lyons, and in
+1275 he was appointed bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe was now a trusted
+adviser of Edward I.; he attended the royal councils, and even when
+differing from the king did not forfeit his favour. The archbishop of
+Canterbury, Robert Kilwardby, was also his friend; but after Kilwardby's
+death in 1279 a series of disputes arose between the bishop and the new
+archbishop, John Peckham, and this was probably the cause which drove
+Cantilupe to visit Italy. He died at Orvieto, on the 25th of August
+1282, and he was canonized in 1330. Cantilupe appears to have been an
+exemplary bishop both in spiritual and secular affairs. His charities
+were large and his private life blameless; he was constantly visiting
+his diocese, correcting offenders and discharging other episcopal
+duties; and he compelled neighbouring landholders to restore estates
+which rightly belonged to the see of Hereford. In 1905 the Cantilupe
+Society was founded to publish the episcopal registers of Hereford, of
+which Cantilupe's is the first in existence.
+
+  See the _Ada Sanctorum, Boll._, 1st October; and the _Register of
+  Thomas de Cantilupe_, with introduction by W.W. Capes (1906).
+
+
+
+
+CANTILUPE, WALTER DE (d. 1265), bishop of Worcester, came of a family
+which had risen by devoted service to the crown. His father and his
+elder brother are named by Roger of Wendover among the "evil
+counsellors" of John, apparently for no better reason than that they
+were consistently loyal to an unpopular master. Walter at first followed
+in his father's footsteps, entering the service of the Exchequer and
+acting as an itinerant justice in the early years of Henry III. But he
+also took minor orders, and, in 1236, although not yet a deacon,
+received the see of Worcester. As bishop, he identified himself with the
+party of ecclesiastical reform, which was then led by Edmund Rich and
+Robert Grosseteste. Like his leaders he was sorely divided between his
+theoretical belief in the papacy as a divine institution and his
+instinctive condemnation of the policy which Gregory IX. and Innocent
+IV. pursued in their dealings with the English church. At first a court
+favourite, the bishop came at length to the belief that the evils of the
+time arose from the unprincipled alliance of crown and papacy. He raised
+his voice against papal demands for money, and after the death of
+Grosseteste (1253) was the chief spokesman of the nationalist clergy. At
+the parliament of Oxford (1258) he was elected by the popular party as
+one of their representatives on the committee of twenty-four which
+undertook to reform the administration; from that time till the outbreak
+of civil war he was a man of mark in the councils of the baronial party.
+During the war he sided with Montfort and, through his nephew, Thomas,
+who was then chancellor of Oxford, brought over the university to the
+popular side. He was present at Lewes and blessed the Montfortians
+before they joined battle with the army of the king; he entertained
+Simon de Montfort on the night before the final rout of Evesham. During
+Simon's dictatorship, the bishop appeared only as a mediating influence;
+in the triumvirate of "Electors" who controlled the administration, the
+clergy were represented by the bishop of Chichester. Walter de Cantilupe
+died in the year after Evesham (1266). He was respected by all parties,
+and, though far inferior in versatility and force of will to
+Grosseteste, fully merits the admiration which his moral character
+inspired. He is one of the few constitutionalists of his day whom it is
+impossible to accuse of interested motives.
+
+  See the _Chronica Maiora_ of Matthew Paris ("Rolls" series, ed.
+  Luard); the _Chronicon de Bellis_ (ed. Halliwell, Camden Society); and
+  the _Annales Monastici_ ("Rolls" series, ed. Luard); also T.F. Tout
+  in the _Political History of England_, vol. iii. (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CANTO (from the Lat. _cantus_, a song), one of the divisions of a long
+poem, a convenient division when poetry was more usually sung by the
+minstrel to his own accompaniment than read. In music, the _canto_, in a
+concerted piece, is that part to which the air is given. In modern
+music this is nearly always the soprano. The old masters, however, more
+frequently allotted it to the tenor. _Canto fermo_, or _cantus firmus_,
+is that part of the melody which remains true to the original motive,
+while the other parts vary with the counterpoint; also in Church music
+the simple straightforward melody of the old chants as opposed to _canto
+figurato_, which is full of embellishments of a florid character (see
+PLAIN SONG).
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772), English natural philosopher, was born at
+Stroud, Gloucestershire, on the 31st of July 1718. At the age of
+nineteen, he was articled for five years as clerk to the master of a
+school in Spital Square, London, with whom at the end of that time he
+entered into partnership. In 1750 he read a paper before the Royal
+Society on a method of making artificial magnets, which procured him
+election as a fellow of the society and the award of the Copley medal.
+He was the first in England to verify Benjamin Franklin's hypothesis of
+the identity of lightning and electricity, and he made several important
+electrical discoveries. In 1762 and 1764 he published experiments in
+refutation of the decision of the Florentine Academy, at that time
+generally accepted, that water is incompressible; and in 1768 he
+described the preparation, by calcining oyster-shell with sulphur, of
+the phosphorescent material known as Canton's phosphorus. His
+investigations were carried on without any intermission of his work as a
+schoolmaster. He died in London on the 22nd of March 1772.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW FU), a large and populous commercial
+city of China, in the province of Kwangtung, situated on the eastern
+bank of the Pearl river, which at Canton is somewhat broader than the
+Thames at London Bridge, and is navigable 300 m. into the interior. The
+Pearl river has an additional course of 80 m. to the sea, the first part
+of which lies through a rich alluvial plain. Beyond this rises a range
+of hills terminating in abrupt escarpments along the course of the
+river. The bold shore thus formed compresses the stream at this point
+into a narrow pass, to which the Chinese have given the name of Hu-mun,
+or Tiger's Gate. This the Portuguese translated into Boca Tigre, whence
+the designation of "the Bogue," by which it is commonly known among
+Europeans. When viewed from the hills on the north, Canton appears to be
+little more than an expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large
+trees,--two pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storeyed
+tower near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects. These
+hills rise 1200 ft. above the river. Little or no vegetation is seen on
+them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with graves and tombs,
+serve as the necropolis of this vast city. Three or four forts are built
+on the points nearest the northern walls. Facing the city on the
+opposite side of the river is the suburb and island of Honan. The part
+of Canton enclosed by walls is about 6 m. in circumference, and has a
+partition wall, running east and west, and dividing the city into two
+unequal parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and
+the southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a circuit
+of nearly 10 m. The houses stretch along the river for 4 m., and the
+banks are almost entirely concealed by boats and rafts. The walls of the
+city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone and granite, are 20 ft.
+thick, and rise to an average height of 25 ft. On the north side the
+wall rises to include a hill which it there meets with, and on the other
+three sides the city is surrounded by a ditch, which is filled by the
+rising tide, when, for a time, the revolting mass of filth that lies in
+its bed is concealed from view. There are twelve outer gates--four of
+which are in the partition wall, and two water gates, through which
+boats pass from east to west across the new city. The gates are all shut
+at night, and in the daytime a guard is stationed at them to preserve
+order. The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long,
+straight, and very narrow. They are mostly paved and are not as dirty as
+those of some of the other cities in the empire; in fact, considering
+the habits of the people and the inattention of the government to these
+matters, Canton may be said to be a well-governed and comparatively
+cleanly city. The houses are in general small, seldom consisting of more
+than two storeys, the ground floor serving as a shop, and the rest of
+the house, with the court behind, being used as a warehouse. Here are to
+be found the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the
+merchants are in general attentive, civil, expert men of business, and
+generally assiduous.
+
+The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but none of
+them presents features worthy of special remark. There are two pagodas
+near the west gate of the old city, and 124 temples, pavilions, halls
+and other religious edifices within the city. One of the pagodas called
+the _Kwangtah_, or Plain Pagoda, is a Mahommedan mosque, which was
+erected by the Arabian voyagers who were in the habit of visiting Canton
+about ten centuries ago. It rises in an angular tapering tower to the
+height of 160 ft. The other is an octagonal pagoda of nine storeys, 170
+ft. in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago. A
+Buddhist temple at Honan, opposite the foreign factories, and named in
+Chinese _Hai-ch'wang-sze_, or the Temple of the Ocean Banner, is one of
+the largest in Canton. Its grounds, which cover about seven acres, are
+surrounded by a wall, and are divided into courts, gardens and a
+burial-ground, where are deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies
+are burned. There are about 175 priests connected with this
+establishment. Besides the _Hai-ch'wang-sze_ the most noteworthy temples
+in and about the city are those of the Five Hundred Gods and of
+Longevity, both in the western suburbs; the Tatar City Temple and the
+Temple of the Five Genii. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is
+not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000, nine-tenths of whom
+are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-looking edifices. The areas in
+front of them are usually occupied by hucksters, beggars and idlers, who
+are occasionally driven off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the
+theatrical performances got up by the wealthy inhabitants are acted. The
+principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in front,
+and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men almost as
+senseless as the idols they serve.
+
+The residences of the high officers of government are all within the
+walls of the old city. The residence of the governor-general used to be
+in the south-west corner of the new city, but it was utterly destroyed by
+the bombardment in 1856. The site remained desolate until 1860, when it
+was taken possession of by the French authorities, who erected a Roman
+Catholic cathedral upon it. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in
+the old city, and is said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There
+are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. For the space of 4 or 5
+m. opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to each other in
+such close order as to resemble a floating city; and these marine
+dwellings are occupied by numerous families, who reside almost constantly
+on the water. In the middle of the river lie the Chinese junks, some of
+them of from 600 to 1000 tons burden, which trade to the north and to the
+Strait Settlements. The various gilds and associations among the people
+and the merchants from other provinces have public halls each for its own
+particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than 150.
+Canton was long the only seat of British trade with China, and was no
+doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the European trade, as
+being the most distant from the capital Peking.
+
+Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the _hong_ or
+security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners. They were
+commonly men of large property and were famed for integrity in their
+transactions. All foreign cargoes passed through the hands of these
+merchants, and by them also the return cargoes were furnished. They
+became security for the payment of customs duties, and it was criminal
+for any other merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners.
+
+Although it is in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the climate
+of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to that of most
+places situated between the tropics. The extreme range of the
+thermometer is from 38° to 100° F., though these extremes are rarely
+reached. In ordinary years the winter minimum is about 42° and the
+maximum in summer 96°. The hot season is considered to last from May to
+October; during the rest of the year the weather is cool. In shallow
+vessels ice sometimes forms at Canton; but so rarely is snow seen that
+when in February 1835 a fall to the depth of 2 in. occurred, the
+citizens hardly knew its proper name. Most of the rain falls during May
+and June, but the amount is nothing in comparison with that which falls
+during a rainy season in Calcutta. July, August and September are the
+regular monsoon months, the wind coming from the south-west with
+frequent showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the
+northerly winds begin, with some interruptions at first, but from
+October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear and the
+air invigorating. Few large cities are more generally healthy than
+Canton, and epidemics rarely prevail there.
+
+Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant, and in general
+are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is a singular fact
+that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in its natural state or in
+the form of butter or cheese. Among the delicacies of a Chinese market
+are to be seen horse-flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, owls and edible
+birds'-nests. The business between foreigners and natives at Canton is
+generally transacted in a jargon known as "pidgin English," the Chinese
+being extremely ready in acquiring a sufficient smattering of English
+words to render themselves intelligible.
+
+The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of the Cape of Good
+Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent an ambassador,
+accompanied by a fleet of eight ships, to Peking, on which occasion the
+sanction of the emperor to establish a trade at Canton was obtained. It
+was in 1596, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first
+attempted to open an intercourse with China, but ineffectually, for the
+two ships which were despatched on this mission were lost on the outward
+voyage, and it was not till about 1634 that English ships visited
+Canton. Unfortunately at this time a misunderstanding having occurred
+with the Chinese authorities owing to the treachery of the Portuguese, a
+rupture and a battle took place, and it was with difficulty that peace
+was again restored. In 1673 China was again visited by an English ship
+which was subsequently refused admission into Japan, and in 1677 a
+factory was established at Amoy. But during an irruption of the Tatars
+three years later this building was destroyed, and it was not till 1685
+that the emperor permitted any trade with Europeans at that port. Upon
+the union of the two East India Companies in London, an imperial edict
+was issued, restricting the foreign commerce to the port of Canton.
+
+Tea was first imported into England about the year 1667, and in 1689 a
+customs duty of 5s. per lb was for the first time imposed. From this
+date to 1834 the East India Company held a monopolv of the trade at
+Canton, and during this period the prosperity of the port increased and
+multiplied, notwithstanding the obstructions which were constantly
+thrown in the way of the "barbarians" by the Chinese government. The
+termination of the Company's monopoly brought no alteration in the
+conduct of the native authorities, whose oppressions became before long
+so unbearable that in 1839 war was declared on the part of Great
+Britain. In 1841, while the forces under Sir Hugh (afterwards Lord)
+Gough were preparing to capture Canton, Captain Elliott entered into
+negotiations with the Chinese, and consented to receive a pecuniary
+ransom in lieu of occupying the city. Meanwhile the war was carried on
+in central China, and finally resulted in the conclusion of the Nanking
+treaty in August 1842, under the terms of which four additional ports,
+viz. Shanghai, Ningpo, Fu-chow and Amoy, were thrown open to foreign
+trade, and foreigners were granted permission to enter the city of
+Canton, from which they had hitherto been excluded. This latter
+provision of the treaty, however, the Chinese refused to carry out; and
+after endless disputes about this and other improper acts of the Chinese
+government, war was again declared in 1856, the immediate cause of which
+was an insult offered to the British flag by the capture of certain
+Chinese on board the "Arrow," a small craft trading under English
+colours. The outbreak of hostilities was followed by the pillage and
+destruction of the foreign "factories" in December 1856 by a Chinese
+mob, and twelve months later Canton was taken by assault by a force
+under Sir Charles Straubenzee, which had been sent out from England for
+the purpose. From this time until October 1861 the city was occupied by
+an English and French garrison, and the administration of affairs was
+entrusted to an allied commission, consisting of two English officers
+and one French officer, acting under the English general. Since the
+withdrawal of this garrison, the city of Canton has been freely open to
+foreigners of all nationalities, and the English consul has his
+residence in the Yamun formerly occupied by the allied commissioners,
+within the city walls.
+
+On the conclusion of peace it became necessary to provide a foreign
+settlement for the merchants whose "factories" had been destroyed, and
+after some consultation it was determined to fill in and appropriate as
+the British settlement an extensive mud flat lying to the westward of
+the old factory site, and known as Sha-mien or "The Sand Flats." This
+site having been leased, it was converted into an artificial island by
+building a massive embankment of granite in an irregular oval form.
+Between the northern face of the site and the Chinese suburb a canal of
+100 ft. in width was constructed, thus forming an island of about 2850
+ft. in length and 950 ft. in greatest breadth. The expense of making
+this settlement was 325,000 Mexican dollars, four-fifths of which were
+defrayed by the British government and one-fifth by the French
+government. The British portion of the new settlement was laid out in
+eighty-two lots; and so bright appeared the prospect of trade at the
+time of their sale that 9000 dollars and upwards was paid in more than
+one instance for a lot with a river frontage, measuring 12,645 sq. ft.
+The depression in trade, however, which soon followed acted as a bar to
+building, and it was not until the British consulate was erected in 1865
+that the merchants began to occupy the settlement in any numbers. The
+British consulate occupies six lots, with an area of 75,870 sq. ft. in
+the centre of the site, overlooking the river, and is enclosed with a
+substantial wall. A ground-rent of 15,000 cash (about £3) per _mow_ (a
+third of an acre) is annually paid by the owners of lots to the Chinese
+government.
+
+The Sha-mien settlement possesses many advantages. It is close to the
+western suburb of Canton, where reside all the wholesale dealers as well
+as the principal merchants and brokers; it faces the broad channel known
+as the Macao Passage, up which the cool breezes in summer are wafted
+almost uninterruptedly, and the river opposite to it affords a safe and
+commodious anchorage for steamers up to 1000 tons burden. Steamers only
+are allowed to come up to Canton, sailing vessels being restricted to
+the anchorage at Whampoa. There is daily communication by steamer with
+Hong-Kong, and with the Portuguese colony of Macao which lies near the
+mouth of the river. Inland communication by steam is now open by the
+west river route to the cities of Wuchow and Nanking. The opening of
+these inland towns to foreign trade, which has been effected, cannot but
+add considerably to the volume of Canton traffic. The native population
+is variously estimated at from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000, the former being
+probably nearer the truth. The foreign residents number about 400.
+Canton is the headquarters of the provincial government of Kwangtung and
+Kwangsi, generally termed the two Kwang, at the head of which is a
+governor-general or viceroy, an office which next to that of Nanking is
+the most important in the empire. It possesses a mint built in 1889 by
+the then viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and equipped with a very complete
+plant supplied from England. It turns out silver subsidiary coinage and
+copper cash. Contracts have been entered into to connect Canton by
+railway with Hong-Kong (Kowlun), and by a grand trunk line with Hankow
+on the Yangtsze. It is connected by telegraph with all parts. The value
+of the trade of Canton for the year 1904 was £13,749,582, £7,555,090 of
+which represented imports and £6,194,490 exports.     (R. K. D.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, a city of Fulton county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the
+state, 12 m. N. of the Illinois river, and 28 m. S.W. of Peoria. Pop.
+(1890) 5604; (1900) 6564 (424 foreign-born); (1910) 10,453. Canton is
+served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Toledo, Peoria &
+Western, and the Illinois Central Electric Interurban railways. About 1
+m. from the centre of the city are the Canton Chautauqua grounds. The
+city has a public library. Canton is situated in a rich agricultural
+region, for which it is a supply point, and there are large coal-mines
+in the vicinity. Among the manufactures are agricultural implements
+(particularly ploughs), machine-shop and foundry products (particularly
+mining-cars and equipment), flour, cigars, cigar-boxes, brooms, and
+bricks and tile. The municipal water-works are supplied from a deep
+artesian well. Canton was laid out in 1825; it was incorporated as a
+town in 1837 and as a village in 1849, and was chartered as a city in
+1854.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, a village and the county-seat of St Lawrence county, New York,
+U.S.A., 17 m. S.E. of Ogdensburg, on the Grasse river. Pop. (1890) 2580;
+(1900) 2757; (1905) 3083; (1910) 2701. The village is served by the
+Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg division of the New York Central & Hudson
+River railway. Canton is the seat of St Lawrence University
+(co-educational; chartered in 1856; at first Universalist, afterwards
+unsectarian), having a college of letters and science, which developed
+from an academy, opened in 1859; a theological school (Universalist),
+opened in 1858; a law school, established in 1869, discontinued in 1872
+and re-established in Brooklyn, New York, in 1903 as the Brooklyn Law
+School of St Lawrence University; and a state school of agriculture,
+established in 1906 by the state legislature and opened in 1907. In
+1907-1908 the university had 52 instructors, 168 students in the college
+of letters and science, 14 students in the theological school, 287 in
+the law school and 13 in the agricultural school. The Clinton Liberal
+Institute (Universalist, 1832), which was removed in 1879 from Clinton
+to Fort Plain, New York, was established in Canton in 1901. The Grasse
+river furnishes water-power, and the village has saw-, planing- and
+flour-mills, and plant for the building of small boats and launches. The
+village corporation owns a fine water-supply system. Canton was first
+settled in 1800 by Daniel Harrington of Connecticut and was incorporated
+in 1845. It was for many years the home of Silas Wright, who was buried
+here.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, a city and the county-seat of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+Nimisillen Creek, 60 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 26,189;
+(1900) 30,667, of whom 4018 were foreign-born; and (1910) 50,217. It is
+served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling &
+Lake Erie railways, and is connected by an interurban electric system
+with all the important cities and towns within a radius of 50 m. It lies
+at an elevation of about 1030 ft. above sea-level, in a wheat-growing
+region, in which bituminous coal, limestone, and brick and potter's clay
+abound. Meyer's Lake in the vicinity is a summer attraction. The
+principal buildings are the post-office, court-house, city hall, an
+auditorium with a seating capacity of 5000, a Masonic building, an
+Oddfellows' temple, a Y.M.C.A. building and several handsome churches.
+On Monument Hill, in West Lawn Cemetery, in a park of 26 acres--a site
+which President McKinley had suggested for a monument to the soldiers
+and sailors of Stark county--there is a beautiful monument to the memory
+of McKinley, who lived in Canton. This memorial is built principally of
+Milford (Mass.) granite, with a bronze statue of the president, and with
+sarcophagi containing the bodies of the president and Mrs McKinley, and
+has a total height, from the first step of the approaches to its top, of
+163 ft. 6 in., the mausoleum itself being 98 ft. 6 in. high and 78 ft. 9
+in. in diameter; it was dedicated on the 30th of September 1907, when an
+address was delivered by President Roosevelt. Another monument
+commemorates the American soldiers of the Spanish-American War. Among
+the city's manufactures are agricultural implements, iron bridges and
+other structural iron work, watches and watch-cases, steel, engines,
+safes, locks, cutlery, hardware, wagons, carriages, paving-bricks,
+furniture, dental and surgical chairs, paint and varnish, clay-working
+machinery and saw-mill machinery. The value of the factory product in
+1905 was $10,591,143, being 10.6% more than the product value of 1900.
+Canton was laid out as a town in 1805, became the county-seat in 1808,
+was incorporated as a village in 1822 and in 1854 was chartered as a
+city.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. _cantone_, a corner or angle), a word
+used for certain divisions of some European countries. In France, the
+canton, which is a subdivision of the arrondissement, is a territorial,
+rather than an administrative, unit. The canton, of which there are
+2908, generally comprises, on an average, about twelve communes, though
+very large communes are sometimes divided into several cantons. It is
+the seat of a justice of the peace, and returns a member to the _conseil
+d'arrondissement_ (see FRANCE). In Switzerland, canton is the name given
+to each of the twenty-two states comprising the Swiss confederation (see
+SWITZERLAND).
+
+In heraldry, a "canton" is a corner or square division on a shield,
+occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). It is in area
+two-thirds of the quarter (see HERALDRY).
+
+
+
+
+CANTONMENT (Fr. _cantonnement_, from _cantonner_, to quarter; Ger.
+_Ortsunterkunft_ or _Quartier_). When troops are distributed in small
+parties amongst the houses of a town or village, they are said to be in
+cantonments, which are also called quarters or billets. Formerly this
+method of providing soldiers with shelter was rarely employed on active
+service, though the normal method in "winter quarters," or at seasons
+when active military operations were not in progress. In the field,
+armies lived as a rule in camp (q.v.), and when the provision of canvas
+shelter was impossible in bivouac. At the present time, however, it is
+unusual, in Europe at any rate, for troops on active service to hamper
+themselves with the enormous trains of tent wagons that would be
+required, and cantonments or bivouacs, or a combination of the two have
+therefore taken the place, in modern warfare, of the old long
+rectilinear lines of tents that marked the resting-place and generally,
+too, the order of battle of an 18th-century army. The greater part of an
+army operating in Europe at the present day is accommodated in
+widespread cantonments, an army corps occupying the villages and farms
+found within an area of 4 m. by 5 or 6. This allowance of space has been
+ascertained by experience to be sufficient, not only for comfort, but
+also for subsistence for one day, provided that the density of the
+ordinary civil population is not less than 200 persons to the square
+mile. Under modern conditions there is little danger from such a
+dissemination of the forces, as each fraction of each army corps is
+within less than two hours' march of its concentration post. If the
+troops halt for several days, of course they require either a more
+densely populated country from which to requisition supplies, or a wider
+area of cantonments. The difficulty of controlling the troops, when
+scattered in private houses in parties of six or seven, is the principal
+objection to this system of cantonments. But since Napoleon introduced
+the "war of masses" the only alternative to cantoning the troops is
+bivouacking, which if prolonged for several nights is more injurious to
+the well-being of the troops than the slight relaxation of discipline
+necessitated by the cantonment system, when the latter is well arranged
+and policed. The troops nearest the enemy, however, which have to be
+maintained in a state of constant readiness for battle, cannot as a rule
+afford the time either for dispersing into quarters or for rallying on
+an alarm, and in western Europe at any rate they are required to
+bivouac. In India, the term "cantonment" means more generally a military
+station or standing camp. The troops live, not in private houses, but in
+barracks, huts, forts or occasionally camps. The large cantonments are
+situated in the neighbourhood of the North-Western frontier, of the
+large cities and of the capitals of important native states. Under Lord
+Kitchener's redistribution of the Indian army in 1903, the chief
+cantonments are Rawalpindi, Quetta, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Nowshera,
+Sialkot, Mian Mir, Umballa, Muttra, Ferozepore, Meerut, Lucknow, Mhow,
+Jubbulpore, Bolarum, Poona, Secunderabad and Bangalore.
+
+
+
+
+CANTÙ, CESARE (1804-1895), Italian historian, was born at Brivio in
+Lombardy and began his career as a teacher. His first literary essay
+(1828) was a romantic poem entitled _Algiso, o la Lega Lombarda_ (new
+ed., Milan, 1876), and in the following year he produced a _Storia di
+Como_ in two volumes (Como, 1829). The death of his father then left
+him in charge of a large family, and he worked very hard both as a
+teacher and a writer to provide for them. His prodigious literary
+activity led to his falling under the suspicions of the Austrian police,
+and he was mixed up in a political trial and arrested in 1833. While in
+prison writing materials were denied him, but he managed to write on
+rags with a tooth-pick and candle smoke, and thus composed the novel
+_Margherita Pusterla_ (Milan, 1838). On his release a year later, as he
+was interdicted from teaching, literature became his only resource. In
+1836 the Turinese publisher, Giuseppe Pomba, commissioned him to write a
+universal history, which his vast reading enabled him to do. In six
+years the work was completed in seventy-two volumes, and immediately
+achieved a general popularity; the publisher made a fortune out of it,
+and Cantù's royalties amounted, it is said, to 300,000 lire (£12.000).
+Just before the revolution of 1848, being warned that he would be
+arrested, he fled to Turin, but after the "Five Days" he returned to
+Milan and edited a paper called _La Guardia Nazionale_. Between 1849 and
+1850 he published his _Storia degli Italiani_ (Turin, 1855) and many
+other works. In 1857 the archduke Maximilian tried to conciliate the
+Milanese by the promise of a constitution, and Cantù was one of the few
+Liberals who accepted the olive branch, and went about in company with
+the archduke. This act was regarded as treason and caused Cantù much
+annoyance in after years. He continued his literary activity after the
+formation of the Italian kingdom, producing volume after volume until
+his death. For a short time he was member of the Italian parliament; he
+founded the Lombard historical society, and was appointed superintendent
+of the Lombard archives. He died in March 1895. His views are coloured
+by strong religious and political prejudice, and by a moralizing
+tendency, and his historical work has little critical value and is for
+the most part pure book-making, although he collected a vast amount of
+material which has been of use to other writers. In dealing with modern
+Italian history he is reactionary and often wilfully inaccurate. Besides
+the above-mentioned works he wrote _Gli Eretici in Italia_ (Milan,
+1873); _Cronistoria dell' Indipendenza italiana_ (Naples, 1872-1877);
+_II Conciliatore e i Carbonari_ (Milan, 1878), &c.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+CANUSIUM (Gr. [Greek: Kanusion], mod. _Canosa_), an ancient city of
+Apulia, on the right bank of the Aufidus (Ofanto), about 12 m. from its
+mouth, and situated upon the Via Traiana, 85 m. E.N.E. of Beneventum. It
+was said to have been founded by Diomede, and even at the time of Horace
+(_Sat._ i. 10. 30) both Greek and Latin were spoken there. The legends
+on the coins are Greek, and a very large number of Greek vases have been
+found in the necropolis. The town came voluntarily under Roman
+sovereignty in 318 B.C., afforded a refuge to the Roman fugitives after
+Cannae, and remained faithful for the rest of the war. It revolted in
+the Social War, in which it would appear to have suffered, inasmuch as
+Strabo (vi. 283) speaks of Canusium and Arpi as having been, to judge
+from the extent of their walls, the greatest towns in the plain of
+Apulia, but as having shrunk considerably in his day. Its importance was
+maintained, however, by its trade in agricultural products and in
+Apulian wool (which was there dyed and cleaned), by its port (probably
+Cannae) at the mouth of the Aufidus, and by its position on the
+high-road. It was a _municipium_ under the early empire, but was
+converted into a _colonia_ under Antoninus Pius by Herodes Atticus, who
+provided it with a water-supply. In the 6th century it was still the
+most important city of Apulia. Among the ancient buildings which are
+still preserved, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct and a city gate may be
+mentioned.
+
+  See N. Jacobone, _Ricerche sulla storia e la topografia di Canosa
+  Antica_ (Canosa di Puglia, 1905).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CANUTE (CNUT), known as "the Great" (c. 995-1035), king of Denmark and
+England, second son of King Sweyn Forkbeard and his first wife, the
+daughter of the Polish prince, Mieszko, was born c. 995. On the death
+of his father he was compelled to quit England by a general rising of
+the Anglo-Saxons, on which occasion in a fit of rage, for he was not
+naturally cruel, he abandoned his hostages after cutting off their
+hands, ears and noses. In the following year, 1015, he returned with a
+great fleet manned by a picked host, "not a thrall or a freedman among
+them." He speedily succeeded in subduing all England except London, now
+the last refuge of King Æthelred and his heroic son, Edmund Ironside.
+On the death of Æthelred (23rd of April 1016) Canute was elected king
+by an assembly of notables at Southampton; but London clung loyally to
+Edmund, who more than once succeeded in raising the western shires
+against Canute. Edmund indeed approved himself the better general of the
+two, and would doubtless have prevailed, but for the treachery of his
+own ealdormen. This was notably the case at the great battle of
+Assandun, in which by the desertion of Eadric an incipient Anglo-Saxon
+victory was converted into a crushing defeat. Nevertheless, the
+antagonists were so evenly matched that the great men on both sides,
+fearing that the interminable war would utterly ruin the land, arranged
+a conference between Canute and Edmund on an island in the Severn, when
+they agreed to divide England between them, Canute retaining Mercia and
+the north, while Edmund's territory comprised East Anglia and Wessex
+with London. On the death of Edmund, a few months later (November 1016),
+Canute was unanimously elected king of all England at the beginning of
+1017. The young monarch at once showed himself equal to his
+responsibilities. He did his utmost to deserve the confidence of his
+Anglo-Saxon subjects, and the eighteen years of his reign were of
+unspeakable benefit to his adopted country. He identified himself with
+the past history of England and its native dynasty by wedding Emma, or
+Aelgifu, to give her her Saxon name (the Northmen called her Alfifa),
+who came over from Normandy at his bidding, Canute previously
+repudiating his first wife, another Aelgifu, the daughter of the
+ealdorman Aelfhem of Deira, who, with her sons, was banished to Denmark.
+In 1018 Canute inherited the Danish throne, his elder brother Harold
+having died without issue. He now withdrew most of his army from
+England, so as to spare as much as possible the susceptibilities of the
+Anglo-Saxons. For the same reason he had previously dispersed all his
+warships but forty. On his return from Denmark he went a step farther.
+In a remarkable letter, addressed to the prelates, ealdormen and people,
+he declared his intention of ruling England by the English, and of
+upholding the laws of King Edgar, at the same time threatening with his
+vengeance all those who did not judge righteous judgment or who let
+malefactors go free. The tone of this document, which is not merely
+Christian but sacerdotal, shows that he had wisely resolved, in the
+interests of law and order, to form a close alliance with the native
+clergy. Those of his own fellow-countrymen who refused to co-operate
+with him were summarily dismissed. Thus, in 1021, the stiffnecked jarl
+Thorkil was banished the land, and his place taken by an Anglo-Saxon,
+the subsequently famous Godwin, who became one of Canute's chief
+counsellors. The humane and conciliatory character of his government is
+also shown in his earnest efforts to atone for Danish barbarities in the
+past. Thus he rebuilt the church of St Edmundsbury in memory of the
+saintly king who had perished there at the hands of the earlier Vikings,
+and with great ceremony transferred the relics of St Alphege from St
+Paul's church at London to a worthier resting-place at Canterbury. His
+work of reform and reconciliation was interrupted in 1026 by the attempt
+of Olaf Haraldson, king of Norway, in conjunction with Anund Jakob, king
+of Sweden, to conquer Denmark. Canute defeated the Swedish fleet at
+Stangebjerg, and so seriously injured the combined squadrons at the
+mouth of the Helgeaa in East Scania, that in 1028 he was able to subdue
+the greater part of Norway "without hurling a dart or swinging a sword."
+But the conquest was not permanent, the Norwegians ultimately rising
+successfully against the tyranny of Alfifa, who misruled the country in
+the name of her infant son Sweyn. Canute also succeeded in establishing
+the dominion of Denmark over the southern shores of the Baltic, in
+Witland and Samland, now forming part of the coast of Prussia. Of the
+details of Canute's government in Denmark proper we know but little. His
+most remarkable institution was the _Tinglid_, a military brotherhood,
+originally 3000 in number, composed of members of the richest and
+noblest families, who not only formed the royal bodyguard, but did
+garrison duty and defended the marches or borders. They were subject to
+strict discipline, embodied in written rules called the _Viderlog_ or
+_Vederlag_, and were the nucleus not only of a standing army but of a
+royal council. Canute is also said to have endeavoured to found
+monasteries in Denmark, with but indifferent success, and he was
+certainly the first Danish king who coined money, with the assistance of
+Anglo-Saxon mint-masters. Of his alliance with the clergy we have
+already spoken. Like the other great contemporary kingdom-builder,
+Stephen of Hungary, he clearly recognized that the church was the one
+civilizing element in a world of anarchic barbarism, and his submission
+to her guidance is a striking proof of his perspicacity. But it was no
+slavish submission. When, in 1027, he went to Rome, with Rudolf III. of
+Burgundy, to be present at the coronation of the emperor Conrad II., it
+was quite as much to benefit his subjects as to receive absolution for
+the sins of his youth. He persuaded the pope to remit the excessive fees
+for granting the _pallium_, which the English and Danish bishops had
+found such a grievous burden, substituting therefor a moderate amount of
+Peter's pence. He also induced the emperor and other German princes to
+grant safe-conducts to those of his subjects who desired to make the
+pilgrimage to Rome.
+
+Canute died at Shaftesbury on the 12th of November 1035 in his 40th
+year, and was buried at Winchester. He was cut off before he had had the
+opportunity of developing most of his great plans; yet he lived long
+enough to obtain the title of "Canute the Wealthy" (i.e. "Mighty"), and
+posterity, still more appreciative, has well surnamed him "the Great." A
+violent, irritable temper was his most salient defect, and more than one
+homicide must be laid to his charge. But the fierce Viking nature was
+gradually and completely subdued; for Canute was a Christian by
+conviction and sincerely religious. His humility is finely illustrated
+by the old Norman poem which describes how he commanded the rising tide
+of the Thames at Westminster to go back. The homily he preached to his
+courtiers on that occasion was to prepare them for his subsequent
+journey to Rome and his submission to the Holy See. Like his father
+Sweyn, Canute loved poetry, and the great Icelandic skalder, Thorar
+Lovtunge and Thormod Kolbrunarskjöld, were as welcome visitors at his
+court as the learned bishops. As an administrator Canute was excelled
+only by Alfred. He possessed in an eminent degree the royal gift of
+recognizing greatness, and the still more useful faculty of conciliating
+enemies. No English king before him had levied such heavy taxes, yet
+never were taxes more cheerfully paid; because the people felt that
+every penny of the money was used for the benefit of the country.
+According to the _Knytlinga Saga_ King Canute was huge of limb, of great
+strength, and a very goodly man to look upon, save for his nose, which
+was narrow, lofty and hooked; he had also long fair hair, and eyes
+brighter and keener than those of any man living.
+
+  See _Danmarks Riges Historie. Old Tiden og den aeldre Middelalder_,
+  pp. 382-406 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Freeman, _Norman Conquest_
+  (Oxford, 1870-1875); Steenstrup, _Normannerne_ (Copenhagen,
+  1876-1882).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CANUTE VI. (1163-1202), king of Denmark, eldest son of Valdemar I., was
+crowned in his seventh year (1170), as his father's co-regent, so as to
+secure the succession. In 1182 he succeeded to the throne. During his
+twenty years' reign Denmark advanced steadily along the path of
+greatness and prosperity marked out for her by Valdemar I.,
+consolidating and extending her dominion over the North Baltic coast and
+adopting a more and more independent attitude towards Germany. The
+emperor Frederick I.'s claim of overlordship was haughtily rejected at
+the very outset, and his attempt to stir up Duke Bogislav of Pomerania
+against Denmark's vassal, Jaromir of Rügen, was defeated by Archbishop
+Absalon, who destroyed 465 of Bogislav's 500 ships in a naval action off
+Strela (Stralsund) in 1184. In the following year Bogislav did homage to
+Canute on the deck of his long-ship, off Jomsborg in Pomerania, Canute
+henceforth styling himself king of the Danes and Wends. This victory
+led two years later to the voluntary submission of the two Abodrite
+princes Niklot and Borwin to the Danish crown, whereupon the bulk of the
+Abodrite dominions, which extended from the Trave to the Warnow,
+including modern Mecklenburg, were divided between them. The concluding
+years of Canute's reign were peaceful, as became a prince who, though by
+no means a coward, was not of an overwhelmingly martial temperament. In
+1197, however, German jealousy of Denmark's ambitions, especially when
+Canute led a fleet against the pirates of Esthonia, induced Otto,
+margrave of Brandenburg, to invade Pomerania, while in the following
+year Otto, in conjunction with Duke Adolf of Holstein, wasted the
+dominions of the Danophil Abodrites. The war continued intermittently
+till 1201, when Duke Valdemar, Canute's younger brother, conquered the
+whole of Holstein, and Duke Adolf was subsequently captured at Hamburg
+and sent in chains to Denmark. North Albingia, as the district between
+the Eider and the Elbe was then called, now became Danish territory.
+Canute died on the 12th of November 1202. Undoubtedly he owed the
+triumphs of his reign very largely to the statesmanship of Absalon and
+the valour of Valdemar. But he was certainly a prudent and circumspect
+ruler of blameless life, possessing, as Arnold of Lübeck (c. 1160-1212)
+expresses it, "the sober wisdom of old age even in his tender youth."
+
+  See _Danmarks Riges Historic. Oldtiden og den aeldre Middelalder_
+  (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), pp. 721-735.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CANVAS, a stout cloth which probably derives its name from _cannabis_,
+the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indicate that canvas was
+originally made from yarns of the hemp fibre, and there is some ground
+for the assumption. This fibre and that of flax have certainly been used
+for ages for the production of cloth for furnishing sails, and for
+certain classes of cloth used for this purpose the terms "sailcloth" and
+"canvas" are synonymous. Warden, in his _Linen Trade_, states that the
+manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1590, as appears
+by the preamble of James I., cap. 23:--"Whereas the cloths called
+_Mildernix_ and _Powel Davies_, whereof sails and other furniture for
+the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore altogether brought out
+of France and other parts beyond sea, and the skill and art of making
+and weaving of the said sailcloths never known or used in England until
+about the thirty-second year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what
+time and not before the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the
+said cloths was attained to, and since practised and continued in this
+realm, to the great benefit and commodity thereof." But this, or a
+similar cloth of the same name had been used for centuries before this
+time by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. Since the introduction of the
+power loom the cloth has undergone several modifications, and it is now
+made both from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton, or a mixture of these,
+but the quality of sailcloth for the British government is kept up to
+the original standard. All flax canvas is essentially of double warp,
+for it is invariably intended to withstand some pressure or rough usage.
+
+In structure it is similar to jute tarpaulin; indeed, if it were not for
+the difference in the fibre, it would be difficult to say where one type
+stopped and the other began. "Bagging," "tarpaulin" and "canvas" form an
+ascending series of cloths so far as fineness is concerned, although the
+finest tarpaulins are finer than some of the lower canvases. The cloth
+may be natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being tan.
+It has an enormous number of different uses other than naval.
+
+Amongst other articles made from it are:--receptacles for photographic
+and other apparatus; bags for fishing, shooting, golf and other sporting
+implements; shoes for cricket and other games, and for yachting;
+travelling cases and hold-alls, letter-bags, school-bags and nose-bags
+for horses. Large quantities of the various makes of flax and cotton
+canvases are tarred, and then used for covering goods on railways,
+wharves, docks, etc.
+
+Sail canvas is, naturally, of a strong build, and is quite different
+from the canvas cloth used for embroidery purposes, often called "art
+canvas." The latter is similar in structure to cheese cloths and
+strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art canvas are,
+in general, of a superior nature. All kinds of vegetable fibres are used
+in their production, chief among which are cotton, flax and jute. The
+yarns are almost invariably two or more ply, an arrangement which tends
+to obtain a uniform thickness--a very desirable element in these
+open-built fabrics.
+
+[Illustration.]
+
+The plain weave A in the figure is extensively used for these fabrics,
+but in many cases special weaves are used which leave the open spaces
+well defined. Thus weave B is often employed, while the "imitation
+gauze" weaves, C and D, are also largely utilized in the production of
+these embroidery cloths. Weave B is known as the hopsack, and probably
+owes its name to being originally used for the making of bags for hops.
+The cloth for this purpose is now called "hop pocketing," and is of a
+structure between bagging and tarpaulin. Another class of canvas, single
+warp termed "artists' canvas," is used, as its name implies, for
+paintings in oils. It is also much lighter than sail canvas, but must,
+of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities are made of
+cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual to find an
+admixture of tow, and even of cotton in the commoner kinds. When the
+cloth comes from the loom, it undergoes a special treatment to prepare
+the surface for the paint.
+
+
+
+
+CANVASS (an older spelling of "canvas"), to sift by shaking in a sheet
+of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly; as a political term it means to
+examine carefully the chances of the votes in a prospective election,
+and to solicit the support of the electors.
+
+
+
+
+CANYNGES, Canynge, WILLIAM (c. 1399-1474), English merchant, was born
+at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a member of a wealthy family of merchants
+and cloth-manufacturers in that city. He entered, and in due course
+greatly extended, the family business, becoming one of the richest
+Englishmen of his day. Canynges was five times mayor of, and twice
+member of parliament for, Bristol. He owned a fleet of ten ships, the
+largest hitherto known in England, and employed, it is said, 800 seamen.
+By special license from the king of Denmark he enjoyed for some time a
+monopoly of the fish trade between Iceland, Finland and England, and he
+also competed successfully with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic,
+obtaining a large share of their business. In 1456 he entertained
+Margaret of Anjou at Bristol, and in 1461 Edward IV. Canynges undertook
+at his own expense the great work of rebuilding the famous Bristol
+church of St Mary, Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred workmen
+in his regular service for this purpose. In 1467 he himself took holy
+orders, and in 1469 was made dean of Westbury. He died in 1474. The
+statesman George Canning and the first viscount Stratford de Redcliffe
+were descendants of his family.
+
+  See Pryce, _Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times_
+  (Bristol, 1854).
+
+
+
+
+CANYON (Anglicized form of Span. _cañon_, a tube, pipe or cannon; the
+Spanish form being also frequently written), a type of valley with huge
+precipitous sides, such as the Grand Canyons of the Colorado and the
+Yellowstone livers, and the gorge of the Niagara river below the falls,
+due to rapid stream erosion in a "young" land. A river saws its channel
+vertically downwards, and a swift stream erodes chiefly at the bottom.
+In rainy regions the valleys thus formed are widened out by slope-wash
+and the resultant valley-slopes are gentle, but in arid regions there is
+very little side-extension of the valleys and the river cuts its way
+downwards, leaving almost vertical cliffs above the stream. If the
+stream be swift as in the western plateau of North America, the cutting
+action will be rapid. The ideal conditions for developing a canyon are:
+great altitude and slope causing swift streams, arid conditions with
+absence of side-wash, and hard rock horizontally bedded which will hold
+the walls up.
+
+
+
+
+CANZONE, a form of verse which has reached us from Italian literature,
+where from the earliest times it has been assiduously cultivated. The
+word is derived from the Provençal _cansò_, a song, but it was in
+Italian first that the form became a literary one, and was dedicated to
+the highest uses of poetry. The canzone-strophe consists of two parts,
+the opening one being distinguished by Dante as the _fronte_, the
+closing one as the _sirma_. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being
+usual to make the rhyme of the last line of the _fronte_ identical with
+that of the first line of the _sirma_. In other respects the canzone has
+great liberty, as regards number and length of lines, arrangement of
+rhymes and conduct of structure. An examination of the best Italian
+models, however, shows that the tendency of the canzone-strophe is to
+possess 9, 10, 11, 13, 14 or 16 verses, and that of these the strophe of
+14 verses is so far the most frequent that it may almost be taken as the
+type. In this form it resembles an irregular sonnet. The _Vita Nuova_
+contains many examples of the canzone, and these are accompanied by so
+many explanations of their form as to lead us to believe that the
+canzone was originally invented or adopted by Dante. The following is
+the _proemio_ or _fronte_ of one of the most celebrated canzoni in the
+_Vita Nuova_ (which may be studied in English in Dante Gabriel
+Rossetti's translation):--
+
+  "Donna pietosa e di novella etate,
+   Adorna assai di gentilezza umane,
+   Era là ov' io chiamava spesso Morte.
+   Veggendo gli occhi miei pien di pietate,
+   Ed ascoltando le parole vane,
+   Si mosse con paura a pianger forte;
+   Ed altro donne, che si furo accorte
+   Di me per quella che meco piangia,
+   Fecer lei partir via
+   Ed apprissârsi per farmi sentire.
+   Quel dicea: 'Non dormire';
+   E qual dicea: 'Perchè sì te sconforte?'
+   Allor lasciai la nuova fantasia,
+   Chiamando il nome della donna mia."
+
+The _Canzoniere_ of Petrarch is of great authority as to the form of
+this species of verse. In England the canzone was introduced at the end
+of the sixteenth century by William Drummond of Hawthornden, who has
+left some very beautiful examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by
+A.W. von Schlegel and other poets of the Romantic period. It is
+doubtful, however, whether it is in agreement with the genius of any
+language but Italian, and whether the genuine "Canzone toscana" is a
+form which can be reproduced elsewhere than in Italy. (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CAPE BRETON, the north-east portion of Nova Scotia, Canada, separated
+from the mainland by a narrow strait, known as the Gut of Canceau or
+Canso. Its extreme length from north to south is about 110 m., greatest
+breadth about 87 m., and area 3120 sq. m. It juts out so far into the
+Atlantic that it has been called "the long wharf of Canada," the
+distance to the west coast of Ireland being less by a thousand miles
+than from New York. A headland on the east coast is also known as Cape
+Breton, and is said by some to be the first land made by Cabot on his
+voyage in 1497-1498. The large, irregularly-shaped, salt-water lakes of
+Bras d'Or communicate with the sea by two channels on the north-east; a
+short ship canal connects them with St Peter's bay on the south, thus
+dividing the island into two parts. Except on the north-west, the
+coast-line is very irregular, and indented with numerous bays, several
+of which form excellent harbours. The most important are Aspy, St Ann's,
+Sydney, Mira, Louisburg, Gabarus, St Peter's and Mabou; of these, Sydney
+Harbour, on which are situated the towns of Sydney and North Sydney, is
+one of the finest in North America. There are numerous rivers, chiefly
+rapid hill streams not navigable for any distance; the largest are the
+Denys, the Margaree, the Baddeck and the Mira. Lake Ainslie in the west
+is the most extensive of several fresh-water lakes. The surface of the
+island is broken in several places by ranges of hills of moderate
+elevation, well wooded, and containing numerous picturesque glens and
+gorges; the northern promontory consists of a plateau, rising at Cape
+North to a height of 1800 ft. This northern projection is formed of
+Laurentian gneiss, the only instance in Nova Scotia of this formation,
+and is fringed by a narrow border of carboniferous rocks. South of this
+extends a Cambrian belt, a continuation of the same formation on the
+Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. On various portions of the west coast,
+and on the south side of the island at Seacoal Bay and Little River
+(Richmond county), valuable seams of coal are worked. Still more
+important is the Sydney coal-field, which occupies the east coast from
+Mira Bay to St Ann's. The outcrop is plainly visible at various points
+along the coast, and coal has been mined in the neighbourhood from a
+very early period. Since 1893 the operations have been greatly extended,
+and over 3,000,000 tons a year are now shipped, chiefly to Montreal and
+Boston. The coal is bituminous, of good quality and easily worked, most
+of the seams dipping at a low angle. Several have been mined for some
+distance beneath the ocean. Slate, marble, gypsum and limestone are
+quarried, the latter, which is found in unlimited quantities, being of
+great value as a flux in the blast-furnaces of Sydney. Copper and iron
+are also found, though not in large quantities.
+
+Its lumber, agricultural products and fisheries are also important.
+Nearly covered with forest at the time of its discovery, it still
+exports pine, oak, beech, maple and ash. Oats, wheat, turnips and
+potatoes are cultivated, chiefly for home consumption; horses, cattle
+and sheep are reared in considerable numbers; butter and cheese are
+exported. The Bras d'Or lakes and the neighbouring seas supply an
+abundance of cod, mackerel, herring and whitefish, and the fisheries
+employ over 7000 men. Salmon are caught in several of the rivers, and
+trout in almost every stream, so that it is visited by large numbers of
+tourists and sportsmen from the other provinces and from the United
+States. The Intercolonial railway has been extended to Sydney, and
+crosses the Gut of Canso on a powerful ferry. From the same strait a
+railway runs up the west coast, and several shorter lines are controlled
+by the mining companies. Of these the most important is that connecting
+Sydney and Louisburg. Numerous steamers, with Sydney as their
+headquarters, ply upon the Bras d'Or lakes. The inhabitants are mainly
+of Highland Scottish descent, and Gaelic is largely spoken in the
+country districts. On the south and west coasts are found a number of
+descendants of the original French settlers and of the Acadian exiles
+(see NOVA SCOTIA), and in the mining towns numbers of Irish are
+employed. Several hundred Mic Mac Indians, for the most part of mixed
+blood, are principally employed in making baskets, fish-barrels and
+butter-firkins. Nearly the whole population is divided between the Roman
+and Presbyterian creeds, and the utmost cordiality marks the relations
+between the two faiths. The population is steadily increasing, having
+risen from 27,580 in 1851 to over 100,000 in 1906.
+
+There is some evidence in favour of early Norse and Icelandic voyages to
+Cape Breton, but they left no trace. It was probably visited by the
+Cabots in 1497-1498, and its name may either have been bestowed in
+remembrance of Cap Breton near Bayonne, by the Basque sailors who early
+frequented the coast, or may commemorate the hardy mariners of Brittany
+and Normandy.
+
+In 1629 James Stewart, fourth Lord Ochiltree, settled a small colony at
+Baleine, on the east side of the island; but he was soon after taken
+prisoner with all his party by Captain Daniell of the French Company,
+who caused a fort to be erected at Great Cibou (now St Ann's Harbour).
+By the peace of St Germain in 1632, Cape Breton was formally assigned to
+France; and in 1654 it formed part of the territory granted by patent to
+Nicholas Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, who made several small settlements on
+the island, which, however, had only a very temporary success. When by
+the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the French were deprived of Nova Scotia and
+Newfoundland, they were still left in possession of Cape Breton, and
+their right to erect fortifications for its defence was formally
+acknowledged. They accordingly transferred the inhabitants of Plaisance
+in Newfoundland to the settlement of Havre à l'Anglois, which soon
+after, under the name of Louisburg, became the capital of Cape Breton
+(or Ile Royale, as it was then called), and an important military post.
+
+Cod-fishing formed the staple industry, and a large contraband trade in
+French wines, brandy and sugar, was carried on with the English colonies
+to the south. In 1745 it was captured by a force of volunteers from New
+England, under Sir William Pepperell (1696-1759) aided by a British
+fleet under Commodore Warren (1703-1752). By the treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, the town was restored to France; but in 1758 was again
+captured by a British force under General Sir Jeffrey Amherst and
+Admiral Boscawen. On the conclusion of hostilities the island was ceded
+to England by the treaty of Paris; and on the 7th of October 1763 it was
+united by royal proclamation to the government of Nova Scotia. In 1784
+it was separated from Nova Scotia, and a new capital founded at the
+mouth of the Spanish river by Governor Desbarres, which received the
+name of Sydney in honour of Lord Sydney (Sir Thomas Townshend), then
+secretary of state for the colonies. There was immediately a
+considerable influx of settlers to the island, which received another
+important accession by the immigration of Scottish Highlanders from 1800
+to 1828. In 1820, in spite of strong opposition, it was again annexed to
+Nova Scotia. Since then, its history has been uneventful, chiefly
+centring in the development of the mining industry.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Historical: Richard Brown, _A History of the Island of
+  Cape Breton_ (1869), and Sir John Bourinot, _Historical and
+  Descriptive Account of Cape Breton_ (1892), are both excellent. See
+  also Denys, _Description géogr. et hist, des côtes de l'Amérique
+  septentrionale_ (1672); Pichon, _Lettres et mémoires du Cap
+  Bréton_ (1760). General: _Reports_ of Geological Survey, 1872 to
+  1882-1886, and 1895 to 1899 (by Robb, H. Fletcher and Faribault); H.
+  Fletcher, _The Sydney Coal Fields, Cape Breton, N.S._ (1900); Richard
+  Brown, _The Coal Fields of Cape Breton_ (1871; reprinted, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CAPE COAST, a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa, in 5° 5' N.,
+1° 13' W., about 80 m. W. of Accra. Pop. (1901) 28,948, mostly Fantis.
+There are about 100 Europeans and a colony of Krumen. The town is built
+on a low bank of gneiss and micaceous slate which runs out into the sea
+and affords some protection at the landing-place against the violence of
+the surf. (This bank was the _Cabo Corso_ of the Portuguese, whence the
+English corruption of Cape Coast.) The castle faces the sea and is of
+considerable size and has a somewhat imposing appearance. Next to the
+castle, used as quarters for military officers and as a prison, the
+principal buildings are the residence of the district commissioner, the
+churches and schools of various denominations, the government schools
+and the colonial hospital. Many of the wealthy natives live in
+brick-built residences. The streets are hilly, and the town is
+surrounded on the east and north by high ground, whilst on the west is a
+lagoon. Fort Victoria lies west of the town, and Fort William (used as a
+lighthouse) on the east.
+
+The first European settlement on the spot was that of the Portuguese in
+1610. In 1652 the Swedes established themselves here and built the
+castle, which they named Carolusburg. In 1659 the Dutch obtained
+possession, but the castle was seized in 1664 by the English under
+Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir) Robert Holmes, and it has not since
+been captured in spite of an attack by De Ruyter in 1665, a French
+attack in 1757, and various assaults by the native tribes. Next to
+Elmina it was considered the strongest fort on the Guinea Coast. Up to
+1876 the town was the capital of the British settlements on the coast,
+the administration being then removed to Accra. It is still one of the
+chief ports of the Gold Coast Colony, and from it starts the direct road
+to Kumasi. In 1905 it was granted municipal government. In the courtyard
+of the castle are buried George Maclean (governor of the colony
+1830-1843) and his wife (Laetitia Elizabeth Landon). The graves are
+marked by two stones bearing respectively the initials "L.E.L." and
+"G.M." The land on the east side of the town is studded with disused
+gold-diggers' pits. The natives are divided into seven clans called
+companies, each under the rule of recognized captains and possessing
+distinct customs and fetish.
+
+  See A. Ffoulkes, "The Company System in Cape Coast Castle," in _Jnl.
+  African Soc._ vol. vii., 1908; and GOLD COAST.
+
+
+
+
+CAPE COLONY (officially, "PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE"), the most
+southern part of Africa, a British possession since 1806. It was named
+from the promontory on its south-west coast discovered in 1488 by the
+Portuguese navigator Diaz, and near which the first settlement of
+Europeans (Dutch) was made in 1652. From 1872 to 1910 a self-governing
+colony, in the last-named year it entered the Union of South Africa as
+an original province. Cape Colony as such then ceased to exist. In the
+present article, however, the word "colony" is retained. The "provinces"
+referred to are the colonial divisions existing before the passing of
+the South Africa Act 1909, except in the sections _Constitution and
+Government_ and _Law and Justice_, where the changes made by the
+establishment of the Union are set forth. (See also SOUTH AFRICA.)
+
+_Boundaries and Area._--The coast-line extends from the mouth of the
+Orange (28° 38' S. 16° 27' E.) on the W. to the mouth of the Umtamvuna
+river (31° 4' S. 30° 12' E.) on the E., a distance of over 1300 m.
+Inland the Cape is bounded E. and N.E. by Natal, Basutoland, Orange Free
+State and the Transvaal; N. by the Bechuanaland Protectorate and N.W. by
+Great Namaqualand (German S.W. Africa). From N.W. to S.E. the colony has
+a breadth of 800 m., from S.W. to N.E. 750 m. Its area is 276,995 sq.
+m.--more than five times the size of England. Walfish Bay (q.v.) on the
+west coast north of the Orange river is a detached part of Cape Colony.
+
+_Physical Features._--The outstanding orographic feature of the country
+is the terrace-formation of the land, which rises from sea-level by
+well-marked steps to the immense plateau which forms seven-eighths of
+South Africa. The coast region varies in width from a few miles to as
+many as fifty, being narrowest on the south-east side. The western coast
+line, from the mouth of the Orange to the Cape peninsula, runs in a
+general south-east direction with no deep indentations save just south
+of 33° S. where, in Saldanha Bay, is spacious and sheltered anchorage.
+The shore is barren, consisting largely of stretches of white sand or
+thin soil sparsely covered with scrub. The Cape peninsula, which forms
+Table Bay on the north and False Bay on the south, juts pendant beyond
+the normal coast line and consists of an isolated range of hills. The
+scenery here becomes bold and picturesque. Dominating Table Bay is the
+well-known Table Mountain (3549 ft.), flat-topped and often covered with
+a "tablecloth" of cloud. On its lower slopes and around Table Bay is
+built Cape Town, capital of the colony. Rounding the storm-vexed Cape of
+Good Hope the shore trends south-east in a series of curves, forming
+shallow bays, until at the saw-edged reefs of Cape Agulhas (Portuguese,
+Needles) in 34° 51' 15" S. 20° E. the southernmost point of the African
+continent is reached. Hence the coast, now very slightly indented, runs
+north by east until at Algoa Bay (25° 45' E.) it takes a distinct
+north-east bend, and so continues beyond the confines of the colony.
+Along the southern and eastern shore the country is better watered, more
+fertile and more picturesque than along the western seaboard. Cape Point
+(Cape of Good Hope) stands 840 ft. above the sea; Cape Agulhas 455 ft.
+Farther on the green-clad sides of the Uiteniquas Mountains are plainly
+visible from the sea, and as the traveller by boat proceeds eastward,
+stretches of forest are seen and numbers of mountain streams carrying
+their waters to the ocean. In this part of the coast the only good
+natural harbour is the spacious estuary of the Knysna river in 23° 5' E.
+The entrance, which is over a bar with 14 ft. minimum depth of water, is
+between two bold sandstone cliffs, called the Heads.
+
+Off the coast are a few small islands, mainly mere rocks within the bay.
+None is far from the mainland. The largest are Dassen Island, 20 m. S.
+of Saldanha Bay, and Robben Island, at the entrance to Table Bay. St
+Croix is a rock in Algoa Bay, upon which Diaz is stated to have erected
+a cross. A number of small islands off the coast of German South-West
+Africa, chiefly valuable for their guano deposits, also belong to Cape
+Colony (see ANGRA PEQUENA).
+
+_Ocean Currents._--Off the east and south shores of the colony the
+Mozambique or Agulhas current sweeps south-westward with force
+sufficient to set up a back drift. This back drift or counter current
+flowing north-east is close in shore and is taken advantage of by
+vessels going from Cape Town to Natal. On the west coast the current
+runs northwards. It is a deflected stream from the west drift of the
+"roaring forties" and coming from Antarctic regions is much colder than
+the Agulhas current. Off the southern point of the continent the Agulhas
+current meets the west drift, giving rise to alternate streams of warm
+and cold water. This part of the coast, subject alike to strong westerly
+and southeasterly winds, is often tempestuous, as is witnessed by the
+name, Cabo Tormentoso, given to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the many
+wrecks off the coast. The most famous was that of the British troopship
+"Birkenhead," on the 26th of February 1852, off Danger Point, midway
+between Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE COLONY MAP.]
+
+_Mountains and Tablelands._--It has been stated that the land rises by
+well-marked steps to a vast central plateau. Beyond the coast plain,
+which here and there attains a height of 600 ft., are mountain ranges
+running parallel to the shore. These mountains are the supporting walls
+of successive terraces. When the steep southern sides of the ranges
+nearest the sea are ascended the hills are often found to be flat-topped
+with a gentle slope northward giving on to a plateau rarely more than 40
+m. wide. This plateau is called the Southern or Little Karroo, Karroo
+being a corruption of a Hottentot word meaning dry, arid. Having crossed
+the Little Karroo, from which rise minor mountain chains, a second high
+range has to be climbed. This done the traveller finds himself on
+another tableland--the Great Karroo. It has an average width of 80 m.
+and is about 350 m. long. Northwards the Karroo (q.v.) is bounded by the
+ramparts of the great inner tableland, of which only a comparatively
+small portion is in Cape Colony. This sequence of hill and plain--namely
+(1) the coast plain, (2) first range of hills, (3) first plateau (Little
+Karroo), (4) second range of hills, (5) second plateau (the Great
+Karroo), (6) main chain of mountains guarding, (7) the vast interior
+tableland--is characteristic of the greater part of the colony but is
+not clearly marked in the south-east and north-west borders. The
+innermost, and most lofty, chain of mountains follows a curve almost
+identical with that of the coast at a general distance of 120 m. from
+the ocean. It is known in different places under different names, and
+the same name being also often given to one or more of the coast ranges
+the nomenclature of the mountains is confusing (see the map). The most
+elevated portion of the innermost range, the Drakensberg (q.v.) follows
+the curve of the coast from south to north-east. Only the southern
+slopes of the range are in Cape Colony, the highest peaks--over 10,000
+ft.--being in Basutoland and Natal. Going westward from the Drakensberg
+the rampart is known successively as the Stormberg, Zuurberg,
+Sneeuwberg and Nieuwveld mountains. These four ranges face directly
+south. In the Sneeuwberg range is Compass Berg, 8500 ft. above the sea,
+the highest point in the colony. In the Nieuwveld are heights of over
+6000 ft. The Komsberg range, which joins the Nieuwveld on the east,
+sweeps from the south to the north-west and is followed by the Roggeveld
+mountains, which face the western seaboard. North of the Roggeveld the
+interior plateau approaches closer to the sea than in southern Cape
+Colony. The slope of the plateau being also westward, the mountain
+rampart is less elevated, and north of 32° S. few points attain 5000 ft.
+The coast ranges are here, in Namaqualand and the district of Van Rhyns
+Dorp, but the outer edges of the inner range. They attain their highest
+point in the Kamies Berg, 5511 ft. above the sea. Northward the Orange
+river, marking the frontier of the colony, cuts its way through the
+hills to the Atlantic.
+
+From the Olifants river on the west to the Kei river on the east the
+series of parallel ranges, which are the walls of the terraces between
+the inner tableland and the sea, are clearly traceable. Their general
+direction is always that of the coast, and they are cut across by rugged
+gorges or _kloofs_, through which the mountain streams make their way
+towards the sea. The two chief chains, to distinguish them from the
+inner chain already described, may be called the coast and central
+chains. Each has many local names. West to east the central chain is
+known as the Cedarberg, Groote Zwarteberg (highest point 6988 ft.),
+Groote river, Winterhoek (with Cockscomb mountain 5773 ft. high) and
+Zuurberg ranges. The Zuurberg, owing to the north-east trend of the
+shore, becomes, east of Port Elizabeth, a coast range, and the central
+chain is represented by a more northerly line of hills, with a dozen
+different names, which are a south-easterly spur of the Sneeuwberg. In
+this range the Great Winter Berg attains a height of 7800 ft.
+
+The coast chain is represented west to east by the Olifants mountains
+(with Great Winterhoek, 6618 ft. high), Drakenstein, Zonder Einde,
+Langeberg (highest point 5614 ft.), Attaquas, Uiteniquas and various
+other ranges. In consequence of the north-east trend of the coast,
+already noted, several of these ranges end in the sea in bold bluffs.
+From the coast plain rise many short ranges of considerable elevation,
+and on the east side of False Bay parallel to Table Bay range is a
+mountain chain with heights of 4000 and 5000 ft. East of the Kei river
+the whole of the country within Cape Colony, save the narrow seaboard,
+is mountainous. The southern part is largely occupied with spurs of the
+Stormberg; the northern portion, Griqualand East and Pondoland, with the
+flanks of the Drakensberg. Several peaks exceed 7000 ft. in height.
+Zwart Berg, near the Basuto-Natal frontier, rises 7615 ft. above the
+sea. Mount Currie, farther south, is 7296 ft. high. The Witte Bergen
+(over 5000 ft. high) are an inner spur of the Drakensberg running
+through the Herschel district.
+
+That part of the inner tableland of South Africa which is in the colony
+has an average elevation of 3000 ft., being higher in the eastern than
+in the western districts. It consists of wide rolling treeless plains
+scarred by the beds of many rivers, often dry for a great part of the
+year. The tableland is broken by the Orange river, which traverses its
+whole length. North of the river the plateau slopes northward to a level
+sometimes as low as 2000 ft. The country is of an even more desolate
+character than south of the Orange (see BECHUANALAND). Rising from the
+plains are chains of isolated flat-topped hills such as the Karree
+Bergen, the Asbestos mountains and Kuruman hills, comparatively
+unimportant ranges.
+
+Although the mountains present bold and picturesque outlines on their
+outward faces, the general aspect of the country north of the
+coast-lands, except in its south-eastern corner, is bare and monotonous.
+The flat and round-topped hills (_kopjes_), which are very numerous on
+the various plateaus, scarcely afford relief to the eye, which searches
+the sun-scorched landscape, usually in vain, for running water. The
+absence of water and of large trees is one of the most abiding
+impressions of the traveller. Yet the vast arid plains are covered with
+shallow beds of the richest soil, which only require the fertilizing
+power of water to render them available for pasture or agriculture.
+After the periodical rains, the Karroo and the great plains of
+Bushmanland are converted into vast fields of grass and flowering
+shrubs, but the summer sun reduces them again to a barren and burnt-up
+aspect. The pastoral lands or _velds_ are distinguished according to the
+nature of their herbage as "sweet" or "sour." Shallow sheets of water
+termed _vleis_, usually brackish, accumulate after heavy rain at many
+places in the plateaus; in the dry seasons these spots, where the soil
+is not excessively saline, are covered with rich grass and afford
+favourite grazing land for cattle. Only in the southern coast-land of
+the colony is there a soil and moisture supply suited to forest growth.
+
+_Rivers_.--The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of the
+colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the Orange
+(q.v.), which flows from east to west nearly across the continent. For a
+considerable distance, both in its upper and lower courses, the river
+forms the northern frontier of Cape Colony. In the middle section, where
+both banks are in the colony, the Orange receives from the north-east
+its greatest tributary, the Vaal (q.v.). The Vaal, within the boundaries
+of the colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and
+the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony the
+Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the Orange flow,
+in their lower courses, through the eastern part of Griqualand West, the
+only well-watered portion of the colony north of the mountains. From the
+north, below the Vaal confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman,
+intermittent streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional
+surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose themselves in
+some _vlei_ in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob mark the frontier
+between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Cape; the Kuruman lies
+wholly within the colony. From the south a number of streams, the Brak
+and Ongers, the Zak and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the
+Hartebeest), flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for
+a great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the
+volume of the Orange.
+
+South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic or
+Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast rivers fall
+thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and many are little
+else than mountain torrents. They make their way down the mountain sides
+through great gorges, and are noted in the eastern part of the country
+for their extremely sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams
+after heavy rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry
+up altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers are
+obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange river also,
+they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable.
+
+Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic are the
+Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here that the same
+name is repeatedly applied throughout South Africa to different streams,
+Buffalo, Olifants (elephants') and Groote (great) being favourite
+designations. They all occur more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west
+coast rivers, the Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and
+least important, flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150
+m.), which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the
+Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg and Olifants
+ranges. The Doorn, a stream with a somewhat parallel but more easterly
+course, joins the Olifants about 50 m. above its mouth, the Atlantic
+being reached by a semicircular sweep to the south-west. The Berg river
+(125 m.) rises in the district of French Hoek and flows through fertile
+country, in a north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It
+is navigable for a few miles from its mouth.
+
+On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the Breede
+(about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and broad channel.
+Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the mountains by Mitchell's
+Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of Ceres and Worcester, and
+receives, beyond the last-named place, the waters which descend from
+the famous Hex River Pass. The Breede thence follows the line of the
+Langeberg mountains as far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and
+traversing the coast plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From
+its mouth the river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m.
+East of the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the
+inner mountain chain, are passed in the order named:--Gouritz (200
+m.),[1] Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.), Kei (150
+m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John's (140 m.).
+
+The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the Gamka and the
+Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld not far from Beaufort West,
+traverses the Great Karroo from north to south, and forces a passage
+through the Zwarteberg. Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from
+the east by the Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great
+Karroo, being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the
+Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the Little
+Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka. The united
+stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south, and receives from
+the west, a few miles above the point where it breaks through the coast
+range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the common name Groote, but known in
+its upper course as the Buffels. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The
+Touws (90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources
+of the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the Groote
+the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and enters the Indian
+Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel Bay.
+
+The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams, the Kouga, an
+unimportant river which rises in the coast hills, and the Groote river.
+This, _the_ Groote river of Cape Colony, has its rise in the Nieuwveld
+near Nels Poort, being known in its upper course as the Salt river.
+Flowing south-east, it is joined by the Kariega on the left, and
+breaking through the escarpment of the Great Karroo, on the lower level
+changes its name to the Groote, the hills which overhang it to the
+north-east being known as Groote River Heights. Bending south, the
+Groote river passes through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and
+being joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St
+Francis Bay.
+
+Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams, change its name
+on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo and again on reaching the
+coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg north-west of Graaff Reinet,
+flows south-east through one of the most fertile districts of the Great
+Karroo, which it pierces at the western end of the Zuurberg (of the
+coast chain), and reaches the ocean in Algoa Bay.
+
+Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with the Great
+Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small streams rising in
+the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form the Great Fish river
+which passes through Cradock, and crossing the Karroo, changes its
+general direction from south to east, and is joined by the Kooner (or
+Koonap) and Kat, both of which rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the
+Great Salt river, it winds south to the sea. Great Fish river is
+distinguished for the sudden and great rise of its waters after heavy
+rain and for its exceedingly sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway
+station it makes an almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being
+scarcely 2 m. apart, in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like
+the other streams which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in
+its upper course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000
+cubic ft.
+
+The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise in the
+Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish in its many
+twists, flows in a general south-east direction through mountainous
+country until it reaches the coast plain. Its mouth is 40 m. in a direct
+line north-east of East London. In the history of the Cape the Kei
+plays an important part as long marking the boundary between the colony
+and the independent Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei
+rivers see KAFFRARIA.)
+
+Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.), Kowie (40
+m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be mentioned. The Knysna
+rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of importance as a feeder of the
+lagoon or estuary of the same name, one of the few good harbours on the
+coast. The banks of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which
+rises in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham's Town, is also noted for
+the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The water over the
+bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft. draught. The Buffalo
+river rises in the hilly country north of King William's Town, past
+which it flows. At the mouth of the river, where the scenery is very
+fine, is East London, third in importance of the ports of Cape Colony.
+
+The frequency of "fontein" among the place names of the colony bears
+evidence of the number of springs in the country. They are often found
+on the flat-topped hills which dot the Karroo. Besides the ordinary
+springs, mineral and thermal springs are found in several places.
+
+_Lakes and Caves._--Cape Colony does not possess any lakes properly so
+called. There are, however, numerous natural basins which, filled after
+heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an incrustation of salt on the
+ground, whence their name of salt pans. The largest, Commissioner's Salt
+Pan, in the arid north-west district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference.
+Besides these pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools
+or _vleis_ whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture of
+the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore by a
+sandbank only, are a series of five _vleis_, turned in flood times into
+one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to the ocean. These
+_vleis_ are known collectively as "the lakes." In the Zwarteberg of the
+central chain are the Cango Caves, a remarkable series of caverns
+containing many thousand of stalactites and stalagmites. These caves,
+distant 20 m. from Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone
+bed about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers, the
+caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line.
+
+_Climate_.--The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthiness. Its
+chief characteristics are the dryness and clearness of the atmosphere
+and the considerable daily range in temperature; whilst nevertheless the
+extremes of heat and cold are rarely encountered. The mean annual
+temperature over the greater part of the country is under 65° F. The
+chief agents in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in
+the southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large extent
+of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature of the air
+in places south of the tropics compared with that experienced in
+countries in the same latitude north of the equator. Thus Cape Town,
+about 34° S., has a mean temperature, 63° F., which corresponds with
+that of the French and Italian Riviera, in 41° to 43° N. For the dryness
+of the atmosphere the elevation of the country is responsible. The east
+and south-east winds, which contain most moisture, dissipate their
+strength against the Drakensberg and other mountain ranges which guard
+the interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially in the south-east,
+enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance west and north
+contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger part of the
+country drought is common and severe. Along the valley of the lower
+Orange rain does not fall for years together. The drought is increased
+in intensity by the occasional hot dry wind from the desert region in
+the north, though this wind is usually followed by violent
+thunderstorms.
+
+Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here outlined,
+in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there are many
+variations in different districts. In the coast-lands the daily range of
+the thermometer is less marked than in the interior and the humidity of
+the atmosphere is much greater. Nevertheless, the west coast north of
+the Olifants river is practically rainless and there is great difference
+between day and night temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the
+characteristics of the interior plateau. The division of the year into
+four seasons is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where
+exceptional conditions prevail. In general the seasons are but
+two--summer and winter, summer lasting from September to April and
+winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is experienced
+in December, January and February, whilst June and July are the coldest
+months. In the western part of the colony the winter is the rainy
+season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in summer. A line drawn
+from Port Elizabeth north-west across the Karroo in the direction of
+Walfish Bay roughly divides the regions of the winter and summer rains.
+All the country north of the central mountain chain and west of 23° E.,
+including the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual
+rainfall of under 12 in. East of the 23° E. the plateaus have a mean
+annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-lands and
+the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in.; the Cape
+peninsula by exception having an average yearly rainfall of 40 in. (see
+CAPE TOWN). Along the south coast and in the south-east the mean annual
+rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is over 50 in. at some stations. The rain
+falls, generally, in heavy and sudden storms, and frequently washes away
+the surface soil. The mean annual temperature of the coast region,
+which, as stated, is 63° F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the
+coast not only trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect
+of the warm Mozambique or Agulhas current.
+
+On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77° F., the mean minimum
+49°, the mean daily range about 27°. In summer the drought is severe,
+the heat during the day great, the nights cool and clear. In winter
+frost at night is not uncommon. The climate of the northern plains is
+similar to that of the Karroo, but the extremes of cold and heat are
+greater. In the summer the shade temperature reaches 110° F., whilst in
+winter nights 12° of frost have been registered. The hot westerly winds
+of summer make the air oppressive, though violent thunderstorms, in
+which form the northern districts receive most of their scanty rainfall,
+occasionally clear the atmosphere. Mirages are occasionally seen. The
+keen air, accompanied by the brilliant sunshine, renders the winter
+climate very enjoyable. Snow seldom falls in the coast region, but it
+lies on the higher mountains for three or four months in the year, and
+for as many days on the Karroo. Violent hailstorms, which do great
+damage, sometimes follow periods of drought. The most disagreeable
+feature of the climate of the colony is the abundance of dust, which
+seems to be blown by every wind, and is especially prevalent in the
+rainy season.
+
+That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the history of South
+Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations of settlers, from northern
+Europe have been born, lived and died there, and the race is as strong
+and vigorous as that from which it sprang. Malarial fever is practically
+non-existent in Cape Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare.
+     (F. R. C.)
+
+_Geology_.--The colony affords the typical development of the geological
+succession south of the Zambezi. The following general arrangement has
+been determined:--
+
+  TABLE OF FORMATIONS.
+  _Post-Cretaceous and Recent._
+
+  Cretaceous      / Pondoland Cretaceous Series  \ Cretaceous
+    System        \ Uitenhage Series             /
+
+                  / Stormberg Series             \
+  Karroo System  <  Beaufort Series               > Carboniferous
+                  | Ecca Series                  |    to Jurassic
+                  \ Dwyka Series                 /
+
+                  / Witteberg Series             \
+  Cape System    <  Bokkeveld Series              > Devonian
+                  | Table Mountain Sandstone     |
+                  \   Series                     /
+
+                  / Includes several independent \
+  Pre-Cape Rocks <  unfossiliferous formations    > Archaean to
+                  \   of pre-Devonian age        /    Silurian(?)
+
+The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be regarded as a
+shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal rocks of the Karroo.
+These form the plains and plateaus of the interior. Rocks of pre-Cape
+age rise from beneath them on the north and west; on the south and east
+the Lower Karroo and Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath
+which, but in quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the
+folded regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south
+and east.
+
+Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different
+development in each:--
+
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+
+  |          North.         |          West.          |    South.   |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+
+  | Matsap Series           | Nieuwerust Beds         | Cango Beds  |
+  | Ongeluk Volcanic Series |                         |             |
+  | Griquatown Series       | Ibiquas Beds            |             |
+  | Campbell Rand Series    |                         |             |
+  | Black Reef Series       |                         |             |
+  | Pniel Volcanic Series   |                         |             |
+  | Keis Series             |                         |             |
+  | Namaqualand Schists     | Namaqualand Schists and | Malmesbury  |
+  |                         |   Malmesbury Beds       |   Beds      |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+
+
+The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt represent
+formations of widely different ages, but all that can be said is that
+they are greatly older than the Cape System. The hope that they will
+yield fossils has been held out but not yet fulfilled. Their total
+thickness amounts to several thousand feet. The rocks have been greatly
+changed by pressure in most cases and by the intrusion of great masses
+of igneous material, the Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being
+most altered.
+
+The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse conglomerate;
+the other rocks include slates, limestone and porphyroids. The Ibiquas
+beds consist of conglomerates and grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas
+series have been invaded by granite of older date than the Table
+Mountain series. The Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and
+shales. They rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury
+beds.
+
+The pre-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Campbell Rand,
+Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in the Schuftebergen.
+They contain a great variety of sediments and igneous rocks. The oldest,
+or Keis, series consists of quartzites, quartz-schists, phyllites and
+conglomerates. These are overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great
+thickness of lavas and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer
+Vley and Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites,
+grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the
+Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some interbedded
+quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quartzites, limestones and
+shales are numerous bands of jasper and large quantities of crocidolite
+(a fibrous amphibole); while at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200
+ft. thick, is locally developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known
+glaciations have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The
+Ongeluk volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conformably
+overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites and
+conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great
+discordance.
+
+Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the southern and
+eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member (Table Mountain
+Sandstone) consists of sandstones with subordinate bands of shale. It
+forms the upper part of Table Mountain and enters largely into the
+formation of the southern mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous
+except for a few obscure sheils obtained near the base. A bed of
+conglomerate is regarded as of glacial origin.
+
+The Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into a sequence of
+sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well exposed in the Cold and
+Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds contain many fossils, including
+_Phacops, Homalonotus, Leptocoelia, Spirifer, Chonetes, Orthothetes,
+Orthoceras, Bellerophon_. Many of the species are common to the Devonian
+rocks of the Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with
+perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South America than
+to that of any other country.
+
+The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sandstones,
+quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far imperfect remains
+of plants (_Spirophyton_) are the only fossils, and these are not
+sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the Devonian or
+Carboniferous System.
+
+The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.
+
+The Karroo System is _par excellence_ the geological formation of South
+Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do large tracts
+in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes the following
+well-defined subdivisions:--
+
+                                           Feet.
+             / Volcanic Beds  .  .  .  .   4000 \
+  Stormberg <  Cave Sandstone .  .  .  .    800  > Jurassic
+    Series   | Red Beds .  .  .  .  .  .   1400 /
+             \ Molteno Beds   .  .  .  .   2000 \
+  Beaufort   / Burghersdorp Beds \               > Trias
+    Series  <  Dicynodon Beds     > .  .   5000 /
+             \ Pareiasaurus Beds /              \  Permian
+  Ecca       / Shales and Sandstones \          /
+    Series  <  Laingsburg Beds        >.   2600 \
+             \ Shales                /          |
+  Dwyka      / Upper Shales   .  .  .  .    600  > Carboniferus
+    Series  <  Conglomerates  .  .  .  .   1000 |
+             \ Lower Shales   .  .  .  .    700 /
+
+In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape System
+conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on very much older
+rocks. The most remarkable deposits are the conglomerates of the Dwyka
+series. These afford the clearest evidences of glaciation on a great
+scale in early Carboniferous times. The deposit strictly resembles a
+consolidated modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks,
+and in different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is
+remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward. The
+upper shales contain the small reptile _Mesosaurus tenuidens_.
+
+Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among others
+they include _Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca_. The Beaufort
+series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable and often
+gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and species are numerous,
+_Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus_ being the best known. Among plants
+_Glossopteris_ occurs for the last time. The Stormberg series occurs in
+the mountainous regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno
+beds contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable feature
+of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an extensive
+scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed by lava streams
+of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets, most of which end at the
+folded belt, are also numerous. The age of the intrusive sheets met with
+in the Beaufort series is usually attributed to the Stormberg period.
+They form the kopjes, or characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great
+Karroo. The Stormberg series contains the remains of numerous reptiles.
+A true crocodile, _Notochampsa_, has been discovered in the Red Beds and
+Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, _Thinnfeldia_ and _Taeniopteris_ are
+common. Three genera of fossil fishes, _Cleithrolepis, Semionotus_ and
+_Ceratodus_, ascend from the Beaufort series into the Cave Sandstone.
+
+Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the Uitenhage
+beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden. The marine fauna
+of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age. The chief genera are
+_Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus_ and certain _Trigoniae_.
+
+The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are widely spread.
+High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft. above the sea. The remains
+of a gigantic ox, _Bubalus Baini_, have been obtained from the alluvium
+near the Modder river. The recent deposits indicate that the land has
+risen for a long period.     (W. G.*)
+
+_Fauna._--The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals common
+in the early days of the colony have been exterminated (e.g. quagga and
+blaauwbok), and others (e.g. the lion, rhinoceros, giraffe) driven
+beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game have been so reduced in
+numbers as to require special protection. This class includes the
+elephant (now found only in the Knysna and neighbouring forest regions),
+buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved, and confined to much the same
+regions as the elephant), eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other
+kinds of antelope and gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in
+the mountainous districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare
+woolly variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs
+are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other carnivora more
+or less common to the colony are the spotted hyena, aard-wolf (or
+_Proteles_), silver jackal, the _Otocyon_ or Cape wild dog, and various
+kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a few hundreds of rare
+varieties, there are the springbuck, of which great herds still wander
+on the open veld, the steinbok, a small and beautiful animal which is
+sometimes coursed like a hare, the klipspringer or "chamois of South
+Africa," common in the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock
+rabbit. There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of
+jerboa and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been
+introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland. The
+ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is found on the Karroo,
+where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps which dot the plain. There is
+also a scaly ant-eater and various species of pangolins, of arboreal
+habit, which live on ants. Baboons are found in the mountains and
+forests, otters in the rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile,
+confined to the Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the
+cobra di capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises,
+including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental land
+forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some regions. The
+great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft. high. Other game birds
+include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, snipe, wild
+duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal, plover and rail. Birds of prey include
+the bearded vulture, aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks,
+falcons and owls. Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in
+large variety.
+
+Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong to the order
+Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very common, the Cape canary,
+long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and wagtails are fairly numerous. The
+English starling is stated to be the only European bird to have
+thoroughly established itself in the colony. The Cape sparrow has
+completely acclimatized itself to town life and prevented the English
+sparrow obtaining a footing.
+
+Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions, tarantula spiders,
+butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In some districts the tsetse fly
+causes great havoc. The most interesting of the endemic insectivora is
+the _Chrysochloris_ or "golden mole," so called from the brilliant
+yellow lustre of its fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater
+fish, the commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both
+are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 lb. The smallest
+variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the _vleis_ and
+streams in which the water is intermittent the fish preserve life by
+burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been introduced into several rivers
+and have become acclimatized. Of sea fish there are more than forty
+edible varieties. The snock, the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in
+the estuaries and bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters
+of the Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.
+
+Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed by the
+natives when the country was discovered by Europeans. The various farm
+animals introduced by the whites have thriven well (see below,
+_Agriculture_).
+
+_Flora_.--The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast
+districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less variety.
+In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted in the colony,
+about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape. The bush of the coast
+districts and lower hills consists largely of heaths, of which there are
+over 400 species. The heaths and the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a
+plant 1 to 2 ft. high resembling heather, form the characteristic
+features of the flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom
+is pink coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry
+season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the flowers are
+the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group, including many
+varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In the eastern
+coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-tropical. Of
+pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty genera: Cape
+"everlasting" flowers (generally species of _Helichrysum_) are in great
+numbers. Several species of aloe are indigenous to the Cape. The
+so-called American aloe has also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant
+and many other plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great
+abundance. Among plants remarkable in their appearance and structure may
+be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge plants, the _Stapelia_ or
+carrion flower, and the elephant's foot or Hottentots' bread, a plant of
+the same order as the yam. Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic
+of many South African plants.
+
+Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges facing
+south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The forests contain a great
+variety of useful woods, affording excellent timber; among the commonest
+trees are the yellow wood, which is also one of the largest, belonging
+to the yew species; black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable
+stinkhout; melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and the
+assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed 30 ft. in height
+and scarcely any attain a greater height than 60 ft. A characteristic
+Cape tree is _Leucadendron argenteum_ or silver tree, so named from the
+silver-like lustre of stem and leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the
+Cedarberg got its name, exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the
+Dutch or British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the
+Australian blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle
+grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands, e.g. the
+Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more rapidly and more
+luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few indigenous fruits; the kei
+apple is the fruit of a small tree or shrub found in Kaffraria and the
+eastern districts, where also the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard
+pears, gourds, water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon
+are also native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been
+introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of dwarf
+mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the spring rains are
+gorgeous in blossom (see KARROO). The grass of the interior plains is of
+a coarse character and yellowish colour, very different from the meadow
+grasses of England. The "Indian" doab grass is also indigenous.
+
+With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not reach beyond
+about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered with small heath,
+_Bruniaceae, Rutaceae_, &c. All plants with permanent foliage are
+thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over seventy species of plants
+of Alpine character have been found.
+
+_Races and Population_.--The first inhabitants of Cape Colony of whom
+there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots (q.v.). The last-named
+were originally called Quaequaes, and received the name Hottentots from
+the Dutch. They dwelt chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of
+the country; elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and
+to them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered by
+Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was very scanty and
+it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers and a few Huguenot families
+in the 17th century was followed in the 19th century by that of English
+and German immigrants. The Bushmen retreated before the white races and
+now few are to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the
+districts bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the
+Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no _pure bred_
+representatives of the race survive in the colony.
+
+Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now form the bulk
+of the native population west of the Great Fish river. Of Kaffir tribes
+the most important living north of the Orange river are the Bechuanas,
+whilst in the eastern province and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus
+and Pondos. The Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony
+proper. The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot
+half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country. During the
+slavery period many thousands of negroes were imported, chiefly from
+the Guinea coast. The negroes have been largely assimilated by the
+Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the native races see their separate
+articles.) Of the white races in the Colony the French element has been
+completely absorbed in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are
+mainly pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased form
+their own language, also engage largely in agriculture and viticulture.
+Of fine physique and hardy constitution, they are of strongly
+independent character; patriarchal in their family life; shrewd, _slim_
+and courageous; in religion Protestants of a somewhat austere type.
+Education is somewhat neglected by them, and the percentage of
+illiteracy among adults is high. They are firm believers in the
+inferiority of the black races and regard servitude as their natural
+lot. The British settlers have developed few characteristics differing
+from the home type. The British element of the community is largely
+resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in
+professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk of the
+farmers are English or German; the German farmers being found in the
+district between King William's Town and East London, and on the Cape
+Peninsula. Numbers of them retain their own language. The term
+"Africander" is sometimes applied to all white residents in Cape Colony
+and throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to the
+Dutch-speaking colonists. "Boer," i.e. farmer, as a synonym for "Dutch,"
+is not in general use in Cape Colony.
+
+Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of Malays in
+Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the Dutch as slaves.
+These people are largely leavened with foreign elements and, professing
+Mahommedanism, religion rather than race is their bond of union. They
+add greatly by their picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street
+scenes. They are generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There
+are also a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of
+the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the _taal_ or
+vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites, as it is
+of the natives in the western provinces.
+
+The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the colony,
+which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not include the
+comparatively densely-populated Native Territories, was 566,158. Of
+these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or about 33% of the whole. Of the
+coloured races the Hottentots and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000,
+whilst the Kaffirs formed about 50% of the population. Since 1865
+censuses have been taken--in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland
+formed part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand East,
+Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated, and Basutoland
+had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland and British Bechuanaland had
+been added. The following table gives the area and population at each of
+the three periods.
+
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  |       1875.       |       1891.       |       1904.       |
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+  |  Area.  |   Pop.  |  Area.  |   Pop.  |  Area.  |   Pop.  |
+  | sq. m.  |         | sq. m.  |         | sq. m.  |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+  | 201,136 | 849,160 | 260,918 |1,527,224| 276,995 |2,409,804|
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at 720,984, and
+that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is officially divided into
+nine provinces, but is more conveniently treated as consisting of three
+regions, to which may be added the detached area of Walfish Bay and the
+islands along the coast of Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows
+the distribution of population in the various areas.
+
+The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865 and 579,741 in
+1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783 in 1875 and 376,987 in
+1891. The proportion of Dutch descended whites to those of British
+origin is about 3 to 2. No exact comparison can be made showing the
+increase in the native population owing to the varying areas of the
+colony, but the natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites;
+the increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable
+measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25% of the total
+population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the colony proper. The
+great bulk of the people inhabit the coast region. The population is
+densest in the south-west corner (which includes Cape Town, the capital)
+where the white outnumbers the coloured population. Here in an area of
+1711 sq. m. the inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The
+urban population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns
+and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the total
+population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants at the 1904
+census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as Indians, 85,892 as
+Hottentots,[2] 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as Griquas. The Kaffir and
+Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067 individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes
+separately classified, while 279,662 persons were described as of mixed
+race. Divided by sex (including white and black) the males numbered
+(1904) 1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion
+of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:--whites, 82.16 females
+to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared with 1891); coloured,
+103.22 females to every 100 males. Of the total population over 14 years
+old--1,409,975--the number married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the
+white population this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.
+
+  +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
+  |                         |                 Population (1904).                |
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+  |                         | Area in |  White. | Coloured. |   Total.  |  Per  |
+  |                         |  sq. m. |         |           |           | sq. m.|
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+  | Cape Colony Proper      | 206,613 | 553,452 |   936,239 | 1,489,691 |  7.21 |
+  | British Bechuanaland    |  51,424 |   9,368 |    75,104 |    84,472 |  1.64 |
+  | Native Territories      |  18,310 |  16,777 |   817,867 |   834,644 | 45.50 |
+  | Walfish Bay and Islands |     648 |     144 |       853 |       977 |  1.50 |
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+  |              Total      | 276,995 | 579,741 | 1,830,063 | 2,409,804 |  8.70 |
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+
+The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ about ¼th
+of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged in such pursuits
+numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and 67,278, whereas 99,319
+were engaged in domestic employment, and 111,175 in agricultural
+employment, while 214,982 (mostly children) were dependants. The natives
+follow domestic and agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.
+
+Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory till 1895.
+Among the European population the birth-rate is about 33.00 per
+thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand. The birth-rate among
+the coloured inhabitants is about the same as with the whites, but the
+death-rate is higher--about 25.00 per thousand.
+
+_Immigration and Emigration_.--From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337 persons
+availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants from England to
+the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped. The total number of adult
+immigrants by sea, however, steadily increased from 11,559 in 1891 to
+38,669 in 1896, while during the same period the number of departures by
+sea only increased from 8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took
+place in the last year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the
+political position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants,
+while the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900 there
+were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163 departures.
+Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the immigration figures rose
+in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures numbered 29,615. This great
+increase proved transitory; in 1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered
+32,282 and 33,775 respectively, while in the same years the emigrants
+numbered 33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the
+European population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian
+extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.
+
+_Provinces_.--The first division of the colony for the purposes of
+administration and election of members for the legislative council was
+into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the western being largely
+Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly British. With the growth of the
+colony these provinces were found to be inconveniently large, and by an
+act of government, which became law in 1874, the country was portioned
+out into seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were
+formed within them by the reduction of those already existing. The seven
+provinces are named from their geographical position: western,
+north-western, south-western, eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and
+midland. In general usage the distinction made is into western and
+eastern provinces, according to the area of the primary division.
+Griqualand West on its incorporation with the colony in 1880 became a
+separate province, and when the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was
+taken over by the Cape in 1895 it also became a separate province (see
+GRIQUALAND and BECHUANALAND). For electoral purposes the Native
+Territories (see KAFFRARIA) are included in the eastern province.
+
+_Chief Towns_.--With the exception of Kimberley the principal towns (see
+separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape Town, had a
+population (1904) of 77,668, or including the suburbs, 169,641. The most
+important of these suburbs, which form separate municipalities, are
+Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg (18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley,
+the centre of the diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape
+Town, had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of
+Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959
+inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river, 25,220.
+Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London. Uitenhage (pop.
+12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. Of the other towns Somerset
+West (2613), Somerset West Strand (3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl
+(11,293), Wellington (4881), Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon
+(3508), Worcester (7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are
+named in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam is
+distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony are
+Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West (5478), Victoria
+West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of Mossel Bay (4206) and
+George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083), Middleburg (6137), Cradock
+(7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg (2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more
+centrally situated, while in the east are Graham's Town (13,887), King
+William's Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp
+(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North (5566), the
+largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset East (5216).
+Simon's Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of the British navy.
+Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the colony near the Transvaal
+frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg (2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad
+(2903) is the capital of Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of
+Tembuland.
+
+Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines, whose
+headquarters are at O'okiep (2106). Knysna, Port Alfred and Port St
+Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and Barkly West are two widely
+separated towns, the first being E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West
+in Griqualand West. Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the
+middle course of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on
+the north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western part
+of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining region in
+the east of the colony. The general plan of the small country towns is
+that of streets laid out at right angles, and a large central market
+square near which are the chief church, town hall and other public
+buildings. In several of the towns, notably those founded by the early
+Dutch settlers, the streets are tree-lined. Those towns for which no
+population figures are given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000
+inhabitants.
+
+_Agriculture and Allied Industries._--Owing to the scarcity of water
+over a large part of the country the area of land under cultivation is
+restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are pastoralists, whose
+wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep and goats, horses, and,
+in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of adequate irrigation much
+fertile soil is left untouched.
+
+The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000 bushels
+in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and Kaffir corn (a
+kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing districts are in the
+south-western and eastern provinces. The yield per acre is fully up to
+the average of the world's yield, computed at twelve bushels to the
+acre. The quality of Cape wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives
+its name to the Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower
+hills of Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and
+horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and Kaffir
+corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider area than any
+other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest crop grown. They are
+often cut whilst still tender, dried and used as forage being known as
+oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of about 5½ lb each were produced in 1904).
+The principal vegetables cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold and
+beet, beans and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small, whilst
+those devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging from 3000
+acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers own the
+farms they occupy.
+
+The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief
+occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000 woolled and
+3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There were 2,775,000 angora and
+4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000 cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000
+asses. These figures showed in most cases a large decrease compared with
+those obtained in 1891, the cause being largely the ravages of
+rinderpest. Lucerne and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich
+farms are maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country,
+young birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres
+supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated ostriches in
+1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over 200,000 since 1891. There
+are large mule-breeding establishments on the veld.
+
+Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony. It is
+doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to the Cape. The
+first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards, while the cuttings of
+French vines introduced by the Huguenots about 1688 have given rise to
+an extensive culture in the south-western districts of the colony. The
+grapes are among the finest in the world, whilst the fruit is produced
+in almost unrivalled abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of
+wine are produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000,
+and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides
+1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those known as
+Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot. The high reputation
+which they had in the first half of the 19th century was afterwards lost
+to a large extent. Owing to greater care on the part of growers, and the
+introduction of French-American resistant stocks to replace vines
+attacked by the phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th
+century again acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater
+part of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the colony.
+The chief wine-producing districts are those of the Paarl, Worcester,
+Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and the Cape, all in the
+south-western regions. Beyond the colony proper there are promising vine
+stocks in the Gordonia division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata
+district of Tembuland.
+
+Fruit culture has become an important industry with the facilities
+afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in Europe. The trees
+whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection and yield the largest
+harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and apple. Large quantities of
+table grapes are also grown. Many millions of each of the fruits named
+are produced annually. The pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees
+likewise flourish. Cherry trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive
+was begun in the western provinces, c. 1900. In the Oudtshoorn,
+Stockenstroom, Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is
+grown. The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 lb.
+
+Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to that of
+diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres are Port Elizabeth
+and the Cape district. In 1904 the output of the mills was valued at
+over £2,200,000, more than 7,000,000 bushels of wheat being ground.
+
+Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown property
+and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries were little developed
+before 1897 when government experiments were begun, which proved that
+large quantities of fish were easily procurable by trawling. Large
+quantities of soles are obtained from a trawling ground near Cape
+Agulhas. The collection of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is
+under government control.
+
+_Mining_.--The mineral wealth of the country is very great. The most
+valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in Griqualand West and
+also at Hopetown, and other districts along the Orange river. The
+diamond-mining industry is almost entirely under the control of the De
+Beers Mining Company. From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come
+larger numbers of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the
+world combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years
+1896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and a half
+million carats, of the average annual value of £4,250,000, the average
+price per carat being £1:13:3. From the other districts alluvial
+diamonds are obtained of the average annual value of £250,000-£400,000.
+They are finer stones than the Kimberley diamonds, having an average
+value of £3:2:7 per carat.
+
+Next in importance among mineral products are coal and copper. The
+collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of considerable extent.
+The Indwe mines are the most productive. The colonial output increased
+from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000 tons in 1904. The copper mines are
+in Namaqualand, an average of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined
+yearly. Copper was the first metal worked by white men in the colony,
+operations beginning in 1852.
+
+Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near Mafeking--the
+outcrop extending about 30 m.---and, in small quantities, from mines in
+the Knysna district. In the Cape and Paarl districts are valuable stone
+and granite quarries. Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which
+neighbourhood there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several
+districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown and Uitenhage
+divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near Cape Town. Many other
+minerals exist but are not put to industrial purposes.
+
+_Trade_.--The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities,
+but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods to and from the
+Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia. The staple exports are
+diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich
+feathers, mohair, hides and skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000
+lb in 1860, had doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 lb in 1905 when
+the export was valued at £1,887,459. In the same year (1905) 471,024 lb
+of ostrich feathers were exported valued at £1,081,187. The chief
+imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky, timber, hardware
+and machinery. The value of the total imports rose from £13,612,405 in
+1895 to £33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped to £20,000,913 in 1905. The
+exports in 1895 were valued at £16,798,137 and rose to £23,247,258 in
+1899. The dislocation of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics
+brought down the exports in 1900 to £7,646,682 (in which year the value
+of the gold exported was only £336,795). They rose to £10,000,000 and
+£16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and in 1905 had reached
+£33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold valued at £20,731,159.)
+About 75% of the imports come from the United Kingdom or British
+colonies, and nearly the whole of the exports go to the United Kingdom.
+The tonnage of ships entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from
+10,175,903 in 1895 to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year 9/11ths of the
+tonnage was British. It is interesting to compare the figures already
+given with those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the
+colony over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country was
+under £1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over £4,500,000, in 1874 it
+exceeded £10,500,000. It remained at about this figure until the
+development of the Witwatersrand gold mines. The consequent great
+increase in the carrying trade with the Transvaal led to some neglect of
+the internal resources of the colony. Trade depression following the war
+of 1899-1902 turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory
+results. The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was
+£12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony being
+£15,302,854. A "trade balance-sheet" for 1906 drawn up for the Cape Town
+chamber of commerce by its president showed, however, a debtor account
+of £18,751,000 compared with a credit account of £17,931,000, figures
+representing with fair accuracy the then economic condition of the
+country.
+
+Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union. The tariff,
+revised in 1906, is protective with a general _ad valorem_ rate of 15%
+on goods not specifically enumerated. On machinery generally there is a
+3% _ad valorem_ duty. Books, engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c., are
+on the free list. There is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United
+Kingdom, machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.
+
+_Communications_.--There is regular communication between Europe and the
+colony by several lines of steamships. The British mails are carried
+under contract with the colonial government by packets of the
+Union-Castle Steamship Co., which leave Southampton every Saturday and
+Cape Town every Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m.,
+according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the distance
+in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers sail once a week, or
+oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days) East London (543 m., three
+days) and Durban (823 m., four or five days); Mossel Bay being called at
+once a fortnight. Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated
+intervals for Port Nolloth.
+
+Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (_Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie_), starting from
+Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three chief Cape ports.
+The western route is via Dover to Cape Town, the eastern route is via
+the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines of steamers ply between Cape
+Town and Australian ports, and others between Cape Colony and India.
+
+There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers crossing
+main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the colony is that which
+spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is 1480 ft. long and cost £114,000. Of
+the roads in general it may be said that they are merely tracks across
+the veld made at the pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally
+used as a draught animal in country districts remote from railways;
+sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying 3 to 4
+tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted the ox-wagon for
+bringing agricultural produce to market. The "Scotch cart," a light
+two-wheeled vehicle is also much used.
+
+_Railways_.--Railway construction began in 1859 when a private company
+built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line, 64 m. long, was
+the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen years. In 1871
+parliament resolved to build railways at the public expense, and in 1873
+(the year following the conferment of responsible government on the
+colony) a beginning was made with the work, £5,000,000 having been voted
+for the purpose. In the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was
+bought by the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private
+companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving
+subsidies from the government, which owns and works the greater part of
+the railways in the colony.
+
+The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines from the
+seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines then begun
+determined the development of the whole system. The standard gauge in
+South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways mentioned are of that
+gauge unless otherwise stated.
+
+The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified under
+three great systems:--the Western, the Midland and the Eastern.
+
+The Western system--the southern section of the Cape to Cairo
+route--starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley (647 m.) to Vryburg
+(774 m.), whence it is continued by the Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking
+(870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.), the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623
+m.) and the Belgian Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs
+via Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen Streams, a
+station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via Klerksdorp to
+Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most direct route between Cape
+Town and the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955
+m.)
+
+The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main line runs by
+Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval's Pont on the Orange river, whence it
+is continued through the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal by
+Bloemfontein to Johannesburg (714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria
+(741 m.). From Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and
+Johannesburg, a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban,
+and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and Port
+Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line (186 m.) runs by
+Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the main line at Rosmead, from
+which a junction line (83 m.) runs eastwards, connecting with the
+Eastern system at Stormberg. From Naauwpoort another junction line (69
+m.) runs north-west, connecting the Midland with the Western system at
+De Aar, and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from Cape
+Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg via
+Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)
+
+The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal line runs
+to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony, where it joins the
+line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal. (Distance from East London to
+Johannesburg, 665 m.) From Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a
+branch, originally the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).
+
+The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways running for
+the most part parallel with the coast. Starting from Worcester, 109 m.
+from Cape Town on the western main line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via
+Swellendair and Riversdale. From Mossel Bay another line runs by George,
+Oudtshoorn and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from
+Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town 666 m.) From
+Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King William's Town to Blaney
+junction on the eastern main line and 31 m. from East London. The
+Somerset East line crosses, at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line
+from Port Elizabeth to the north, and by this route the distance between
+Port Elizabeth and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905
+of the Somerset East-King William's Town line, the nearest railway
+connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and Stormberg
+junction--a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom junction on the eastern
+main line a branch railway goes through the Transkei to connect at
+Riverside, the frontier station, with the Natal railways. It runs via
+the Indwe coal-mines (66 m. from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and
+Kokstad. From Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also
+connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele, a station
+51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata (180 m. distant).
+Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns (307 m. from East London),
+whence another line 142 m. long goes to Kokstad.
+
+Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all the towns
+within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked to it by railway. Longer
+branches run from the capital S.E. to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via
+Malmesbury (47 m.), and Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A
+line runs N.W. across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line
+via Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction, a line
+(111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange river. From
+Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown, whence another
+line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie
+river. Another line (179 m.) on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port
+Elizabeth via Humansdorp to Avontuur.
+
+A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from Port
+Nolloth on the west coast to the O'okiep copper mines (92 m.). It has a
+gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.
+
+The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively short
+distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the Karroo. The
+steepest gradient is on the western main line. Having entered the hilly
+district at Tulbagh Road, where the railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the
+Hex River Pass is reached soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above
+the sea. In the next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that
+distance being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is
+the most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from East
+London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m. from its
+starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft., at Cathcart (109
+m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat, where it pierces the
+Stormberg, 204 m. from East London, the rails are 5450 ft. above the
+sea. From Sterkstroom to Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The
+highest railway station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the
+Zuurberg, on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems.
+The capital expended on government railways to the end of 1905 was
+£29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of £10,034. The gross earnings in
+1905 were £4,047,065 (as compared with £3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses
+£3,076,920 (as compared with £1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in
+1905 numbered 20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000
+lb).
+
+_Posts and Telegraphs_.--Direct telegraphic communication between London
+and Cape Town was established on Christmas day 1879. Cables connect the
+colony with Europe (1) via Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena,
+Ascension and St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar
+and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and Cocos.
+
+An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji, on Lake
+Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other lines connect Cape Town
+with all other South African states, while within the colony there is a
+complete system of telegraphic communication, over 8000 m. of lines
+being open in 1906. The telephone service is largely developed in the
+chief towns. The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely
+built, at a cost up to 1906 of £865,670, by the government, which in
+1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.).
+
+The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the reach of
+the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts of Gordonia
+(Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails. Since 1890 a yearly
+average of over 50,000,000 has passed through the post. Of these about
+four-fifths are letters.
+
+_Constitution and Government_.--Under the constitution established in
+1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature consisted of
+two chambers, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. Members of
+the Legislative Council or Upper House represented the provinces into
+which the colony was divided and were elected for seven years; members
+of the House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for five
+years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces. At the head
+of the executive was a governor appointed by the crown. By the South
+Africa Act 1909 this constitution was abolished as from the
+establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Cape Colony entered
+the Union as an original province, being represented in the Union
+parliament by eight members in the Senate and fifty-one in the House of
+Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the election of members of
+the House of Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at
+the establishment of the Union, and are as follows:--Voters must be born
+or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape province at least
+twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no distinction being made as to
+race or colour), must be in possession of property worth £75, or in
+receipt of salary or wages of not less than £50 a year. No one not an
+elector in 1892 can be registered as a voter unless he can sign his name
+and write his address and occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does
+not qualify for a vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified
+for election to parliament (see further SOUTH AFRICA). The number of
+registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000 were
+non-Europeans.
+
+For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting of the
+same number of members as are elected by the province to the House of
+Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the council are the same as
+for the House of Assembly. All voters, European and non-European, are
+eligible for seats on the council, but any councillor who becomes a
+member of parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial
+council. The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation
+within the province for purely local purposes, and generally controls
+all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. The
+council was also given, for five years following the establishment of
+the Union, control of elementary education. All ordinances passed by the
+council must have the sanction of the Union government before coming
+into force. The council is elected for three years and is not subject to
+dissolution save by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an
+official appointed by the Union government and styled administrator of
+the province. The administrator holds his post for a period of five
+years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting of four
+persons elected by the provincial council but not necessarily members of
+that body.
+
+To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the divisional
+and municipal councils of the province, but the powers of such
+subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn by the Union
+parliament acting directly. Divisional councils, which are elected
+triennially, were established in 1855. In 1908 they numbered eighty-one.
+The councils are presided over by a civil commissioner who is also
+usually resident magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the
+division; can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money on
+the security of the rates for public works; and return three members
+yearly to the district licensing court. Their receipts in 1908 were
+£269,000; their expenditure in the same period was £283,000. The
+electors to the divisional councils are the owners or occupiers of
+immovable property. Members of the councils must be registered voters
+and owners of immovable property in the division valued at not less than
+£500.
+
+Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for the most
+part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal Act of 1882.
+Certain municipalities have, however, obtained special acts for their
+governance. In 1907 there were 110 municipalities in the province. Under
+the act of 1882 the municipalities were given power to levy annually an
+owner's rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and a
+tenant's rate assessed upon the annual value of such property. No rate
+may exceed 2d. in the £ on the capital value or 8d. in the £ on the
+annual value. The receipts of the municipalities in 1907 amounted to
+£1,430,000. During the same period the expenditure amounted to
+£1,539,000.
+
+_Law and Justice_.--The basis of the judicial system is the Roman-Dutch
+law, which has been, however, modified by legislation of the Cape
+parliament. In each division of the province there is a resident
+magistrate with primary jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. The
+South Africa Act 1909 created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the
+supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town,
+becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over
+by a judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony,
+namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham's Town, and the
+high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley, became local divisions
+of the Supreme Court of South Africa. Each of these courts consists of a
+judge-president and two puisne judges. The provincial and local courts,
+besides their original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which
+the government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which the
+validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into question. From the
+decisions of these courts appeals may be made to the appellate division
+of the Supreme Court. The judges of the divisional courts go on circuit
+twice a year. In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at
+Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond buying
+("I.D.B."). This court consists of two judges of the supreme court and
+one other member, hitherto the civil commissioner or the resident
+magistrate of Kimberley. The Transkeian territories, which fall under
+the jurisdiction of the eastern district court, are subject to a Native
+Territories Penal Code, which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual
+magistrates in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident
+at Cape Town, with two assistants in the territories.
+
+_Religion_.--Up to the year 1876 government provided an annual grant for
+ecclesiastical purposes which was divided among the various churches,
+Congregationalists alone declining to receive state aid. From that date,
+in accordance with the provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants
+were only continued to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed
+Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the country,
+is by far the most numerous community. Next in number of adherents among
+the white community come the Anglicans--Cape Colony forming part of the
+Province of South Africa. In 1847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to
+preside over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape
+Colony and Natal, but also over the island of St Helena. Later, however,
+separate bishops were appointed for the eastern province (with the seat
+at Graham's Town) and for Natal. Subsequently another bishopric, St
+John's, Kaffraria, was created and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the
+rank of archbishop. Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber
+the Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people. The
+Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham's Town, but are
+comparatively few. There are, besides, several foreign missions in the
+colony, the most important being the Moravian, London and Rhenish
+missionary societies. The Moravians have been established since 1732.
+
+The following figures are extracted from the census returns of
+1904:--Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118; Jews, 19,537;
+Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; "no religion," 1,016,255. In
+this last category are placed the pagan natives. The figures for the
+chief Protestant sects were:--Dutch Reformed Church, 399,487;
+Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209; Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433;
+Presbyterians, 88,660; Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other
+Methodists, 290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the
+Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and Bechuanas
+26% were returned as Christians.
+
+_Education_.--There is a state system of primary education controlled by
+a superintendent-general of education and the education department which
+administers the parliamentary grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of
+public schools, drawn up by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into
+operation, and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive
+scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the colony into
+school districts under the control of popularly elected school boards,
+which were established during 1905-1906. These boards levy, through
+municipal or divisional councils, a rate for school purposes and
+supervise all public and poor schools. The schools are divided into
+public undenominational elementary schools; day schools and industrial
+institutions for the natives; mission schools to which government aid
+for secular instruction is granted; private farm schools, district
+boarding schools, training schools for teachers, industrial schools for
+poor whites, &c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were
+open. Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of the
+white population over fourteen years old could read and write. In the
+same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and 53,000 could read
+but not write. There are also numbers of private schools receiving no
+government aid. These include schools maintained by the German
+community, in which the medium of instruction is German.
+
+The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of London,
+stands at the head of the educational system of the colony. It arose out
+of and superseded the board of public examiners (which had been
+constituted in 1858), was established in 1874 and was granted a royal
+charter in 1877. It is governed by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who
+is chairman of the university council) and a council consisting (1909)
+of 38 members, including representatives of Natal. The university is
+empowered to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university
+in Great Britain. Originally only B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B., and
+M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature, science and
+music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The number of students who
+matriculated rose from 34 in 1875 to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in
+1905. The examinations are open to candidates irrespective of where they
+have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants are paid to
+seven colleges that specially devote themselves to preparing students
+for the graduation courses. These are the South African College at Cape
+Town (founded in 1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the
+Diocesan College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham's
+Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines at Kimberley
+and the Huguenot Ladies' College at Wellington. Several denominational
+colleges, receiving no government aid, do the same work in a greater or
+less degree, the best known being St Aidan's (Roman Catholic) College
+and Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham's Town. Graaff Reinet
+College, Dale College, King William's Town, and the Grey Institute, Port
+Elizabeth, occupy the place of high schools under the education
+department. The Theological Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares
+theological students for the ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town
+is a Royal Observatory, founded in 1829, one of the most important
+institutions of its kind in the world. It is under the control of a
+royal astronomer and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty.
+
+_Defence_.--The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to repelling
+attacks from the sea. Simon's Town, which is on the east side of the
+peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and West Coast naval
+squadron. It is strongly fortified, as is also Table Bay. Port Elizabeth
+is likewise fortified against naval attack. A strong garrison of the
+British army is stationed in the colony, with headquarters at Cape Town.
+The cost of this garrison is borne by the imperial government. For
+purposes of local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted
+Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has been
+maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape Mounted Riflemen
+and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty is to preserve order in the
+Transkeian territories. The Cape Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are
+also available for the defence of the colony and are fully armed. There
+are numerous volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the
+government. By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between
+eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as
+within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force.
+
+_Revenue, Debt, &c._--The following table shows the total receipts
+(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts) of the
+colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905:--
+
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+
+  |             |              Receipts.              |            |
+  | Year ending +----------------+--------------------+  Payments. |
+  |  30th June. |     Total.     |       Loans        |            |
+  |             |                |(included in total).|            |
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+
+  |    1880     |             £3,556,601              | £3,742,665 |
+  |    1885     |  £3,814,947    |      £496,795      |  4,211,832 |
+  |    1890     |   5,571,907    |     1,141,857      |  5,327,496 |
+  |    1895     |   5,416,611    |        26,441      |  5,388,157 |
+  |    1900     |   6,565,752    |       128,376      |  7,773,230 |
+  |    1905     |  13,856,247    |     5,214,290      | 10,914,784 |
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+
+
+The colony had a public debt of £42,109,561 on the 31st of December
+1905, including sums raised for corporate bodies, harbour boards, &c.,
+but guaranteed in the general revenue. The greater part of the loans
+were issued at 3½ or 4% interest. Nearly the whole of the loans raised
+have been spent on railways, harbours, irrigation and other public
+works. The value of assessed property for divisional council purposes
+was returned in 1905 at £87,078,268. The total revenue of the divisional
+councils increased from £160,558 in 1901 to £273,543 in 1905, and the
+expenditure from £170,892 in 1901 to £243,241 in 1905. The receipts
+from municipal rates and taxes rose from £520,587 in 1901 to £700,103 in
+1905; the total municipal receipts in the same period from £978,867 to
+£1,752,105. At the end of 1905 the total indebtedness of the
+municipalities was £5,775,420, and the value of assessed property within
+the municipal bounds £53,948,224.
+
+_Banks._--The following table gives statistics of the banks under trust
+laws:--
+
+  +----------+------------------------------------+--------------+------------+
+  |          |      Including Head Offices.       |              | Assets and |
+  |   31st   +------------+-----------+-----------+ Circulation, |Liabilities |
+  | December.|   Capital  |  Capital  |  Reserve  | Colony only. |Colony only.|
+  |          | Subscribed.|  Paid up. |           |              |            |
+  +----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+
+  |   1890   | £5,780,610 |£1,558,612 |  £850,489 |   £740,210   | £9,221,661 |
+  |   1895   |  7,189,090 | 2,382,003 | 1,008,837 |    612,266   | 11,864,152 |
+  |   1900   | 12,166,800 | 6,508,308 | 1,810,621 |  1,361,637   | 20,537,343 |
+  |   1905   | 11,510,900 | 4,456,925 | 2,948,428 |  1,065,251   | 20,749,988 |
+  +----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+
+
+_Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures_.--Since 1903 a standard
+time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being that of 30° or two
+hours east of Greenwich. In other words noon in South Africa corresponds
+to 10.0 A.M. in London. The actual difference between the meridians of
+Greenwich and Cape Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The monetary
+system is that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation are
+exclusively British. Though all the standard weights and measures are
+British, the following old Dutch measures are still used:--_Liquid
+Measure_: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half aum = 15½ imperial
+gallons; anker = 7½ imperial gallons. _Capacity_: Muid = 3 bushels. The
+general surface measure is the old Amsterdam _Morgen_, reckoned equal to
+2.11654 acres; 1000 Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033 British imperial
+feet. The Cape ton is 2000 lb.
+
+_The Press_.--The first newspaper of the colony, written in Dutch and
+English, was published in 1824, and its appearance marked an era not
+only in the literary but in the political history of the colony, since
+it drew to a crisis the disputes which had arisen between the colonists
+and the governor, Lord Charles Somerset, who had issued a decree
+prohibiting all persons from convening or attending public meetings. Its
+criticisms on public affairs soon led to its suppression by the
+governor, and a memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for
+a free press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in
+1828, and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by
+public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are
+divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the British or
+the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both sides. There are
+about one hundred newspapers in English or Dutch published in the
+colony.
+
+The chief papers are the _Cape Times, Cape Argus, South African News_
+(Bond), both daily and weekly; the _Diamond Fields Advertiser_
+(Kimberley) and the _Eastern Province Herald_ (Port Elizabeth). _Ons
+Land_ and _Het Dagblad_ are Dutch papers published at Cape Town.
+     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_Discovery and Settlement_.--Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese navigator,
+discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and Vasco da Gama in 1497
+sailed along the whole coast of South Africa on his way to India. The
+Portuguese, attracted by the riches of the East, made no permanent
+settlement at the Cape. But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the
+Portuguese power, established themselves in the East, early saw the
+importance of the place as a station where their vessels might take in
+water and provisions. They did not, however, establish any post at the
+Cape until 1652, when a small garrison under Jan van Riebeek were sent
+there by the Dutch East India Company. Riebeek landed at Table Bay and
+founded Cape Town. In 1671 the first purchase of land from the
+Hottentots beyond the limits of the fort built by Riebeek marked the
+beginning of the Colony proper. The earliest colonists were for the most
+part people of low station or indifferent character, but as the result
+of the investigations of a commissioner sent out in 1685 a better class
+of immigrants was introduced. About 1686 the European population was
+increased by a number of the French refugees who left their country on
+the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The influence of this small body
+of immigrants on the character of the Dutch settlers was marked. The
+Huguenots, however, owing to the policy of the Company, which in 1701
+directed that Dutch only should be taught in the schools, ceased by the
+middle of the 18th century to be a distinct body, and the knowledge of
+French disappeared. Advancing north and east from their base at Cape
+Town the colonists gradually acquired--partly by so-called contracts,
+partly by force--all the land of the Hottentots, large numbers of whom
+they slew. Besides those who died in warfare, whole tribes of Hottentots
+were destroyed by epidemics of smallpox in 1713 and in 1755. Straggling
+remnants still maintained their independence, but the mass of the
+Hottentots took service with the colonists as herdsmen, while others
+became hangers-on about the company's posts and grazing-farms or roamed
+about the country. In 1787 the Dutch government passed a law subjecting
+these wanderers to certain restrictions. The effect of this law was to
+place the Hottentots in more immediate dependence upon the farmers, or
+to compel them to migrate northward beyond the colonial border. Those
+who chose the latter alternative had to encounter the hostility of their
+old foes, the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the plains from the
+Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg mountains to the Orange river. The colonists
+also, pressing forward to those territories, came in contact with these
+Ishmaelites--the farmers' cattle and sheep, guarded only by a Hottentot
+herdsman, offering the strongest temptation to the Bushman. Reprisals
+followed; and the position became so desperate that the extermination of
+the Bushmen appeared to the government the only safe alternative.
+"Commandoes" or war-bands were sent out against them, and they were
+hunted down like wild beasts. Within a period of six years, it is said,
+upwards of 3000 were either killed or captured. Out of the organization
+of these commandoes, with their field-commandants and field-cornets, has
+grown the common system of local government in the Dutch-settled
+districts of South Africa.
+
+It was not to the hostility of the natives, nor to the hard struggle
+with nature necessary to make agriculture profitable on Karroo or veld,
+that the slow progress made by the colonists was due, so much as to the
+narrow and tyrannical policy adopted by the East India Company, which
+closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade
+in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial
+powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops
+they were to grow, demanded from them a large part of their produce, and
+harassed them with other exactions tending to discourage industry and
+enterprise. (See further SOUTH AFRICA, where the methods and results of
+Dutch colonial government are considered in their broader aspects.) To
+this mischievous policy is ascribed that dislike to orderly government,
+and that desire to escape from its control, which characterized for many
+generations the "boer" or farmer class of Dutch settlers--qualities
+utterly at variance with the character of the Dutch in their native
+country. It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked
+farther and farther from the seat of government. The company, to control
+the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and
+another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos river had been declared,
+c. 1740, the eastern frontier of the colony, but it was soon passed. In
+1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Kaffir
+tribes advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with
+them to make the Great Fish river the common boundary. In 1795 the
+heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no
+protection against the Kaffirs, expelled the officials of the East India
+Company, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff
+Reinet. In the same year, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary
+government of France, a British force under General Sir James Craig was
+sent to Cape Town to secure the colony for the prince of Orange--a
+refugee in England--against the French. The governor of Cape Town at
+first refused to obey the instructions from the prince, but on the
+British proceeding to take forcible possession he capitulated.[3] His
+action was hastened by the fact that the Hottentots, deserting their
+former masters, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff
+Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them, while
+in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a
+result of the peace of Amiens, the colony was handed over to the
+Batavian Republic, which introduced many needful reforms, as had the
+British during their eight years' rule. (One of the first acts of
+General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of
+justice.) War having again broken out, a British force was once more
+sent to the Cape. After an engagement (Jan. 1806) on the shores of Table
+Bay the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle surrendered to the British under
+Sir David Baird, and in 1814 the colony was ceded outright by Holland to
+the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of
+mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland,
+and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000,
+of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Hottentots and the rest slaves.
+These slaves were mostly imported negroes and Malays. Their introduction
+was the chief cause leading the white settlers to despise manual labour.
+
+_The First and Second Kaffir Wars_.--At the time of the cession to Great
+Britain the first of several wars with the Kaffirs had been fought. (The
+numerous minor conflicts which since 1789 had taken place between the
+colonists and the Kaffirs--the latter sometimes aided by Hottentot
+allies--are not reckoned in the usual enumeration of the Kaffir wars.)
+The Kaffirs, who had crossed the colonial frontier, had been expelled
+from the district between the Sunday and Great Fish rivers known as the
+Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous
+to 1811 the Kaffirs, however, had taken possession of the neutral ground
+and committed depredations on the colonists. In order to expel them from
+the Zuurveld, Colonel John Graham took the field with a mixed force in
+December 1811, and in the end the Kaffirs were driven beyond the Fish
+river. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which
+bears his name. In 1817 further trouble arose with the Kaffirs, the
+immediate cause of quarrel being an attempt by the colonial authorities
+to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. Routed in 1818 the
+Kaffirs rallied, and in the early part of 1819 poured into the colony in
+vast hordes. Led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked Graham's
+Town on the 22nd of April, then held by a handful of white troops. Help
+arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then arranged
+that the land between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers should be neutral
+territory.
+
+_The British Settlers of 1820_.--The war of 1817-19 led to the first
+introduction of English settlers on a considerable scale, an event
+fraught with far-reaching consequences. The then governor, Lord Charles
+Somerset, whose treaty arrangements with the Kaffir chiefs had proved
+unfortunate, desired to erect a barrier against the Kaffirs by settling
+white colonists in the border district. In 1820, on the advice of Lord
+Charles, parliament voted £50,000 to promote emigration to the Cape, and
+4000 British were sent out. These people formed what was known as the
+Albany settlement, founding Port Elizabeth and making Graham's Town
+their headquarters. Intended primarily as a measure to secure the safety
+of the frontier, and regarded by the British government chiefly as a
+better means of affording a livelihood to a few thousands of the surplus
+population, this emigration scheme accomplished a far greater work than
+its authors contemplated. The new settlers, drawn from every part of the
+British Isles and from almost every grade of society, retained, and
+their descendants retain, strong sympathy with their native land. In
+course of time they formed a valuable counterpoise to the Dutch
+colonists, and they now constitute the most progressive element in the
+colony. The advent of these immigrants was also the means of introducing
+the English language at the Cape. In 1825, for the first time,
+ordinances were issued in English, and in 1827 its use was extended to
+the conduct of judicial proceedings. Dutch was not, however, ousted, the
+colonists becoming to a large extent bilingual.
+
+_Dislike of British Rule_.--Although the colony was fairly prosperous,
+many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they
+had been with that of the Dutch East India Company, though their ground
+of complaint was not the same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been
+established for the benefit of the Hottentots,[4] and in 1799 the London
+Missionary Society began work among both Hottentots and Kaffirs. The
+championship of Hottentot grievances by the missionaries caused much
+dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose views, it may
+be noted, temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued
+which empowered magistrates to bind Hottentot children as apprentices
+under conditions differing little from that of slavery. Meantime,
+however, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength
+in England, and the missionaries at length appealed from the colonists
+to the mother country. An incident which occurred in 1815-1816 did much
+to make permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British. A
+farmer named Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the
+complaint of a Hottentot, and firing on the party sent to arrest him,
+was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a miniature
+rebellion, and on its suppression five ringleaders were publicly hanged
+at the spot--Slachters Nek--where they had sworn to expel "the English
+tyrants." The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by
+the circumstances of the execution--for the scaffold on which the rebels
+were simultaneously swung, broke down from their united weight and the
+men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance passed in 1827,
+abolishing the old Dutch courts of _landroost_ and _heemraden_ (resident
+magistrates being substituted) and decreeing that henceforth all legal
+proceedings should be conducted in English; the granting in 1828, as a
+result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with
+whites to the Hottentots and other free coloured people; the imposition
+(1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of slaves, and finally the
+emancipation of the slaves in 1834,[5]--all these things increased the
+dislike of the farmers to the government. Moreover, the inadequate
+compensation awarded to slave-owners, and the suspicions engendered by
+the method of payment, caused much resentment, and in 1835 the trekking
+of farmers into unknown country in order to escape from an unloved
+government, which had characterized the 18th century, recommenced.
+Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been continuous for
+150 years, but it now took on larger proportions.
+
+_The Third Kaffir War_.--On the eastern border further trouble arose
+with the Kaffirs, towards whom the policy of the Cape government was
+marked by much vacillation. On the 11th of December 1834 a chief of high
+rank was killed while resisting a commando party. This set the whole of
+the Kaffir tribes in a blaze. A force of 10,000 fighting men, led by
+Macomo, a brother of the chief who was killed, swept across the
+frontier, pillaged and burned the homesteads and murdered all who dared
+to resist. Among the worst sufferers were a colony of freed Hottentots
+who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat river valley by the British
+authorities. The fighting power of the colony was scanty, but the
+governor, Sir Benjamin D'Urban (q.v.), acted with promptitude, and all
+available forces were mustered under Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry)
+Smith, who reached Graham's Town on the 6th of January 1835, six days
+after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy's territory was
+invaded, and after nine months' fighting the Kaffirs were completely
+subdued, and a new treaty of peace concluded (on the 17th of September).
+By this treaty all the country as far as the river Kei was acknowledged
+to be British, and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for
+the seat of government was selected and named King Wiliam's Town.
+
+_The Great Trek_.--The action of Sir Benjamin D'Urban was not approved
+by the home government, and on the instruction of Lord Glenelg,
+secretary for the colonies, who declared that "the great evil of the
+Cape Colony consists in its magnitude," the colonial boundary was moved
+back to the Great Fish river, and eventually (in 1837) Sir Benjamin was
+dismissed from office. "The Kaffirs," in the opinion of Lord Glenelg,
+"had an ample justification for war; they had to resent, and endeavoured
+justly, though impotently, to avenge a series of encroachments"
+(despatch of the 26th of December 1835). This attitude towards the
+Kaffirs was one of the many reasons given by the Trek Boers for leaving
+Cape Colony. The Great Trek, as it is called, lasted from 1836 to 1840,
+the trekkers, who numbered about 7000, founding communities with a
+republican form of government beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers, and in
+Natal, where they had been preceded, however, by British emigrants. From
+this time Cape Colony ceased to be the only civilized community in South
+Africa, though for long it maintained its predominance. Up to 1856 Natal
+was, in fact, a dependency of the Cape (see SOUTH AFRICA). Considerable
+trouble was caused by the emigrant Boers on either side of the Orange
+river, where the new comers, the Basutos and other Kaffir tribes,
+Bushmen and Griquas contended for mastery. The Cape government
+endeavoured to protect the rights of the natives. On the advice of the
+missionaries, who exercised great influence with all the non-Dutch
+races, a number of native states were recognized and subsidized by the
+Cape government, with the object--not realized--of obtaining peace on
+this northern frontier. The first of these "Treaty States" recognized
+was that of the Griquas of Griqualand West. Others were recognized in
+1843 and 1844--in the last-named year a treaty was made with the Pondoes
+on the eastern border. During this period the condition of affairs on
+the eastern frontier was deplorable, the government being unable or
+unwilling to afford protection to the farmers from the depredations of
+the Kaffirs. Elsewhere, however, the colony was making progress. The
+change from slave to free labour proved to be advantageous to the
+farmers in the western provinces; an efficient educational system, which
+owed its initiation to Sir John Herschel, the astronomer (who lived in
+Cape Colony from 1834 to 1838), was adopted; Road Boards were
+established and did much good work; to the staple industries--the
+growing of wheat, the rearing of cattle and the making of wine--was
+added sheep-raising; and by 1846 wool became the most valuable export
+from the country. The creation, in 1835, of a legislative council, on
+which unofficial members had seats, was the first step in giving the
+colonists a share in the government.
+
+_The War of the Axe_.--Another war with the Kaffirs broke out in 1846
+and was known as the War of the Axe, from the murder of a Hottentot, to
+whom an old Kaffir thief was manacled, while being conveyed to Graham's
+Town for trial for stealing an axe. The escort was attacked by a party
+of Kaffirs and the Hottentot killed. The surrender of the murderer was
+refused, and war was declared in March 1846. The Gaikas were the chief
+tribe engaged in the war, assisted during the course of it by the
+Tambukies. After some reverses the Kaffirs were signally defeated on the
+7th of June by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles from Fort
+Peddie. Still the war went on, till at length Sandili, the chief of the
+Gaikas, surrendered, followed gradually by the other chiefs; and by the
+beginning of 1848 the Kaffirs were again subdued, after twenty-one
+months' fighting.
+
+_Extension of British Sovereignty_.--In the last month of the war
+(December 1847) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town as governor of the
+colony, and with his arrival the Glenelg policy was reversed. By
+proclamation, on the 17th of December, he extended the frontier of the
+colony northward to the Orange river and eastward to the Keiskamma
+river, and on the 23rd, at a meeting of the Kaffir chiefs, announced the
+annexation of the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to
+the British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by order of
+Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with the Cape, but made
+a crown dependency under the name of British Kaffraria. For a time the
+Kaffirs accepted quietly the new order of things. The governor had other
+serious matters to contend with, including the assertion of British
+authority over the Boers beyond the Orange river, and the establishment
+of amicable relations with the Transvaal Boers. In the colony itself a
+crisis arose out of the proposal to make it a convict station.
+
+_The Convict Agitation and Granting of a Constitution_.--In 1848 a
+circular was sent by the 3rd Earl Grey, then colonial secretary, to the
+governor of the Cape (and to other colonial governors), asking him to
+ascertain the feelings of the colonists regarding the reception of a
+certain class of convicts, the intention being to send to South Africa
+Irish peasants who had been driven into crime by the famine of 1845.
+Owing to some misunderstanding, a vessel, the "Neptune," was despatched
+to the Cape before the opinion of the colonists had been received,
+having on board 289 convicts, among whom were John Mitchell, the Irish
+rebel, and his colleagues. When the news reached the Cape that this
+vessel was on her way, the people of the colony became violently
+excited; and they established an anti-convict association, by which they
+bound themselves to cease from all intercourse of every kind with
+persons in any way connected "with the landing, supplying or employing
+convicts." On the 19th of September 1849 the "Neptune" arrived in
+Simon's Bay. Sir Harry Smith, confronted by a violent public agitation,
+agreed not to land the convicts, but to keep them on board ship in
+Simon's Bay till he received orders to send them elsewhere. When the
+home government became aware of the state of affairs orders were sent
+directing the "Neptune" to proceed to Tasmania, and it did so after
+having been in Simon's Bay for five months. The agitation did not,
+however, pass away without other important results, since it led to
+another movement, the object of which was to obtain a free
+representative government for the colony. This concession, which had
+been previously promised by Lord Grey, was granted by the British
+government, and, in 1854, a constitution was established of almost
+unprecedented liberality.
+
+_The Kaffir War of 1850-1853_.--The anti-convict agitation had scarcely
+ceased when the colony was once again involved in war. The Kaffirs
+bitterly resented their loss of independence, and ever since the last
+war had been secretly preparing to renew the struggle. Sir Harry Smith,
+informed of the threatening attitude of the natives, proceeded to the
+frontier, and summoned Sandili and the other chiefs to an interview.
+Sandili refused obedience; upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs
+(October 1850), the governor declared him deposed from his chiefship,
+and appointed an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be temporary
+chief of the Gaika tribe. The governor appears to have believed that the
+measures he took would prevent a war and that Sandili could be arrested
+without armed resistance. On the 24th of December Col. Geo. Mackinnon,
+being sent with a small force with the object of securing the chief, was
+attacked in a narrow defile by a large body of Kaffirs, and compelled to
+retreat with some loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the
+Gaika tribe. The settlers in the military villages, which had been
+established along the frontier, assembled in fancied security to
+celebrate Christmas Day, were surprised, many of them murdered, and
+their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in quick
+succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man. The greater
+part of the Kaffir police deserted, many of them carrying off their arms
+and accoutrements. Emboldened by success, the enemy in immense force
+surrounded and attacked Fort Cox, where the governor was stationed with
+an inconsiderable force. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to
+relieve Sir Harry; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the occasion.
+At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied by Colonel Mackinnon,
+he dashed out of the fort, and, through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode
+to King William's Town--a distance of 12 m. Meantime, a new enemy
+appeared. Some 900 of the Kat river Hottentots, who had in former wars
+been firm allies of the British, threw in their lot with their
+hereditary enemies--the Kaffirs. They were not without excuses. They
+complained that while doing burgher duty in former wars--the Cape
+Mounted Rifles consisted largely of Hottentot levies--they had not
+received the same treatment as others serving in defence of the colony,
+that they got no compensation for the losses they had sustained, and
+that they were in various ways made to feel they were a wronged and
+injured race. A secret combination was formed with the Kaffirs to take
+up arms to sweep the Europeans away and establish a Hottentot republic.
+Within a fortnight of the attack on Colonel Mackinnon the Kat river
+Hottentots were also in arms. Their revolt was followed by that of the
+Hottentots at other missionary stations; and part of the Hottentots of
+the Cape Mounted Rifles followed their example, including the very men
+who had escorted the governor from Fort Cox. But numbers of Hottentots
+remained loyal and the Fingo Kaffirs likewise sided with the British.
+
+After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided, and
+preparations had been made, Sir Harry Smith and his gallant force turned
+the tide of war against the Kaffirs. The Amatola mountains were stormed;
+and the paramount chief Kreli, who all along covertly assisted the
+Gaikas, was severely punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith was
+recalled by Earl Grey, who accused him--unjustly, in the opinion of the
+duke of Wellington--of a want of energy and judgment in conducting the
+war, and he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Cathcart. Kreli was
+again attacked and reduced to submission. The Amatolas were finally
+cleared of the Kaffirs, and small forts erected among them to prevent
+their reoccupation. The British commanders were hampered throughout by
+the insufficiency of their forces, and it was not till March 1853 that
+this most sanguinary of Kaffir wars was brought to a conclusion, after a
+loss of many hundred British soldiers. Shortly afterwards, British
+Kaffraria was made a crown colony. The Hottentot settlement at Kat river
+remained, but the Hottentot power within the colony was now finally
+crushed.
+
+_The Great Amaxosa Delusion._--From 1853 the Kaffir tribes on the east
+gave little trouble to the colony. This was due, in large measure, to an
+extraordinary delusion which arose among the Amaxosa in 1856, and led in
+1857 to the death of some 50,000 persons. This incident is one of the
+most remarkable instances of misplaced faith recorded in history. The
+Amaxosa had not accepted their defeat in 1853 as decisive and were
+preparing to renew the struggle with the white men. At this juncture,
+May 1856, a girl named Nongkwase told her father that on going to draw
+water from a stream she had met strangers of commanding aspect. The
+father, Mhlakza, went to see the men, who told him that they were
+spirits of the dead, who had come, if their behests were obeyed, to aid
+the Kaffirs with their invincible power to drive the white man from the
+land. Mhlakza repeated the message to his chief, Sarili, one of the most
+powerful Kaffir rulers. Sarili ordered the commands of the spirits to be
+obeyed. These orders were, at first, that the Amaxosa were to destroy
+their fat cattle. The girl Nongkwase, standing in the river where the
+spirits had first appeared, heard unearthly noises, interpreted by her
+father as orders to kill more and more cattle. At length the spirits
+commanded that not an animal of all their herds was to be left alive,
+and every grain of corn was to be destroyed. If that were done, on a
+given date myriads of cattle more beautiful than those destroyed would
+issue from the earth, while great fields of corn, ripe and ready for
+harvest, would instantly appear. The dead would rise, trouble and
+sickness vanish, and youth and beauty come to all alike. Unbelievers and
+the hated white man would on that day utterly perish. The people heard
+and obeyed. Sarili is believed by many persons to have been the
+instigator of the prophecies. Certainly some of the principal chiefs
+regarded all that was done simply as the preparation for a last struggle
+with the whites, their plan being to throw the whole Amaxosa nation
+fully armed and in a famishing condition upon the colony. There were
+those who neither believed the predictions nor looked for success in
+war, but destroyed their last particle of food in unquestioning
+obedience to their chief's command. Either in faith that reached the
+sublime, or in obedience equally great, vast numbers of the people
+acted. Great kraals were also prepared for the promised cattle, and huge
+skin sacks to hold the milk that was soon to be more plentiful than
+water. At length the day dawned which, according to the prophecies, was
+to usher in the terrestrial paradise. The sun rose and sank, bat the
+expected miracle did not come to pass. The chiefs who had planned to
+hurl the famished warrior host upon the colony had committed an
+incredible blunder in neglecting to call the nation together under
+pretext of witnessing the resurrection. This error they realized too
+late, and endeavoured by fixing the resurrection for another day to
+gather the clans, but blank despair had taken the place of hope and
+faith, and it was only as starving suppliants that the Amaxosa sought
+the British. The colonists did what they could to save life, but
+thousands perished miserably. In their extremity many of the Kaffirs
+turned cannibals, and one instance of parents eating their own child is
+authenticated. Among the survivors was the girl Nongkwase; her father
+perished. A vivid narrative of the whole incident will be found in G.M.
+Theal's _History and Geography of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1878),
+from which this account is condensed. The country depopulated as the
+result of this delusion was afterwards peopled by European settlers,
+among whom were members of the German legion which had served with the
+British army in the Crimea, and some 2000 industrious North German
+emigrants, who proved a valuable acquisition to the colony.
+
+_Sir George Grey's Governorship._--In 1854 Sir George Grey became
+governor of the Cape, and the colony owed much to his wise
+administration. The policy, imposed by the home government, of
+abandoning responsibility beyond the Orange river, was, he perceived, a
+mistaken one, and the scheme he prepared in 1858 for a confederation of
+all South Africa (q.v.) was rejected by Great Britain. By his energetic
+action, however, in support of the missionaries Moffat and Livingstone,
+Sir George kept open for the British the road through Bechuanaland to
+the far interior. To Sir George was also due the first attempt,
+missionary effort apart, to educate the Kaffirs and to establish British
+authority firmly among them, a result which the self-destruction of the
+Amaxosa rendered easy. Beyond the Kei the natives were left to their own
+devices. Sir George Grey left the Cape in 1861. During his governorship
+the resources of the colony had been increased by the opening up of the
+copper mines in Little Namaqualand, the mohair wool industry had been
+established and Natal made a separate colony. The opening, in November
+1863, of the railway from Cape Town to Wellington, begun in 1859, and
+the construction in 1860 of the great breakwater in Table Bay, long
+needed on that perilous coast, marked the beginning in the colony of
+public works on a large scale. They were the more or less direct result
+of the granting to the colony of a large share in its own government. In
+1865 the province of British Kaffraria was incorporated with the colony,
+under the title of the Electoral Divisions of King William's Town and
+East London. The transfer was marked by the removal of the prohibition
+of the sale of alcoholic liquors to the natives, and the free trade in
+intoxicants which followed had most deplorable results among the Kaffir
+tribes. A severe drought, affecting almost the entire colony for several
+years, caused great depression of trade, and many farmers suffered
+severely. It was at this period (1869) that ostrich-farming was
+successfully established as a separate industry.
+
+Whether by or against the wish of the home government, the limits of
+British authority continued to extend. The Basutos, who dwelt in the
+upper valleys of the Orange river, had subsisted under a
+semi-protectorate of the British government from 1843 to 1854; but
+having been left to their own resources on the abandonment of the Orange
+sovereignty, they fell into a long exhaustive warfare with the Boers of
+the Free State. On the urgent petition of their chief Moshesh, they were
+proclaimed British subjects in 1868, and their territory became part of
+the colony in 1871 (see BASUTOLAND). In the same year the south-eastern
+part of Bechuanaland was annexed to Great Britain under the title of
+Griqualand West. This annexation was a consequence of the discovery
+there of rich diamond mines, an event which was destined to have
+far-reaching results.     (F. R. C.)
+
+_Development of Modern Conditions._--The year 1870 marks the dawn of a
+new era in South Africa. From that date the development of modern South
+Africa may be said to have fairly started, and in spite of political
+complications, arising from time to time, the progress of Cape Colony
+down to the outbreak of the Transvaal War of 1899 was steadily forward.
+The discovery of diamonds on the Orange river in 1867, followed
+immediately afterwards by the discovery of diamonds on the Vaal river,
+led to the rapid occupation and development of a tract of country which
+had hitherto been but sparsely inhabited. In 1870 Dutoitspan and
+Bultfontein diamond mines were discovered, and in 1871 the still richer
+mines of Kimberley and De Beers. These four great deposits of mineral
+wealth are still richly productive, and constitute the greatest
+industrial asset which the colony possesses. At the time of the
+beginning of the diamond industry, not only the territory of Cape Colony
+and the Boer Republics, but all South Africa, was in a very depressed
+condition. Ostrich-farming was in its infancy, and agriculture but
+little developed. The Boers, except in the immediate vicinity of Cape
+Town, were a primitive people. Their wants were few, they lacked
+enterprise, and the trade of the colony was restricted. Even the British
+colonists at that time were far from rich. The diamond industry
+therefore offered considerable attractions, especially to colonists of
+British origin. It was also the means at length of demonstrating the
+fact that South Africa, barren and poor on the surface, was rich below
+the surface. It takes ten acres of Karroo to feed a sheep, but it was
+now seen that a few square yards of diamondiferous blue ground would
+feed a dozen families. By the end of 1871 a large population had already
+gathered at the diamond fields, and immigration continued steadily,
+bringing new-comers to the rich fields. Among the first to seek a
+fortune at the diamond fields was Cecil Rhodes.
+
+In 1858 the scheme of Sir George Grey for the federation of the various
+colonies and states of South Africa had been rejected, as has been
+stated, by the home authorities. In 1874 the 4th earl of Carnarvon,
+secretary of state for the colonies, who had been successful in aiding
+to bring about the federation of Canada, turned his attention to a
+similar scheme for the confederation of South Africa. The representative
+government in Cape Colony had been replaced in 1872 by responsible, i.e.
+self-government, and the new parliament at Cape Town resented the manner
+in which Lord Carnarvon propounded his suggestions. A resolution was
+passed (June 11, 1875) stating that any scheme in favour of
+confederation must in its opinion originate within South Africa itself.
+James Anthony Froude, the distinguished historian, was sent out by Lord
+Carnarvon to further his policy in South Africa. As a diplomatist and a
+representative of the British government, the general opinion in South
+Africa was that Froude was not a success, and he entirely failed to
+induce the colonists to adopt Lord Carnarvon's views. In 1876,
+Fingoland, the Idutywa reserve, and Noman's-land, tracts of country on
+the Kaffir frontier, were annexed by Great Britain, on the understanding
+that the Cape government should provide for their government. Lord
+Carnarvon, still bent on confederation, now appointed Sir Bartle Frere
+governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner of South Africa.
+
+Frere had no sooner taken office as high commissioner than he found
+himself confronted with serious native troubles in Zululand and on the
+Kaffir frontier of Cape Colony. In 1877 there occurred an outbreak on
+the part of the Galekas and the Gaikas. A considerable force of imperial
+and colonial troops was employed to put down this rising, and the war
+was subsequently known as the Ninth Kaffir war. It was in this war that
+the famous Kaffir chief, Sandili, lost his life. At its conclusion the
+Transkei, the territory of the Galeka tribe, under Kreli, was annexed by
+the British. In the meantime Lord Carnarvon had resigned his position in
+the British cabinet, and the scheme for confederation which he had been
+pushing forward was abandoned. As a matter of fact, at that time Cape
+Colony was too fully occupied with native troubles to take into
+consideration very seriously so great a question as confederation. A
+wave of feeling spread amongst the different Kaffir tribes on the
+colonial frontier, and after the Gaika-Galeka War there followed in 1879
+a rising in Basutoland under Moirosi, whose cattle-raiding had for some
+time past caused considerable trouble. His stronghold was taken after
+very severe fighting by a colonial force, but, their defeat
+notwithstanding, the Basutos remained in a restless and aggressive
+condition for several years. In 1880 the colonial authorities
+endeavoured to extend to Basutoland the Peace Preservation Act of 1878,
+under which a general disarmament of the Basutos was attempted. Further
+fighting followed on this proclamation, which was by no means
+successful, and although peace was declared in the country in December
+1882, the colonial authorities were very glad in 1884 to be relieved of
+the administration of a country which had already cost them £3,000,000.
+The imperial government then took over Basutoland as a crown colony, on
+the understanding that Cape Colony should contribute for administrative
+purposes £18,000 annually. In 1880, Sir Bartle Frere, who by his
+energetic and statesmanlike attitude on the relations with the native
+states, as well as on all other questions, had won the esteem and regard
+of loyal South African colonists, was recalled by the 1st earl of
+Kimberley, the liberal secretary of state for the colonies, and was
+succeeded by Sir Hercules Robinson. Griqualand West, which included the
+diamond fields, was now incorporated as a portion of Cape Colony.
+
+_Origin of the Afrikander Bond._--The Boer War of 1881, with its
+disastrous termination, naturally reacted throughout South Africa; and
+as one of the most important results, in the year 1882 the first
+Afrikander Bond congress was held at Graaff Reinet. The organization of
+the Bond developed into one embracing the Transvaal, the Orange Free
+State and Cape Colony. Each country had a provincial committee with
+district committees, and branches were distributed throughout the whole
+of South Africa. At a later date the Bond in the Cape Colony dissociated
+itself from its Republican branches. The general lines of policy which
+this organization endeavoured to promote may best be gathered from _De
+Patriot_, a paper published in the colony, and an avowed supporter of
+the organization. The following extracts from articles published in 1882
+will illustrate, better than anything else, the ambition entertained by
+some of the promoters of this remarkable organization.
+
+  "The Afrikander Bond has for its object the establishment of a South
+  African nationality by spreading a true love for what is really our
+  fatherland. No better time could be found for establishing the Bond
+  than the present, when the consciousness of nationality has been
+  thoroughly aroused by the Transvaal war." ... "The British government
+  keep on talking about a confederation under the British flag, but that
+  will never be brought about. They can be quite certain of that. There
+  is just one obstacle in the way of confederation, and that is the
+  British flag. Let them remove that, and in less than a year the
+  confederation would be established under the Free Afrikander flag."
+  "After a time the English will realize that the advice given them by
+  Froude was the best--they must just have Simon's Bay as a naval and
+  military station on the way to India, and give over all the rest of
+  South Africa to the Afrikanders." ... "Our principal weapon in the
+  social war must be the destruction of English trade by our
+  establishing trading companies for ourselves." ... "It is the duty of
+  each true Afrikander not to spend anything with the English that he
+  can avoid."
+
+_De Patriot_ afterwards became imperialist, but _Ons Land_, another Bond
+organ, continued in much the same strain.
+
+In addition to having its press organs, the Bond from time to time
+published official utterances less frank in their tone than the
+statements of its press. Some of the Articles of the Bond's original
+manifesto are entirely praiseworthy, e.g. those referring to the
+administration of justice, the honour of the people, &c.; such clauses as
+these, however, were meaningless in view of the enlightened government
+which obtained in Cape Colony, and for the true "inwardness" of this
+document it is necessary to note Article 3, which distinctly speaks of
+the promotion of South Africa's independence (_Zelfstandigheid_). If the
+Bond aroused disloyalty and mistaken aspirations in one section of the
+Cape inhabitants, it is equally certain that it caused a great wave of
+loyal and patriotic enthusiasm to pass through another and more
+enlightened section. A pamphlet written in 1885 for an association called
+the Empire League by Mr Charles Leonard, who afterwards consistently
+championed the cause of civil equality and impartial justice in South
+Africa, maintained as follows:--
+
+  "(1) That the establishment of the English government here was
+  beneficial to all classes; and (2) that the withdrawal of that
+  government would be disastrous to every one having vested interests in
+  the colony.... England never can, never will, give up this colony, and
+  we colonists will never give up England.... Let us, the inhabitants of
+  the Cape Colony, be swift to recognize that we are one people, cast
+  together under a glorious flag of liberty, with heads clear enough to
+  appreciate the freedom we enjoy, and hearts resolute to maintain our
+  true privileges; let us desist from reproaching and insulting one
+  another, and, rejoicing that we have this goodly land as a common
+  heritage, remember that by united action only can we realize its grand
+  possibilities. We belong both of us to a home-loving stock, and the
+  peace and prosperity of every home in the land is at stake. On our
+  action now depends the question whether our children shall curse or
+  bless us; whether we shall live in their memory as promoters of civil
+  strife, with all its miserable consequences, or as joint architects of
+  a happy, prosperous and united state. Each of us looks back to a noble
+  past. United, we may ensure to our descendants a not unworthy future.
+  Disunited, we can hope for nothing but stagnation, misery and ruin. Is
+  this a light thing?"
+
+It is probable that many Englishmen reading Mr Leonard's manifesto at
+the time regarded it as unduly alarming, but subsequent events proved
+the soundness of the views it expressed. The fact is that, from 1881
+onwards, two great rival ideas came into being, each strongly opposed to
+the other. One was that of Imperialism--full civil rights for every
+civilized man, whatever his race might be, under the supremacy and
+protection of Great Britain. The other was nominally republican, but in
+fact exclusively oligarchical and Dutch. The policy of the extremists of
+this last party was summed up in the appeal which President Kruger made
+to the Free State in February 1881, when he bade them "Come and help us.
+God is with us. It is his will to unite us as a people"--"to make a
+united South Africa free from British authority." The two actual
+founders of the Bond party were Mr Borckenhagen, a German who was
+residing in Bloemfontein, and Mr Reitz, afterwards state secretary of
+the Transvaal. Two interviews have been recorded which show the true
+aims of these two promoters of the Bond at the outset. One occurred
+between Mr Borckenhagen and Cecil Rhodes, the other between Mr Reitz and
+Mr T. Schreiner, whose brother became, at a later date, prime minister
+of Cape Colony. In the first interview Mr Borckenhagen remarked to
+Rhodes: "We want a united Africa," and Rhodes replied: "So do I." Mr
+Borckenhagen then continued: "There is nothing in the way; we will take
+you as our leader. There is only one small thing: we must, of caurse, be
+independent of the rest of the world." Rhodes replied: "You take me
+either for a rogue or a fool. I should be a rogue to forfeit all my
+history and my traditions; and I should be a fool, because I should be
+hated by my own countrymen and mistrusted by yours." But as Rhodes truly
+said at Cape Town in 1898, "The only chance of a true union is the
+overshadowing protection of a supreme power, and any German, Frenchman,
+or Russian would tell you that the best and most liberal power is that
+over which Her Majesty reigns." The other interview took place at the
+beginning of the Bond's existence. Being approached by Mr Reitz, Mr T.
+Schreiner objected that the Bond aimed ultimately at the overthrow of
+British rule and the expulsion of the British flag from South Africa. To
+this Mr Reitz replied: "Well, what if it is so?" Mr Schreiner
+expostulated in the following terms: "You do not suppose that that flag
+is going to disappear without a tremendous struggle and hard fighting?"
+"Well, I suppose not, but even so, what of that?" rejoined Mr Reitz. In
+the face of this testimony with reference to two of the most prominent
+of the Bond's promoters, it is impossible to deny that from its
+beginning the great underlying idea of the Bond was an independent South
+Africa.
+
+_Mr Hofmeyr's Policy_.--In 1882 an act was passed in the Cape
+legislative assembly, empowering members to speak in the Dutch language
+on the floor of the House, if they so desired. The intention of this act
+was a liberal one, but the moment of its introduction was inopportune,
+and its effect was to give an additional stimulus to the policy of the
+Bond. It was probably also the means of bringing into the House a number
+of Dutchmen, by no means well educated, who would not have been returned
+had they been obliged to speak English. By this act an increase of
+influence was given to the Dutch leaders. The head of the Afrikander
+Bond at this time in Cape Colony, and the leader of Dutch opinion, was
+Mr J.H. Hofmeyr, a man of undoubted ability and astuteness. Although he
+was recognized leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony, he consistently
+refused to take office, preferring to direct the policy and the action
+of others from an independent position. Mr Hofmeyr sat in the house of
+assembly as member for Stellenbosch, a strong Dutch constituency. His
+influence over the Dutch members was supreme, and in addition to
+directing the policy of the Bond within the Cape Colony, he supported
+and defended the aggressive expansion policy of President Kruger and the
+Transvaal Boers. In 1883, during a debate on the Basutoland
+Dis-annexation Bill, Rhodes openly charged Mr Hofmeyr in the House with
+a desire to see a "United States of South Africa under its own flag." In
+1884 Mr Hofmeyr led the Bond in strongly supporting the Transvaal Boers
+who had invaded Bechuanaland (q.v.), proclaiming that if the
+Bechuanaland freebooters were not permitted to retain the territories
+they had seized, in total disregard of the terms of the conventions of
+1881 and 1884, there would be rebellion among the Dutch of Cape Colony.
+Fortunately, however, for the peace of Cape Colony at that time, Sir
+Charles Warren, sent by the imperial government to maintain British
+rights, removed the invading Boers from Stellaland and Goshen--two
+so-called republics set up by the Boer freebooters--in March 1885 and no
+rebellion occurred. Nevertheless the Bond party was so strong in the
+House that they compelled the ministry under Sir Thomas Scanlen to
+resign in 1884. The logical and constitutional course for Mr Hofmeyr to
+have followed in these circumstances would have been to accept office
+and himself form a government. This he refused to do. He preferred to
+put in a nominee of his own who should be entirely dependent on him. Mr
+Upington, a clever Irish barrister, was the man he selected, and under
+him was formed in 1884 what will always be known in Cape history as the
+"Warming-pan" ministry. This action was denounced by many British
+colonists, who were sufficiently loyal, not only to Great Britain, but
+also to that constitution which had been conferred by Great Britain upon
+Cape Colony, to desire to see the man who really wielded political power
+also acting as the responsible head of the party. It was Mr Hofmeyr's
+refusal to accept this responsibility, as well as the nature of his Bond
+policy, which won for him the political sobriquet of the "Mole." Open
+and responsible exercise of a power conferred under the constitution of
+the country, Englishmen and English colonists would have accepted and
+even welcomed. But that subterranean method of Dutch policy which found
+its strongest expression in Pretoria, and which operated from Pretoria
+to Cape Town, could not but be resented by loyal colonists. From 1881
+down to 1898, Mr Hofmeyr practically determined how Dutch members should
+vote, and also what policy the Bond should adopt at every juncture in
+its history. In 1895 he resigned his seat in parliament--an action which
+made his political dictatorship still more remarkable. This influence on
+Cape politics was a demoralizing one. Other well-known politicians at
+the Cape subsequently found it convenient to adapt their views a good
+deal too readily to those held by the Bond. In justice to Mr Hofmeyr,
+however, it is only fair to say that after the Warren expedition in
+1885, which was at least evidence that Great Britain did not intend to
+renounce her supremacy in South Africa altogether, he adopted a less
+hostile or anti-British attitude. The views and attitude of Mr Hofmeyr
+between 1881 and 1884--when even loyal British colonists, looking to the
+events which followed Majuba, had almost come to believe that Great
+Britain had little desire to maintain her supremacy--can scarcely be
+wondered at.
+
+_Rhodes and Dutch Sentiment._--Recognizing the difficulties of the
+position, Cecil Rhodes from the outset of his political career showed
+his desire to conciliate Dutch sentiment by considerate treatment and
+regard for Dutch prejudices. Rhodes was first returned as member of the
+House of Assembly for Barkly West in 1880, and in spite of all
+vicissitudes this constituency remained loyal to him. He supported the
+bill permitting Dutch to be used in the House of Assembly in 1882, and
+early in 1884 he first took office, as treasurer-general, under Sir
+Thomas Scanlen. Rhodes had only held this position for six weeks when
+Sir Thomas Scanlen resigned, and in August of the same year he was sent
+by Sir Hercules Robinson to British Bechuanaland as deputy-commissioner
+in succession to the Rev. John Mackenzie, the London Missionary
+Society's representative at Kuruman, who in the previous May had
+proclaimed the queen's authority over the district. Rhodes's efforts to
+conciliate the Boers failed--hence the necessity for the Warren mission.
+In 1885 the territories of Cape Colony were farther extended, and
+Tembuland, Bomvanaland and Galekaland were formally added to the colony.
+In 1886 Sir Gordon Sprigg succeeded Sir Thomas Upington as prime
+minister.
+
+_South Affican Customs Union._--The period from 1878 to 1885 in Cape
+Colony had been one of considerable unrest. In this short time, in
+addition to the chronic troubles with the Basutos--which led the Cape to
+hand them over to the imperial authorities--there occurred a series of
+native disturbances which were followed by the Boer War of 1881, and the
+Bechuanaland disturbances of 1884. In spite, however, of these
+drawbacks, the development of the country proceeded. The diamond
+industry was flourishing. In 1887 a conference was held in London for
+"promoting a closer union between the various parts of the British
+empire by means of an imperial tariff of customs." At this conference it
+is worthy of note that Mr Hofmeyr propounded a sort of "Zollverein"
+scheme, in which imperial customs were to be levied independently of the
+duties payable on all goods entering the empire from abroad. In making
+the proposition he stated that his objects were "to promote the union of
+the empire, and at the same time to obtain revenue for the purposes of
+general defence." The scheme was not at the time found practicable. But
+its authorship, as well as the sentiments accompanying it, created a
+favourable view of Mr Hofmeyr's attitude. In the year 1888, in spite of
+the failure of statesmen and high commissioners to bring about political
+confederation, the members of the Cape parliament set about the
+establishment of a South African Customs Union. A Customs Union Bill was
+passed, and this in itself constituted a considerable development of the
+idea of federation. Shortly after the passing of the bill the Orange
+Free State entered the union. An endeavour was also made then, and for
+many years afterwards, to get the Transvaal to join. But President
+Kruger, consistently pursuing his own policy, hoped through the Delagoa
+Bay railway to make the South African Republic entirely independent of
+Cape Colony. The endeavour to bring about a customs union which would
+embrace the Transvaal was also little to the taste of President Kruger's
+Hollander advisers, interested as they were in the schemes of the
+Netherlands Railway Company, who owned the railways of the Transvaal.
+
+_Diamonds and Railways._--Another event of considerable commercial
+importance to the Cape Colony, and indeed to South Africa, was the
+amalgamation of the diamond-mining companies, chiefly brought about by
+Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit and "Barney" Barnato, in 1889. One of the
+principal and most beneficent results of the discovery and development
+of the diamond mines was the great impetus which it gave to railway
+extension. Lines were opened up to Worcester and Beaufort West, to
+Graham's Town, Graaff Reinet and Queenstown. Kimberley was reached in
+1885. In 1890 the line was extended northwards on the western frontier
+of the Transvaal as far as Vryburg in Bechuanaland. In 1889 the Free
+State entered into an arrangement with the Cape Colony whereby the main
+trunk railway was extended to Bloemfontein, the Free State receiving
+half the profits. Subsequently the Free State bought at cost price the
+portion of the railway in its own territory. In 1891 the Free State
+railway was still farther extended to Viljoen's Drift on the Vaal river,
+and in 1892 it reached Pretoria and Johannesburg.
+
+_Rhodes as Prime Minister: Native Policy_.--In 1889 Sir Henry Loch was
+appointed high commissioner and governor of Cape Colony in succession to
+Sir Hercules Robinson. In 1890 Sir Gordon Sprigg, the premier of the
+colony, resigned, and a Rhodes government was formed. Prior to the
+formation of this ministry (see table at end of article), and while Sir
+Gordon Sprigg was still in office, Mr Hofmeyr approached Rhodes and
+offered to put him in office as a Bond nominee. This offer was declined.
+When, however, Rhodes was invited to take office after the downfall of
+the Sprigg ministry, he asked the Bond leaders to meet him and discuss
+the situation. His policy of customs and railway unions between the
+various states, added to the personal esteem in which he was at this
+time held by many of the Dutchmen, enabled him to undertake and to carry
+on successfully the business of government.
+
+The colonies of British Bechuanaland and Basutoland were now taken into
+the customs union existing between the Orange Free State and Cape
+Colony. Pondoland, another native territory, was added to the colony in
+1894, and the year was marked by the Glen Grey Act, a departure in
+native policy for which Rhodes was chiefly responsible. It dealt with
+the natives residing in certain native reserves, and in addition to
+providing for their interests and holdings, and in other ways protecting
+the privileges accorded to them, the principle of the duty of some
+degree of labour devolving upon every able-bodied native enjoying these
+privileges was asserted, and a small labour tax was levied.[6] This is
+in many respects the most statesmanlike act dealing with natives on the
+statute-book; and in the session of 1895 Rhodes was able to report to
+the Cape parliament that the act then applied to 160,000 natives. In
+1905 the labour clauses of this act, which had fallen into desuetude,
+were repealed. The clauses had, however, achieved success, in that they
+had caused many thousands of natives to fulfil the conditions requisite
+to claim exemption.
+
+In other respects Rhodes's native policy was marked by combined
+consideration and firmness. Ever since the granting of self-government
+the natives had enjoyed the franchise. An act passed in 1892, at the
+instance of Rhodes, imposed an educational test on applicants for
+registration, and made other provisions, all tending to restrict the
+acquisition of the franchise by "tribal" natives, the possible danger
+arising from a large native vote being already obvious (see section
+_Constitution_).
+
+Rhodes opposed the native liquor traffic, and at the risk of offending
+some of his supporters among the brandy-farmers of the western
+provinces, he suppressed it entirely on the diamond mines, and
+restricted it as far as he was able in the native reserves and
+territories. Nevertheless the continuance of this traffic on colonial
+farms, as well as to some extent in the native territories and reserves,
+is a black spot in the annals of the Cape Colony. The Hottentots have
+been terribly demoralized, and even partially destroyed by it in the
+western province.
+
+Another and little-known instance of Rhodes's keen insight in dealing
+with native affairs--an action which had lasting results on the history
+of the colony--may be given. After the native territories east of the
+Kei had been added to Cape Colony, a case of claim to inheritance came
+up for trial, and in accordance with the law of the colony, the court
+held that the eldest son of a native was his heir. This decision created
+the strongest resentment among the people of the territory, as it was in
+distinct contradiction to native tribal law, which recognized the great
+son, or son of the chief wife, as heir. The government were threatened
+with a native disturbance, when Rhodes telegraphed his assurance that
+compensation should be granted, and that such a decision should never be
+given again. This assurance was accepted and tranquillity restored. At
+the close of the next session (that of 1894), after this incident had
+occurred, Rhodes laid on the table a bill drafted by himself, the
+shortest the House had ever seen. It provided that all civil cases were
+to be tried by magistrates, an appeal to lie only to the chief
+magistrate of the territory with an assessor. Criminal cases were to be
+tried before the judges of supreme court on circuit. The bill was
+passed, and the effect of it was, inasmuch as the magistrates
+administered according to native law, that native marriage customs and
+laws (including polygamy) were legalized in these territories. Rhodes
+had retrieved his promise, and no one who has studied and lived amongst
+the Bantu will question that the action taken was both beneficent and
+wise.
+
+During 1895 Sir Hercules Robinson was reappointed governor and high
+commissioner of South Africa in succession to Sir Henry Loch, and in the
+same year Mr Chamberlain became secretary of state for the colonies.
+
+_Movement for Commercial Federation_.--With the development of railways,
+and the extension of trade between Cape Colony and the Transvaal, there
+had grown up a closer relationship on political questions. Whilst
+premier of Cape Colony, by means of the customs union and in every other
+way, Rhodes endeavoured to bring about a friendly measure of at least
+commercial federation among the states and colonies of South Africa. He
+hoped to establish both a commercial and a railway union, and a speech
+which he made in 1894 at Cape Town admirably describes this policy:--
+
+  "With full affection for the flag which I have been born under, and
+  the flag I represent, I can understand the sentiment and feeling of a
+  republican who has created his independence, and values that before
+  all; but I can say fairly that I believe in the future that I can
+  assimilate the system, which I have been connected with, with the Cape
+  Colony, and it is not an impossible idea that the neighbouring
+  republics, retaining their independence, should share with us as to
+  certain general principles. If I might put it to you, I would say the
+  principles of tariffs, the principle of railway connexion, the
+  principle of appeal in law, the principle of coinage, and in fact all
+  those principles which exist at the present moment in the United
+  States, irrespective of the local assemblies which exist in each
+  separate state in that country."
+
+To this policy President Kruger and the Transvaal government offered
+every possible opposition. Their action in what is known as the Vaal
+River Drift question will best illustrate the line of action which the
+Transvaal government believed it expedient to adopt. A difficulty arose
+at the termination of the agreement in 1894 between the Cape government
+railway and the Netherlands railway. The Cape government, for the
+purposes of carrying the railway from the Vaal river to Johannesburg,
+had advanced the sum of £600,000 to the Netherlands railway and the
+Transvaal government conjointly; at the same time it was stipulated that
+the Cape government should have the right to fix the traffic rate until
+the end of 1894, or until such time as the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line was
+completed. These rates were fixed by the Cape government at 2d. per ton
+per mile, but at the beginning of 1895 the rate for the 52 m. of railway
+from the Vaal river to Johannesburg was raised by the Netherlands
+railway to no less a sum than 8d. per ton per mile. It is quite evident
+from the action which President Kruger subsequently took in the matter
+that this charge was put on with his approval, and with the object of
+compelling traffic to be brought to the Transvaal by the Delagoa route,
+instead of as heretofore by the colonial railway. In order to compete
+against this very high rate, the merchants of Johannesburg began
+removing their goods from the Vaal river by waggon. Thereupon President
+Kruger arbitrarily closed the drifts (fords) on the Vaal river, and thus
+prevented through waggon traffic, causing an enormous block of waggons
+on the banks of the Vaal. A protest was then made by the Cape government
+against the action of the Transvaal, on the ground that it was a breach
+of the London Convention. President Kruger took no notice of this
+remonstrance, and an appeal was made to the imperial government;
+whereupon the latter entered into an agreement with the Cape government,
+to the effect that if the Cape would bear half the cost of any
+expedition which should be necessary, assist with troops, and give full
+use of the Cape railway for military purposes if required, a protest
+should be sent to President Kruger on the subject. These terms were
+accepted by Rhodes and his colleagues, of whom Mr W.P. Schreiner was
+one, and a protest was then sent by Mr Chamberlain stating that the
+government would regard the closing of the drifts as a breach of the
+London Convention, and as an unfriendly action calling for the gravest
+remonstrance. President Kruger at once reopened the drifts, and
+undertook that he would issue no further proclamation on the subject
+except after consultation with the imperial government.
+
+On the 29th of December 1895 Dr Jameson (q.v.) made his famous raid into
+the Transvaal, and Rhodes's complicity in this movement compelled him to
+resign the premiership of Cape Colony in January 1896, the vacant post
+being taken by Sir Gordon Sprigg. As Rhodes's complicity in the raid
+became known, there naturally arose a strong feeling of resentment and
+astonishment among his colleagues in the Cape ministry, who had been
+kept in complete ignorance of his connexion with any such scheme. Mr
+Hofmeyr and the Bond were loud in their denunciation of him, nor can it
+be denied that the circumstances of the raid greatly embittered against
+England the Dutch element in Cape Colony, and influenced their
+subsequent attitude towards the Transvaal Boers.
+
+In 1897 a native rising occurred under Galeshwe, a Bantu chief, in
+Griqualand West. Galeshwe was arrested and the rebellion repressed. On
+cross-examination Galeshwe stated that Bosnian, a magistrate of the
+Transvaal, had supplied ammunition to him, and urged him to rebel
+against the government of Cape Colony. There is every reason to suppose
+that this charge was true, and it is consistent with the intrigues which
+the Boers from time to time practised among the natives.
+
+In 1897 Sir Alfred Milner was appointed high commissioner of South
+Africa and governor of Cape Colony, in succession to Sir Hercules
+Robinson, who had been created a peer under the title of Baron Rosmead
+in August 1896.
+
+_Mr Schreiner's Policy_.--In 1898 commercial federation in South Africa
+advanced another stage, Natal entering the customs union. A fresh
+convention was drafted at this time, and under it "a uniform tariff on
+all imported goods consumed within such union, and an equitable
+distribution of the duties collected on such goods amongst the parties
+to such union, and free trade between the colonies and state in respect
+of all South African products," was arranged. In the same year, too, the
+Cape parliamentary election occurred, and the result was the return to
+power of a Bond ministry under Mr W.P. Schreiner. From this time, until
+June 1900, Mr Schreiner remained in office as head of the Cape
+government. During the negotiations (see TRANSVAAL) which preceded the
+war in 1899, feeling at the Cape ran very high, and Mr Schreiner's
+attitude was very freely discussed. As head of a party, dependent for
+its position in power on the Bond's support, his position was
+undoubtedly a trying one. At the same time, as prime minister of a
+British colony, it was strongly felt by loyal colonists that he should
+at least have refrained from openly interfering between the Transvaal
+and the imperial government during the course of most difficult
+negotiations. His public expressions of opinion were hostile in tone to
+the policy pursued by Mr Chamberlain and Sir Alfred Milner. The effect
+of them, it was believed, might conceivably be to encourage President
+Kruger in persisting in his rejection of the British terms. Mr
+Schreiner, it is true, used directly what influence he possessed to
+induce President Kruger to adopt a reasonable course. But however
+excellent his intentions, his publicly expressed disapproval of the
+Chamberlain-Milner policy probably did more harm than his private
+influence with Mr Kruger could possibly do good. On the 11th of June
+1899, shortly after the Bloemfontein conference, from which Sir Alfred
+Milner had just returned, Mr Schreiner asked the high commissioner to
+inform Mr Chamberlain that he and his colleagues agreed in regarding
+President Kruger's Bloemfontein proposals as "practical, reasonable and
+a considerable step in the right direction." Early in June, however, the
+Cape Dutch politicians began to realize that President Kruger's attitude
+was not so reasonable as they had endeavoured to persuade themselves,
+and Mr Hofmeyr, accompanied by Mr Herholdt, the Cape minister of
+agriculture, visited Pretoria. On arrival, they found that the Transvaal
+Volksraad, in a spirit of defiance and even levity, had just passed a
+resolution offering four new seats in the Volksraad to the mining
+districts, and fifteen to exclusively burgher districts. Mr Hofmeyr, on
+meeting the executive, freely expressed indignation at these
+proceedings. Unfortunately, Mr Hofmeyr's influence was more than
+counterbalanced by an emissary from the Free State, Mr Abraham Fischer,
+who, while purporting to be a peacemaker, practically encouraged the
+Boer executive to take extreme measures. Mr Hofmeyr's established
+reputation as an astute diplomatist, and as the trusted leader for years
+of the Cape Dutch party, made him as powerful a delegate as it was
+possible to find. If any emissary could accomplish anything in the way
+of persuading Mr Kruger, it was assuredly Mr Hofmeyr. Much was looked
+for from his mission by moderate men of all parties, and by none more
+so, it is fair to believe, than by Mr Schreiner. But Mr Hofmeyr's
+mission, like every other mission to Mr Kruger to induce him to take a
+reasonable and equitable course, proved entirely fruitless. He returned
+to Cape Town disappointed, but probably not altogether surprised at the
+failure of his mission. Meanwhile a new proposal was drafted by the Boer
+executive, which, before it was received in its entirety, or at least
+before it was clearly understood, elicited from Mr Schreiner a letter on
+the 7th of July to the _South African News_, in which, referring to his
+government, he said:--
+
+  "While anxious and continually active with good hope in the cause of
+  securing reasonable modifications of the existing representative
+  system of the South African Republic, this government is convinced
+  that no ground whatever exists for active interference in the internal
+  affairs of that republic."
+
+This letter was precipitate and unfortunate. On the 11th of July, after
+seeing Mr Hofmeyr on his return, Mr Schreiner made a personal appeal to
+President Kruger to approach the imperial government in a friendly
+spirit. At this time an incident occurred which raised the feeling
+against Mr Schreiner to a very high pitch. On the 7th of July 500 rifles
+and 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition were landed at Port Elizabeth,
+consigned to the Free State government, and forwarded to Bloemfontein.
+Mr Schreiner's attention was called to this consignment at the time, but
+he refused to stop it, alleging as his reason that, inasmuch as Great
+Britain was at peace with the Free State, he had no right to interdict
+the passage of arms through the Cape Colony. The British colonist is as
+capable of a grim jest as the Transvaal Boer, and this action of Mr
+Schreiner's won for him the nickname "Ammunition Bill." At a later date
+he was accused of delay in forwarding artillery and rifles for the
+defence of Kimberley, Mafeking and other towns of the colony. The reason
+he gave for delay was that he did not anticipate war; and that he did
+not wish to excite unwarrantable suspicions in the minds of the Free
+State. His conduct in both instances was perhaps technically correct,
+but it was much resented by loyal colonists.
+
+On the 28th of July Mr Chamberlain sent a conciliatory despatch to
+President Kruger, suggesting a meeting of delegates to consider and
+report on his last franchise proposals, which were complex to a degree.
+Mr Schreiner, on the 3rd of August, telegraphed to Mr Fischer begging
+the Transvaal to welcome Mr Chamberlain's proposal. At a later date, on
+receiving an inquiry from the Free State as to the movements of British
+troops, Mr Schreiner curtly refused any information, and referred the
+Free State to the high commissioner. On the 28th of August Sir Gordon
+Sprigg in the House of Assembly moved the adjournment of the debate, to
+discuss the removal of arms to the Free State. Mr Schreiner, in reply,
+used expressions which called down upon him the severest censure and
+indignation, both in the colony and in Great Britain. He stated that,
+should the storm burst, he would keep the colony aloof with regard both
+to its forces and its people. In the course of the speech he also read a
+telegram from President Steyn, in which the president repudiated all
+contemplated aggressive action on the part of the Free State as absurd.
+The speech created a great sensation in the British press. It was
+probably forgotten at the time (though Lord Kimberley afterwards
+publicly stated it) that one of the chief reasons why the Gladstone
+government had granted the retrocession of the Transvaal after Majuba,
+was the fear that the Cape Colonial Dutch would join their kinsmen if
+the war continued. What was a danger in 1881, Mr Schreiner knew to be a
+still greater danger in 1899. At the same time it is quite obvious, from
+a review of Mr Schreiner's conduct through the latter half of 1899, that
+he took an entirely mistaken view of the Transvaal situation. He
+evinced, as premier of the Cape Colony, the same inability to understand
+the Uitlanders' grievances, the same futile belief in the eventual
+fairness of President Kruger, as he had shown when giving evidence
+before the British South Africa Select Committee into the causes of the
+Jameson Raid. Actual experience taught him that President Kruger was
+beyond an appeal to reason, and that the protestations of President
+Steyn were insincere. War had no sooner commenced with the ultimatum of
+the Transvaal Republic on the 9th of October 1899, than Mr Schreiner
+found himself called upon to deal with the conduct of Cape rebels. The
+rebels joined the invading forces of President Steyn, whose false
+assurances Mr Schreiner had offered to an indignant House of Assembly
+only a few weeks before. The war on the part of the Republics was
+evidently not to be merely one of self-defence. It was one of aggression
+and aggrandisement. Mr Schreiner ultimately addressed, as prime
+minister, a sharp remonstrance to President Steyn for allowing his
+burghers to invade the colony. He also co-operated with Sir Alfred
+Milner, and used his influence to restrain the Bond.
+
+_The War of 1899-1902._[7]--The first shot actually fired in the war
+was at Kraipan, a small railway station within the colony, 40 m. south
+of Mafeking, a train being derailed, and ammunition intended for Colonel
+Baden-Powell seized. The effect of this was entirely to cut off
+Mafeking, the northernmost town in Cape Colony, and it remained in a
+state of siege for over seven months. On the 16th of October Kimberley
+was also isolated. Proclamations by the Transvaal and Free State
+annexing portions of Cape Colony were actually issued on the 18th of
+October, and included British Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, with the
+diamond fields. On the 28th of October Mr Schreiner signed a
+proclamation issued by Sir Alfred Milner as high commissioner, declaring
+the Boer annexations of territory within Cape Colony to be null and
+void.
+
+Then came the British reverses at Magersfontein (on the 11th of
+December) and Stormberg (on the 10th of December). The effect of these
+engagements at the very outset of the war, occurring as they did within
+Cape Colony, was to offer every inducement to a number of the frontier
+colonial Boers to join their kinsmen of the republics. The Boers were
+prolific, and their families large. Many younger sons from the colony,
+with nothing to lose, left their homes with horse and rifle to join the
+republican forces.
+
+Meanwhile the loyal Cape colonists were chafing at the tardy manner in
+which they were enrolled by the imperial authorities. It was not until
+after the arrival of Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener at Cape Town on the
+10th of January 1900 that these invaluable, and many of them
+experienced, men were freely invited to come forward. So strongly did
+Lord Roberts feel on the subject, that he at once made Colonel Brabant,
+a well-known and respected colonial veteran and member of the House of
+Assembly, a brigadier-general, and started recruiting loyal colonists in
+earnest. On the 15th of February Kimberley was relieved by General
+French, and the Boer general, Cronje, evacuated Magersfontein, and
+retreated towards Bloemfontein. Cecil Rhodes was shut up in Kimberley
+during the whole of the siege, and his presence there undoubtedly
+offered an additional incentive to the Boers to endeavour to capture the
+town, but his unique position and influence with the De Beers workmen
+enabled him to render yeoman service, and infused enthusiasm and courage
+into the inhabitants. The manufacture of a big gun, which was able to
+compete with the Boer "Long Tom," at the De Beers workshops, under
+Rhodes's orders, and by the ingenuity of an American, Mr. Labram, who
+was killed a few days after its completion, forms one of the most
+striking incidents of the period.
+
+With the relief of Mafeking on the 17th of May, the Cape rebellion
+ended, and the colony was, at least for a time, delivered of the
+presence of hostile forces.
+
+On the 20th of March Mr (afterwards Sir James) Rose-Innes, a prominent
+member of the House of Assembly, who for several years had held aloof
+from either party, and who also had defended Mr Schreiner's action with
+regard to the passage of arms to the Free State, addressed his
+constituents at Claremont in support of the annexation of both
+republics; and in the course of an eloquent speech he stated that in
+Canada, in spite of rebellions, loyalty had been secured from the French
+Canadians by free institutions. In South Africa they might hope that a
+similar policy would attain a similar result with the Boers. In June, Mr
+Schreiner, whose recent support of Sir Alfred Milner had incensed many
+of his Bond followers, resigned in consequence of the refusal of some of
+his colleagues to support the disfranchisement bill which he was
+prepared, in accordance with the views of the home government, to
+introduce for the punishment of Cape rebels. The bill certainly did not
+err on the side of severity, but disfranchisement for their supporters
+in large numbers was more distasteful to the Bond extremists than any
+stringency towards individuals. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who after a political
+crisis of considerable delicacy, succeeded Mr Schreiner and for the
+fourth time became prime minister, was able to pass the Bill with the
+co-operation of Mr Schreiner and his section. Towards the end of the
+year 1900 the war entered on a new phase, and took the form of guerilla
+skirmishes with scattered forces of marauding Boers. In December some of
+these bands entered the Cape Colony and endeavoured to induce colonial
+Boers to join them. In this endeavour they met at first with little or
+no success; but as the year 1901 progressed and the Boers still managed
+to keep the various districts in a ferment, it was deemed necessary by
+the authorities to proclaim martial law over the whole colony, and this
+was done on the 9th of October 1901.
+
+On the 4th of January 1901 Sir Alfred Milner was gazetted governor of
+the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, being shortly afterwards created
+a peer as Lord Milner, and Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, governor of
+Natal, was appointed his successor as governor of the Cape Colony. The
+office of high commissioner in South Africa was now separated from the
+governorship of the Cape and associated with that of the Transvaal--an
+indication of the changed conditions in South Africa. The division of
+the colonists into those who favoured the Boer states and those firmly
+attached to the British connexion was reflected, to the detriment of the
+public weal, in the parties in the Cape parliament. Proposals were made
+to suspend the constitution, but this drastic course was not adopted.
+The Progressive party, the name taken by those who sought a permanent
+settlement under the British flag, lost their leader, and South Africa
+its foremost statesman by the death, in May 1902, of Cecil Rhodes, a few
+weeks before the end of the war.
+
+_After the War_.--The acknowledgment of defeat by the Boers in the
+field, and the surrender of some 10,000 rebels, did not weaken the
+endeavours of the Dutch to obtain political supremacy in the colony.
+Moreover, in the autumn of 1902 Sir Gordon Sprigg, the prime minister,
+nominally the leader of the Progressives, sought to maintain his
+position by securing the support of the Bond party in parliament. In the
+early part of 1903 Mr Chamberlain included Cape Town in his visit to
+South Africa, and had conferences with the political leaders of all
+parties. Reconciliation between the Bond and British elements in the
+colony was, however, still impossible, and the two parties concentrated
+their efforts in a struggle for victory at the coming election. Mr
+Hofmeyr, who had chosen to spend the greater part of the war period in
+Europe, returned to the Cape to reorganize the Bond. On the other side
+Dr Jameson came forward as the leader of the Progressives. Parliament
+was dissolved in September 1903. It had passed, since the war, two
+measures of importance--one (1902) restricting alien immigration, the
+other (1903) ratifying the first customs convention between all the
+South African colonies. This convention was notable for its grant of
+preferential treatment (in general, a rebate of 25% on the customs
+already levied) to imports from the United Kingdom.
+
+The election turned on the issue of British or Bond supremacy. It was
+fought on a register purged of the rebel voters, many of whom, besides
+being disfranchised, were in prison. The issue was doubtful, and each
+side sought to secure the support of the native voters, who in several
+constituencies held the balance of power. The Bondsmen were more lavish
+than their opponents in their promises to the natives and even invited a
+Kaffir journalist (who declined) to stand for a seat in the Assembly. In
+view of the agitation then proceeding for the introduction of Chinese
+coolies to work the mines on the Rand, the Progressives declared their
+intention, if returned, to exclude them from the colony, and this
+declaration gained them some native votes. The polling (in January and
+February 1904) resulted in a Progressive majority of five in a house of
+95 members. The rejected candidates included prominent Bond supporters
+like Mr Merriman and Mr Sauer, and also Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr A.
+Douglass, another member of the cabinet. Mr W.P. Schreiner, the
+ex-premier, who stood as an Independent, was also rejected.
+
+_The Jameson Ministry_.--On the 18th of February Sir Gordon Sprigg
+resigned and was succeeded by Dr L.S. Jameson, who formed a ministry
+wholly British in character. The first task of the new government was to
+introduce (on the 4th of March) an Additional Representation Bill, to
+rectify--in part--the disparity in electoral power of the rural and
+urban districts. Twelve new seats in the House of Assembly were divided
+among the larger towns, and three members were added to the legislative
+council. The town voter being mainly British, the bill met with the
+bitter opposition of the Bond members, who declared that its object was
+the extinction of their parliamentary power. In fact, the bill was
+called for by the glaring anomalies in the distribution of seats by
+which a minority of voters in the country districts returned a majority
+of members, and it left the towns still inadequately represented. The
+bill was supported by two or three Dutch members, who were the object of
+violent attack by the Bondsmen. It became law, and the elections for the
+additional seats were held in July, after the close of the session. They
+resulted in strengthening the Progressive majority both in the House of
+Assembly and in the legislative council--where the Progressives
+previously had a majority of one only.
+
+At the outset of its career the Jameson ministry had to face a serious
+financial situation. During the war the supplying of the army in the
+field had caused an artificial inflation of trade, and the Sprigg
+ministry had pursued a policy of extravagant expenditure not warranted
+by the finances of the colony. The slow recovery of the gold-mining and
+other industries in the Transvaal after the war was reflected in a great
+decline in trade in Cape Colony during the last half of 1903, the
+distress being aggravated by severe drought. When Dr Jameson assumed
+office he found an empty treasury, and considerable temporary loans had
+to be raised. Throughout 1904, moreover, revenue continued to
+shrink--compared with 1903 receipts dropped from £11,701,000 to
+£9,913,000. The government, besides cutting down official salaries and
+exercising strict economy, contracted (July 1904) a loan for £3,000,000.
+It also passed a bill imposing a graduated tax (6d. to 1s. in the £) on
+all incomes over £1000. A substantial excise duty was placed on spirits
+and beer, measures of relief for the brandy-farmers being taken at the
+same time. The result was that while there was a deficit on the budget
+of 1904-1905 of £731,000, the budget of 1905-1906 showed a surplus of
+£5161. This small surplus was obtained notwithstanding a further
+shrinkage in revenue.
+
+Dr Jameson's programme was largely one of material development. In the
+words of the speech opening the 1905 session of parliament, "without a
+considerable development of our agricultural and pastoral resources our
+position as a self-sustaining colony cannot be assured." This reliance
+on its own resources was the more necessary for the Cape because of the
+keen rivalry of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the
+Transvaal. The opening up of backward districts by railways was
+vigorously pursued, and in other ways great efforts were made to assist
+agriculture. These efforts to help the country districts met with
+cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers, and the release, in May
+1904, of all rebel prisoners was another step towards reconciliation. On
+the exclusion of Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in
+agreement with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established
+school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual
+introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of friendly
+relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one of the leading
+objects of Dr Jameson's policy. The Bond, on its side, sought to draw
+closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization in the Transvaal, and similar
+bodies, and at its 1906 congress, held in March that year at Ceres, a
+resolution with that aim was passed, the design being to unify, in
+accordance with the original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and
+action throughout South Africa.
+
+Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In January 1905
+an inter-colonial native affairs commission reported on the native
+question as it affected South Africa as a whole, proposals being made
+for an alteration of the laws in Cape Colony respecting the franchise
+exercised by natives. In the opinion of the commission the possession of
+the franchise by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to
+create in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous
+thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over 23,000
+coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed separate voting
+by natives only for a fixed number of members of the legislature--the
+plan adopted in New Zealand with the Maori voters. The privileged
+position of the Cape native was seen to be an obstacle to the federation
+of South Africa. The discussion which followed, based partly on the
+reports that the ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led,
+however, to no immediate results.
+
+Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs was the
+revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-West Africa (q.v.).
+In 1904 and the following years large numbers of refugees, including
+some of the most important chiefs, fled into British territory, and
+charges were made in Germany that sufficient control over these refugees
+was not exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came to
+an end in September 1907. In that month Morenga, a chief who had been
+interned by the colonial authorities, but had escaped and recommenced
+hostilities against the Germans, was once more on the British side of
+the frontier and, refusing to surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted
+Police and killed after a smart action. The revolt in the German
+protectorate had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the
+indirect occasion of a "Boer raid" into Cape Colony. In November 1906 a
+small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been employed by the Germans
+against the Hottentots, entered the colony under the leadership of a man
+named Ferreira, and began raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits.
+Within a week the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four
+companions were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death
+sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude.
+
+As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pietermaritzburg
+in the early months of 1906, a new customs convention of a strongly
+protective character came into force on the 1st of June of that year. At
+the same time the rebate on goods from Great Britain and reciprocating
+colonies was increased. The session of parliament which sanctioned this
+change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and railway
+schemes. But one important measure of a political character was passed
+in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under its provisions over 7000
+ex-rebels, who would otherwise have had no vote at the ensuing general
+election, were readmitted to the franchise in 1907.
+
+While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources
+of the country proved successful, the towns continued to suffer from the
+inflation--over-buying, over-building and over-speculation--which marked
+the war period. As a consequence, imports further declined during
+1906-1907, and receipts being largely dependent on customs the result
+was a considerably diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending
+30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of £640,455. The decline in revenue,
+£4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection of the economic
+condition of the country--yearly becoming more self-supporting by the
+increase in home produce--caused general disquietude and injuriously
+affected the position of the ministry. In the session of 1907 the
+Opposition in the legislative council brought on a crisis by refusing to
+grant supplies voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the
+constitutional right of the council so to act, and on his advice the
+governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolution
+parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on diamond- and
+copper-mining companies earning over £50,000 per annum, and another act
+establishing an agricultural credit bank.
+
+_Mr Merriman, Premier_.--The elections for the legislative council were
+held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond victory. Its supporters, who
+called themselves the South African party, the Progressives being
+renamed Unionists, obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson
+thereupon resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with Mr
+J.X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J.W. Sauer as minister of
+public works. Neither of these politicians was a member of the Bond, and
+both had held office under Cecil Rhodes and W.P. Schreiner. They had,
+however, been the leading parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a
+considerable time. The elections for the legislative assembly followed
+in April and, partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the
+ex-rebels, resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry.
+There were returned 69 members of the South African party, 33 Unionists
+and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr
+Schreiner. The change of ministry was not accompanied by any relief in
+the financial situation. While the country districts remained fairly
+prosperous (agricultural and pastoral products increasing), the transit
+trade and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression was
+accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected adversely
+the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the diamond trade, leading
+to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley mines. (The "slump" in the
+diamond trade is shown by a comparison of the value of diamonds exported
+from the Cape in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at
+£8,973,148, in 1908 at £4,796,655.) This seriously diminished the
+revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907-1908 showed a
+deficit of £996,000, and a prospective deficit for the ensuing year of
+an almost equal amount. To balance the budget, Mr Merriman proposed
+drastic remedies, including the suspension of the sinking fund, the
+reduction of salaries of all civil servants, and taxes on incomes of £50
+per annum. Partly in consequence of the serious economic situation the
+renewed movement for the closer union of the various South African
+colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received the support
+of the Cape parliament. During 1907-1908 a national convention decided
+upon unification, and in 1910 the Union of South Africa was established
+(see SOUTH AFRICA: _History_).
+
+_Leading Personalities_.--The public life of Cape Colony has produced
+many men of singular ability and accomplishments. The careers of Cecil
+Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, and of Dr L.S. Jameson have been
+sufficiently indicated (see also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon
+Sprigg, four times premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from
+1873 to 1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In and
+out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those qualities
+which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great leader, he was at
+least a model of industry. Among other prominent politicians were Sir
+James Rose-Innes, Mr J.X. Merriman and Mr W.P. Schreiner. The two last
+named both held the premiership; their attitude and views have been
+indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a lawyer whose
+intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been impugned, was not a
+"party man," and this made him, on more than one occasion, a somewhat
+difficult political ally. On the native question he held a consistently
+strong attitude, defending their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing
+the native liquor traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief
+justice of that colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative,
+though he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every
+enlightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought forward. A
+man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made his influence felt,
+not only in politics, but in journalism and the best social life of the
+Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he held the office of agent-general of
+the colony in London.
+
+In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors whose works
+have taken their place among those of the best English writers of their
+day. The _History of South Africa_, by Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a
+classic work of reference. The careful industry and the lucidity which
+characterize Mr Theal's work stamp him as a historian of whom South
+Africa may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs
+Cronwright-Schreiner) produced, while still in her teens, the _Story of
+an African Farm_, a work which gave great promise of original literary
+genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest of South Africa, was
+subsequently swept into the seething vortex of contemporary politics and
+controversy. In music and painting there have been artists of talent in
+the Cape Colony, but the country is still too young, and the conditions
+of life too disturbed, to allow such a development as has already
+occurred in Australia.
+
+  GOVERNORS AT THE CAPE SINCE INTRODUCTION OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT
+
+  1870. Sir Henry Barkly.
+  1877. Sir Bartle Frere.
+  1880. Sir Hercules Robinson.
+  1889. Sir Henry Loch.
+  1895. Sir Hercules Robinson (Lord Rosmead).
+  1897. Sir Alfred Milner.
+  1901. Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson.
+
+  PRIME MINISTERS.
+
+  1872. Mr J.C. Molteno.          1890. Mr C.J. Rhodes.
+  1878. Mr J. Gordon Sprigg.      1896. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.
+  1881. Mr T.C. Scanlen.          1898. Mr W.P. Schreiner.
+  1884. Mr Upington.              1900. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.
+  1886. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.     1904. Dr L.S. Jameson.
+                   1908. Mr J.X. Merriman.
+       (A. P. H.; F. R. C.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY--The majority of the books concerning Cape Colony deal
+  also with South Africa as a whole (see SOUTH AFRICA: _Bibliography_).
+  The following list gives books specially relating to the Cape. For
+  ethnography see the works mentioned under BUSHMEN, HOTTENTOTS, KAFFIRS
+  and BECHUANA.
+
+  (a) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:--The best
+  early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille's _Journal
+  historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Espérance_ (Paris, 1763),
+  the _Nouvelle Description du Cap de Bonne Espérance_ (Amsterdam,
+  1778); F. le Vaillant's _Voyage dans l'intérieur de l'Afrique_ (Paris,
+  1790), and _Second Voyage_ (Paris, _an_ III. [1794-1795]); C.P.
+  Thunberg's "Account of the Cape of Good Hope" in vol. xvi. of
+  Pinkerton's _Travels_ (London, 1814); A. Sparman's _Voyage to the Cape
+  of Good Hope ... 1772-1776_ (translated into English from the Swedish,
+  London, 1785)--an excellent work; and W. Paterson's _A Narrative of
+  Four Journeys ... 1777-1779_ (London, 1789). P. Kolbe or Kolben's
+  _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_ (English translation from the
+  German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy. Sir J. Barrow's _Account of
+  Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa in 1797-1798_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1801-1804); H. Lichtenstein's _Travels in Southern Africa in
+  1803-1806_ (translated from the German, 2 vols., London, 1812-1815),
+  and W.J. Burchell's _Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa_ (2
+  vols., London, 1822-1824) are standard works. Burchell's book contains
+  the best map of the Cape published up to that time. W.P. Greswell's
+  _Geography of Africa south of the Zambesi_ (Oxford, 1892) deals
+  specially with Cape Colony; the _Illustrated Official Handbook of the
+  Cape and South Africa_ (Cape Town, 1893) includes chapters on the
+  zoology, flora, productions and resources of the colony. A.R.E.
+  Burton, _Cape Colony To-day_ (Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the
+  country and its resources. A _Statistical Register_ is issued yearly
+  by the Cape government. The _Census of the Colony, 1904: General
+  Report_ (Cape Town, 1905) and previous census reports contain much
+  valuable matter.
+
+  (b) Special subjects:--For detailed information on special subjects
+  consult _The Natives of South Africa_ (London, 1901); R. Wallace,
+  _Farming Industries of Cape Colony_ (London, 1896); A.R.E. Burton,
+  _Cape Colony for the Settler_ (London, 1903); _The Agricultural
+  Journal of the Cape of Good Hope_; Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond
+  Mines of South Africa_, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative
+  work by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A.W. Rogers, _An
+  Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony_ (London, 1905) and "The
+  Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay," _Trans. Geol. Soc S.
+  Africa_, vol. ix. (1906); _Reports_, Geological Commission of the Cape
+  of Good Hope (1896 et seq.); _Science in South Africa_ (Cape Town,
+  1905); H.A. Bryden, _Kloof and Karoo_; sport, legend and natural
+  history in Cape Colony (London, 1889); _South African Education
+  Yearbook_ (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et seq.). For books
+  dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see SOUTH AFRICA.
+
+  (c) History:--H.C.V. Leibbrandt, _Précis of the Archives of the Cape
+  of Good Hope_ (15 vols., vols. v.-vii. contain van Riebeek's
+  _Journal_, Cape Town, 1896--1902); _The Rebellion of 1815, generally
+  known as Slachter's Nek_ (Cape Town, 1902); G.M. Theal, _Chronicles of
+  Cape Commanders ... 1651-1691_ ... (Cape Town, 1882), and _Records of
+  the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831_, from MS. in the
+  Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897-1905); _History of
+  South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company,
+  1652 to 1795_ (2 vols., London, 1897); _History of South Africa from
+  1795 to 1834_ (London, 1891); E.B. Watermeyer, _Three Lectures on the
+  Cape ... under the ... Dutch East India Company_ (Cape Town, 1857); A.
+  Wilmot and J.C. Chase, _History of the ... Cape ... from its Discovery
+  to ... 1868_ (Cape Town, 1869); Lady Anne Barnard, _South Africa a
+  Hundred Years Ago: Letters-written from the Cape, 1797-1801_ (London,
+  1901), a vivid picture of social life, &c.; Mrs A.F. Trotter, _Old
+  Cape Colony ... Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806_ (London, 1903);
+  C.T. Campbell, _British South Africa, 1795-1825_ (London, 1897), the
+  story of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau's
+  _Life of Sir Bartle Frere_; the _Autobiography_ of Sir Harry Smith;
+  P.A. Molteno's _Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno_ (first
+  premier of Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A. Wilmot's _Life of
+  Sir Richard Southey_ (London, 1904), and G.C. Henderson's _Sir George
+  Grey_ (London, 1907). B. Worsfold's _Lord Milner's Work in South
+  Africa, 1897-1902_ (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape
+  politics. For Blue-books, &c., relating to the colony published by the
+  British parliament, see the _Colonial Office List_ (London, yearly)
+       (F. R. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The distances given after the names of rivers indicate the length
+    of the river valleys, including those of the main upper branch. In
+    nearly all instances the rivers, owing to their sinuous course, are
+    much longer.
+
+  [2] This is an overstatement. The director of the census estimated
+    the true number of Hottentots at about 56,000.
+
+  [3] It is stated that Colonel R.J. Gordon (the explorer of the Orange
+    river), who commanded the Dutch forces at the Cape, chagrined by the
+    occupation of the country by the British, committed suicide.
+
+  [4] From 1737 to 1744 George Schmidt, "The apostle to the
+    Hottentots," had a mission at Genadendal--"The Vale of Grace."
+
+  [5] Masters were allowed to keep their ex-slaves as "apprentices"
+    until the 1st of December 1838.
+
+  [6] The act enjoined that "every male native residing in the
+    district, exclusive of natives in possession of lands under ordinary
+    quit-rent titles, or in freehold, who, in the judgment of the
+    resident magistrate, is fit for and capable of labour, shall pay to
+    the public revenue a tax of ten shillings per annum unless he can
+    show to the satisfaction of the magistrate that he has been in
+    service beyond the borders of the district for at least three months
+    out of the previous twelve, when he will be exempt from the tax for
+    that year, or unless he can show that he has been employed for a
+    total period of three years, when he will be exempt altogether."
+
+  [7] See also TRANSVAAL.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2
+       "Camorra" to "Cape Colony"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33052]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 2 ***
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+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME V SLICE II<br /><br />
+Camorra to Cape Colony</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CAMORRA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CANDYTUFT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CAMP</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CANE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CAMPAGNA DI ROMA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CANEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CAMPAIGN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CANE-FENCING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CANEPHORAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CANES VENATICI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CAMPANIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CANGAS DE ONÍS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CAMPANILE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CANGAS DE TINÉO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CAMPANULA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CANGUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CANINA, LUIGI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CAMPBELL, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CANIS MAJOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CAMPBELL, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CAÑIZARES, JOSÉ DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CANNAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CANNANORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CAMPBELL, LEWIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CANNES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CANNIBALISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CAMPBELL, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CANNING, CHARLES JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CANNING, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CAMPBELTOWN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CANNOCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CAMPECHE</a> (state of Mexico)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CANNON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CAMPECHE</a> (city of Mexico)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CANNON-BALL TREE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CANNSTATT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CAMPER, PETER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CANO, ALONZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CANO, MELCHIOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CANOE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CAMPHORS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CANON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CANONESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CAMPI, GIULIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CANONIZATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CANON LAW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CAMPINAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CANOPUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CAMPING OUT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CANOPY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CAMPION, EDMUND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CANOSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CAMPION, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CANOSSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CANOVA, ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CAMPOBASSO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CAMPODEA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CANT, ANDREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CANTABRI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CAMPOS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CÂMPULUNG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CANTACUZINO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CANTAGALLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CAMULODUNUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CANTAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CANTARINI, SIMONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CAMUS, CHARLES ÉTIENNE LOUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CANTATA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CAMUS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH DES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CANTEEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CAMUS DE MÉZIÈRES, NICOLAS LE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CANTEMIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CANA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CANAAN, CANAANITES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CANTERBURY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CANACHUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CANTHARIDES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CANADA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CANTICLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CANAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CANTILEVER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CANAL DOVER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CANALE ANTONIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CANTILUPE, WALTER DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CANALIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CANTO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CANANDAIGUA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CANTON, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CANARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CANTON</a> (city of China)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CANARY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CANTON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CANARY ISLANDS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CANTON</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CANCALE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CANTON</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CANCEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CANTON</a> (country division)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CANCELLI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CANTONMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CANCER, LUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CANTÙ, CESARE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CANCER</a> (astronomy)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CANUSIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CANCER</a> (disease)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CANUTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CANUTE VI.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CANDELABRUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CANVAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CANDIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CANVASS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CANDIDATE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CANYNGES, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CANDLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CANYON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CANDLEMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CANZONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CANDLESTICK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CAPE BRETON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CAPE COAST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CAPE COLONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CANDON</a></td>  <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CAMORRA,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a secret society of Naples associated with robbery,
+blackmail and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful.
+Probably both the word and the association were introduced
+into Naples by Spaniards. There is a Spanish word <i>camorra</i>
+(a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have existed in Spain
+long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It was
+in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was
+primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan
+prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and
+oppression, its first purpose being the protection of prisoners.
+In or about 1830 the Camorra was carried into the city by
+prisoners who had served their terms. The members worked
+the streets in gangs. They had special methods of communicating
+with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach of
+the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached.
+A long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze
+meant he was not &ldquo;worth powder and shot,&rdquo; and so on. The
+society rapidly extended its power, and its operations included
+smuggling and blackmail of all kinds in addition to ordinary
+road-robberies. Its influence grew to be considerable. Princes
+were in league with and shared the profits of the smugglers:
+statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact, were
+involved in the society&rsquo;s misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra
+drew huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The
+general disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly
+organized that merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to
+superintend the loading and unloading of merchandise. Being
+non-political, the government did not interfere with the society;
+indeed its members were taken into the police service and the
+Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled the authorities.
+After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when the
+constitution was granted by Francis II., the <i>camorristi</i> then in
+gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became
+all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862.
+Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its
+power. In September 1877 there was a determined effort to
+exterminate it: fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi
+being simultaneously arrested in the market-place. Though
+much of its power has gone, the Camorra has remained vigorous.
+It has grown upwards, and highly-placed and well-known camorristi
+have entered municipal administrations and political life.
+In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra&rsquo;s power were made in
+the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the
+Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner.
+A government inquiry also took place. As the result
+of this investigation the Honest Government League was
+formed, which succeeded in 1901 in entirely defeating the
+Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.</p>
+
+<p>The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the &ldquo;swell
+mobsmen,&rdquo; the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed
+with and levied fines on people of highest rank. Most of these
+were well connected. There were the lower order of blackmailers
+who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &amp;c.; and there were
+political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the society
+were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve
+for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted
+camorrista when he was sometimes called <i>picciotto d&rsquo; honore</i>, and
+after giving proof of courage and zeal became a <i>picciotto di
+sgarro</i>, one, that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some
+localities he was then called <i>tamurro</i>. The initiatory ceremony
+for full membership is now a mock duel in which the arm alone
+is wounded. In early times initiation was more severe. The
+camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground, and at a signal
+all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the novice had
+at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that his hand
+was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate
+as <i>picciotto di sgarro</i> lasted three years, during which the lad had
+to work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as
+master. After initiation there was a ceremony of reception.
+The camorristi stood round a table on which were a dagger,
+a loaded pistol, a glass of water or wine supposed to be poisoned
+and a lancet. The <i>picciotto</i> was brought in and one of his veins
+opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he held it out to
+the camorristi and swore to keep the society&rsquo;s secrets and obey
+orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock the
+pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to
+die for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the
+dagger, placed his right hand on the lad&rsquo;s head while with the
+left he fired off the pistol into the air and smashed the
+poison-glass. He then drew the dagger from the table and presented
+it to the new comrade and embraced him, as did all the others.
+The Camorra was divided into centres, each under a chief.
+There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one time
+to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was
+Aniello Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested.
+The chief of every centre was elected by the members of it. All
+the earnings of the centre were paid to and then distributed by
+him. The camorristi employ a whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their
+chief is <i>masto</i> or <i>si masto</i>, &ldquo;sir master.&rdquo; When a member
+meets him he salutes with the phrase <i>Masto, volite niente?</i>
+(&ldquo;Master, do you want anything?&rdquo;). The members are
+addressed simply as <i>si</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Monnier, <i>La Camorra</i> (Florence, 1863); Umilta, <i>Camorra et
+Mafia</i> (Neuchâtel, 1878); Alongi, <i>La Camorra</i> (1890);
+C.W. Heckethorn <i>Secret Societies of All Ages</i> (London, 1897);
+Blasio, <i>Usi e costumi dei Camorriste</i> (Naples, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMP<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>campus</i>, field), a term used more particularly
+in a military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized
+place of food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary
+housing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camping-out</a></span>). The shelter of troops in the field
+has always been of the greatest importance to their well-being,
+and from the earliest times tents and other temporary
+shelters have been employed as much as possible when it is not
+feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in barracks or in
+houses. The applied sense of the word &ldquo;camp&rdquo; as a military
+post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the
+Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern
+warfare the word is used in two ways. In the wider sense,
+&ldquo;camp&rdquo; is opposed to &ldquo;billets,&rdquo; &ldquo;cantonments&rdquo; or &ldquo;quarters,&rdquo;
+in which the troops are scattered amongst the houses of towns
+or villages for food and shelter. In a purely military camp the
+soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground allotted for
+their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of concentration and
+readiness for immediate action, and are under better disciplinary
+control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from the
+weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the
+restricted sense &ldquo;camp&rdquo; implies tents for all ranks, and is thus
+opposed to &ldquo;bivouac,&rdquo; in which the only shelter is that afforded
+by improvised screens, &amp;c., or at most small <i>tentes d&rsquo;abri</i> carried
+in sections by the men themselves. The weight of large regulation
+tents and the consequent increase in the number of horses
+and vehicles in the transport service are, however, disadvantages
+so grave that the employment of canvas camps in European
+warfare is almost a thing of the past. If the military situation
+permits, all troops are put into quarters, only the outpost troops
+bivouacking. This course was pursued by the German field
+armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter campaign.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole
+army to bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are
+not to be depended upon, tents must be provided, for no troops
+can endure many successive nights in bivouac, except in summer,
+without serious detriment to their efficiency. In a war on the
+Russo-German frontier, for instance, especially if operations
+were carried out in the autumn and winter, tents would be
+absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In this
+connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates
+many of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For
+training purposes in peace time, <i>standing camps</i> are formed.
+These may be considered simply as temporary barracks. An
+<i>entrenched camp</i> is an area of ground occupied by, or suitable
+for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and protected by
+fortifications.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ancient Camps.</i>&mdash;English writers use &ldquo;camp&rdquo; as a generic
+term for any remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span>
+their special age, size, purpose, &amp;c. Thus they include under it
+various dissimilar things. We may distinguish (1) Roman &ldquo;camps&rdquo;
+(<i>castra</i>) of three kinds, large permanent fortresses, small
+permanent forts (both usually built of stone) and temporary
+earthen encampments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Army</a></span>); (2) Pre-Roman;
+and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English
+hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to
+their special periods. Often we can say no more than that the
+&ldquo;camp&rdquo; is not Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified
+with earthen walls were thrown up as early as the Bronze Age
+and probably earlier still, and that they continued to be
+built down to Norman times. These consisted of hilltops or
+cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified with one
+or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining
+huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have
+come in first with the Normans. Their <i>mottes</i> or earthen mounds
+crowned with wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by
+an enclosure on the flat constituted a new element in fortification
+and greatly aided the conquest of England. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castle</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPAGNA DI ROMA,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> the low country surrounding the
+city of Rome, bounded on the N.W. by the hills surrounding
+the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E. by the Sabine mountains,
+on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W. by the sea.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Latium</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span> (province).)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPAIGN,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a military term for the continuous operations of
+an army during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the
+time when armies went into quarters during the winter and
+literally &ldquo;took the field&rdquo; at the opening of summer. The word
+is also used figuratively, especially in politics, of any continuous
+operations aimed at a definite object, as the &ldquo;Plan of Campaign&rdquo;
+in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived from the Latin
+<i>Campania</i>, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f.
+Italian, <i>la Campagna di Roma</i>, from which came two French forms:
+(1) <i>Champagne</i>, the name given to the level province of that name,
+and hence the English &ldquo;champaign,&rdquo; a level tract of country free
+from woods and hills; and (2) <i>Campagne</i>, and the English
+&ldquo;campaign&rdquo; with the restricted military meaning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1752-1822),
+French educator, the companion of Marie Antoinette, was born
+at Paris in 1752. Her father, whose name was Genest, was first
+clerk in the foreign office, and, although without fortune, placed
+her in the most cultivated society. At the age of fifteen she could
+speak English and Italian, and had gained so high a reputation
+for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader to the three
+daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general favourite,
+and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the
+Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of
+5000 <i>livres</i> as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first
+lady of the bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued
+to be her faithful attendant till she was forcibly separated from
+her at the sacking of the Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792.
+Madame Campan survived the dangers of the Terror, but after
+the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost penniless, and being
+thrown on her own resources by the illness of her husband, she
+bravely determined to support herself by establishing a school at
+St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by
+Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment
+of Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded
+by Napoleon at Écouen for the education of the daughters and
+sisters of members of the Legion of Honour. This post she held
+till it was abolished at the restoration of the Bourbons, when she
+retired to Mantes, where she spent the rest of her life amid the
+kind attentions of affectionate friends, but saddened by the loss
+of her only son, and by the calumnies circulated on account of her
+connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in 1822, leaving valuable
+<i>Mémoires sur la vie privée de Marie Antoinette, suivis de
+souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les règnes de Louis XIV.-XV.</i>
+(Paris, 1823); a treatise <i>De l&rsquo;Éducation des Femmes</i>; and one or
+two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style.
+The most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that
+which especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place
+given to domestic economy in the education of girls. At Écouen
+the pupils underwent a complete training in all branches of
+housework.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jules Flammermont, <i>Les Mémoires de Madame de Campan</i>
+(Paris, 1886), and histories of the time.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance
+philosopher, was born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen
+years of age he had mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented
+to him. In his fifteenth year he entered the order of the
+Dominicans, attracted partly by reading the lives of Albertus
+Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of learning. He took a
+course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in Abruzzo, and
+in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow course of
+study, he happened to read the <i>De Rerum Natura</i> of Bernardino
+Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its
+appeal to nature rather than to authority. His first work in
+philosophy (he was already the author of numerous poems) was a
+defence of Telesio, <i>Philosophia sensibus demonstrata</i> (1591).
+His attacks upon established authority having brought him into
+disfavour with the clergy, he left Naples, where he had been
+residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven years he led an
+unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his talents and
+the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox, and
+was an uncompromising advocate of the pope&rsquo;s temporal power.
+He returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was
+committed to prison because he had joined those who desired to
+free Naples from Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudée, however,
+declares that the expressions used by Campanella were wrongly
+interpreted as revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven
+years in prison. Yet his spirit was unbroken; he composed
+sonnets, and prepared a series of works, forming a complete
+system of philosophy. During the latter years of his confinement
+he was kept in the castle of Sant&rsquo; Elmo, and allowed considerable
+liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been regarded
+as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was thought
+better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set at
+liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of
+the Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at
+Rome by the pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy
+headed by his pupil, Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go
+to Paris (1634), where he was received with marked favour by
+Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of his life he spent in
+preparing a complete edition of his works; but only the first
+volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of
+May 1639.</p>
+
+<p>In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (<i>q.v.</i>),
+a follower of Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore,
+in the uncertain half-light which preceded the dawn of modern
+philosophy. The sterility of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he
+understood it, drove him to the study of man and nature,
+though he was never entirely free from the medieval spirit.
+Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region of
+theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception.
+The prime fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and
+Descartes, the certainty of individual consciousness. To this
+consciousness he assigned a threefold content, power, will and
+knowledge. It is of the present only, of things not as they are,
+but merely as they seem. The fact that it contains the idea of
+God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the divine existence,
+since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from the Infinite.
+God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect degree,
+those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity
+possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action
+presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its
+parts have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate
+are in everything. The more remote from God, the greater the
+degree of imperfection (<i>i.e.Not-being</i>) in things. Of imperfect
+things, the highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue
+of the possession of reason are akin to the Divine and superior to
+the lower creation. Next comes the mathematical world of
+space, then the corporeal world, and finally the empirical
+world with its limitations of space and time. The impulse of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span>
+self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion; above this
+comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the perfection
+of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and love,
+and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in
+origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is
+superior to the state, and, therefore, all temporal government
+should be in subjection to the pope as the representative of God.</p>
+
+<p>In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio,
+advocates the experimental method and lays down heat and
+cold as the fundamental principles by the strife of which all life
+is explained. In political philosophy (the <i>Civitas Solis</i>) he
+sketches an ideal communism, obviously derived from the Platonic,
+based on community of wives and property with state-control
+of population and universal military training. In every detail
+of life the citizen is to be under authority, and the authority
+of the administrators is to be based on the degree of knowledge
+possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial organism
+for the promotion of individual and collective good. In contrast to
+More&rsquo;s <i>Utopia</i>, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking in
+practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity
+in the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to
+whether this system was a philosophic dream, or a serious
+attempt to sketch a constitution for Naples in the event of her
+becoming a free city. The <i>De Monarchia Hispanica</i> contains
+an able account of contemporary politics especially Spanish.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic
+thinker, is among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern
+empirical science, and on the other of Descartes and Spinoza.
+Yet his fondness for the antithesis of Being and Not-being
+(<i>Ens</i> and <i>Non-ens</i>) shows that he had not shaken off
+the spirit of scholastic thought.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For his works see Quétif-Echard, appendix to
+E.S. Cypriano, <i>Vita Campanellae</i> (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722);
+Al. d&rsquo;Ancona&rsquo;s edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854).
+The most important are <i>De sensu rerum</i> (1620);
+<i>Realis philosophiae epilogisticae partes IV.</i>
+(with <i>Civitas Solis</i>) (1623);
+<i>Atheismus triumphatus</i> (1631);
+<i>Philos. rationalis</i> (1637);
+<i>Philos. universalis seu metaph.</i> (1637);
+<i>De Monarchia Hispanica</i> (1640).  For his life, see Cypriano
+(above); M. Baldachini, <i>Vita e filos. di Tommaso Campanella</i>
+(Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, <i>Lettere inedite
+di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti</i> (1878);
+and <i>Nuovi documenti di T.C.</i> (1881); and especially
+L. Amabile, <i>Fra T. Campanella</i> (3 vols., Naples, 1882).
+For his philosophy H. Ritter, <i>History of Philos.</i>; M. Carrière,
+<i>Philos. Weltanschauung d. Reformationszeit</i>, pp. 542-608;
+C. Dareste, <i>Th. Morus et Campanella</i> (Paris, 1843);
+Chr. Sigwart, <i>Kleine Schriften</i>, i. 125 seq.;
+and histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda,
+<i>Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica
+di fronte al socialismo moderno</i> (Nocera Inferiore, 1895).
+His poems, first published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered
+and printed again (1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered
+into English verse by J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography
+see <i>Dict. de théol. cath.</i>, col. 1446 (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPANIA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a territorial division of Italy. The modern
+district (II. below) is of much greater extent than that known
+by the name in ancient times.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Campani</i> was the name used by the Romans to denote the
+inhabitants first of the town of Capua and the district subject to
+it, and then after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>),
+to describe the inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally.
+The name, however, is pre-Roman and appears with Oscan
+terminations on coins of the early 4th (or late 5th) century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+(R.S. Conway, <i>Italic Dialects</i>, p. 143), which were certainly
+struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of Campania, whom the
+name properly denotes, a branch of the great Sabelline stock
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sabini</a></span>); but in what precise spot the coins were minted is
+uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the
+Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in
+the last quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded
+appearance being at the conquest of their chief town Capua,
+probably in 438 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> (or 445, according to the method adopted in
+interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on this see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cumae</a></span>), or 424
+according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was taken by them in 428 or
+421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite language they
+spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all Campania
+except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans
+remained here and there for at least another century (Conway,
+op. cit. p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took
+over not merely the wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their
+customs; the haughtiness and luxury of the men of Capua was
+proverbial at Rome. This town became the ally of Rome in 338 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+(Livy viii. 14) and received the <i>civitas sine suffragio</i>, the
+highest status that could be granted to a community which did
+not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was
+completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories
+(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent
+in alliance with Rome. These towns were faithful to
+Rome throughout the Hannibalic war. But Capua and the
+towns dependent on it revolted (Livy xxiii.-xxvi.); after its
+capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and the jealousy
+and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both finally
+appeased (cf. Cicero. <i>Leg. Agrar.</i> ii. 88). We have between
+thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating,
+probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway,
+<i>Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to
+the curious cult described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jovilae</a></span>, while two or three
+are curses written on lead; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osca Lingua</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, <i>Campanien</i>
+(2nd ed.), c. &ldquo;Capua&rdquo;; Th. Mommsen, <i>C.I.L.</i> x. p. 365.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div>
+
+<p>The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from
+Campani (see above), and did not come into common use until the
+middle of the 1st century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> Polybius and Diodorus avoid it
+entirely. Varro and Livy use it sparingly, preferring <i>Campanus
+ager</i>. Polybius (2nd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) uses the phrase <span class="grk" title="ta pedia
+ta kata Kapuen">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#922;&#945;&#960;&#973;&#951;&#957;</span>  to express the district bounded on the north by the
+mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the Apennines of
+Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which
+ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by
+the sea, and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy.
+But the geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division
+of Italy Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried
+the north boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and
+even the river Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village
+of San Pietro in Fine preserves the memory of the north-east
+boundary which ran between Venafrum and Casinum. On the east
+the valley of the Volturnus and the foot-hills of the Apennines
+as far as Abellinum formed the boundary; this town is
+sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to
+Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the
+time of Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended
+much farther north, and included the whole of Latium. This district
+was governed by a <i>corrector</i>, who about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 333 received
+the title of <i>consularis</i>. It is for this reason that the district
+round Rome still bears the name of Campagna di Roma, being no doubt
+popularly connected with Ital. <i>campo</i>, Lat. <i>campus</i>. This
+district (to take its earlier extent), consisting mainly of a very
+fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south, and the sea on
+the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the Liris and
+Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right down
+to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is
+comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is
+the main plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the
+central Apennines, and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus,
+Sebethus, Savo, belong entirely to Campania.</p>
+
+<p>The road system of Campania was extremely well developed
+and touched all the important towns. The main lines are
+followed (though less completely) by the modern railways. The
+most important road centre of Campania was Capua, at the east
+edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to the north-west, was the
+only bridge over the Volturnus until the construction of the Via
+Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing through
+Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the
+Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum
+and Cales. At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia
+began to turn east and to approach the mountains on its way to
+Beneventum, while the Via Popillia went straight on to Nola
+(whence a road ran to Abella and Abellinum) and thence to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span>
+Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating at Regium. From
+Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia and Telesia,
+while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up ancient
+warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae,
+Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae,
+Puteoli and Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella
+and Neapolis. Neapolis could also be reached by a branch from
+the Via Popillia at Suessula, which passed through Acerrae.
+From Suessula, too, there was a short cut to the Via Appia before
+it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian further improved
+the communications of this district with Rome, by the construction
+of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at
+Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river
+Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must
+have been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along
+the shore, past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here
+it fell into the existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana
+over the hills, at the back, and the newer, dating from the time
+of Agrippa, through the tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast.
+The mileage in both cases was reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond
+Naples a road led along the coast through Herculaneum to
+Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and Surrentum,
+and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From
+Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran
+to Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but
+outside the limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to
+Abellinum and thence to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum
+was another important centre: it lay at the point where the Via
+Latina was crossed at right angles by a road leaving the Via Appia
+at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca, while east of
+Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road from
+Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched
+off to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and
+rejoined it near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed,
+probable that the original road made the detour by Venafrum,
+in order to give a direct communication between Rome and the
+interior of Samnium (inasmuch as roads ran from Venafrum to
+Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae), and Th. Mommsen
+(<i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies the antiquity
+of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo), though it is
+shown in Kiepert&rsquo;s map at the end of the volume, with a milestone
+numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing
+and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the
+road to Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short
+cut was not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century
+coins of Telesia, Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian
+type.</p>
+
+<p>Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most
+important from the commercial point of view. Its period of
+greatest comparative importance was the 2nd-1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+The harbours constructed by Augustus by connecting the Lacus
+Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the sea, and that at Misenum
+(the latter the station of one of the chief divisions of the Roman
+navy, the other fleet being stationed at Ravenna), were mainly
+naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but was less
+important than Puteoli.</p>
+
+<p>The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as
+in modern times;<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the best portion was the Campi Laborini or
+Leborini (called Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in
+modern times, though the name has now extended to the whole
+province of Caserta) between the roads from Capua to Puteoli and
+Cumae (Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i> xviii. III). The loose black volcanic
+earth (<i>terra pulla</i>) was easier to work than the stiffer Roman soil,
+and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt, wheat and millet
+are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables; and the
+roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the
+Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the
+east and south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other
+districts also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited
+to the slopes than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.</p>
+
+<p>The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania
+(Pompeii, Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but
+at some date soon after that Latin became general, except in
+Neapolis, where Greek was the official language during the whole
+of the imperial period.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Beloch, <i>Campanien</i> (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway,
+<i>Italic Dialects</i>, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>,
+iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably
+larger area than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the <i>compartimento</i>
+of Campania belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento,
+Naples, Avellino and Salerno.</p>
+
+<p>It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila
+(Abruzzi) and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of
+Foggia (Apulia), on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and
+on the south and west by the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289
+sq. m. It thus includes the whole of the ancient Campania, a
+considerable portion of Samnium (with a part of the main chain
+of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of <i>Latium adjectum</i>,
+consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part of which
+lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the extraordinarily
+fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro,
+with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains
+and the sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc.
+Liris), which rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno
+(94 m. in length), with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which
+rises near Sarno and waters the fertile plain south-east of
+Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose main tributary is the Tanagro,
+which is in turn largely fed by another Calore. The headwaters
+of the Sele have been tapped for the great aqueduct for the
+Apulian provinces.</p>
+
+<p>The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of
+Fondi with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient <i>Ager
+Caecubus</i>), renowned for its wine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fondi</a></span>). The mountains
+(of the ancient Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the
+east side of the extreme promontory to the south-east is the port
+of Gaeta, a strongly fortified naval station. The east side of
+the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the marshes at the mouth of the
+Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its unhealthy lagoons,
+continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico, which reaches
+the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as far
+as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct
+craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &amp;c.) to the west of
+Naples, which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of
+Naples. Here the scenery completely changes: the Bay of
+Naples, indeed, is one of the most beautiful in the world. The
+island of Procida lies 2½ m. south-west of the Capo Miseno, and
+3 m. south-west of Procida is that of Ischia. In consequence
+of the volcanic character of the district there are several important
+mineral springs which are used medicinally, especially at
+Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of Ischia.</p>
+
+<p>Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy
+in the 1st century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, is now mainly noticeable for the large
+armour-plate and gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the
+volcanic earth (<i>pozzolana</i>) which forms so important an element
+in concrete and cement, and is largely quarried near Rome also.
+Naples, on the other hand, is one of the most important harbours
+of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata
+at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports for smaller
+vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is manufactured
+extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare
+di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval
+shipbuilding yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare
+the promontory of Sorrento, ending in the Punta della
+Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m. south-west) forms the
+south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest point of this
+mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine
+chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east
+as Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the
+low marshy ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno,
+malaria is very prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf
+of Salerno is formed by another mountain group, culminating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span>
+in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.); and on the east side of this
+is the Gulf of Policastro, where the province of Salerno, and with
+it Campania, borders, on the province of Potenza.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of
+the province of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes,
+the chief towns being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua
+Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni (20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844);
+that of the province of Benevento was 256,504, with 73 communes,
+the only important town being Benevento itself (24,647); that of
+the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69 communes, the most
+important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del Greco (33,299),
+Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata (28,143),
+Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino (Principato
+Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425, with
+128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and
+Ariano di Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno
+(Principato Citeriore) 564,328, with 158 communes, the chief
+towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera
+Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief railway centre: a main
+line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence there is a
+branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to
+Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on
+the line between  Sulmona and  Campobasso or Benevento),
+Sparanise (branch to Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples.
+From Caserta, indeed, there are two independent lines to Naples,
+while a main line runs to Benevento and Foggia across the
+Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to Vinchiaturo
+(for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From
+Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples,
+branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato,
+San Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to
+Caserta (and thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local
+lines to Pozzuoli and Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to
+Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the other via Pompeii, which together
+make up the circum-Vesuvian electric line, and were in connexion
+with the railway to the top of Vesuvius until its destruction in
+April 1906. The main line for southern Italy passes through
+Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and
+Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for
+Mercato San Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one
+line going east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro),
+Potenza and Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line
+along the east coast of Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east
+along the west coast of Calabria to Reggio.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli
+and the towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia
+(including the latter) on the north-east shores of the Bay of
+Naples. The native peasant industries are (besides agriculture,
+for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>) the manufacture of pottery and weaving
+with small hand-looms, both of which are being swept away by
+the introduction of machinery; but a government school of
+textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement of
+the trade.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name Osci&mdash;earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Opikoi">&#908;&#960;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>)&mdash;presumably
+meant &ldquo;tillers of the soil.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> Italian mechanician and
+natural philosopher of the 17th century, was born at Spoleto.
+He held a curacy at Rome in 1661, but devoted himself principally
+to scientific pursuits. As an optician he is chiefly celebrated
+for the manufacture of the large object-glasses with which
+G.D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn&rsquo;s satellites, and for an
+attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-glass;
+and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated
+dial-plate, and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt
+to correct the irregularities of the pendulum which arise from
+variations of temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work
+on horology, and on the manufacture of lenses for telescopes.
+His younger brother Giuseppe was also an ingenious optician
+(indeed the attempt to correct chromatic aberration has been
+ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is, besides, noteworthy
+as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by the
+aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter,
+the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio
+Divini.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPANILE,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> the bell tower attached to the churches and
+town-halls in Italy (from <i>campana</i>, a bell). Bells are supposed
+to have been first used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope
+Sabinian (604), the immediate successor to St Gregory; and
+their use by the municipalities came with the rights granted by
+kings and emperors to the citizens to enclose their towns with
+fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a great bell. It is to
+the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that we are indebted
+for the introduction and development of the campanile, which,
+when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature
+peculiar to Christian architecture&mdash;Christians alone making use
+of the bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The
+campanile of Italy serves the same purpose as the tower or
+steeple of the churches in the north and west of Europe, but
+differs from it in design and position with regard to the body of
+the church. It is almost always detached from the church, or
+at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a rule also
+there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few
+exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara;
+S. Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the
+churches in south Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely
+from the northern type; it never has buttresses, is very tall and
+thin in proportion to its height, and as a rule rises abruptly from
+the ground without base or plinth mouldings undiminished to
+the summit; it is usually divided by string-courses into storeys
+of nearly equal height, and in north and central Italy the wall
+surface is decorated with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel
+strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an octagonal
+turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and Modena
+cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and dimensions
+as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a lightness
+to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits
+only, impart solidity to the whole composition.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S.
+Apollinare in Classe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basilica</a></span>, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare
+Nuovo at Ravenna, dating from the 6th century. They are circular,
+of considerable height, and probably were erected as watch
+towers or depositories for the treasures of the church. The next
+in order are those in Rome, of which there are a very large
+number in existence, dating from the 8th to the 11th century.
+These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part
+quite plain till well above the church to which they are attached.
+Above this they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried
+on stone corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the
+lower storeys with blind arcades and the upper storeys with
+open arcades. The earliest on record was one connected with St
+Peter&rsquo;s, to the atrium of which, in the middle of the 8th century,
+a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added. One of the finest is
+that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th or 9th century.
+In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient columns of
+the Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The tower
+is 120 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the four
+upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second
+from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number,
+are recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their
+length equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a
+mid-wall shaft. This type of arcade or window is found in early
+German work, except that, as a rule, there is a capital under
+the impost block. Rome is probably the source from which the
+Saxon windows were derived, the example in Worth church being
+identically the same as those in the Roman campanili. In the
+campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each storey,
+each divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS.
+Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana,
+S. Croce in Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia,
+S. Pudenziana, S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in
+Capite, are characteristic examples. On some of the towers are
+encrusted plaques of marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed
+in a tile or moulded brick border; sometimes these plaques are
+in majolica with Byzantine patterns.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:918px" src="images/img125a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Alinari.</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:990px" src="images/img125b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Brogi.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Campanile of St Mark&rsquo;s, Venice.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another
+type, the north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span>
+decorated with vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and
+horizontal arcaded corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the
+campanile of S. Satiro at Milan is in perfect preservation; it
+is divided into four storeys by arched corbel tables, the upper
+storey having a similar arcade with mid-wall shaft to those in
+Rome. One of the most notable examples in north Italy is the
+campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense height and
+has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall
+face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally
+with arcaded corbel tables,&mdash;this campanile, the two towers of
+S. Antonio, Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal
+plan, being among the few which are thus terminated. In the
+campanile at Torcello we find an entirely different treatment:
+doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide each face into two lofty
+blind arcades rising from the ground to the belfry storey, over
+100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the upper or belfry
+storey having an arcade of four arches on each front. This is the
+type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where there
+are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark&rsquo;s was of similar
+design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower
+portion, built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but
+not completed till the middle of the 12th century. In 1510 a
+belfry storey was added with an open arcade of four arches on
+each face, and slightly set back from the face of the tower above
+was a mass of masonry with pyramidal roof, the total height
+being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole structure
+collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in
+1510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part,
+would seem to have been the principal contributors to this
+disaster, as the pile foundations were found to
+be in excellent condition.</p>
+
+<p>In central Italy the two early campanili at Lucca
+return to the Lombard type of the north, with
+pilaster strips and arcaded corbel strings, and the
+same is found in S. Francesco (Assisi), S. Frediano
+(Lucca), S. Pietro-in-Grado and S. Michele-in-Orticaia
+(Pisa), and S. Maria-Novella (Florence).
+The campanile of S. Niccola, Pisa, is octagonal on
+plan, with a lofty blind arcade on each face like
+those in Venice, but with a single string-course halfway
+up. The gallery above is an open eaves
+gallery like those in north Italy.</p>
+
+<p>In southern Italy the design of the campanile
+varies again. In the two more important examples
+at Bari and Molfetta, there are two towers in each case
+attached to the east end of the cathedrals. The
+campanili are in plain masonry, the storeys being
+suggested only by blind arches or windows, there
+being neither pilaster strips nor string-courses.
+The same treatment is found at Barletta and
+Caserta Vecchia; in the latter the upper storey has
+been made octagonal with circular turrets at each
+angle, and this type of design is followed at
+Amalfi, the centre portion being circular instead of
+octagonal and raised much higher. In Palermo the
+campanile of the Martorana,
+of which the two lower storeys, decorated with three concentric
+blind pointed arches on each face, probably date from the
+Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the two upper storeys.
+The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral have
+similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group
+well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two
+towers of the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble
+those of Bari and Molfetta as regards their treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of
+Siena and Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that
+they owe their decoration to the alternating courses of black
+and white marble. Of this type by far the most remarkable so
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+far as its marble decoration is concerned is Giotto&rsquo;s campanile at
+Florence, built in 1334. It measures 275 ft. high, 45 ft. square,
+and is encased in black, white and red marble, with occasional
+sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized by octagonal
+projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled that of
+the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three
+upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side
+in the two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the
+belfry stage. A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure,
+above which a spire was projected by Giotto, but never carried out.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:1083px" src="images/img126a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Alinari.</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Giotto&rsquo;s Campanile, Florence.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 387px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:1006px" src="images/img126b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From a photograph by Alinari.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Campanile of the Palazzo del Signore, Verona.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft.
+high. Though built in the second half of the 13th century, and
+showing therefore Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the
+belfry and two storeys below, and the substitution of the pointed
+for the semicircular arch of the arcaded corbel string-courses, it
+follows the Lombard type in its general design, and the same is
+found in the campanile of S. Andrea, Mantua. In the 16th
+century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned with a
+conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some
+of the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these
+leaning towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at
+Bologna form conspicuous objects in the town; the two
+more remarkable examples are the campanile of S. Martino
+at Este, of early Lombard type, and the leaning tower at
+Pisa, which was built by the citizens in 1174 to rival that of
+Venice. The Pisa tower is circular on plan, about 51 ft. in
+diameter and 172 ft. high. Not including the belfry storey,
+which is set back on the inner wall, it is divided into seven
+storeys all surrounded with an open gallery or arcade.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate I. fig. 62.) Owing to the sinking
+of the piles on the south side, the inclination was already
+noticed when the tower was about 30 ft. high, and slight
+additions in the height of the masonry on that side were
+introduced to correct the level, but without result, so that
+the works were stopped for many years and taken up
+again in 1234 under the direction of William of Innsbruck;
+he also attempted to rectify the levels by increasing
+the height of the masonry on the south side. At a
+later period the belfry storey was added. The inclination now
+approaches 14 ft. out of the perpendicular. The outside is built
+entirely in white marble and is of admirable workmanship, but
+it is a question whether the equal subdivision of the several
+storeys is not rather monotonous. The campanili of the churches
+of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both in Pisa, are also
+inclined to a slight extent.</p>
+
+<p>The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches,
+but there are others belonging to civic buildings some of which
+are of great importance. The campanile of the town hall of
+Siena rises to an enormous height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft.
+wide; it is built in brick and crowned with a battlemented
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+parapet carried on machicolation corbels, 16 ft. high, all in stone,
+and a belfry storey above set back behind the face of the tower.
+The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is similarly
+crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced
+in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example
+is the fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4,
+the lower portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone
+and above entirely in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft.,
+and pierced with putlog holes only. The belfry window on each
+face is divided into three lights with coupled shafts. An octagonal
+tower of two storeys rises above the corbelled eaves.</p>
+
+<p>In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general
+proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself
+easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were
+adhered to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei
+Greci. In that of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio
+returned to the simple brickwork of Verona, crowned with a
+belfry storey in stone, with angle pilasters and columns of the
+Corinthian order in antis, and central turret with spire above.
+In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins are either
+decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters, with
+or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a
+belfry storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of
+their greater projection present a fine effect.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPANULA<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants
+containing about 230 species, found in the temperate parts
+of the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the Mediterranean region.
+The name is taken from the bell-shaped flower. The plants
+are perennial, rarely annual or biennial, herbs with spikes or
+racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several are native in
+Britain; <i>Campanula rotundifolia</i> is the harebell (<i>q.v.</i>) or
+Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,&mdash;the delicate
+slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers;
+<i>C. Rapunculus,</i> rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a
+panicle of broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and
+occurs on gravelly roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It
+is cultivated, but not extensively, for its fleshy roots, which
+are used, either boiled or raw, as salad. Many of the species
+are grown in gardens for their elegant flowers; the dwarf forms
+are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or fronts of borders.
+<i>C. Medium</i>, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple and white
+flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there
+are numerous varieties. <i>C. persicifolia</i>, a perennial with more
+open flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous
+forms, including white and blue-flowered and single and double.
+<i>C. glomerata</i>, which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on
+the stems and branches, found native in Britain in chalky and dry
+pastures, is known in numerous varieties as a border plant.
+<i>C. pyramidalis</i>, with numerous flowers forming a tall pyramidal
+inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are also a number of
+alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as <i>C. alpina, caucasica,
+caespitosa</i> and others. The plants are easily cultivated.
+The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by young
+cuttings in spring, or by seeds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1788-1866), American religious
+leader, was born near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the
+12th of September 1788, and was the son of Thomas Campbell
+(1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman of the Presbyterian
+&ldquo;Seceders.&rdquo; Alexander in 1809, after a year at Glasgow
+University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania,
+where the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association
+of Washington, &ldquo;for the sole purpose of promoting simple
+evangelical Christianity.&rdquo; With his father&rsquo;s desire for Church
+unity the son agreed. He began to preach in 1810, refusing any
+salary; in 1811 he settled in what is now Bethany, West
+Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run Church, as the
+Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging baptism
+by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his
+father&rsquo;s place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (<i>q.v.</i>, popularly
+called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed
+momentarily to approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists,
+but by his statement, &ldquo;I will be baptized only into the primitive
+Christian faith,&rdquo; by his iconoclastic preaching and his editorial
+conduct of <i>The Christian Baptist</i> (1823-1830), and by the tone
+of his able debates with Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the
+disfavour of the Redstone Association of Baptist churches in
+western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his followers transferred
+their membership to the Mahoning Association of Baptist
+churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the
+Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to
+the Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery
+neighbours, now established <i>The Millennial Harbinger</i>
+(1830-1865), in which, on Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation,
+but which he used principally to preach the imminent Second
+Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in which year he died,
+on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia, having been for
+twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He travelled,
+lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in
+England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian
+champions, with Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert
+Owen; and edited a revision of the New Testament.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Thomas W. Grafton&rsquo;s <i>Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great
+Reformation of the Nineteenth Century</i> (St Louis, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Mrs <span class="sc">Patrick Campbell</span>)
+(1865-&emsp;&emsp;), English actress, was born in London, her maiden
+name being Tanner, and in 1884 married Captain Patrick
+Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the provincial
+stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre, London,
+in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero&rsquo;s <i>Second
+Mrs Tanqueray</i> at the St James&rsquo;s, her remarkable impersonation
+at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For
+some years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London,
+playing notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson&rsquo;s <i>For the
+Crown,</i> and in <i>Macbeth</i>; and her <i>Magda</i> (Royalty, 1900)
+could hold its own with either Bernhardt or Duse. In later
+years she paid successful visits to America, but in England
+played chiefly on provincial tours.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, GEORGE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was
+born at Aberdeen on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the
+Rev. Colin Campbell, one of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of
+George Campbell of Westhall, who claimed to belong to the Argyll
+branch of the family, died in 1728, leaving a widow and six
+children in somewhat straitened circumstances. George, the
+youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and after
+attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes
+at Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an
+apprentice to a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he
+attended the theological lectures, and when the term of his
+apprenticeship expired, he was enrolled as a regular student in
+the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a distinguished career he was,
+in 1746, licensed to preach by the presbytery of Aberdeen. From
+1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory Ternan, a parish on the
+Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then transferred to Aberdeen,
+which was at the time a centre of considerable intellectual
+activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King&rsquo;s
+College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid&rsquo;s predecessor, held the
+chair of medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor
+of divinity at Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie
+(1735-1803) became professor of moral philosophy in the same
+college. These men, with others of less note, formed themselves in
+1758 into a society for the discussions of questions in philosophy.
+Reid was its first secretary, and Campbell one of its founders.
+It lasted till about 1773, and during this period numerous papers
+were read, particularly those by Reid and Campbell, which were
+afterwards expanded and published.</p>
+
+<p>In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In
+1763 he published his celebrated <i>Dissertation on Miracles</i>, in
+which he seeks to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are
+capable of proof by testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity
+are sufficiently attested. There is no contradiction, he argues,
+as Hume said there was, between what we know by testimony and
+the evidence upon which a law of nature is based; they are of
+a different description indeed, but we can without inconsistency
+believe that both are true. The <i>Dissertation</i> is not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was
+and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In
+1771 Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal
+College, and resigned his city charge, although he still preached
+as minister of Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His
+<i>Philosophy of Rhetoric</i>, planned at Banchory Ternan years before,
+appeared in 1776, and at once took a high place among books on
+the subject. In 1778 his last and in some respects his greatest
+work appeared, <i>A New Translation of the Gospels</i>. The critical
+and explanatory notes which accompanied it gave the book a high value.</p>
+
+<p>In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the
+offices he held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he
+received a pension of £300 from the king. He died on the 31st of
+March 1796.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Lectures on Ecclesiastical History</i> were published after his
+death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform
+edition of his works in 6 vols.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the
+legal profession, he was sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an
+attorney; but his tastes soon led him to abandon the study of
+law and to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1736 he
+published the <i>Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke
+of Marlborough</i>, and soon after contributed several important
+articles to the <i>Ancient Universal History</i>. In 1742 and 1744
+appeared the <i>Lives of the British Admirals</i>, in 4 vols., a
+popular work which has been continued by other authors. Besides
+contributing to the <i>Biographia Britannica</i> and Dodsley&rsquo;s
+<i>Preceptor</i>, he published a work on <i>The Present State of
+Europe</i>, onsisting of a series of papers which had appeared in the
+<i>Museum</i>. He also wrote the histories of the Portuguese, Dutch,
+Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend settlements in the East
+Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre
+and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the <i>Modern
+Universal History</i>. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a
+vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying
+in it a descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar
+Islands in the West Indies. By the king he was appointed agent
+for the provinces of Georgia in 1755. His last and most elaborate
+work, <i>Political Survey of Britain</i>, 2 vols. 4to, was published
+in 1744, and greatly increased the author&rsquo;s reputation. Campbell
+died on the 28th of December 1775. He received the honorary
+degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in 1745.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1779-1861), lord
+chancellor of England, the second son of the Rev. George Campbell,
+D.D., was born on the 17th of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife,
+where his father was for fifty years parish minister. For a few
+years Campbell studied at the United College, St Andrews. In
+1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, and, after a
+short connexion with the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, was called to the
+bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at <i>nisi
+prius</i> (<i>i.e.</i> on jury trial). Of these <i>Reports</i> he published
+altogether four volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas
+1807 to Hilary 1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal
+to criminal business, but in spite of his unceasing industry he
+failed to attract much attention behind the bar; he had changed
+his circuit from the home to the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly,
+and it was not till 1827 that he obtained a silk gown and found
+himself in that &ldquo;front rank&rdquo; who are permitted to have political
+aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the borough of Stafford
+in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in 1831. In the
+House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive zeal
+for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense,
+but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however,
+like that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by
+the abolition of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of
+new and striking principles.</p>
+
+<p>Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries
+Abolition Act 1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act
+1833; the Real Property Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act
+1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts 1841; and the Judgments
+Act 1838. All these measures were important and were carefully
+drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a biographical
+notice. The second was called for by the preference which the
+common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the
+half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an
+indefeasible title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term
+shortened by Lord Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth
+reduced the number of witnesses required by law to attest wills,
+and removed the vexatious distinction which existed in this
+respect between freeholds and copyholds; the last freed an
+innocent debtor from imprisonment only before final judgment
+(or on what was termed <i>mesne</i> process), but the principle stated
+by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be imprisoned
+was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in 1869.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land
+Registration (<i>q.v.</i>), which formed the theme of his maiden speech
+in parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His
+most important appearance as member for Stafford was in defence
+of Lord John Russell&rsquo;s first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate
+and learned speech, based on Fox&rsquo;s declaration against constitution-mongering,
+he supported both the enfranchising and the
+disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the cries of &ldquo;corporation
+robbery,&rdquo; &ldquo;nabob representation,&rdquo; &ldquo;opening for young
+men of talent,&rdquo; &amp;c. The following year (1832) found Campbell
+solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he
+represented till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general
+and was returned by Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that
+of a moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church
+and state, and opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot.
+In parliament he continued to lend the most effective help to the
+Liberal party. His speech in 1835 in support of the motion for
+inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities with a view to their
+partial appropriation for national purposes (for disestablishment
+was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much terse argument,
+and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the
+formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell
+had a fierce encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which
+followed the motion of T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle)
+on the repair and maintenance of parochial churches and chapels.
+The legal point in the dispute (which Campbell afterwards made
+the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether the church-wardens
+of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any means
+of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or ecclesiastical
+censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but on the
+broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported
+the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh
+annuity-tax.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action
+(thought by some to be a political conspiracy<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a>) which the Hon.
+G.C. Norton brought against the Whig premier for criminal
+conversation with his wife. At this time also he exerted himself
+for the reform of justice in the ecclesiastical courts, for the
+uniformity of the law of marriage (which he held should be a
+purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners charged with
+felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of <i>The Times</i> newspaper,
+which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the
+duchess of Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly
+remarkable for the Confession&mdash;&ldquo;I despair of any definition of
+libel which shall exclude no publications which ought to be
+suppressed, and include none which ought to be permitted.&rdquo;
+His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the
+bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular
+ground that &ldquo;the vast bulk of the population believe that
+morality depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be
+raised among them that the ten commandments were given by
+God from Mount Sinai, men would think they were at liberty to
+steal, and women would consider themselves absolved from the
+restraints of chastity.&rdquo; But his most distinguished effort at the
+bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House of Commons in
+the famous case of <i>Stockdale v. Hansard</i>, 1837, 7 C. and P. 731.
+The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers,
+a report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated
+that an obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the
+prisoners to read. Stockdale sued the Commons&rsquo; publisher, and
+was met by the plea of parliamentary privilege, to which, however,
+the judges did not give effect, on the ground that they were
+entitled to define the privileges of the Commons, and that publication
+of papers was not essential to the functions of parliament.
+The matter was settled by an act of 1840.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John
+Frost, one of the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town
+of Newport, all of whom were found guilty of high treason. We
+may also mention, as matter of historical interest, the case
+before the high steward and the House of Lords which arose out
+of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the earl of
+Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was
+clear that the &ldquo;punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call
+honour&rdquo; was no excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment
+of everybody, Lord Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of
+felony because the full name of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett
+Phipps Tuckett) was not legally proved. It is difficult to suppose
+that such a blunder was not preconcerted. Campbell himself
+made the extraordinary declaration that to engage in a duel
+which could not be declined without infamy (<i>i.e.</i> social disgrace)
+was &ldquo;an act free from moral turpitude,&rdquo; although the law
+properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne
+administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable
+chancellor of Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to
+resign, and the Whig attorney-general, who had never practised
+in equity, became chancellor of Ireland, and was raised to the
+peerage with the title of Baron Campbell of St Andrews, in the
+county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth Campbell, the eldest
+daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the Campbells of
+Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in
+1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the
+withdrawal of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post
+of chancellor Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then
+resigned it to his successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards).
+The circumstances of his appointment and the erroneous belief
+that he was receiving a pension of £4000 per annum for his few
+days&rsquo; court work brought Campbell much unmerited obloquy.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no legal duty,
+except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish
+appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary
+fame troubled Lord Campbell&rsquo;s leisure.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her
+<i>Lives of the Queens of England</i>, and by Lord Brougham&rsquo;s <i>Lives of
+Eminent Statesmen</i>, he at last produced, in 1849, <i>The Lives of the
+Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from
+the earliest times till the reign of King George IV.</i>, 7 vols. 8vo.
+The conception of this work is magnificent; its execution
+wretched. Intended to evolve a history of jurisprudence from
+the truthful portraits of England&rsquo;s greatest lawyers, it merely
+exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning, without a
+trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a spark of
+that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and
+spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present
+becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A
+charming style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be
+expected from a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly
+be held responsible for the frequent plagiarisms, the still more
+frequent inaccuracies of detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes
+on almost every page, the hasty insinuations against the memory
+of the great departed who were to him as giants, and the petty
+sneers which he condescends to print against his own contemporaries,
+with whom he was living from day to day on terms of
+apparently sincere friendship.</p>
+
+<p>These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke,
+Eldon, Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed
+out by the biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+And yet the book is an invaluable repertory of facts, and must
+endure until it is superseded by something better. It was
+followed by the <i>Lives of the Chief Justices of England, from the
+Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield</i>, 8vo, 2 vols.,
+a book of similar construction but inferior merit.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that during this period the literary
+lawyer was silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently.
+The 3rd volume of the <i>Protests of the Lords</i>, edited by Thorold
+Rogers (1875), contains no less than ten protests by Campbell,
+entered in the years 1842-1845. He protests against Peel&rsquo;s
+Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen Act 1843, as
+conferring undue power on church courts; against the perpetuation
+of diocesan courts for probate and administration;
+against Lord Stanley&rsquo;s absurd bill providing compensation for
+the destruction of fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and
+against the Parliamentary Proceedings Bill, which proposed
+that all bills, except money bills, having reached a certain stage
+or having passed one House, should be continued to next session.
+The last he opposed because the proper remedy lay in resolutions
+and orders of the House. He protests in favour of Lord Monteagle&rsquo;s
+motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn duties;
+of Lord Normanby&rsquo;s motion on the queen&rsquo;s speech in 1843, for
+inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military
+occupation); of Lord Radnor&rsquo;s bill to define the constitutional
+powers of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened
+Mazzini&rsquo;s letters. In 1844 he records a solitary protest against
+the judgment of the House of Lords in <i>R.</i> v. <i>Millis</i>, 1844,
+10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed that a man regularly
+married according to the rites of the Irish Presbyterian Church,
+and afterwards regularly married to another woman by an
+episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of
+bigamy, because the English law required for the validity of a
+marriage that it should be performed by an ordained priest.</p>
+
+<p>On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was
+appointed chief justice of the queen&rsquo;s bench. For this post he
+was well fitted by his knowledge of common law, his habitual
+attention to the pleadings in court and his power of clear statement.
+On the other hand, at <i>nisi prius</i> and on the criminal
+circuit, he was accused of frequently attempting unduly to
+influence juries in their estimate of the credibility of evidence.
+It is also certain that he liked to excite applause in the galleries
+by some platitude about the &ldquo;glorious Revolution&rdquo; or the
+&ldquo;Protestant succession.&rdquo; He assisted in the reforms of special
+pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with
+Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of
+Lords. But he had neither the generous temperament nor the
+breadth of view which is required in the composition of even a
+mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was made lord chancellor of
+Great Britain, probably on the understanding that Bethell
+should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House of
+Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In
+the same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier
+an amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+legal acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+Drocess which runs through the book: &ldquo;If Shakespeare was
+really articled to a Stratford attorney, in all probability, during
+the five years of his clerkship, he visited London several times
+on his master&rsquo;s business, and he may then have been introduced
+to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his countrymen
+connected with that theatre.&rdquo; The only positive piece of
+evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash&rsquo;s &ldquo;Epistle
+to the Gentlemen of the Two Universities,&rdquo; prefixed to Greene&rsquo;s
+<i>Arcadia</i>, 1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to
+be Shakespeare) with having left the &ldquo;trade of Noverint&rdquo; and
+busied himself with &ldquo;whole Hamlets&rdquo; and &ldquo;handfuls of
+tragical speeches.&rdquo; The knowledge of law shown in the plays
+is very much what a universal observer must have picked up.
+Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent
+layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has
+been well said of him in explanation of his success, that he lived
+eighty years and preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had
+a hard head, a splendid constitution, tireless industry, a generally
+judicious temper. He was a learned, though not a scientific
+lawyer, a faithful political adherent, thoroughly honest as a
+judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there was nothing
+admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did his
+principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the
+magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults
+of others. His life was the triumph of steady determination
+unaided by a single brilliant or attractive quality.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his Autobiography,
+Diary and Letters</i>, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881);
+E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i> (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, <i>Select
+Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter</i> (1867);
+E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, <i>The Victorian
+Chancellors</i>, vol. ii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for libel
+to prove <i>veritas</i>, and giving a right of action to the representatives of
+persons killed through negligence, also deserve mention.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Greville in his <i>Memoirs</i> says that Campbell got this post on
+condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the
+bench; a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by
+claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach.
+Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both
+promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of
+it all, and persuaded Lord Grantley to urge it on for mere political
+purposes.&rdquo;&mdash;Greville, iii. 351.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See thereon J.B. Atlay, <i>The Victorian Chancellors</i> (1908), vol. ii.
+p. 174.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In 1842 he published the <i>Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar
+and in the Home of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as
+Lord Chancellor of Ireland</i> (Edin., Black).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to
+its author, &ldquo;and then there is my noble and biographical friend who
+has added a new terror to death.&rdquo; See <i>Misrepresentations in Campbell&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham&rdquo; corrected by St Leonards</i> (London, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic
+scholar, was born on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the
+beautiful Isle of Islay, on the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this
+inheritance he never became possessed, as the estate had to be
+sold by his father, and he began life under greatly changed
+conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh University,
+he occupied at various times several minor government posts.
+His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and
+editing the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from
+the lips of the natives. The results of his investigations were
+published in four volumes under the title <i>Popular Tales of the
+West Highlands</i> (1860-1862), and form a most important contribution
+to the subject, the necessary precursor to the subsequent
+Gaelic revival in Great Britain. Campbell was also
+devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and he invented
+the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British meteorological
+stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1800-1872), Scottish divine,
+son of the Rev. Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyllshire,
+in 1800. Thanks to his father he was already a good
+Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow University in 1811.
+Finishing his course in 1817, he became a student at the Divinity
+Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After
+further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the
+presbytery of Lorne in 1821. In 1825 he was appointed to the
+parish of Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine
+of Assurance of Faith powerfully influenced him. He began to
+give so much prominence to the universality of the Atonement
+that his parishioners went so far as to petition the presbytery in
+1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a subsequent appeal
+in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation followed by an
+accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the charge
+was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching
+heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an
+invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic
+Church, he worked for two years as an evangelist in the Highlands.
+Returning to Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for
+sixteen years in a large chapel erected for him, but he never
+attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he published his famous
+book on <i>The Nature of the Atonement</i>, which has profoundly
+influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim is to
+view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine
+mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God
+and perfect brotherhood towards men. By the light of this
+divine fact the Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally
+and necessarily as an atonement; the penal element in the
+sufferings of Christ is minimized. Subsequent critics have
+pointed out that Campbell&rsquo;s position was not self-consistent in
+the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element in the
+sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the principle
+that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all righteousness
+and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health gave way,
+and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church,
+where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published
+<i>Thoughts on Revelation</i>. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D.
+from Glasgow University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and
+there began his <i>Reminiscences and Reflections</i>, an unfinished
+work published after his death by his son. Campbell was greatly
+loved and esteemed by a circle of friends, which included Thomas
+Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander Ewing, F.D.
+Maurice, D.J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and
+honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried
+great weight. In 1871 a testimonial and address were presented
+to him by representatives of most of the religious bodies in
+Scotland. He died on the 27th of February 1872, and was
+buried in Roseneath churchyard.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, LEWIS<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1830-1908), British classical scholar,
+was born at Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His
+father, Robert Campbell, R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas
+Campbell, the poet. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy,
+and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow and tutor
+of Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford, Hants
+(1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the
+university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected
+an honorary fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by
+his work on Sophocles and Plato. His published works include:
+Sophocles (2nd ed., 1879); Plato, <i>Sophistes</i> and <i>Politicus</i> (1867),
+<i>Theaetetus</i> (2nd ed., 1883), <i>Republic</i> (with Jowett, 1894); <i>Life
+and Letters of Benjamin Jowett</i> (with E. Abbott, 1897), <i>Letters of
+B. Jowett</i> (1899); <i>Life of James Clerk Maxwell</i> (with W. Garnett,
+new ed., 1884); <i>A Guide to Greek Tragedy for English Readers</i> (1891); <i>Religion in Greek Literature</i> (1898); <i>On the Nationalisation
+of the Old English Universities</i> (1901); Verse translations of the
+plays of Aeschylus (1890); Sophocles (1896); <i>Tragic Drama in
+Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare</i> (1904); <i>Paralipomena
+Sophoclea</i> (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1867-&emsp;&emsp;), British Congregationalist
+divine, son of a United Free Methodist minister of
+Scottish descent, was born in London, and educated at schools in
+Bolton and Nottingham, where his father successively removed,
+and in Belfast, the home of his grandfather. At an early age he
+taught in the high school at Ashton, Cheshire, and was already
+married when in 1891 he went to Christchurch, Oxford, where
+he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern history.
+He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a clergyman
+in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of
+Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget
+(afterwards bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Nonconformist
+blood was too strong, and he abandoned the idea in order
+to take up work in the Congregational ministry. He accepted a
+call, on leaving Oxford, to the small Congregational church in
+Union Street, Brighton, and quickly became famous there as a
+preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker&rsquo;s death he was chosen
+as his successor (1903) at the City Temple, London. Here he
+notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one
+of the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end
+of 1906 he attracted widespread attention by his vigorous
+propagation of what was called the &ldquo;New Theology,&rdquo; a restatement
+of Christian beliefs to harmonize with modern critical
+views and beliefs, and published a book with this title which
+gave rise to considerable discussion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL, THOMAS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son
+of Alexander Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span>
+July 1777. His father, who was a cadet of the family of Campbell
+of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged to a Glasgow firm trading in
+Virginia, and lost his money in consequence of the American
+war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and
+university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for
+verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the
+western Highlands. His poem &ldquo;Glenara&rdquo; and the ballad of
+&ldquo;Lord Ullin&rsquo;s Daughter&rdquo; owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In
+May 1797 he went to Edinburgh to attend lectures on law. He
+supported himself by private teaching and by writing, towards
+which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor of the
+<i>British Poets</i>. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were
+Sir Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas
+Brown, John Leyden and James Grahame. To these early
+days in Edinburgh may be referred &ldquo;The Wounded Hussar,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Dirge of Wallace&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Epistle to Three Ladies.&rdquo;
+In 1799, six months after the publication of the <i>Lyrical Ballads</i>
+of Wordsworth and Coleridge, <i>The Pleasures of Hope</i> was published.
+It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his
+time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to
+men&rsquo;s hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland
+and with negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but
+Campbell was deficient in energy and perseverance and did not
+follow it up. He went abroad in June 1800 without any very
+definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg, and made his way to
+Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days after his
+arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his
+best lyrics, &ldquo;Hohenlinden,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ye Mariners of England&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;The Soldier&rsquo;s Dream,&rdquo; belong to his German tour. He spent
+the winter in Altona, where he met an Irish exile, Anthony
+McCann, whose history suggested &ldquo;The Exile of Erin.&rdquo;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+He had at that time the intention of writing an epic on Edinburgh to
+be entitled &ldquo;The Queen of the North.&rdquo; On the outbreak of war
+between Denmark and England he hurried home, the &ldquo;Battle of
+the Baltic&rdquo; being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was
+introduced to the first Lord Minto, who took him in the next
+year to London as occasional secretary. In June 1803 appeared
+a new edition of the <i>Pleasures of Hope</i>,  which some lyrics were
+added.</p>
+
+<p>In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair,
+and settled in London. He was well received in Whig society,
+especially at Holland House. His prospects, however, were
+slight when in 1805 he received a government pension of £200.
+In that year the Campbells removed to Sydenham. Campbell
+was at this time regularly employed on the <i>Star</i> newspaper, for
+which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he published a
+narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, &ldquo;Gertrude of Wyoming,&rdquo;
+with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow and
+fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from over-elaboration.
+Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: &ldquo;Your
+timidity or fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will
+not let you give your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful,
+as they present themselves; but you must chasten, and refine,
+and soften them, forsooth, till half their nature and grandeur is
+chiselled away from them. Believe me, the world will never
+know how truly you are a great and original poet till you venture
+to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your fancy.&rdquo; In
+1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at the
+Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to
+become a candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh
+University. In 1814 he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance
+of the elder Schlegel, of Baron Cuvier and others. His
+pecuniary anxieties were relieved in 1815 by a legacy of £4000.
+He continued to occupy himself with his <i>Specimens of the British
+Poets</i>, the design of which had been projected years before. The
+work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole an
+admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed
+to it an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In
+1820 he accepted the editorship of the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i>,
+and in the same year made another tour in Germany. Four
+years later appeared his &ldquo;Theodric&rdquo;, a not very successful poem
+of domestic life. He took an active share in the foundation of
+the university of London, visiting Berlin to inquire into the
+German system of education, and making recommendations
+which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord
+rector of Glasgow University three times (1826-1829). In the
+last election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell
+retired from the editorship of the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i> in 1830,
+and a year later made an unsuccessful venture with the <i>Metropolitan
+Magazine</i>. He had championed the cause of the Poles
+in <i>The Pleasures of Hope</i>, and the news of the capture of Warsaw
+by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if it had been the deepest
+of personal calamities. &ldquo;Poland preys on my heart night and
+day,&rdquo; he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy found a
+practical expression in the foundation in London of the Association
+of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and
+Algiers, where he wrote his <i>Letters from the South</i> (printed 1837).</p>
+
+<p>The small production of Campbell may be partly explained
+by his domestic calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two
+sons, one died in infancy and the other became insane. His own
+health suffered, and he gradually withdrew from public life.
+He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844, and was buried
+in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Campbell&rsquo;s other works include a <i>Life of Mrs Siddons</i> (1842), and
+a narrative poem, &ldquo;The Pilgrim of Glencoe&rdquo; (1842). See <i>The Life
+and Letters of Thomas Campbell</i> (3 vols., 1849), edited by William
+Beattie, M.D.; <i>Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell</i>
+(1860), by Cyrus Redding; <i>The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell</i>
+(1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev.
+W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet&rsquo;s life by William Allingham;
+and the &ldquo;Oxford Edition&rdquo; of the <i>Complete Works of Thomas Campbell</i>
+(1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also <i>Thomas Campbell</i> in
+the Famous Scots Series, by J.C. Hadden, and a selection by
+Lewis Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned
+to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell&rsquo;s claim is established in <i>Literary
+Remains of the United, Irishmen</i>, by R.R. Madden (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1836-1908), English
+prime minister, was born on the 7th of September 1836, being the
+second son of Sir James Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire,
+lord provost of Glasgow. His elder brother James, who
+just outlived him, was Conservative M.P. for Glasgow and
+Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father and
+his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an
+important drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable
+fortunes; and he assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in
+compliance with the provisions of the will of his maternal uncle,
+Henry Bannerman, from whom he inherited a large property in
+Kent. He was educated at Glasgow University and at Trinity
+College, Cambridge (senior optime, and classical honours); was
+returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal in 1868 (after an
+unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became financial
+secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary
+to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland
+(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause
+of Home Rule for Ireland, he &ldquo;found salvation&rdquo;, to use his own
+phrase, and followed his leader. In Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s 1886 ministry
+he was secretary for war, and filled the same office in the Liberal
+ministry of 1892-1895. In the latter year he was knighted
+(G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister to obtain the duke
+of Cambridge&rsquo;s resignation of the office of commander-in-chief;
+but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff in substitution
+for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the ministry.
+It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and
+therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of
+small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June
+1895 led to the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy,
+popular and possessed of a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T.
+Healy had said that he tried to govern Ireland with Scottish
+jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the general respect of all
+parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel retired, his
+claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but
+his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active
+politics and Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent
+member of the inner Liberal circle and a stanch party man, it
+was not supposed by the public at this time that any ambition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span>
+for the highest place could be associated with Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman;
+but the divisions among the Liberals, and the
+rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made
+the political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he
+was apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined
+with his honourable record and experience to make him a safe
+man; and in December 1898, on Sir W. Harcourt&rsquo;s formal
+resignation of the leadership of the Opposition, he was elected
+to fill the position in the House of Commons with the general
+assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary impotence,
+and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir
+Henry had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted
+his duty as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the
+Radical party together in the midst of its pronounced differences.
+In this he was successful, although the advent of the Boer War
+of 1899-1902 created new difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists.
+The leader of the Opposition from the first denounced the
+diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and Mr Chamberlain,
+and objected to all armed intervention or even preparation for
+hostilities. Sir Henry&rsquo;s own tendency to favour the anti-war
+section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and
+his allusion to &ldquo;methods of barbarism&rdquo; in connexion with the
+conduct of the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the
+crisis within the party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists,
+who looked to Lord Rosebery (<i>q.v.</i>) and Mr Asquith (<i>q.v.</i>) for
+their political inspiration, showed pronounced signs of restiveness.
+But a party meeting was called on the 9th of July, and Sir Henry
+was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.</p>
+
+<p>The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency
+throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The
+political conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the
+first time since 1892. The blunders of the government were open
+to a united attack, and Mr Chamberlain&rsquo;s tariff-reform movement
+in 1903 provided a new rallying point in defence of the existing
+fiscal system. In the Liberal campaign on behalf of free trade
+the real leader, however, was Mr Asquith. Sir Henry&rsquo;s own
+principal contribution to the discussion was rather unfortunate,
+for while insisting on the blessings derived by England from its
+free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical admission
+(at Bolton in 1903) that &ldquo;12,000,000 British citizens were underfed
+and on the verge of hunger.&rdquo; But Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s retirement,
+Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the
+accumulating opposition in the country to the Education Act of
+1902 and to the continued weight of taxation, together with the
+growth of the Labour movement, and the antagonism to the
+introduction of Chinese coolies (1904) into South Africa under
+conditions represented by Radical spokesmen as those of
+&ldquo;slavery,&rdquo; made the political pendulum swing back. A Liberal
+majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at
+by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only
+a question of time (see the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balfour</a></span>, A.J., and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamberlain</a></span>, J.). On the 4th of December 1905 the Unionist
+government resigned, and the king sent for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman,
+who in a few days formed his cabinet. Lord
+Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to
+co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd
+of November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately
+flouted his well-known susceptibilities by once more writing
+Home Rule in large letters on the party programme, and he
+declared at Bodmin that he would &ldquo;never serve under that
+banner.&rdquo; Sir Henry&rsquo;s actual words, which undoubtedly influenced
+the Irish vote, were that he &ldquo;desired to see the effective management
+of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative Irish
+assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered
+to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise
+the Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led
+up to their larger policy.&rdquo; But if Lord Rosebery once more
+separated himself from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen
+in the Liberal League were included in the cabinet, Mr
+Asquith becoming chancellor of the exchequer, Sir Edward Grey
+foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war minister. Other sections
+of the party were strongly represented by Mr John Morley as
+secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at
+Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord
+Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education
+minister (afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as
+president of the Board of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home
+secretary, and Mr John Burns&mdash;a notable rise for a Labour
+leader&mdash;as president of the Local Government Board. Lord
+Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin
+(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen
+(lord lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the
+duchy of Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general),
+Mr L.V. Harcourt (first commissioner of works), and Captain
+John Sinclair (secretary for Scotland) completed the ministry,
+a place of prominence outside the cabinet being found for Mr
+Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the colonies. In 1907
+Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as education
+minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there
+was a decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to
+keep his seat in the Commons.</p>
+
+<p>At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming
+Liberal majority was returned, irrespective of the Labour and
+Nationalist vote, and Sir Henry himself was again elected for
+Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379, the Labour members 51,
+the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157. His premiership
+was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his party; it
+may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime
+ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather
+than that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or
+his commanding personality, nor any positive programme, that
+brought the Liberals back to power, but the country&rsquo;s weariness
+of their predecessors and the successful employment at the
+elections of a number of miscellaneous issues. But as the man
+who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the gap in the days
+of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously criticized by
+the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly marked
+out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance;
+and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the
+demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all
+sections. Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved
+to be a powerful unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous
+party; and though the illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his
+wife (daughter of General Sir Charles Bruce), whom he had married
+in 1860, made his constant attendance in the House of Commons
+impossible, his domestic sorrow excited widespread sympathy
+and appealed afresh to the affection of his political followers.
+This became all the more apparent as his own health failed during
+1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the leadership
+in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the
+premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November,
+when it became clear that his health was not equal to active work,
+four or five months elapsed before the necessary change became a
+<i>fait accompli</i>. Personal affection and political devotion had in
+these two years made him appear indispensable to the party,
+although nobody ever regarded him as in the front line of English
+statesmen so far as originality of ideas or brilliance of debating
+power were concerned. It is not the fortune of many more
+brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character. From
+the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that
+Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would
+before long succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of
+April Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s resignation was formally
+announced. He died on the 22nd of the same month. He had
+spoken in the House of Commons on the 13th of February, but
+since then had been prostrated and unable to transact business,
+his illness dating really from a serious heart attack in the night
+of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the Colston
+banquet.</p>
+
+<p>From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s premiership was chiefly marked by the
+continued controversies remaining from the general election of
+1906,&mdash;tariff reform and free trade, the South African question
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span>
+and the allied Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the
+administration of Ireland, and the amendment of the Education
+Act of 1902 so as to remove its supposed denominational character.
+In his speech at the Albert Hall on the 21st of December 1905 it
+was noticeable that, before the elections, the prime minister laid
+stress on only one subject which could be regarded as part of a
+constructive programme&mdash;the necessity of doing something for
+canals, which was soon shelved to a royal commission. But in
+spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill (1907), the struggles
+over education (Mr Birrell&rsquo;s bill of 1906 being dropped on account
+of the Lords&rsquo; amendments), the rejection by the peers of the
+Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due
+to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation
+Bill (1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be
+a period of bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming
+measures of some moment were carried. A new Small
+Holdings Act (1907) for England was passed; the Trades
+Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades unions from
+the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr Lloyd-George&rsquo;s
+Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906)
+were welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own
+policy; a long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the
+Deceased Wife&rsquo;s Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a
+public trustee, a court of criminal appeal, a system of probation
+for juvenile offenders, and a census of production, were passed in
+1907. Meanwhile, though the Colonial Conference (re-named
+Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a wide difference of
+opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade government
+and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the ministry
+took a decided step&mdash;in the establishment of a self-governing
+constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies&mdash;which,
+for good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane&rsquo;s
+new army scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain.
+In foreign affairs, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for
+delimiting the British and Russian spheres of influence in the
+Middle East laid the foundations of entirely new relations between
+the British and Russian governments. On the other hand, so
+far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal party, Sir
+Henry Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s premiership can only be regarded
+as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a
+conciliator of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator,
+ready to sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his
+following, that he kept the party together, while his colleagues
+went their own ways in their own departments. His own special
+&ldquo;leads&rdquo; were few, owing to the personal reasons given above;
+his declaration at the Queen&rsquo;s Hall, London, early in 1907, in
+favour of drastic land reform, served only to encourage a number
+of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the House of
+Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education Bill
+and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when
+his method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons
+was disclosed in 1907. The House passed by an enormous
+majority a resolution (introduced on June 25) &ldquo;that in order to
+give effect to the will of the people, as expressed by their representatives,
+it is necessary that the power of the other House to alter
+or reject bills passed by this House should be so restricted by law
+as to secure that within the limits of a single parliament the final
+decision of the Commons shall prevail&rdquo;; but the prime minister&rsquo;s
+explanation that statutory provision should be made for two or
+three successive private conferences between the two Houses as
+to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that,
+only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by
+the Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form
+it would become law over their heads, was obviously not what was
+wanted by enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The
+problem still remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a
+&ldquo;law&rdquo; to restrict their own powers. After the passing of this
+resolution the cry against the House of Lords rapidly weakened,
+since it became clear at the by-elections (culminating at Peckham
+in March 1908) that the &ldquo;will of the people&rdquo; was by no means
+unanimously on the side of the bills which had failed to pass.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the
+confidence of the Opposition, who found that they had outlived
+the criticisms of the general election, and both on the question
+of tariff reform and on matters of general politics were again
+holding their own. The failure of the government in Ireland
+(where the only success was Mr Birrell&rsquo;s introduction of the
+Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal divisions as regards
+socialistic legislation, their variance from the views of the self-governing
+colonies on Imperial administration, the admission
+after the general election that the alleged &ldquo;slavery&rdquo; of the
+Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill&rsquo;s phrase,
+a &ldquo;terminological inexactitude,&rdquo; and the introduction of extreme
+measures such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent
+opportunities of electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal
+promises of economy had been largely falsified, the reductions
+in the navy estimates being dangerous in themselves, while the
+income tax still remained at practically the war level. For
+much of all this the prime minister&rsquo;s colleagues were primarily
+responsible; but he himself had given a lead to the anti-militarist
+section by prominently advocating international disarmament,
+and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague
+conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical
+ideal and the general inadequacy of the prime minister&rsquo;s policy
+of pacificism. Sir Henry&rsquo;s rather petulant intolerance of Unionist
+opposition, shown at the opening of the 1906 session in his
+dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour with the words &ldquo;Enough
+of this foolery!&rdquo; gradually gave way before the signs of Unionist
+reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment when
+the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive
+under their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration
+against an Opposition no longer divided and making
+marked headway in the country, and the ministry had to
+be reconstituted under a successor, Mr Asquith, towards
+whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal devotion as
+had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s
+leadership.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPBELTOWN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and
+seaport of Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is
+situated on a fine bay, towards the S.E. extremity of the
+peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of the Mull and 83 m.
+S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad
+monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined
+when the capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial
+of its antiquity has survived, but the finely sculptured granite
+cross standing on a pedestal in the market-place belongs to the
+12th century, and there are ruins of some venerable chapels and
+churches. Through the interest of the Campbells, who are still
+the overlords and from whom it takes its name, it became a
+royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr
+Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the
+churches (one of which occupies the site of a castle of the
+Macdonalds), the town house, the Academy and the Athenaeum.
+The staple industry is whisky distilling, of which the annual
+output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than half for export. The
+port is the head of a fishery district and does a thriving trade.
+Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen manufacturing
+are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity. There are
+three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called
+Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth.
+At its entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar.
+On the Atlantic shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish,
+5 m. distant. Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown
+by a light railway. Near the village of Southend is Machrireoch,
+the duke of Argyll&rsquo;s shooting-lodge, an old structure modernized,
+commanding superb views of the Firth of Clyde and its islands,
+and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood the castle of
+Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the Campbells
+in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647
+General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the
+Macdonalds to be slain after their surrender. Of the ancient
+church founded here by Columba, only the walls remain.
+Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray, Irvine and Oban in
+sending one member (for the &ldquo;Ayr Burghs&rdquo;) to parliament.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1746-1818), German educationist,
+was born at Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied
+theology at the university of Halle, and after acting for some
+time as chaplain at Potsdam, he accepted a post as director of
+studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basedow</a></span>). He
+soon after set up an educational establishment of his own at
+Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one
+of his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble
+health. In 1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of
+education, and purchased the <i>Schulbuchhandlung</i>, which under
+his direction became a most prosperous business. He died in
+1818. His numerous educational works were widely used
+throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the
+<i>Kleine Kinderbibliothek</i> (11th ed., 1815); <i>Robinson der Jüngere</i>
+(59th ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every
+European language; and <i>Sämmtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften</i>,
+37 vols.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPECHE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Campeachy</span>), a southern state of Mexico, comprising
+the western part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded
+N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and
+N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico designated on English
+maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264; (1900)
+86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m.
+The name of the state is derived from its principal forest product,
+<i>palo de campeche</i> (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan,
+consists of a vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations
+in the north, heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts
+in the north adapted to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently
+watered, the rains filtering quickly through the soil.
+In the south, however, there are some large rivers, and the
+forest region is very humid. The climate is hot and unhealthy.
+In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de Términos,
+a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the
+southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood,
+fustic, lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell
+and <i>chicle</i>, the last extracted from the <i>zapote chico</i> trees
+(<i>Achras sapota</i>, L.). Stock-raising engages some attention.
+One railway crosses the state from the capital, Campeche, to
+Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means of transportation
+except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen (pop. in
+1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Términos
+and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest
+products, and owing to its inland water communications with
+the forest areas of the interior is the principal port of the state
+and of Tabasco.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPECHE,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Campeche de Baranda</span>, a fortified city and
+port of Mexico, and capital of a state of the same name, situated
+on the Bay of Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and
+90 m. S.W. of Merida, in lat. 20° 5&prime; N., long. 90° 16&prime; W.
+Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche was one of the three open ports
+of this coast under the Spanish régime, and its walls, general
+plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and comfortable stone
+residences are evidence of the wealth it once possessed. It is
+still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf coast of Mexico.
+It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed large
+profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely
+lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a
+part of Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to
+Laguna de Términos is now the chief shipping port for logwood
+and other forest products, and a considerable part of the trade
+of Campeche has been transferred to Progreso, the port of
+Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow roadstead defended
+by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf 160 ft. long,
+but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie outside
+and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood,
+cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture.
+The principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old
+churches, the town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and
+market. The streets are traversed by tramways, and a railway
+runs north-eastward to Merida. Campeche stands on the site
+of an old native town, of which there are interesting remains in
+the vicinity, and which was first visited by Hernández de
+Córdoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and
+was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678
+and 1685. During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the
+scene of many engagements between the Mexicans and people
+of Yucatan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was
+born at Milan of a noble Bolognese family. At first he followed
+a legal career at Pavia and Bologna, and when in 1499 he took
+his doctorate he was esteemed the most learned canonist in
+Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de&rsquo; Gualtavillani, by
+whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro, born in
+1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista,
+became bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went
+into the church; on account of his services during the rebellion
+of Bologna, he was made by Julius II. auditor of the Rota in
+1511, and sent to Maximilian and to Vienna as nuncio. Raised
+to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on another embassy to
+Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest of San
+Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a
+subsidy from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England
+on the ostensible business of arranging a crusade against the
+Turks. Wolsey, then engaged in beginning his reform of the
+English church, procured that he himself should be joined to
+the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who arrived in
+England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position
+and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio&rsquo;s
+mission failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome,
+where he was received in Consistory on the 28th of November
+1519, with the gift from the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano
+Castellesi (<i>q.v.</i>), who had been deposed, and large gifts of money
+and furniture. He was made protector of England in the
+Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave him the rich see
+of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of Bologna. After
+attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity of
+Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to
+restore peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England
+as co-legate with Wolsey in the matter of Henry&rsquo;s divorce. He
+brought with him a secret document, the Decretal, which defined
+the law and left the legates to decide the question of fact; but
+this important letter was to be shown only to Henry and Wolsey.
+&ldquo;Owing to recent events,&rdquo; that is, the loss of the temporal power,
+Clement was in no way inclined to offend the victorious Charles V.,
+Catherine&rsquo;s nephew, and Campeggio had already received (16th
+of September 1528) distinct instructions &ldquo;not to proceed to
+sentence under any pretext without express commission, but
+protract the matter as long as possible.&rdquo; After using all means
+of persuasion to restore peace between the king and queen,
+Campeggio had to resist the pressure brought upon him to give
+sentence. The legatine court opened at Blackfriars on the 18th
+of June 1529, but the final result was certain. Campeggio could
+not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his only
+escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea
+of the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he
+left England on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had
+been searched at Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had
+been burnt. Returning to Bologna, the cardinal assisted at
+the coronation of Charles V. on the 24th of February 1530, and
+went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was deprived by
+Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was
+finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the
+see of Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament
+(11th of March 1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish
+dominions made ample amends. In 1537 he became cardinal
+bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on the 25th of July 1539.
+His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in Trastevere.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPER, PETER<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist,
+was born at Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was
+educated at the university there, and in 1746 graduated in
+philosophy and medicine. After the death of his father in 1748
+he spent more than a year in England, and then visited Paris,
+Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he
+had been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span>
+and surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in
+1755 he was called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the
+Athenaeum in Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six
+years, and retired to his country house near Franeker, in order
+uninterruptedly to carry on his studies. In 1763, however, he
+accepted the professorship of medicine, surgery and anatomy at
+Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten years. He then
+returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in 1776
+spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned
+as one of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland,
+and the latter years of his life were much occupied with
+political affairs. In 1787 he was nominated to a seat in the
+council of state, and took up his residence at the Hague, where
+he died on the 7th of April 1789.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Camper&rsquo;s works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very
+numerous; the most important of those bearing on comparative
+anatomy were published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title
+<i>Oeuvres de P. Camper qui ont pour objet l&rsquo;histoire naturelle, la
+physiologie, et l&rsquo;anatomie comparée</i>. His <i>Dissertation physique sur
+les différences réelles que présentent les traits du visage chez les hommes
+de différents pays et de différents âges; sur le beau qui caractérise
+les statues antiques et les pièces gravées</i>, &amp;c., which was published in
+1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial
+angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1812-1896), Prussian statesman,
+was born at Hünshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of
+October 1812. Having studied jurisprudence and political
+economy at the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg, Munich and
+Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne, and immediately
+devoted his attention to financial and commercial questions.
+Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this
+capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor
+in the ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of
+the second chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate
+Liberal party. In 1869 he was appointed minister of finance.
+On taking office, he was confronted with a deficit in the revenue,
+which he successfully cleared off by effecting a conversion of a
+greater part of the state loans. The French war indemnity
+enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the state debt
+and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm
+adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either
+of the Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism
+to the tobacco monopoly and the general economic policy of
+the latter brought about his retirement. Camphausen&rsquo;s great
+services to Prussia were recognized by his sovereign in the
+bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a dignity
+carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the
+18th of May 1896.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1818-1885), German painter,
+was born at Düsseldorf, and studied under A. Rethel and F.W.
+von Schadow. As an historical and battle painter he rapidly
+became popular, and in 1859 was made professor of painting
+at the Düsseldorf academy, together with other later distinctions.
+His &ldquo;Flight of Tilly&rdquo; (1841), &ldquo;Prince Eugene at the Battle of
+Belgrade&rdquo; (1843; in the Cologne museum), &ldquo;Flight of Charles II.
+after the Battle of Worcester&rdquo; (Berlin National Gallery),
+&ldquo;Cromwell&rsquo;s Cavalry&rdquo; (Munich Pinakothek), are his principal
+earlier pictures; and his &ldquo;Frederick the Great at Potsdam,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Frederick II. and the Bayreuth Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg,&rdquo;
+and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein campaign and the war of
+1866 (notably &ldquo;Lines of Düppel after the Battle,&rdquo; at the Berlin
+National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as a representative
+of patriotic historical art. He also painted many portraits
+of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He
+died at Düsseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPHORS,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and
+ketones of the hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring
+associated with volatile oils in many plants. They are extracted
+together with volatile oils by distilling certain plants with steam,
+the volatile oils being subsequently separated by fractional
+distillation. The term &ldquo;camphor&rdquo; is generally applied to the
+solid products so obtained, and hence includes the &ldquo;stearoptenes,&rdquo;
+or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are mostly
+white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they
+are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol
+and ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two
+main groups, according to the nature of the corresponding
+hydrocarbon or terpene. In this article only the camphors of
+commercial importance will be treated; details as to the chemical
+structure, syntheses and relations will be found in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terpenes</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor</i>, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">19</span>OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl
+hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs
+in the volatile oils of <i>Mentha piperita</i> and <i>M. arvensis</i> (var.
+<i>piperascens</i> and <i>glabrata</i>), from which it is obtained by cooling
+and subsequently pressing the separated crystals; or by fractional
+distillation. It crystallizes in prisms, having the odour
+and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42° and boils at 212°. It is
+very slightly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol
+and ether. It is optically active, being laevo-rotatory. Menthol
+is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in rheumatism, neuralgia,
+throat affections and toothache. It acts also as a local anaesthetic,
+vascular stimulant and disinfectant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thymol, thyme camphor</i>, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">13</span>OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl
+phenol, an oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan,
+<i>Carum ajowan</i>, garden thyme, <i>Thymus vulgaris</i>, wild thyme,
+<i>T. Serpyllum</i> and horse mint, <i>Monarda punctata</i>. Thymol
+crystallizes in large colourless plates which melt at 44° and boil
+at 230°. It has the odour of thyme, is sparingly soluble in water,
+but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in alkaline solutions. In
+medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more active than
+phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol, which
+has been introduced in surgery under the names <i>aristol</i> and
+<i>annidalin</i>, as a substitute for iodoform.</p>
+
+<p><i>Borneol, Borneo camphor</i> or camphol, also known as Malayan,
+Barus or Dryobalanops camphor, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">17</span>OH, occurs in fissures in
+the wood of <i>Dryobalanops aromatica</i>, a majestic tree flourishing
+in the East Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo
+and inactive modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic
+camphor. Borneol melts at 203° and boils at 212°. It is very
+similar to common or Japan camphor, but has a somewhat
+peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce common camphor
+to a mixture of <i>d</i>- and <i>l</i>-borneol.</p>
+
+<p><i>Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor</i>, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O, which
+constitutes the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product
+of the camphor laurel, <i>Cinnamonum camphora</i>, a tree flourishing
+in Japan, Formosa and central China. It also occurs in various
+volatile oils, <i>e.g.</i> lavender, rosemary, sage and spike. To extract
+the camphor, chips of the tree are steamed, and the mixed
+vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are conducted to a
+condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates out.
+This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total,
+which is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation
+and cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained
+is exported from Japan in two grades&mdash;Samuel A and Samuel B.
+It is purified by mixing with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings
+or quicklime and subliming, by steam distillation or by crystallization.
+Common camphor forms a translucent mass of hexagonal
+prisms, melting at 175° and boiling at 204°. It sublimes very
+readily. In alcoholic solution it is dextro-rotatory; the laevo
+form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil of <i>Matricaria parthenium</i>
+and closely resembles the <i>d</i> form. Camphor is chiefly used
+in the celluloid industry. The so-called &ldquo;artificial camphor&rdquo;
+is pinene hydrochloride (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Terpenes</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant,
+and, in some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite
+antiseptic. It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the
+relief of myalgia, sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform,
+thymol or carbolic acid, it is a valuable local application
+for neuralgia and for toothache due to dental caries. Taken
+internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a diaphoretic and a
+feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as various
+substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg).
+In large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration
+being followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions,
+coma and death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span>
+in such conditions as diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is
+a popular remedy for &ldquo;cold in the head,&rdquo; but it is not to be
+relied upon as a prophylactic against infection either by an
+ordinary cold or true influenza.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1586-1627), Dutch
+painter, poet and theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum.
+As he manifested great artistic talent, his brother, in whose
+charge he was left on the death of his parents, placed him under
+the painter Govaerts. But at that time there was intense
+interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the prevailing
+enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a private
+tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616).
+As, however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with
+fervour, he was deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619).
+His chief solace was poetry; and he has left a translation of the
+Psalms, and a number of short pieces, remarkable for their freshness
+and depth of poetic feeling. He is also the author of several
+theological works of fair merit, among which is a <i>Compendium
+Doctrinae Sociniorum</i>; but his fame chiefly rests on his pictures,
+which, like his poems, are mostly small, but of great beauty; the
+colouring, though thin, is pure; the composition and pencilling
+are exquisite, and the perspective above criticism. The best of
+his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and his views of
+the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent at
+Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered
+to have been the author of several of the works ascribed to him;
+and his son Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul
+Potter, is similarly credited.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPI, GIULIO<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1500-1572), the founder of a school of
+Italian painters, was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter,
+Galeazzo Campi (1475-1536), under whom he took his first
+lessons in art. He was then taught by Giulio Romano; and
+he made a special study of Titian, Correggio and Raphael. His
+works are remarkable for their correctness, vigour and loftiness
+of style. They are very numerous, and the church of St Margaret
+in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among the
+earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the
+latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as
+historian of Cremona.</p>
+
+<p>Giulio&rsquo;s pupil, <span class="sc">Bernardino Campi</span> (1522-1592), in some
+respects superior to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After
+an education under Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained
+such skill that when he added another to the eleven Caesars of
+Titian, it was impossible to say which was the master&rsquo;s and
+which the imitator&rsquo;s. He was also much influenced by Correggio
+and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the frescoes of the
+cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPILLO, JOSÉ DEL<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was
+of very obscure origin. From his own account of his youth,
+written to Antonio de Mier in 1726, we only know that he was
+born in &ldquo;a house equally poor and honest,&rdquo; that he studied
+Latin by his own wish, that he entered the service of Don
+Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Córdoba, who wished
+apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take
+orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then
+eighteen years of age. In 1715 he became &ldquo;page&rdquo; to D. Francisco
+de Ocio, superintendent general of customs, who doubtless
+employed him as a clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable
+notice of Patiño, the head of the newly-organized navy, and was
+by him transferred to the naval department. Under the protection
+of Patiño, who became prime minister in 1726, Campillo
+was constantly employed on naval administrative work both at
+home and in America. It was Patiño&rsquo;s policy to build up a navy
+quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much
+attention abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo
+proved an industrious and honest subordinate. Part of his
+experience was to be present at a shipwreck in Central America
+in which he was credited with showing spirit and practical
+ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he was denounced
+to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden books.
+The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the
+incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the
+Holy Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence
+in damping all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741,
+when Spain was entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war
+with England, that Campillo was summoned by the king to take
+the place of prime minister. He had to find the means of carrying
+on a policy out of all proportion to the resources of Spain, with
+an empty treasury. His short tenure of power was chiefly
+notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the system of
+farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of contractors
+and financiers. Campillo&rsquo;s predecessors were constantly
+compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the
+demands of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A
+whole year&rsquo;s revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo
+persuaded the king to allow him to establish a system of direct
+collection, by which waste and pilfering would be avoided.
+Some progress was made towards putting the national finances
+on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent the king
+from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money
+needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of
+April 1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a <i>New
+System of Government for America</i> printed at Madrid 1789. He also
+left a MS. treatise with the curious title, <i>What is superfluous
+and is wanting in Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to
+be, and not what it is.</i></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, <i>Patiño y Campillo</i> (Madrid, 1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPINAS,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> an inland city of the state of São Paulo, Brazil,
+65 m. by rail N.W. of the city of São Paulo and 114 m. from the
+port of Santos, with which it is connected by the Paulista &amp; São
+Paulo railway. Pop. (1890) of the city and municipality,
+33,921. Campinas is the commercial centre of one of the oldest
+coffee-producing districts of the state and the outlet for a rich
+and extensive agricultural region lying farther inland. The
+Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to
+Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west
+into new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple
+production, though Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced
+largely for local consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like
+depression of the great central plateau, and the drainage
+from the surrounding hillsides has produced a dangerously
+insanitary condition, from which one or two virulent fever
+epidemics have resulted.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPING OUT.<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and
+living in tents, touring in vans, boats, &amp;c., has been elaborately
+developed in modern times, and a considerable literature
+has been devoted to it, to which the curious may be referred.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell&rsquo;s <i>Camping-out</i> (1892) and <i>Voyages
+on German Rivers</i> (1890); G.R. Lowndes, <i>Gipsy Tents</i> (1890).</p>
+
+<p>For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, <i>Shifts and Expedients of
+Camp Life</i> (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the <i>Big Game
+Shooting</i> volume of the &ldquo;Badminton Library&rdquo;; the articles on
+&ldquo;Camping out&rdquo; in <i>The Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>;
+F.C. Selous, <i>A Hunter&rsquo;s Wanderings in Africa</i> (1881),
+and <i>Travel and Adventure in South Africa</i> (1893);
+A.W. Chanler, <i>Through Jungle and Desert</i> (1896);
+A.B. Rathbone, <i>Camping and Tramping in Malaya</i> (1898).</p>
+
+<p>For America, G.O. Shields, <i>Camping and Camp Outfits</i> (1890);
+W.W. Pascoe, <i>Canoe and Camp Cookery</i> (1893);
+<i>Woodcraft</i>, by &ldquo;Nessmuk&rdquo; (1895);
+W.S. Rainsford, <i>Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone</i> (1896);
+S.E. White, <i>The Forest</i> (1903), and <i>The Mountains</i> (1904);
+<i>Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping</i> (1904),
+published by &ldquo;The Appalachian Mountain Club,&rdquo; Boston.
+Valuable information will be found in the sporting periodicals,
+and in the catalogues of outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPION, EDMUND<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in
+London, received his early education at Christ&rsquo;s Hospital, and, as
+the best of the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make
+the complimentary speech when Queen Mary visited the city on
+the 3rd of August 1553. He went to Oxford and became fellow
+of St John&rsquo;s College in 1557, taking the oath of supremacy on the
+occasion of his degree in 1564, in which year he was orator in the
+schools. He had already shown his talents as a speaker at the
+funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas White,
+the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration
+fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen
+Elizabeth to the university, and won a regard, which the queen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span>
+preserved until the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset
+him; but at the persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of
+Gloucester, although holding Catholic doctrines, he took deacon&rsquo;s
+orders in the English Church. Inwardly &ldquo;he took a remorse of
+conscience and detestation of mind.&rdquo; Rumours of his opinions
+began to spread and, giving up the office of proctor, he left Oxford
+in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a proposed restoration
+of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry followed
+him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three
+months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying
+himself by writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronicles</i>), a superficial work of no real value. At last he
+escaped to Douai, where he joined William Allen (<i>q.v.</i>) and was
+reconciled to the Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon,
+he went to Rome and became a Jesuit in 1573, spending
+some years at Brünn, Vienna and Prague. In 1580 the Jesuit
+mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert
+Parsons (<i>q.v.</i>) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance
+Campion&rsquo;s fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in
+the characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London
+on the 24th of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His
+presence became known to the authorities and an indiscreet
+declaration, &ldquo;Campion Brag,&rdquo; made the position more difficult.
+The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth he led a hunted
+life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in Berkshire,
+Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this time he
+was writing his <i>Decem Rationes</i>, a rhetorical display of reasons
+against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private
+press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the
+benches of St Mary&rsquo;s, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th
+of June 1581. The sensation was immense, and the pursuit
+became keener. On his way to Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in
+Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th of July and the following
+day, yielding to the foolish importunity of some pious women.
+Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London, bearing on
+his hat a paper with the inscription, &ldquo;Campion, the Seditious
+Jesuit.&rdquo; Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the
+presence of Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to
+be really queen of England, and on his replying straightly in the
+affirmative, she made him offers, not only of life but of wealth and
+dignities, on conditions which his conscience could not allow. He
+was kept a long time in prison, twice racked by order of the
+council, and every effort was made to shake his constancy.
+Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a forged
+confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four
+public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and
+although still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for
+preparation, he bore himself so easily and readily that he won the
+admiration of most of the audience. Racked again on the 31st
+of October, he was indicted at Westminster that he with others
+had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise a sedition in the
+realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November he was
+brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply
+to him said: &ldquo;If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to
+be condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects
+as ever the queen had.&rdquo; He received the sentence of the traitor&rsquo;s
+death with the <i>Te Deum laudamus</i>, and, after spending his last
+days in pious exercises, was led with two companions to Tyburn
+(1st of December 1581) and suffered the barbarous penalty. Of
+all the Jesuit missionaries who suffered for their allegiance to the
+ancient religion, Campion stands the highest. His life and his
+aspirations were pure, his zeal true and his loyalty unquestionable.
+He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson&rsquo;s
+<i>Edmund Campion</i>(1867); and a complete list of his works in
+De Backer&rsquo;s <i>Bibliothèque de la compagnie de Jésus</i>. (E.TN.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPION, THOMAS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1567-1620), English poet and musician,
+was born in London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened
+at St Andrew&rsquo;s, Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of
+the Middle Temple, who was by profession one of the cursitors of
+the chancery court, the clerks &ldquo;of course,&rdquo; whose duties were to
+draft the various writs and legal instruments in correct form. His
+mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of Laurence Searle, one of the
+queen&rsquo;s serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of Campion&rsquo;s father
+in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died herself
+soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the
+orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his
+stepson by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to
+Peterhouse, Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied
+at Cambridge for four years, and left the university, it would
+appear, without a degree, but strongly imbued with those tastes
+for classical literature which exercised such powerful influence
+upon his subsequent work. In April 1587 he was admitted to
+Gray&rsquo;s Inn, possibly with the intention of adopting a legal
+profession, but he had little sympathy with legal studies and does
+not appear to have been called to the bar. His subsequent
+movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have taken
+part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance
+of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears
+with the degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records
+does not permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The
+rest of his life was probably spent in London, where he practised
+as a physician until his death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving
+behind him, it would appear, neither wife nor issue. He was
+buried the same day at St Dunstan&rsquo;s-in-the-West, Fleet Street.</p>
+
+<p>The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being
+a group of five anonymous poems included in the <i>Songs of Divers
+Noblemen and Gentlemen</i>, appended to Newman&rsquo;s surreptitious
+edition of Sidney&rsquo;s <i>Astrophel and Stella</i>, which appeared in 1591.
+In 1595 appeared under his own name the <i>Poemata</i>, a collection
+of Latin panegyrics, elegies and epigrams, which evince much
+skill in handling, and won him considerable reputation. This was
+followed in 1601 by <i>A Booke of Ayres</i>, one of the song-books so
+fashionable in his day, the music of which was contributed in equal
+proportions by himself and Philip Rosseter, while the words were
+almost certainly all written by him. The following year he
+published his <i>Observations in the Art of English Poesie</i>, &ldquo;against
+the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming,&rdquo; in favour of rhymeless
+verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry. Its
+appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of
+the crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped
+champions, but the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by
+Daniel, who in his <i>Defence of Ryme</i>, published the same year,
+finally demolished the movement.</p>
+
+<p>In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of
+the marriage of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of
+<i>Songs of Mourning</i> (set to music by Coperario or John Cooper)
+for the loss of Prince Henry, which was sincerely lamented by the
+whole English nation. The same year he wrote and arranged
+three masques, the <i>Lords&rsquo; Masque</i> for the marriage of Princess
+Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of Queen Anne
+at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl of
+Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex.
+If, moreover, as appears quite likely, his <i>Two Bookes of Ayres</i>
+(both words and music written by himself) belongs also to this
+year, it was indeed his <i>annus mirabilis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Some time in or after 1617 appeared his <i>Third and Fourth
+Booke of Ayres</i>; while to that year probably also belongs his
+<i>New Way of making Foure Parts in Counter-point</i>, a technical
+treatise which was for many years the standard text-book on
+the subject. It was included, with annotations by Christopher
+Sympson, in Playfair&rsquo;s <i>Brief Introduction to the Skill of Musick</i>,
+and two editions appear to have been bought up by 1660. In
+1618 appeared <i>The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham
+Castle</i> on the occasion of the king&rsquo;s entertainment there, the
+music by Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost
+certainly by Campion; and in 1619 he published his <i>Epigrammatum
+Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber unus</i>, a reprint of his
+1595 collection with considerable omissions, additions (in the
+form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.</p>
+
+<p>While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in
+his own day, in the years that followed his death his works sank
+into complete oblivion. No doubt this was due to the nature
+of the media in which he mainly worked, the masque and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span>
+song-book. The masque was an amusement at any time too
+costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was practically
+extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more
+ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan
+ascendancy, with its distaste for all secular music, effectively
+put an end to the madrigal. Its loss involved that of many
+hundreds of dainty lyrics, including those of Campion, and it
+is due to the enthusiastic efforts of Mr A.H. Bullen, who first
+published a collection of the poet&rsquo;s works in 1889, that his genius
+has been recognized and his place among the foremost rank of
+Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.</p>
+
+<p>Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to
+him &ldquo;the superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies,&rdquo; but we
+may thank the fates that his precepts of rhymeless versification
+so little affected his practice. His rhymeless experiments are
+certainly better conceived than many others, but they lack the
+spontaneous grace and freshness of his other poetry, while the
+whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must have possessed
+a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is unmusical;
+moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave
+rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic
+features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they
+frequently shift from line to line. His range was very great both
+in feeling and expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate
+epithalamium or a simple country ditty, the result is always full
+of unstudied freshness and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred
+pieces he is particularly successful, combining real poetry with
+genuine religious fervour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;<i>Works</i>, &amp;c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding
+<i>A New Way</i>, &amp;c.; <i>Songs and Masques</i>, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with
+an introduction on Campion&rsquo;s music by Janet Dodge; <i>Poems</i>, &amp;c.
+(in English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); <i>Complete Works</i>, ed. P. Vivian
+(Clarendon Press, 1908). The &ldquo;Observations in the Art of English
+Poesie&rdquo; are also published in Haslewood&rsquo;s <i>Ancient Critical Essays</i>
+and Gregory Smith&rsquo;s <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i>, vol. ii. (1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. Vn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1656-1723), French
+dramatist, was born at Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the
+age of seventeen he was wounded in a duel and sent to Paris.
+Here he became an ardent disciple of Racine. If he copied his
+master&rsquo;s methods of construction with some success, in the
+execution of his plans he never advanced beyond mediocrity,
+nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of <i>Athalie</i>
+and <i>Phèdre</i>. He secured the patronage of the influential duchesse
+de Bouillon by dedicating <i>Arminius</i> to her, and in 1685 he scored
+his first success with <i>Andronic</i>, which disguised under other
+names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France.
+The piece made a great sensation, but Campistron&rsquo;s treatment
+is weak, and he failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent
+in his subject. Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de
+Vendôme, to write the book of an opera to be performed at a
+fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He handed on the commission
+to Campistron, who produced <i>Acis et Galathée</i> for Lulli&rsquo;s
+music. Campistron had another success in <i>Tiridate</i> (1691), in
+which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story
+of Amnon&rsquo;s passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other
+tragedies and two comedies, one of which, <i>Le Jaloux désabusé</i>,
+has been considered by some judges to be his best work. In
+1686 he had been made intendant to the duc de Vendôme and
+followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him on all his
+campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man
+under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual.
+Many honours were conferred on him. The king of Spain
+bestowed on him the order of St James of the Sword; the duke
+of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in Montferrat; and
+in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty years
+of service with Vendôme he retired to his native place, where
+he died on the 11th of May 1723.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1817-1901),
+Spanish poet, was born at Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of
+September 1817. Abandoning his first intention of entering the
+Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid, found an opening in
+politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and, after occupying
+several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellón de la
+Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies
+grew more pronounced with time, and his <i>Polémicas con la
+Democracia</i>(1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of
+his political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from
+1840, when he published his <i>Ternezas y flores</i>, a collection of
+idyllic verses, remarkable for their technical excellence. His
+<i>Ayes del Alma</i>(1842) and his <i>Fábulas morales y políticas</i>(1842)
+sustained his reputation, but showed no perceptible increase of
+power or skill. An epic poem in sixteen cantos, <i>Colón</i> (1853), is
+no more successful than modern epics usually are. Campoamor&rsquo;s
+theatrical pieces, such as <i>El Palacio de la Verdad</i>(1871), <i>Dies
+Irae</i>(1873), <i>El Honor</i>(1874) and <i>Glorias Humanas</i>(1885), are
+interesting experiments; but they are totally lacking in dramatic
+spirit. He always showed a keen interest in metaphysical and
+philosophic questions, and defined his position in <i>La Filosofía
+de las leyes</i>(1846), <i>El Personalismo</i>(1855), <i>Lo Absoluto</i>(1865)
+and <i>El Ideísmo</i>(1883). These studies are chiefly valuable as
+embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to
+the composition of those <i>doloras, humoradas</i> and <i>pequeños
+poemas</i>, which the poet&rsquo;s admirers consider as a new poetic
+species. The first collection of <i>Doloras</i> was printed in 1846, and
+from that date onwards new specimens were added to each
+succeeding edition. It is difficult to define a <i>dolora</i>. One critic
+has described it as a didactic, symbolic stanza which combines
+the lightness and grace of the epigram, the melancholy of the
+<i>endecha</i>, the concise narrative of the ballad, and the philosophic
+intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared that a
+<i>dolora</i> is a dramatic <i>humorada</i>, and that a <i>pequeño poema</i>is a
+<i>dolora</i> on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory.
+The humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form
+to which Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes
+no further. It cannot be denied that in the <i>Doloras</i> Campoamor&rsquo;s
+special gifts of irony, grace and pathos find their best expression.
+Taking a commonplace theme, he presents in four, eight or twelve
+lines a perfect miniature of condensed emotion. By his choice
+of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal facility and copiousness
+which have led many Spanish poets to destruction. It pleased
+him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this affectation has been
+reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the impression of
+insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using mysticism
+as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of
+the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching
+morality by satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism
+of a genial, epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether
+for good. His formula is too easily mastered, and to his
+example is due a plague of <i>doloras</i> and <i>humoradas</i> by poetasters
+who have caricatured their model. Campoamor, as he himself
+said, did not practise art for art&rsquo;s sake; he used art as the
+medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are poor. He died
+at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a deep
+silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge
+him with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming
+bulk of his work will perish; we may even say that
+it is already dead. His pretensions, or the pretensions put
+forward in his name, that he discovered a new poetic <i>genre</i> will
+be rejected later, as they are rejected now by all competent
+judges. The title of a philosophic poet will be denied to him.
+But he will certainly survive, at least in extract, as a distinguished
+humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and sententious aphorism,
+an artist of extremely finished execution.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPOBASSO,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the
+province of Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated
+2132 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune
+14,491. The town itself contains no buildings of antiquarian
+interest, but it has some fine modern edifices. Its chief industry
+is the manufacture of arms and cutlery. Above the town are
+the picturesque ruins of a castle of the 15th century. The date
+of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The town, with
+the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of counts
+until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in consideration
+of a payment of 108,000 ducats.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPODEA,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible
+antennae and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known
+species (<i>Campodea staphylinus</i>) has a wide distribution
+and is equally at home in the warm valleys of south Europe,
+in the subarctic conditions of mountain tops, in caves and in
+woods and gardens in England. It lives in damp places under
+stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves. Although
+blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into
+the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with
+its antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling
+that of a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or
+thysanurous insects of the order Aptera (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Conde de</span> (1723-1802),
+Spanish statesman and writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de
+Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793
+he was president of the council of Castile; but on the accession
+of Charles IV. he was removed from his office, and retired from
+public life, regretted by the true friends of his country. His first
+literary work was <i>Antiquidad maritima de la republica de
+Cartago</i>, with an appendix containing a translation of the <i>Voyage
+of Hanno</i> the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared
+in a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable
+essays, <i>Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular</i>,
+1774, and <i>Discurso sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos
+y su fomento</i>, 1775. As a supplement to the last, he published
+four appendices, each considerably larger than the original essay.
+The first contains reflections on the origin of the decay of arts
+and manufactures in Spain during the last century. The second
+points out the steps necessary for improving or re-establishing
+the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection of royal
+ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts
+and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials.
+The third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with
+the results of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances
+of towns. The fourth contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez
+de Mata on national commerce, with some observations adapted
+to present circumstances. These were all printed at Madrid in
+1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count Campomanes died on the
+3rd of February 1802.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes
+as an introduction to the first edition of his <i>Cartas
+politico-economicas</i>, published in 1878.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1831-1900), Spanish
+marshal, senator and knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at
+Segovia on the 14th of December 1831. He graduated as a
+lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was attached to the staff
+college as an assistant professor. He took part in the Morocco
+campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen
+actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a
+professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under
+Prim. In 1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to
+the rank of general in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the
+Federal Republican government in 1873 confided to General
+Campos several high commands, in which he again distinguished
+himself against the Cantonal Republicans and the Carlists.
+About that time he began to conspire with a view to restore the
+son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his
+designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command
+of a division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of
+May of that year, and in the operations around Estella in June.
+On both occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the
+other commanders to proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected
+to hold aloof, and would have been arrested, had not the minister
+of war, Ceballos, answered for his good behaviour, and quartered
+him in Avila under surveillance. He managed to escape, and
+after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at Sagunto on the
+29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII. king
+of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great
+influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as
+a sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso,
+and later by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important
+political crisis, and on every international or colonial question,
+especially when other generals or the army itself became
+troublesome. He took an important part in the military operations
+against the Carlists, and in the negotiations with their leaders,
+which put an end to the civil war in 1876. In the same way he
+brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878. On his return
+from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet for a
+few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever
+afterwards treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In
+1881, with other discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in
+obtaining office. After the death of King Alphonso, Campos
+steadily supported the regency of Queen Christina, and held high
+commands, though declining to take office. In 1893 he was
+selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla, and went to
+the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of peace,
+which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed
+a serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of
+Canovas to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as
+well as in his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he
+was not allowed to give them local self-government, as he wished.
+Subsequently he remained aloof from politics, and only spoke
+in the senate to defend his Cuban administration and on army
+questions. After the war with America, and the loss of the
+colonies in 1899, when Señor Silvela formed a new Conservative
+party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency of
+the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this
+post up to the time of his death. This took place in the summer
+recess of 1900 at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa,
+where he was buried.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMPOS,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
+on the Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m.
+N.E. of the city of Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city,
+22,518; of the municipality, 78,036. The river is navigable for
+small steamers above and below the city, but is closed to
+coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at its mouth. The
+shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahé), 60 m.
+south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water
+communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes
+united by canals. Campos has indirect railway communication
+with Rio de Janeiro by way of Macahé, and is the starting point
+for several small independent lines. The elevation of the city is
+only 69 ft. above sea level, and it stands near the western margin
+of a highly fertile alluvial plain devoted to the production of
+sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and many kinds of tropical
+fruit are produced in abundance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CÂMPULUNG<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung),
+the capital of the department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat
+of a suffragan bishop; situated among the outlying hills of the
+Carpathian Mountains, at the head of a long well-wooded glen
+traversed by the river Tirgului, a tributary of the Argesh. Pop.
+(1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine scenery render Câmpulung
+a popular summer resort. In the town are more than twenty
+churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both claim
+to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first
+prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for
+several paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July
+and the 24th of October; and there is a considerable traffic with
+Transylvania, over the Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the
+south by a branch railway to Ploesci. Near Câmpulung are the
+remains of a Roman camp; and, just beyond the gates, vestiges
+of a Roman colony, variously identified with Romula, Stepenium
+and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1773-1844), Italian historical
+painter, was born at Rome. He was educated by his brother
+Pietro, a picture-restorer, and Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to
+the age of thirty, attempted nothing higher than copies of the
+great masters, his especial study being Raphael. As an original
+painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the French artist
+David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness and
+patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was
+essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both
+personally, and as an artist, and received many honours and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span>
+preferments from the papal and other Italian courts. He was
+appointed director of the Academy of San Luca and of the
+Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of the pictures
+of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all the
+orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief
+works are the classical paintings of the &ldquo;Assassination of Caesar,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;Death of Virginia,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Devotion of the Roman Women,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Young Romulus and Remus,&rdquo; &ldquo;Horatius Cocles,&rdquo; the &ldquo;St
+Thomas,&rdquo; which was copied in mosaic for St Peter&rsquo;s, the &ldquo;Presentation
+of Christ in the Temple&rdquo; and a number of excellent
+portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection of
+pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including
+Raphael&rsquo;s &ldquo;Madonna with the Pink&rdquo;) being bought by the duke
+of Northumberland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMULODUNUM,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> also written <span class="sc">Camalod&#363;num</span> (mod. Colchester,
+<i>q.v.</i>), a British and Roman town. It was the capital of
+the British chief Cunobelin and is named on his coins: after his
+death and the Roman conquest of south Britain, the Romans
+established (about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 48) a <i>colonia</i> or municipality peopled
+with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve both as an
+informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It was
+stormed and burnt <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 61 in the rising of Boadicéa (<i>q.v.</i>), but
+soon recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman
+Britain. Its walls and some other buildings still stand and
+abundant Roman remains enrich the local museum. The name
+denotes &ldquo;the fortress of Camulos,&rdquo; the Celtic Mars.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1740-1804), French revolutionist,
+was a successful advocate before the Revolution. In
+1789 he was elected by the third estate of Paris to the states
+general, and attracted attention by his speeches against social
+inequalities. Elected to the National Convention by the department
+of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee of
+general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged
+with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered
+with his colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he
+was exchanged for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November
+1795. He played an inconspicuous rôle in the council of the Five
+Hundred. On the 14th of August 1789 the Constituent Assembly
+made Camus its archivist, and in that capacity he organized the
+national archives, classified the papers of the different assemblies
+of the Revolution and drew up analytical tables of the <i>procès-verbaux</i>.
+He was restored to the office in 1796 and became
+absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican,
+refusing to take part in the Napoleonic régime.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMUS, CHARLES ÉTIENNE LOUIS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1699-1768), French
+mathematician and mechanician, was born at Crécy-en-Brie,
+near Meaux, on the 25th of August 1699. He studied mathematics,
+civil and military architecture, and astronomy, and
+became associate of the Académie des Sciences, professor of
+geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and fellow
+of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied
+Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the
+expedition to Lapland for the measurement of a degree of the
+meridian. He died on the 2nd of February 1768. He was the
+author of a <i>Cours de mathématiques</i> (Paris, 1766), and a number
+of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects (see Poggendorff,
+<i>Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMUS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH DES<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1672-1732), French
+mechanician, was born near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September
+1672. After studying for the church, he devoted himself to
+mechanical inventions, a number of which he described in his
+<i>Traité des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des arts et métiers</i>,
+Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAMUS DE MÉZIÈRES, NICOLAS LE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1721-1789), French
+architect, was born at Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died
+it the same city on the 27th of July 1789. He published several
+works on architectural and related subjects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANA,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the
+home of Nathanael, and the scene of Christ&rsquo;s &ldquo;beginning of
+miracles&rdquo; (John ii. I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it
+is evident from the biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood
+of, and higher than, Capernaum. Opinion as to identification
+is fairly divided between Kefr Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil.
+The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth, contains a
+ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter
+is an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no
+remains but a few cisterns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANAAN, CANAANITES.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> These geographical and ethnic
+terms have a shifting reference, which doubtless arises out of the
+migrations of the tribes to which the term &ldquo;Canaanites&rdquo;
+belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems to be applied to a
+population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in Josh. xi. 3,
+Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these, but to a
+people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be used
+of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is
+disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively
+to the population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish
+inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the
+writer called the Yahwist (J); see <i>e.g.</i> Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18;
+Ex. xv. 15; Num. xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38,
+and elsewhere. It was also, as Augustine tells us,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a usage of the
+Phoenicians to call their land &ldquo;Canaan.&rdquo; This is confirmed by
+coins of the city of Laodicea by the Lebanon, which bear the
+legend, &ldquo;Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan&rdquo;; these coins are
+dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and his successors, Greek
+writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest, viz. that the original
+name of Phoenicia was <span class="grk" title="Chna">&#967;&#957;&#945;</span>, <i>i.e.</i> K&#277;na, a short, collateral form of
+Kena&lsquo;an or Kan&lsquo;an The form Kan&lsquo;an is favoured by the Egyptian
+usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or Arabian
+nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Sh&#363;r?) to &ldquo;the Ka-n-&lsquo;-na,&rdquo;
+and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in &ldquo;the
+Ka-n-&lsquo;-na.&rdquo; By this geographical name is probably meant all
+western Syria and Palestine with Raphia&mdash;&ldquo;the (first) city of the
+Ka-n-&lsquo;-na&rdquo;&mdash;for the south-west boundary towards the desert.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+In the letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their
+Egyptian overlord<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a>&mdash;commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna
+tablets&mdash;we find the two forms Kina&#7717;&#7717;i and Kinahna, corresponding
+to Kena&lsquo; and Kena&lsquo;an respectively, and standing, as
+Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its widest extent.</p>
+
+<p>On the name &ldquo;Canaan&rdquo; Winckler remarks,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> &ldquo;There is at
+present no prospect of an etymological explanation.&rdquo; From the
+fact that Egyptian (though not Hebrew) scribes constantly
+prefix the article, we may suppose that it originally meant
+&ldquo;the country of the Canaanites,&rdquo; just as the Hebrew phrase
+&ldquo;the Lebanon&rdquo; may originally have meant &ldquo;the highlands of
+the Libnites&rdquo;; and we are thus permitted to group the term
+&ldquo;Canaan&rdquo; with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan,
+Anak (generally with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor
+are scholars more unanimous with regard to the region where the
+terms &ldquo;Canaanite&rdquo; and &ldquo;Canaan&rdquo; arose. It may be true that
+the term Kina&#7717;&#7717;i in the Amarna letters corresponds to Syria and
+Palestine in their entirety. But this does not prove that the
+terms &ldquo;Canaanite&rdquo; and &ldquo;Canaan&rdquo; arose in that region, for
+they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let
+us refer at this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps
+hardly estimated at its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples
+in Gen. x. Here we find &ldquo;Canaan&rdquo; included among the four
+sons of Ham. If Cush in <i>v</i>. 6 really means Ethiopia, and M-&#7779;-r-i-m
+Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is really a Hebraized
+form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t (black),<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the
+passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has recently been
+suggested,<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Cush, M-&#7779;-r-i-m, and Put are in north Arabia, and
+&#7716;am is the short for Yar&#7717;am or Yera&#7717;me&rsquo;el (see i Chr. ii. 25-27,
+42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all
+becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an
+Arabian name. Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span>
+from about 4000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span><a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> a wave of Semitic migration poured out of
+Arabia, and flooded Babylonia certainly, and possibly, more or
+less, Syria and Palestine also. Also that between 2800 and 2600
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span> a second wave from Arabia took the same course, covering
+not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and probably
+also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet with
+the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213),
+the first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the
+first part of his name is identical with the name of the father of
+Canaan in Genesis (&#7716;am or Kham), indicating his Arabian
+origin.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> It was he, too, who restored the ancient supremacy of
+Babylonia over Syria and Palestine, and so prevented the
+Babylonizing of these countries from coming to an abrupt end.</p>
+
+<p>We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors
+arrived in the second Semitic migration, came to call their land
+&ldquo;Canaan.&rdquo; They had in fact the best right to do so. The first of
+the Canaanite immigrants were driven seawards by the masses
+which followed them. They settled in Phoenicia, and in after
+times became so great in commerce that &ldquo;Canaanite&rdquo; became a
+common Hebrew term for &ldquo;merchant&rdquo; (<i>e.g.</i> Isa. xxiii. 8). It is
+a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their
+inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious
+phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and
+belonged properly to the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+For their own traditions as to their origin see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phoenicia</a></span>; we
+cannot venture to reject these altogether. The masses of immigrants
+which followed them may have borne the name of
+Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be given.
+Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.</p>
+
+<p>First, as regards the Old Testament. We find &ldquo;the Amorite&rdquo;
+(a collective term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x.
+16-18a) among other tribal names, the exact original reference of
+which had probably been forgotten. No one in fact would
+gather from this and parallel passages how important a part was
+played by the Amorites in the early history of Palestine. In
+Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we find them
+located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi. 13,
+21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &amp;c. we hear of two great Amorite
+kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the
+east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in
+Gen. xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &amp;c.,
+where the name of Amorite is synonymous with &ldquo;Canaanite,&rdquo;
+except that &ldquo;Amorite&rdquo; is never used for the population on the
+coast. Next, as to the extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian
+inscriptions and in the Amarna tablets Amar and Amurru have a
+more limited meaning, being applied to the mountain-region
+east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later on, Amurru
+became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as
+north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term &ldquo;the
+land of Hatti&rdquo; (conventionally = Hittites) displaced &ldquo;Amurru&rdquo;
+so far as north Palestine is concerned (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first
+stage of the second great Arabian migration. In the interval
+preceding the second stage Syria with Palestine became an
+Egyptian dependency, though the links with the sovereign
+power were not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions.
+Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of a strong
+hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the
+Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not
+quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs
+began to seek their opportunities, though as a rule they did not
+find them because they could not obtain the help of a neighbouring
+king.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The boldest of the disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta,
+a prince of Amurru, who even before the death, of Amen-hotep
+III. endeavoured to extend his power into the plain of
+Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or Hamath),
+reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the
+attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused
+infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor
+of Gubla (Gebal).</p>
+
+<p>It was, first, the advance of the &#7722;atti (Hittites) into Syria,
+which began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more
+threatening in that of his successor, and next, the resumption of
+the second Arabian migration, which most seriously undermined
+the Egyptian power in Asia. Of the former we cannot speak
+here (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>), except so far as to remark the Abd-Ashirta
+and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the Hatti, was afterwards
+clever enough to make a treaty with their king, and, with
+other external powers, to attack the districts which remained
+loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals
+for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in
+his religious innovations to attend to such messages. What most
+interests us is the mention of troublesome invaders called some times
+<i>sa-gas</i> (a Babylonian ideogram meaning &ldquo;robber&rdquo;), sometimes
+&#7722;abiri. Who are these &#7722;abiri? Not, as was at first thought by
+some, specially the Israelites, but all those tribes of land-hungry
+nomads (&ldquo;Hebrews&rdquo;) who were attracted by the wealth and
+luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it for
+themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites
+or tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites,
+Ammonites and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north
+Syria. Itakkama writes thus to the Pharaoh,<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> &ldquo;Behold,
+Namyawaza has surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord,
+to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in Ubi. But I will go,
+and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the
+cities to the king, my lord, from the &#7722;abiri, to show myself
+subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS.&rdquo; Similarly Zimrida,
+king of Sidon, declares, &ldquo;All my cities which the king has given
+into my hand, have come into the hand of the &#7722;abiri.&rdquo;<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Nor
+had Palestine any immunity from the Arabian invaders. The
+king of <i>Jerusalem</i>, Abd-&#7722;iba, the second part of whose name has
+been thought to represent the Hebrew Yahweh,<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> reports thus to
+the Pharaoh, &ldquo;If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and
+princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not,
+these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my <span class="correction" title="quotes added">lord.&rdquo;</span><a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a>
+Abd-&#7722;iba&rsquo;s chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and
+the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable
+league with the &#7722;abiri. Apparently this restless warrior
+found his death at the siege of Gina.<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> All these princes, however,
+malign each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest
+their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for
+instance, whom Itakkama (see above) accuses of disloyalty,
+writes thus to the Pharaoh, &ldquo;Behold, I and my warriors and my
+chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS, and my Suti<a name="fa16d" id="fa16d" href="#ft16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a>
+are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go whithersoever the king,
+my lord, commands.&rdquo;<a name="fa17d" id="fa17d" href="#ft17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a> This petty prince, therefore, sees no harm
+in having a band of Arabians for his garrison, as indeed Hezekiah
+long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against Sennacherib.</p>
+
+<p>From the same period we have recently derived fresh and
+important evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as
+the material gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified
+and critically examined, a true history of early Palestine will be
+within measurable distance. At present, there are five places
+whence the new evidence has been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy,
+generally identified with the Lachish of the Old Testament.
+Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders Petrie
+and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I Kings
+ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902.
+3. Tell-e&#7779;-&#7778;afy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from
+Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span>
+some discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the
+site, however, was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near
+Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio). Schumacher began working here in
+1903 for the German Palestine Society. 5. Taannek, on the
+south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst Sellin of
+Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may
+be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform
+tablet belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer,
+a deed of sale; at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian
+stele, three seals, and three cylinders with Babylonian mythological
+representations; at Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a
+Babylonian legend, and at Taannek, twelve tablets and fragments
+of tablets were found near the fragments of the terracotta
+box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact
+that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used
+Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence.
+But much beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive
+sanctuaries, for instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths
+at Gezer is described in detail in <i>P.E.F. Quart. Statement</i>,
+January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903, p. 219. There is reason,
+as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the result of a gradual
+development, beginning with two small pillars, and gradually
+enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at Tell-e&#7779;-&#7778;afy.
+The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved
+to be of great antiquity; Sellin&rsquo;s discoveries at Taannek and those
+of Bliss at Tell-e#7779;-&#7778;afy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars
+have also been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx.
+25, 26, and numerous jars with the skeletons of infants. We
+cannot doubt that the sacrificing of children was practised on a
+large scale among the Canaanites. Their chief deity was Ashtart
+(Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous images of her have
+been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of the divine
+form vary in the different places. The other images which have
+been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however,
+infer that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish
+Pantheon. What the images do prove is the large amount of
+intercourse between Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of
+Egyptians in the subject country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Tell-el-Amarna Letters</i>, ed. by Winckler, with translation
+(1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements
+from 1903 onwards; Sellin&rsquo;s report of excavations at Tell Ta&rsquo;annek;
+also H.W. Hogg, &ldquo;Recent Assyriology,&rdquo; &amp;c., in <i>Inaugural Lectures</i>
+ed. by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical
+questions, see Dillmann&rsquo;s commentaries and the Bible dictionaries.
+See further articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. K. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  <i>Enarralio in Psalm civ.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a>  W.M. Müller, <i>Asien und Europa,</i> p. 205.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a>  The letters are written in the official and diplomatic language&mdash;Babylonian,
+though   &ldquo;Canaanitish&rdquo;   words  and idioms are not
+wanting.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a>  <i>Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,</i> p. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> These explanations are endorsed by Driver (<i>Genesis, on</i> Gen. x.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See the relevant articles in <i>Ency. Bib.</i> and Cheyne&rsquo;s <i>Genesis
+and Exodus.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a>  For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, <i>Gesch. Isr.</i> i. 127 f.;
+Paton, <i>Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine</i> (1902), pp. 6-8, 25-28.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a>  It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name
+differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), <i>kimta rapashtum</i>, &ldquo;wide family.&rdquo; That,
+however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism
+or Arabism.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a>  See Cheyne, <i>Genesis and Exodus</i> (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A.
+Cooke, <i>N. Sem. Inscriptions</i> (<i>e.g.</i> pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar&rsquo;s inscription).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a>  See <i>Amarna Letters</i>, Winckler&rsquo;s edition, No. 7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> No. 146.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> No. 147.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Johns, <i>Assyrian Deeds</i>, iii. p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Amarna Letters</i>, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> No. 164 (xi. 15-18).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16d" id="ft16d" href="#fa16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Nomads of the Syrian desert.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17d" id="ft17d" href="#fa17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Amarna Letters</i>, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANACHUS,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part
+of the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was especially noted as the author
+of two great statues of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple
+at Miletus, and one in cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins
+of Miletus furnish us with copies of the former and show the god
+to have held a stag in, one hand and a bow in the other. The
+rigidity of these works naturally impressed later critics.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANADA.<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern
+half of the continent of North America and its adjacent islands,
+excepting Alaska, which belongs to the United States, and
+Newfoundland, still a separate colony of the British empire.
+Its boundary on the south is the parallel of latitude 49°, between
+the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods, then a chain of small
+lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon river on the
+north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with
+their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From
+this eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial
+line nearly corresponding to lat. 45°; then an irregular line
+partly determined by watersheds and rivers divides Canada
+from Maine, coming out on the Bay of Fundy. The western
+boundary is the Pacific on the south, an irregular line a few miles
+inland from the coast along the &ldquo;pan handle&rdquo; of Alaska to
+Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141° to the Arctic Ocean.
+A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the
+Atlantic on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging
+to Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;In spite of these restrictions of its
+natural coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada
+is admirably provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf
+of St Lawrence with its much indented shores and the coast of
+Nova Scotia and New Brunswick supply endless harbours, the
+northern ones closed by ice in the winter, but the southern ones
+open all the year round; and on the Pacific British Columbia
+is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with well-sheltered
+harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken
+shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of
+sheltered navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of
+Newfoundland to Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British
+Columbian coast, are of great advantage for the coasting trade.
+The greatly varied Arctic coast line of Canada with its large
+islands, inlets and channels is too much clogged with ice to be of
+much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a mediterranean sea 850 m.
+long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with its outlet Hudson
+Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and whalers,
+and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada,
+though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of
+the nine provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt
+water, Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may
+soon be extended to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only
+on Hudson Bay&rsquo;s southern extension, James Bay, and there is
+no probability that the shallow harbours of the latter bay
+will ever be of much importance for shipping, though Churchill
+Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an important
+grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation
+is, however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great
+Lakes.</p>
+
+<p>The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple,
+and drawn on a large scale, more than half of its surface sloping
+gently inwards towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with
+higher margins to the south-east and south-west. In the main
+it is a broad trough, wider towards the north than towards the
+south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay occupying much of its
+north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains rise gradually
+to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern member
+of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America.
+The physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with
+its geology that at least an outline of the geological factors
+involved in its history is necessary to understand the present
+physiography. The mountain structures originated in three
+great orogenic periods, the earliest in the Archean, the second at
+the end of the Palaeozoic and the third at the end of the Mesozoic.
+<span class="sidenote">Geology.</span>
+The Archean mountain chains, which enclosed the
+present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that
+they had already been worn down almost to a plain before the
+early Palaeozoic sediments were laid down. This ruling geological
+and physical feature of the North American continent has been
+named by E. Suess the &ldquo;Canadian Shield.&rdquo; Round it the
+Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from its own waste,
+were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places still
+almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east
+of this &ldquo;protaxis,&rdquo; or nucleus of the continent, were pushed
+against its edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains,
+which, however, extends only a short distance into Canada.
+The Mesozoic sediments were almost entirely laid down to the
+west and south-west of the protaxis, upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic
+rocks, and in the prairie region they are still almost horizontal;
+but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up into the
+series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast region.
+The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest,
+and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights
+deserving the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric
+development of North America the main structural watershed
+is towards its western side, on the south coinciding with the
+Rocky Mountains proper, but to the northward falling back to
+ranges situated further west in the same mountain region. The
+great central area of Canada is drained towards Hudson Bay,
+but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the Mackenzie
+flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence
+north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and
+the other to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span>
+these ancient events shaped the topography in a broad way, its
+final development was comparatively recent, during the glacial
+period, when the loose materials were scoured from some regions
+and spread out as boulder clay, or piled up as moraines in others;
+and the original water-ways were blocked in many places. The
+retreat of the ice left Canada much in its present condition
+except for certain post-glacial changes of level which seem to be
+still in progress. For this reason the region has a very youthful
+topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence
+that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving
+down of the older mountain systems, especially that of the
+Archean pro taxis, and the disorderly scattering of glacial material
+provide most of the lake basins so characteristic of Canada.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lakes and Rivers.</i>&mdash;As a result of the geological causes just
+mentioned many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes
+of all sizes and shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles
+long and a thousand feet deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest.
+Thousands of these lakes have been mapped more or less carefully,
+and every new survey brings to light small lakes hitherto unknown
+to the white man. For numbers they can be compared
+only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for
+size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of
+lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it
+will be noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes
+occur within five hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay,
+and belong to the Archean protaxis or project beyond its edges
+into the Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks which lean against it.
+The most famous of the lakes are those of the St Lawrence
+system, which form part of the southern boundary of Canada
+and are shared with the United States; but many others have
+the right to be called &ldquo;Great Lakes&rdquo; from their magnitude.
+There are nine others which have a length of more than 100 m.,
+and thirty-five which are more than 50 m. long. Within the
+Archean protaxis they are of the most varied shapes, since they
+represent merely portions of the irregular surface inundated by
+some morainic dam at the lowest point. Comparatively few
+have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water, the great
+majority running into long irregular bays and containing many
+islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian
+Bay and Lake-of-the-Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the
+other hand the lakes are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections
+of mountain valleys occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords
+of the adjoining coast are valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes
+of the different regions present the same features as the nearest
+sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The majority of the lakes have
+rocky shores and islands and great variety of depth, many of the
+smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and are slowly
+filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat bogs,
+the <i>muskegs</i> of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered
+that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few
+small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, <i>e.g.</i> the Quill and Old
+Wives lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In
+such cases the waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in
+solution which are deposited as a white rim round the basin
+towards the end of the summer when the amount of water has
+been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is interesting to find
+maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on their shores
+a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet
+above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over
+at the lowest point from one basin into the next below, making
+chains of lakes with no long or well-defined channels between,
+since in so young a country there has not yet been time for the
+rivers to have carved wide valleys. Thus canoe navigation may
+be carried on for hundreds of miles, with here and there a waterfall
+or a rapid requiring a portage of a few hundred yards or at
+most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore in many
+cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive
+connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The
+best example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which
+may be said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St
+Mary&rsquo;s, St Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing
+from Lake Ontario to the sea under its proper name. As these
+lakes are great reservoirs and settling basins, the rivers which
+empty them are unusually steady in level and contain beautifully
+clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a few feet in the year
+and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while the Mississippi,
+whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of the Great
+Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and is
+loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important
+Canadian river from the historic and economic points of view,
+since it provided the main artery of exploration in early days, and
+with its canals past rapids and between lakes still serves as a
+great highway of trade between the interior of the continent and
+the seaports of Montreal and Quebec. It is probable that
+politically Canada would have followed the course of the States
+to the south but for the planting of a French colony with widely
+extended trading posts along the easily ascended channel of the
+St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was the
+ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire.</p>
+
+<p>North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and
+Hudson Bay there are many large rivers converging on that
+inland sea, such as Whale river, Big river, East Main, Rupert
+and Nottaway rivers coming in from Ungava and northern
+Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important tributaries
+from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill
+rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow,
+affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them,
+Nelson river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg,
+Winnipegosis and Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers,
+and receive the waters of Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and
+many others emptying into Winnipeg river from Ontario; of
+Red river coming in from the United States to the south; and
+of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western
+prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The
+parallel of 49° approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters
+from the streams going south to the Missouri, though a few
+small tributaries of the latter river begin on Canadian territory.</p>
+
+<p>The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of
+northern British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca
+and Peace rivers, first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake,
+then north through Slave river to Great Slave Lake, and finally
+north-west through Mackenzie river to the Arctic Ocean. If
+measured to the head of Peace river the Mackenzie has a length
+of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than 1000 m. of
+navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like other
+northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented
+sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading
+posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in
+lat. 69°, and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their
+torrents before the thick ice of the lower part with its severer
+climate has yet given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and
+giving rise to widespread floods along the lower reaches. Similar
+flooding takes place in several other important northward-flowing
+rivers in Canada, the St Lawrence at Montreal affording the
+best-known instance. Second among the great north-western
+rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about 18 m.
+from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea
+and just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north,
+then to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into
+Alaska, and then south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward
+projection of the Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of
+its course 1800 m. are continuously navigable for suitable
+steamers, so that most of the traffic connected with the rich
+Klondike gold-fields passes over its waters. The rest of the
+rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through British Columbia
+and are much shorter, though the two southern ones carry a
+great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow
+and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest,
+but after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m.,
+it passes into the United States. With its expansions, the
+narrow and deep Arrow lakes, it is an important waterway in the
+Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in size but farther north,
+follows a similar course, entering the sea at Vancouver; while
+the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span>
+shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and
+Liard rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory.
+All of these rivers are waterways of some importance in their
+lower course, and are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats
+supplying the posts and mining camps of the interior with their
+requirements. In most cases they reach the coast through deep
+valleys or profound canyons, and the transcontinental railways
+find their way beside them, the Canadian Pacific following at
+first tributaries of the Columbia near its great bend, and afterwards
+Thompson river and the Fraser;  while the Grand Trunk
+Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries.
+The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing
+east and north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains,
+but there are two lakes, the Committee&rsquo;s Punch Bowl and
+Fortress Lake, right astride of it, sending their waters both east
+and west; and there is a mountain somewhat south of Fortress
+Lake whose melting snows drain in three directions into tributaries
+of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca,
+so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the Atlantic
+(Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the
+St Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents
+one or two lakes draining each way, but in a much less striking
+position, since the water-parting is flat and boggy instead of
+being a lofty range of mountains.  The rivers of Canada, except
+the St Lawrence, are losing their importance as means of communication
+from year to year, as railways spread over the
+interior and cross the mountains to the Pacific; but from the
+point of view of the physical geographer there are few things
+more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in
+which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers
+have waterfalls on their course, they must become of more
+and more importance as sources of power. The St Lawrence
+system, for instance, generates many thousand horse-power at
+Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine rapids. All the
+larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this way, and
+many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern
+Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the
+Rocky Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they
+will some day find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Archean Protaxis.</i>&mdash;The broad geological and geographical
+relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the
+more important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more
+detail, and for that purpose five areas may be distinguished,
+much the largest being the Archean protaxis, covering about
+2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador, Ungava and most of
+Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south; and the
+western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to
+the Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The
+southern parts of the Arctic islands, especially Banksland,
+belong to it also. This vast area, shaped like a broad-limbed
+V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre, is made up chiefly of
+monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and granite; but
+scattered through it are important stretches of Keewatin and
+Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as
+suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The
+Keewatin and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and
+more or less metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special
+interest for their ore deposits, which include most of the important
+metals, particularly iron, nickel, copper and silver. The southern
+portion of the protaxis is now being opened up by railways, but
+the far greater northern part is known only along the lakes and
+rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though once consisting
+of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty elevations
+in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador,
+where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach
+6000 ft. or more. In every other part the surface is hilly or
+mammilated, the harder rocks, such as granite or greenstone,
+rising as rounded knobs, or in the case of schists forming narrow
+ridges, while the softer parts form valleys generally floored with
+lakes. From the summit of any of the higher hills one sees that
+the region is really a somewhat dissected plain, for all the hills
+rise to about the same level with a uniform skyline at the horizon.
+The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as a plateau, but
+probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part includes
+from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and
+extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake
+Winnipeg. Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an
+average of about 1500 ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at
+a few points near Lake Superior and on the eastern coast of
+Labrador. In most parts the Laurentian hills are bare <i>roches
+moutonnées</i> scoured by the glaciers of the Ice Age, but a broad
+band of clay land extends across northern Quebec and Ontario
+just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis are in general
+its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often have a
+descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great
+Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they
+have cut back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The
+waterfalls are utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp
+the forests of spruce which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and
+Ontario. Most of the pine that formerly grew on the Archean
+at the northern fringe of the settlements has been cut, but the
+lumberman is still advancing northwards and approaching the
+northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine forests, beyond
+which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the prevalent
+trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and
+includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is
+reached, near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and
+somewhat farther south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to
+the north are the &ldquo;barren grounds&rdquo; on which herds of caribou
+(reindeer) and musk ox pasture, migrating from north to south
+according to the season. There are no permanent ice sheets
+known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but some of
+the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are
+partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless
+by its mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known,
+the barren grounds can never support a white population and
+have little to tempt even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it
+occasionally in summer to hunt the deer in their migrations.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Acadian Region.</i>&mdash;The &ldquo;maritime provinces&rdquo; of eastern
+Canada, including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince
+Edward Island, may be considered together; and to these
+provinces as politically bounded may be added, from a physical
+point of view, the analogous south-eastern part of Quebec&mdash;the
+entire area being designated the Acadian region. Taken as a
+whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and
+extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic,
+may be regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian
+mountain system that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the
+United States. The rocks underlying it have been subjected
+to successive foldings and crumplings by forces acting chiefly
+from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with alternating prolonged
+periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of
+disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the
+south-eastern part of Quebec, forming the Notre Dame Mountains,
+and terminates in the Gaspé peninsula as the Shickshock
+Mountains. The first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height,
+but the Shickshocks rise above 3000 ft. The province of New
+Brunswick exhibits approximately parallel but subordinate
+ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly flat Silurian and
+Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia, connected
+by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still another
+and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on
+all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates
+referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important
+veins of auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern
+side, while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and
+on parts of its shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New
+Brunswick the Carboniferous rocks occupy a large area, but
+the coal seams so far developed are thin and unimportant.
+Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova Scotia
+and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already
+mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important
+industries. Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral
+products of that part of Quebec included in the region now under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span>
+description, although many other minerals are known and
+already worked to some extent. Extensive tracts of good arable
+land exist in many parts of the Acadian region. Its surface was
+originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of the
+forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward
+Island, the smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating,
+based on Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording
+a red and very fertile soil, much of which is under cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><i>The St Lawrence Plain.</i>&mdash;As the St Lawrence invited the
+earliest settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication
+with the Old World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest
+and most populous part of the country on its shores and near the
+Great Lakes which it leads up to; and this early development
+was greatly helped by the flat and fertile plain which follows
+it inland for over 600 m. from the city of Quebec to Lake Huron.
+This affords the largest stretch of arable land in eastern Canada,
+including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec with an
+area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south
+of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal
+to the mountains of the &ldquo;Eastern Townships,&rdquo; while in Ontario
+it extends from the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence
+and Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. The whole region is
+underlain by nearly horizontal and undisturbed rocks of the
+Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward. Superimposed on
+these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and sand
+deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of
+St Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-west
+peninsula of Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and
+the real wealth of this district lies in its soil and climate, which
+permit the growth of all the products of temperate regions.
+Georgian Bay and the northern part of Lake Huron with the
+whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the foot of the
+Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes; so
+that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous
+cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an
+elevated, rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean
+from the newer and far more extensive farm lands of the west.
+For many years this southern projection of the northern wilderness
+was spanned by only one railway, and offered a serious
+hindrance to the development of the regions beyond; but
+settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly filling
+up the gap between east and west.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Interior Continental Plain.</i>&mdash;Passing westward by rail
+from the forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills,
+the flat prairie of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of
+flowers comes as a very striking contrast, introducing the Interior
+Continental plain in its most typical development. This great
+plain runs north-westward between the border of the Archean
+protaxis and the line of the Rocky Mountains, including most
+of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan and most of
+Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 49° it is 800 m.
+wide, but in lat. 56° it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and to
+the north of lat. 62° it is still narrower and somewhat interrupted,
+but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic Ocean
+about the mouth of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the
+continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was
+occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards
+the north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed limestones
+and other rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon
+the downward slope of the Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains
+are underlain by Cretaceous and early Tertiary shales and
+sandstones lying nearly unaltered and undisturbed where they
+were deposited, although now raised far above sea-level, particularly
+along the border of the Rocky Mountains where they
+were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised.
+These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing
+to their comparatively soft character this has been, in the main,
+nearly uniform, and has produced no very bold features of
+relief, Coal and lignitic coal are the principal economic minerals
+met with in this central plain, though natural gas occurs and is
+put to use near Medicine Hat, and &ldquo;tar sands&rdquo; along the north-eastern
+edge of the Cretaceous indicate the presence of petroleum.
+Its chief value lies in its vast tracts of fertile soil, now rapidly
+filling up with settlers from all parts of the world, and the grassy
+uplands in the foot-hill region affording perennial pasturage for
+the cattle, horses and sheep of the rancher. Though the region
+is spoken of as a plain there are really great differences of level
+between the highest parts in south-western Alberta, 4500 ft.
+above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake Winnipeg,
+where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very
+flat and rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial
+Lake Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently
+rolling character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the
+plain, the most westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri
+Coteau. The first step represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the
+second to 3000 ft. on an average. In so flat a country any elevation
+of a few hundred feet is remarkable and is called a mountain,
+so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding mountains. More
+important than the hills are the narrow and often rather deep
+river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks
+of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When
+not too deep the river channels may be traced from afar across
+the prairie by the winding band of trees growing beside the water.
+The treeless part of the plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular
+shape with an area twice as large as that of Great Britain. North
+of the Saskatchewan river groves or &ldquo;bluffs&rdquo; of trees begin,
+and somewhat farther north the plains are generally wooded,
+because of the slightly more humid climate. It has been proved,
+however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow also
+on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older farm-steads.
+In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough
+to permit of &ldquo;alkaline&rdquo; ponds and lakes, which may completely
+dry up in summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often
+hard to obtain, though the land itself is fertile.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cordilleran Belt.</i>&mdash;The Rocky Mountain region as a whole,
+best named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several
+parallel ranges of mountains of different structures and ages,
+the eastern one constituting the Rocky Mountains proper.
+This band of mountains 400 m. wide covers towards the south
+almost all of British Columbia and a strip of Alberta east of the
+watershed, and towards the north forms the whole of the Yukon
+Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous
+country, very complicated in its orographic features and interlocking
+river systems, two principal mountain axes form its
+ruling features&mdash;the Rocky Mountains proper, above referred
+to, and the Coast Ranges. Between them are many other
+ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as the Selkirk
+Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains.
+There is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau,
+once probably a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected
+by river valleys, which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a
+width of about 100 m. and affords the largest areas of arable
+and pasture land in British Columbia. Similar wide tracts of
+less broken country occur, after a mountainous interruption, in
+northern British Columbia and to some extent in the Yukon
+Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills alternate with
+short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific border
+of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and
+channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland
+between mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and
+there is also a bordering mountain system partly submerged
+forming Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands.
+The highest mountains of the Cordillera in Canada are near the
+southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from the Yukon
+Territory, the meridian of 141°, and they include Mount Logan
+(19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest
+peak in North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far
+to the north-west in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains,
+with Mount Fairweather and some others, all snowy and glacier-clad
+for almost their whole height, are quite isolated from the
+highest points of the Rocky Mountains proper, which are 1000 m.
+to the south-east. Near the height of land between British
+Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which rise from
+10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span>
+carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next
+range to the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach
+10,000 ft. or over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond
+9000 ft. The snow line in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft.
+above sea-level, being lower on the Pacific side where the heaviest
+snowfall comes in winter than on the drier north-eastern side.
+The snow line gradually sinks as one advances north-west,
+reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The
+Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not
+very large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All
+the glaciers are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines,
+hundreds or thousands of feet lower down the valley. The
+timber line is at about 7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and
+4000 ft. in the interior of the Yukon Territory. On the westward
+slopes, especially of the Selkirks and Coast Ranges, vegetation is
+almost tropical in its density and luxuriance, the giant cedar
+and the Douglas fir sometimes having diameters of 10 ft. or more
+and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the eastern flanks of the
+ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the interior plateau
+and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open grass land.
+The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different types of
+structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with
+their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming
+first, then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated
+in Cretaceous times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of
+granite and diorite as batholiths along the margin of the continent
+and sedimentary rocks lying as remnants on their flanks; and
+finally the Rocky Mountains in the Laramie or early Eocene,
+after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest and also highest
+range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific side,
+crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run
+from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along
+overturned folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually
+the form of tilted blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east
+and a gentler slope, corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards
+the south-west. Near the centre of the range there are broader
+foldings, carved into castle and cathedral shapes. The most
+easterly range has been shown to have been actually pushed
+7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains proper no
+eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of
+importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous synclines
+which they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a
+bituminous and also semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best
+mined on the Pacific slope of the continent, the coking coals of
+the Fernie region supplying the fuel of the great metal mining
+districts of the Kootenays in British Columbia, and of Montana
+and other states to the south. The Selkirks and Gold Ranges
+west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive rocks,
+both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines
+of gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its
+leadership among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals.
+In early days the placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser
+and Caribou attracted miners from everywhere, but these have
+declined, and lode mines supply most of the gold as well as the
+other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also include many
+mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less value
+than those inland. Most of the mining development is in
+southern British Columbia, where a network of railways and
+waterways gives easy access; but as means of communication
+improve to the north a similar development may be looked for
+there. The Atlin and White Horse regions in northern British
+Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much attention,
+and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished
+many millions of dollars&rsquo; worth of gold. Summing up the
+economic features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of
+the best coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold,
+copper, lead and zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and
+iron Ontario takes the lead. When its vast area stretching from
+the international boundary to beyond the Arctic circle is opened
+up, it may be expected to prove the counterpart of the great
+mining region of the Cordillera in the United States to the
+south.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42°
+to the Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must
+be great variations of climate. If placed upon Europe it would
+extend from Rome to the North Cape, but latitude is of course
+only one of the factors influencing climate, the arrangement of
+the ocean currents and of the areas of high and low pressure
+making a very wide difference between the climates of the two
+sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada,
+rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western
+Europe, the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48°
+to 50°, having a climate very similar to the southern coast of
+England. In Canada the isotherms by no means follow parallels
+of latitude, especially in summer when in the western half of the
+country they run nearly north-west and south-east; so that the
+average temperature of 55° is found about on the Arctic circle
+in the Mackenzie river valley, in lat. 50° near the Lake-of-the-Woods,
+in lat. 55° at the northern end of James Bay, and in
+lat. 49° on Anticosti in the Gulf of St Lawrence. The proximity
+of the sea or of great lakes, the elevation and the direction of
+mountain chains, the usual path of storms and of prevalent
+winds, and the relative length of day and amount of sunshine in
+summer and winter all have their effect on different parts of
+Canada. One cannot even describe the climate of a single
+province, like Ontario or British Columbia, as a unit, as it varies
+so greatly in different parts. Details should therefore be sought
+in articles on the separate provinces. In eastern Canada Ungava
+and Labrador are very chill and inhospitable, owing largely
+to the iceberg-laden current sweeping down the coast from
+Davis Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters and a
+temperature for the year much below the freezing-point. South
+of the Gulf of St Lawrence, however, the maritime provinces
+have much more genial temperatures, averaging 40° F. for the
+year and over 60° for the summer months. The amount of rain
+is naturally high so near the sea, 40 to 56 in., but the snowfall
+is not usually excessive. In Quebec and northern Ontario the
+rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40 in., while the snows
+of winter are deep and generally cover the ground from the beginning
+of December to the end of March. The winters are brilliant
+but cold, and the summers average from 60° to 65° F., with
+generally clear skies and a bracing atmosphere which makes
+these regions favourite summer resorts for the people of the
+cities to the south. The winter storms often sweep a little to
+the north of southern Ontario, so that what falls as snow in the
+north is rain in the south, giving a much more variable winter,
+often with too little snow for sleighing. The summers are warm,
+with an average temperature of 65° and an occasional rise to 90°.
+As one goes westward the precipitation diminishes to 17.34 in.
+in Manitoba and 13.35 for the other two prairie provinces, most
+of this, however, coming opportunely from May to August, the
+months when the growing grain most requires moisture. There
+is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in northern Ontario
+and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow
+and the frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing
+moisture to start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in
+southern Saskatchewan and Alberta is much more variable than
+farther east and north, so that in some seasons crops have been
+a failure through drought, but large areas are now being brought
+under irrigation to avoid such losses. The prairie provinces
+have in most parts a distinctly continental climate with comparatively
+short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but
+with much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta,
+however, the winter cold is often interrupted by chinooks,
+westerly winds which have lost their moisture by crossing the
+mountains and become warmed by plunging down to the plains,
+where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and raising the
+temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20° to 40° F.
+In this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the grass
+of the ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there
+may be heavy losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent
+and the winter&rsquo;s cold increases, but the coming of spring is not
+much later, and the summer temperatures, with sunshine for
+twenty hours out of twenty-four in June, are almost the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span>
+as for hundreds of miles to the south, so that most kinds of grain
+and vegetables ripen far to the north in the Peace river valley.
+Though the climate of the plains is one of extremes and often
+of rather sudden changes, it is brisk and invigorating and of
+particular value for persons affected with lung troubles.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more
+variety than that of the other provinces because of the ranges
+of mountains which run parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast
+itself the climate is insular, with little frost in winter and mild
+heat in summer, and with a very heavy rainfall amounting to
+100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver Island and near
+Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast Range
+the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario,
+comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the
+south, but with keen winters farther north. The interior
+plateau may be described as arid, so that irrigation is required
+if crops are to be raised. The Selkirk Mountains have a heavy
+rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on their western flanks, but
+very much less precipitation on their eastern side. The Rocky
+Mountains have the same relationships but the whole precipitation
+is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends
+largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from
+perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist
+climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire.
+In the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and
+Ungava the climate has been little studied, as the region is uninhabited
+by white men except at a few fur-trading posts.
+North-west and north-east of Hudson Bay it becomes too severe
+for the growth of trees as seen on the &ldquo;barren grounds,&rdquo; and
+there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of moss which
+serves as a non-conducting covering for the &ldquo;tundras.&rdquo; There
+is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate
+on the surface to form glaciers, the summer&rsquo;s sun having warmth
+enough to thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the maritime
+provinces, southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the
+Pacific coast region on the one hand, and the Arctic north,
+particularly near Hudson Bay, on the other, Canada has snowy
+and severe winters, a very short spring with a sudden rise of
+temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn
+with its &ldquo;Indian summer.&rdquo; There is much sunshine, and the
+atmosphere is bracing and exhilarating.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec
+and Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova
+Scotia a number of species are found common also to Newfoundland
+that are not apparent inland. Professor Macoun gives
+us a few notable species&mdash;<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>, Salisb., <i>Alchemilla
+vulgaris</i>, L., <i>Rhododendron maximum</i>, L., <i>Ilex glabia</i>, Gray,
+<i>Hudsonia ericoides</i>, L., <i>Gaylussacia dumosa</i>, F. and G., and
+<i>Schezaea pusilla</i>, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western flora
+begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while
+in the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies considerably.
+In the lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf
+many Arctic and sub-Arctic species are found. On the shores
+of the lower reaches <i>Thalictrum alpinum</i>, L., <i>Vesicaria arctica</i>,
+Richards, <i>Arapis alpina</i>, L., <i>Saxifraga oppositifolia</i>, L., <i>Cerastium
+alpinum</i>, L., <i>Saxifraga caespitosa</i>, L. and S. have been
+gathered, and on the Shickshock Mountains of Eastern Canada
+<i>Silene acaulis</i>, L., <i>Lychnis alpina</i>, L., <i>Cassiope hypnoides</i>, Don.,
+<i>Rhododendron laponicum</i>, Wahl, and many others. On the
+summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected <i>Aspidium
+aculeatum</i>, Swartz var., <i>Scopulinum</i>, D.C. Eaton, <i>Pellaea densa</i>,
+Hook, <i>Gallium kamtschaticum</i>, Sletten. From the city of
+Quebec westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of
+southern forms, and when the mountain (so called) at Montreal
+is reached the representative Ontario flora begins. In Ontario
+the flora of the northern part is much the same as that of the
+Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the Ottawa and
+St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect, and
+trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern
+parts of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions
+north of the lakes the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie
+requires a high winter temperature, while the east and north
+shores of Lake Superior have a boreal vegetation that shows
+the summer temperature of this enormous water-stretch to be
+quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come the
+prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the
+ravines the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then
+disappearing gives place to that of the prairie, which is found
+everywhere between the Red river and the Rocky Mountains
+except in wooded and damp localities. Northwards, in the
+Saskatchewan country, the flora of the forest and that of the
+prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the foot-hills of the
+Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found, several
+years&rsquo; collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of
+the best hay and pasture grasses, <i>Agropyrum Elymus, Stipa,
+Bromus, Agrostis, Calamagrostes</i> and <i>Poa</i>, there are 59 species.
+Besides the grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for
+pasture&mdash;<i>Astragalus, Vicia</i> (wild vetch), <i>Lathyrus</i> (wild pea) of
+which there are many species. The rose family is represented
+by <i>Prunus, Potentilla, Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus</i> and <i>Amelanchier</i>.</p>
+
+<p>About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are
+found <i>Ruppia maritima</i>, L., <i>Heliotropium curassavicum</i>, L.,
+natives of the Atlantic coast, and numerous species of <i>Chenopodium,
+Atriplex</i> and allied genera. The flora of the forest belt
+of the North-West Territories differs little from that of northern
+Ontario. At the beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains
+there is a luxurious growth of herbaceous plants, including
+a number of rare umbellifers. At the higher levels the vegetation
+becomes more Arctic. Northwards the valleys of the Peace and
+other rivers differ little from those of Quebec and the northern
+prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that is, the
+Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or
+Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp
+instead of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the
+south the flora is partly peculiar to the American desert, and
+such species as <i>Purshia tridentata</i>, D.C., and <i>Artemisia tridentata</i>,
+Nutt., and species of <i>Gilia, Aster</i> and <i>Erigonum</i> are found that
+are not met with elsewhere. Above Yale, in the drier part of the
+Fraser valley, the absence of rain results in the same character
+of flora, while in the rainy districts of the lower Fraser the
+vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that of the tropics.
+So in various parts of the mountainous country of British
+Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions.
+Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled
+with flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant,
+including <i>Erythoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritillarias,
+Siliums, Camassias</i> and others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and
+the caribou of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the
+far north; the caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces
+except in Prince Edward Island; the moose, with an equally
+wide range in the wooded country; the Virginia deer, in one or
+other of its varietal forms, common to all the southern parts;
+the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on the western
+edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn
+antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful
+bison found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called
+&ldquo;wood buffalo.&rdquo; The wapiti or American elk at one time
+abounded from Quebec to the Pacific, and as far north as the
+Peace river, but is now found only in small numbers from
+Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the
+grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear
+is also common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear
+everywhere along the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf
+is found in the wooded districts of all the provinces, and on the
+plains there is also a smaller wolf called the coyote. In British
+Columbia the puma or cougar, sometimes called the panther
+and the American lion, still frequently occurs; and in all parts the
+common fox and the silver fox, the lynx, beaver, otter, marten,
+fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other fur-bearing animals.
+Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are plentiful
+or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other circumstances.
+In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or Rocky
+Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span>
+saddleback and white mountain sheep have recently been discovered
+in the northern Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly
+migratory, and are those common to the northern and central
+states of the United States. The wildfowl are, particularly in
+the west, in great numbers; their breeding-grounds extending
+from Manitoba and the western prairies up to Hudson Bay, the
+barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of geese&mdash;
+including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the
+laughing goose, the brant and others&mdash;all breed in the northern
+regions, but are found in great numbers throughout the several
+provinces, passing north in the spring and south in the autumn.
+There are several varieties of grouse, the largest of which is the
+grouse of British Columbia and the pennated grouse and the
+prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains, besides the so-called
+partridge and willow partridge, both of which are grouse. While
+the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada) has
+always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a
+more recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which
+it had come from Illinois and the south as settlement and accompanying
+wheatfields extended north. In certain parts of Ontario
+the wild turkey is occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but
+in British Columbia is found the California quail, and a larger bird
+much resembling it called the mountain partridge. The golden
+eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and a large variety of hawks
+are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the horned owl
+and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently
+remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these,
+with the Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting,
+being the principal birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts
+in that season. The rook is not found, but the common crow
+and one or two other kinds are there during the summer. Song-birds
+are plentiful, especially in wooded regions, and include the
+American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird and various
+sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago,
+has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns.
+The smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is
+found everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains.
+The sea-birds include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cormorants,
+albatrosses (four species), fulmars and petrels, and in
+the Gulf of St Lawrence the gannet is very abundant. Nearly
+all the sea-birds of Great Britain are found in Canadian waters
+or are represented by closely allied species.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. P. C.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Area and Population.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the division
+of the Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital,
+population and estimated area of each.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">Area in sq. mi.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Official Capital.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Provinces&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Ontario</td> <td class="tcr rb">260,862</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,926,922</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,182,947</td> <td class="tcl rb">Toronto</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Quebec</td> <td class="tcr rb">351,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,359,027</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,648,898</td> <td class="tcl rb">Quebec</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Nova Scotia</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,428</td> <td class="tcr rb">440,572</td> <td class="tcr rb">459,574</td> <td class="tcl rb">Halifax</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;New Brunswick</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,985</td> <td class="tcr rb">321,233</td> <td class="tcr rb">331,120</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fredericton</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Manitoba</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,260</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,211<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">Winnipeg</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;British Columbia</td> <td class="tcr rb">372,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,459</td> <td class="tcr rb">178,657</td> <td class="tcl rb">Victoria</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Prince Edward Island</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,184</td> <td class="tcr rb">108,891</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,259</td> <td class="tcl rb">Charlottetown</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Saskatchewan</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,650</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 3em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">}</span>25,515</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,460<a href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">Regina</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Alberta</td> <td class="tcr rb">253,540</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,841<a href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">Edmonton</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Districts&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Keewatin</td> <td class="tcr rb">516,571</td> <td class="tcr rb" rowspan="5"><span style="font-size: 7em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #b0b0b0;">}</span>30,931</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,800</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Yukon</td> <td class="tcr rb">196,976</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,219</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dawson City</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Mackenzie</td> <td class="tcr rb">562,182</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,216</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Ungava</td> <td class="tcr rb">354,961</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,113</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&ensp;Franklin</td> <td class="tcr rb">500,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&ensp;The Dominion</td> <td class="tcr allb">3,745,574<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr allb">4,324,810</td> <td class="tcr allb">5,371,315</td> <td class="tcl allb">Ottawa</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces
+of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and
+Ontario (Upper Canada). In 1869 the North-west Territories
+were purchased from the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company, from a corner
+of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In 1871 British
+Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became
+a portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British possessions
+in North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its
+dependency, the Labrador coast, and the Bermuda islands,
+were annexed to Canada. West of the province of Ontario, then
+inaccurately defined, the provinces of Manitoba and British
+Columbia were the only organized divisions of the western
+territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia,
+Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving
+the remainder of the north-west as unorganized territories, a
+certain portion of the north-east, called Keewatin, having
+previously been placed under the lieutenant-governor of Manitoba.
+In 1905 these four districts were formed into the two
+provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin was
+placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing
+to the influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted
+and granted a limited measure of self-government. The unorganized
+territories are sparsely inhabited by Indians, the
+people of the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company&rsquo;s posts and a few
+missionaries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population</i>.&mdash;The growth of population is shown by the
+following figures:&mdash;1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891,
+4,833,239; 1901, 5,371,315. Since 1901 the increase has been
+more rapid, and in 1905 alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada,
+of whom about two-fifths were from Great Britain and one-third
+from the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island,
+where it is 51.6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22.3; New
+Brunswick, 11.8; Ontario, 9.9; Manitoba, 4.9; Quebec, 4.8;
+Saskatchewan, 1.01; Alberta, 0.72; British Columbia, 0.4;
+the Dominion, 1.8. This is not an indication of the density in
+settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and the western provinces
+there are large unpopulated districts, the area of which enters
+into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of
+English- or French-speaking people, but there are German
+settlements of some extent in Ontario, and of late years there
+has been a large immigration into the western provinces and
+territories from other parts of Europe, including Russians,
+Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and Scandinavians. These
+foreign elements have been assimilated
+more slowly than in the United States,
+but the process is being hastened by
+the growth of a national consciousness.
+English, Irish and Scots and their
+descendants form the bulk of the population
+of Ontario, French-Canadians of
+Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish
+of a large proportion of New Brunswick.
+In the other provinces the latter race
+tends to confine itself to the cities.
+Manitoba is largely peopled from Ontario,
+together with a decreasing number
+of half-breeds&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> children of white
+fathers (chiefly French or Scottish) and
+Indian mothers&mdash;who originally formed
+the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and
+Saskatchewan, particularly the ranching
+districts, are chiefly peopled by English
+immigrants, though since 1900 there has
+also been a large influx from the United States. British
+Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the
+mining districts a large proportion is American. Since 1871
+a great change has taken place throughout the west,
+<i>i.e.</i> from Lake Superior to the Pacific. Then Manitoba was
+principally inhabited by English and French half-breeds (or
+Métis), descendants of Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company&rsquo;s employes, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span>
+adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers,
+descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (<i>q.v.</i>), some
+English army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigration
+that shortly followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba
+buffalo were still running on the plains, and British Columbia
+having lost its mining population of 1859 and 1860 was largely
+inhabited by Indians, its white population which centred in the
+city of Victoria being principally English.</p>
+
+<p>French is the language of the province of Quebec, though
+English is much spoken in the cities; both languages are officially
+recognized in that province, and in the federal courts and parliament.
+Elsewhere, English is exclusively used, save by the
+newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex is slightly the more
+numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the greatest
+discrepancy existing in British Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families
+of twelve to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in
+Ontario. In spite of the growth of manufactures since 1878,
+there are few large cities, and the proportion of the urban
+population to the rural is small. Herein it differs noticeably
+from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of farmers
+in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and
+there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a
+manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large
+tracts in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for
+cultivation and are being opened up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion</i>.&mdash;There is no established church in Canada, but in
+the province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the
+Roman Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that
+province about 87% of the population belongs to this church,
+which is strong in the others also, embracing over two-fifths of
+the population of the Dominion. The Protestants have shown
+a tendency to subdivision, and many curious and ephemeral
+sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the various sections
+of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united, and a
+working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians,
+Methodists and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the
+strongest, and in Ontario form over 30% of the population.
+Next come the Presbyterians, the backbone of the maritime
+provinces. The Church of England is strong in the cities,
+especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief
+in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them
+90% are nominally Christian.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indians</i>.&mdash;The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and
+has slightly increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia
+and the unorganized territories, nearly all of these are on reservations,
+where they are under government supervision, receiving
+an annuity in money and a certain amount of provisions; and
+where, by means of industrial schools and other methods,
+civilized habits are slowly superseding their former mode of life.
+British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along the
+coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in
+the interior. An almost equal number are found in the three
+prairie provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000,
+are more civilized than those of the west, many of them being
+good farmers. In all the provinces they are under the control
+of the federal government which acts as their trustee, investing
+the money which they derive chiefly from the sale of lands and
+timber, and making a large annual appropriation for the payment
+of their annuities, schools and other expenses. While
+unable to alienate their reservations, save to the federal government,
+they are not confined to them, but wander at pleasure.
+As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are given
+the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario.
+A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make
+incomparable guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties,
+on which they will cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships,
+though tending to shrink from regular employment in cities or
+on farms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orientals</i>.&mdash;The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1906 about
+20,000, of whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though
+they were spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as
+laundrymen. They are as a rule frugal, industrious and law-abiding,
+and are feared rather for their virtues than for their
+vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on all Chinese entering
+Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to £100 ($500). British
+Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the
+Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance</i>.&mdash;Since 1871 the decimal system of coinage, corresponding
+to that of the United States, has been the only one
+employed. One dollar is divided into one hundred cents
+(£1 = $4.86<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>). The money in circulation consists of a limited
+number of notes issued by the federal government, and the
+notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and
+copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England,
+but in that year a branch of the royal mint was established at
+Ottawa. Though the whole financial system rests on the maintenance
+of the gold standard, gold coin plays a much smaller
+part in daily business than in England, France or Germany.
+United States&rsquo; notes and silver are usually received at par; those
+of other nations are subject to a varying rate of exchange.</p>
+
+<p>The banking system, which retains many features of the
+Scotch system, on which it was originally modelled, combines
+security for the note-holders and depositors with prompt increase
+and diminution of the circulation in accordance with the varying
+conditions of trade. This is especially important in a country
+where the large wheat crop renders an additional quantity of
+money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and
+winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the
+&ldquo;wild cat&rdquo; banking, which had such disastrous effects in the early
+days of the western states. Since federation no chartered bank
+has been compelled to liquidate without paying its note-holders
+in full. The larger banks are chartered by the federal government;
+in the smaller towns a number of private banks remain,
+but their importance is small, owing to the great facilities given
+to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906 there
+were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from
+619 in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has
+rapidly increased. The banks are required by law to furnish
+to the finance minister detailed monthly statements which are
+published in the official gazette. Once in every ten years the
+banking act is revised and weaknesses amended. Clearing-houses
+have been established in the chief commercial centres.
+In October 1906 the chartered banks had an aggregate paid-up
+capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of $83,000,000
+and deposits of over $553,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada:&mdash;(1) the
+post-office savings banks; (2) the government savings banks
+of the Maritime provinces taken over at federation and being
+gradually merged with the former; (3) two special savings banks
+in the cities of Montreal and Quebec; (4) the savings bank
+departments of the chartered banks. The rate of interest
+allowed by the government is now 3%, and the chartered banks
+usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in
+the first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546
+in October 1906. The returns from the chartered banks do not
+specify the deposits in these special accounts.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain
+banking privileges.</p>
+
+<p>The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and
+excise duties, with subsidiary amounts from mining licences,
+timber dues, post-office, &amp;c. Both the revenue and the expenditure
+have in recent years increased greatly, the revenue rising
+from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in 1905 and the expenditure
+keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion in 1873
+and in 1905 was:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1873.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gross debt</td> <td class="tcr rb">$129,743,432</td> <td class="tcr rb">$377,678,580</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Assets</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,894,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,454,413</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Net debt</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">98,848,462</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">266,224,413</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>While the debt had thus increased faster than the population,
+it weighed less heavily on the people, not only on account of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span>
+great increase in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower
+rate of interest paid, and of the increasing revenue derived from
+assets. Whereas in 1867 the rate of interest was over 4%, and
+interest was being paid on former provincial loans of over 6%,
+Canada could in 1906 borrow at 3%.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the
+debts of the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure
+on canals and assistance given to railways. It does not include
+the debts incurred by certain provinces since federation, a
+matter which concerns themselves alone. A strong prejudice
+against direct taxation exists, and none is imposed by the
+federal government, though it has been tentatively introduced
+in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor
+licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &amp;c. British
+Columbia has a direct tax on property and on income. The
+cities, towns and municipalities resort to it to supply their local
+needs, and there is a tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario
+on account of the excellence of her municipal system, to devolve
+the burden of educational payments, and others more properly
+provincial, upon the municipal authorities on the plea of
+decentralization.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce and Manufactures.</i>&mdash;Since 1867 the opening up of
+the fertile lands in the north-west, the increase of population,
+the discovery of new mineral fields, the construction of railways
+and the great improvement of the canal system have changed
+the conditions, methods and channels of trade. The great
+extension during the same period of the use of water-power has
+been of immense importance to Canada, most of the provinces
+possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls, capable
+of generating a practically unlimited supply of power.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 the introduction of the so-called &ldquo;National Policy&rdquo;
+of protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection
+still remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a
+preference accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most
+of the British colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared
+with that of the United States, amounted in 1907 to about 28%
+on dutiable imports and to about 16% on total imports.
+Tentative attempts at export duties have also been made.
+Inter-provincial
+commerce is free, and the home market is greatly
+increasing in importance. The power to make commercial
+treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great
+Britain, but in most cases the official consent of Canada is
+required, and for many years no treaty repugnant to her interests
+has been signed. The denunciation by the British government
+in 1897 of commercial treaties with Belgium and Germany, at
+the request of Canada, was a striking proof of her increasing
+importance, and attempts have at various times been made to
+obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government.
+The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is
+with the United States and Great Britain. From the former
+come most of the manufactured goods imported and large
+quantities of raw materials; to the latter are sent food-stuffs.
+Farm products are the most important export, and with the
+extension of this industry in the north-west provinces and in
+northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold, silver,
+copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an
+unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The
+exports of lumber are about equally divided between the two.
+Formerly, the logs were shipped as square timber, but now
+almost always in the form of deals, planks or laths; such square
+timber as is still shipped goes almost entirely to Great Britain.
+Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper is exported chiefly to
+the United States. To that country fresh fish is sent in large
+quantities, and there is an important trade in canned salmon
+between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the
+manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an
+increasing share of the home market. In this they have won
+increased success, at least five-sixths of the manufactured goods
+used being produced within the country, but a desire for further
+protection is loudly expressed. Though the chief foreign
+commerce is with Great Britain and the United States, the
+Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of the
+world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her
+total foreign trade (import and export) was in 1906 over
+£100,000,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shipping</i>.&mdash;The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax,
+N.S., Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal
+on the Atlantic; and Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C.,
+on the Pacific. Halifax is the ocean terminus of the Intercolonial
+railway; St John, Halifax and Vancouver of the Canadian
+Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western terminus of the
+Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an uninhabited
+harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing city.
+Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the
+winter trade eastwards is done through American harbours,
+especially Portland, Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey.
+Esquimalt, Halifax, Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-equipped
+graving-docks. The coast, both of the ocean and of
+the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected. The decay of the
+wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the comparative
+importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a great
+increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon
+inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada
+and Great Britain; direct communication exists with France,
+and the steamers of the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly
+to Japan and to Australia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Internal Communications</i>.&mdash;Her splendid lakes and rivers,
+the development of her canal system, and the growth of railways
+have made the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than
+her foreign, and the portfolio of railways and canals is one of
+the most important in the cabinet. There are, nominally, about
+200 railways, but about one-half of these, comprising five-sixths
+of the mileage, have been amalgamated into four great systems:
+the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian Northern
+and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or less
+consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected
+the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across
+Prince Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal
+government. Originally built chiefly as a military road, and
+often the victim of political exigencies, it has not been a commercial
+success. With the completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific
+(planned for 1911) and the Canadian Northern, the country
+would possess three trans-continental railways, and be free from
+the reproach, so long hurled at it, of possessing length without
+breadth.</p>
+
+<p>At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made
+with the railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given
+by the federal, provincial and municipal governments to the
+construction of railways, amounting often to more than half
+the cost of the road. The government of Ontario has constructed
+a line to open up the agricultural and mining districts
+of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of a
+commission. Practically all the cities<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and large towns have
+electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power
+on many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding
+towns and villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government
+has instituted a railway commission of three members with
+large powers of control over freight and passenger rates and
+other such matters. Telephone and express companies are also
+subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an appeal may
+be made to the governor-general in council, <i>i.e.</i> to the federal
+cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways
+and has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a somewhat
+similar commission, appointed by the local government,
+exercises extensive powers of control over railways solely
+within the province, especially over the electric lines.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain
+important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers
+ply on lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far
+northern districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary
+obstacles are surmounted by canals, on which over £22,000,000
+have been spent, chiefly since federation. The St Lawrence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span>
+river canal system from Lake Superior to tide water overcomes
+a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large quantities of
+grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer navigation
+on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft.
+on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels
+on equal terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most
+modern character. So great, however, is the desire to shorten
+the time and distance necessary for the transportation of grain
+from Lake Superior to Montreal that an increasing quantity
+is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron and Georgian Bay
+ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller canals
+bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the
+Hudson river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn
+lumber of Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick find their
+destination. It has long been a Canadian ideal to shorten the
+distance from Lake Superior to the sea. With this object
+in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been built,
+connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of
+Lake Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently
+surveys were made with a view to connecting the Georgian
+Bay through the intervening water stretches, with the Ottawa
+river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903 all tolls were
+taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mining</i>.&mdash;The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton
+to the islands in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova
+Scotia, British Columbia and the Yukon are still the most
+productive, but the northern parts of Ontario are proving
+rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly bituminous, occurs
+in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia and in
+various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the
+anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater
+part of the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus
+of federal bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel,
+chiefly from imported ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on
+certain minerals and metals are also given by some of the
+provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though still valuable,
+show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the centre
+of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly
+in American hands, and the product exported to the United
+States. Of the less important minerals, Canada is the world&rsquo;s
+chief producer of asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver
+and all the important metals are mined in the Rocky Mountain
+district. From Quebec westwards, vast regions are still partly,
+or completely, unexplored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lumber</i>.&mdash;In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by
+fire, the forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the
+world. Measures have been taken, both by the provincial and
+the federal governments, for its preservation, and for re-forestation
+of depleted areas. Certain provinces prohibit the exportation
+of logs to the United States, in order to promote the growth
+of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware within the
+country, and the latter have of late years developed with great
+rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered
+from lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the
+greater demand from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+A great development has also taken place in Ontario and the
+eastern provinces, through the use of spruce and other trees,
+long considered comparatively useless, in the manufacture of
+wood-pulp for paper-making.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crown Lands</i>.&mdash;Large areas of unoccupied land remain in
+all the provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba,
+Saskatchewan, Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British
+Columbia and the territories, these crown lands are chiefly
+owned by the federal parliament; in the other provinces, by
+the local legislatures. So great is their extent that, in spite
+of the immigration of recent years, the Dominion government
+gives a freehold of 160 acres to every <i>bona fide</i> settler, subject
+to certain conditions of residence and the erection of buildings
+during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold
+or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by
+the provinces must be paid for, save in certain districts of
+Ontario, where free grants are given, but the price charged is
+low. The Canadian Pacific railway controls large land areas
+in the two new provinces; and large tracts in these provinces
+are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion and the
+provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be
+preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of
+these the most extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff,
+Alberta, owned by the Dominion government, and the &ldquo;Algonquin
+National Park,&rdquo; north-east of Lake Simcoe, the property
+of Ontario.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries</i>.&mdash;The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic
+coast, carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
+Prince Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec.
+Cod, herring, mackerel and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught,
+though halibut, salmon, anchovies and so-called sardines are
+also exported. Bounties to encourage deep-sea fishing have
+been given by the federal government since 1882. In British
+Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in addition to
+which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and shellfish.
+The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish,
+sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find
+more or less permanent employment in the fishing industry,
+including the majority of the Indians of British Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent
+in the North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria,
+but the returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as
+one causing friction with the United States. Indeed, no department
+of national life has caused more continual trouble between
+the two peoples than the fisheries, owing to different laws
+regarding fish protection, and the constant invasion by each
+of the territorial waters of the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education</i>.&mdash;The British North America Act imposes on the
+provincial legislatures the duty of legislating on educational
+matters, the privileges of the denominational and separate
+schools in Ontario and Quebec being specially safeguarded. In
+1871, the New Brunswick legislature abolished the separate
+school system, and a contest arose which was finally settled by
+the authority of the legislature being sustained, though certain
+concessions were made to the Roman Catholic dissentients.
+Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where the
+legislature in 1890 abolished the system of separate schools
+which had been established in 1871. After years of bitter
+controversy, in which a federal ministry was overthrown, a
+compromise was arranged in 1897, in which the Roman Catholic
+leaders have never fully acquiesced. In the provinces of Alberta
+and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain educational privileges,
+(though not amounting to a separate school system) were
+granted to the Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of
+education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read
+and write, and 86% of those over five years of age. These
+percentages have gradually risen ever since federation, especially
+in the province of Quebec, which was long in a backward state.
+The school systems of all the provinces are, in spite of certain
+imperfections, efficient and well-equipped, that of Ontario
+being especially celebrated. A fuller account of their special
+features will be found under the articles on the different
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in
+number with the growth of the country in wealth and culture.
+In Quebec are a number of so-called classical colleges, most of
+them affiliated with Laval University.</p>
+
+<p>Higher education was originally organized by the various
+religious bodies, each of which retains at least one university
+in more or less integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick,
+Ontario and Manitoba support provincial universities at
+Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg. Those of most importance<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+are:&mdash;Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. (1818); the University
+of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800); McGill
+University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec,
+and Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen&rsquo;s University, Kingston, Ont.
+(1841); the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span>
+Trinity University, Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria University,
+Toronto, Ont. (1836); the University of Ottawa,
+Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
+Man. (1877).</p>
+
+<p>Of these McGill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montreal</a></span>) is especially noted for the
+excellence of its training in practical and applied science. Many
+of the students, especially in the departments of medicine and
+theology, complete their education in the United States, Britain
+or Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries,
+that of Toronto being especially well-equipped.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is
+the Royal Society of Canada, founded in 1881.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defence</i>.&mdash;The command in chief of all naval and military
+forces is vested in the king, but their control rests with the
+federal parliament. The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries
+protection service, are under the minister of marine and fisheries,
+the land forces under the minister of militia and defence. Prior
+to 1903, command of the latter was vested in a British officer,
+but since then has been entrusted to a militia council, of which
+the minister is president. The fortified harbours of Halifax
+(N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905 maintained and
+garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since been
+taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the
+permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had numbered
+about 1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in
+various schools, chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In
+this all able-bodied citizens between the ages of 18 and 60 are
+nominally enrolled, but the active militia consists of about
+45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying state of efficiency. These
+cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion, though
+special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was done
+during the war in South Africa (1899-1902). At Quebec is a
+Dominion arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps
+flourish in most of the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the
+Royal Military College, to the successful graduates of which a
+certain number of commissions in the British service is annually
+awarded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice and Crime</i>.&mdash;Justice is well administered throughout
+the country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has
+been little of the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia
+and the United States. For this great credit is due to the
+&ldquo;North-west mounted police,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Riders of the Plains,&rdquo;
+a highly efficient body of about seven hundred men, under the
+control of the federal government. Judges are appointed for
+life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed save by
+impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never
+attempted since federation, though more than once threatened.
+From the decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be
+made to the judicial committee of the imperial privy council.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The Canadian Geological Survey has published
+(Ottawa, since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number
+of subjects. Several provinces have bureaus or departments of
+mines, also issuing reports. The various departments of the federal
+and the provincial governments publish annual reports and frequent
+special reports, such as the decennial report on the census, from
+which a vast quantity of information may be obtained. Most of this is
+summed up in the annual <i>Statistical Year Book of Canada</i> and in the
+<i>Official Handbook of the Dominion of Canada</i>, issued at frequent
+intervals by the Department of the Interior. See also J.W. White
+(the Dominion geographer), <i>Atlas of Canada</i> (1906); J. Castell
+Hopkins, <i>Canada: an Encyclopaedia</i> (6 vols., 1898-1900); <i>The
+Canadian Annual Review</i> (yearly since 1902), replacing H.J.
+Morgan&rsquo;s <i>Canadian Annual Register</i> (1878-1886); Sir J.W. Dawson,
+<i>Handbook of Canadian Geology</i> (1889); George Johnson, <i>Alphabet
+of First Things in Canada</i> (3rd ed., 1898); A.G. Bradley, <i>Canada
+in the Twentieth Century</i> (1903); <i>Transactions of the Royal Society
+of Canada</i> (yearly since 1883); R.C. Breckenridge, <i>The Canadian
+Banking System</i> (1895); A. Shortt, <i>History of Canadian Banking</i>
+(1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, <i>The Intercolonial</i> (1876); John
+Davidson, &ldquo;Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces&rdquo;
+(<i>Economic Journal,</i> June 1905); <i>Transactions of the Royal Society
+of Canada, passim</i>, for valuable papers by H.M. Ami, A.P. Coleman,
+G.M. Dawson, W.F. Ganong, B.J. Harrington and others; also
+articles in <i>Canadian Economics</i> and in the <i>Handbook of Canada,</i>
+published on the occasion of visits of the British Association.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. L. G.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Agriculture</p>
+
+<p>Canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of the
+total population (estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are
+directly engaged in practical agriculture. In addition large
+numbers are engaged in industries arising out of agriculture;
+among these are manufacturers of agricultural implements,
+millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and packers of meat, makers
+of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in the transportation
+and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats, butter, cheese,
+milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. The country is
+splendidly formed for the production of food. Across the
+continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or
+wider than France, with (over a large part of this area) a climate
+adapted to the production of foods of superior quality. Since
+the opening of the 20th century, great progress has been made
+in the settlement and agricultural development of the western
+territories between the provinces of Manitoba and British
+Columbia. The three &ldquo;North-West Provinces&rdquo; (Manitoba,
+Saskatchewan, Alberta) have a total area of 369,869,898 acres,
+of which 12,853,120 acres are water. In 1906 their population
+was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1901. The land in
+this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are
+very rich in the constituents of plant food. Chemical analyses
+made by Mr F.T. Shutt have proved that soils from the North-West
+Provinces contain an average of 18,000 &#8468; of nitrogen,
+15,580 &#8468; of potash and 6,700 &#8468; of phosphoric acid per acre,
+these important elements of plant food being therefore present
+in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary cultivated
+European soils of good quality. The prairie lands of Manitoba
+and Saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. Horse
+and cattle ranching is practised in Alberta, where the milder
+winters allow of the outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater
+degree than is possible in the colder parts of Canada. The
+freezing of the soil in winter, which at first sight seems a drawback,
+retains the soluble nitrates which might otherwise be drained out.
+The copious snowfall protects vegetation, supplies moisture, and
+contributes nitrogen to the soil. The geographical position of
+Canada, its railway systems and steamship service for freight
+across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, are favourable to the
+extension of the export trade in farm products to European and
+oriental countries. Great progress has been made in the development
+of the railway systems of Canada, and the new transcontinental
+line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, passing through
+Saskatchewan via Saskatoon, and Alberta via Edmonton,
+renders possible of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing
+soil. The canal system of Canada, linking together the great
+natural waterways, is also of much present and prospective
+importance in cheapening the transportation of agricultural
+produce.</p>
+
+<p>Of <i>wheat</i> many varieties are grown. The methods of cultivation
+do not involve the application of so much hand labour per
+acre as in Europe. The average yield of wheat for the
+whole of Canada is nearly 20 bushels per acre. In
+<span class="sidenote">Crops</span>
+1901 the total production of wheat in Canada was 55½ million
+bushels. In 1906 the estimated total production was 136
+million bushels. The total wheat acreage, which at the census
+of 1901 was 4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of
+nearly two million acres in five years.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the close of the 19th century, Ontario was the largest
+wheat-growing province in Canada. In 1900 the wheat acreage
+in Ontario was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an
+average yield of 19.10 bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of
+this production was of fall or winter wheat, the average yield
+of which in Ontario over a series of years since 1883 had been
+about 20 bushels per acre. But the predominance in wheat-growing
+has now shifted to the new prairie regions of the west.
+A census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of wheat in
+the North-West Provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824
+bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21.84 bushels
+per acre. Of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in
+Manitoba, 2,117,484 acres in Saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span>
+in Alberta, with average yields per acre at the rates of 20.02
+bushels in Manitoba, 23.70 in Saskatchewan and 26.49 in Alberta.
+In these provinces spring wheat is almost universally sown,
+except in Alberta where fall or winter wheat is also sown to a
+considerable extent. Summer fallowing for wheat is a practice
+that has gained ground in the North-West Provinces. Land
+ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the
+summer, is sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring.
+Wheat on summer fallow land yielded, according to the North-West
+census of 1906, from 2 to 8 bushels per acre more than that
+sown on other land. Summer fallowing is, however, subject to
+one drawback: the strong growth which it induces is apt to
+retard the ripening of the grain. Canada is clearly destined to
+rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries of
+the world. The northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have
+not been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat
+were grown in 1907 at Fort Vermilion on the Peace river, nearly
+600 m. north of Winnipeg in lat. 58.34 and at Fort Simpson on
+the Mackenzie river in lat. 61.52, more than 800 m. north of
+Winnipeg and about 1000 m. north of the United States
+boundary. As a rule the weather during the harvesting period
+permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage from
+sprouting. Occasionally in certain localities in the north-west
+the grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as
+the proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate
+becomes modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less.
+The loss from this cause is also less than formerly, because
+any grain unfit for export is now readily purchased for the
+feeding of animals in Ontario and other parts of eastern
+Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in
+general use, so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat
+is ground. This gives Canadian wheat excellent milling properties,
+and enables the millers to turn out flour uniform in
+quality and of high grade as to keeping properties. Canadian
+flour has a high reputation in European markets. It is known
+as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread,
+and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albuminoids
+being greater in Canadian flour than in the best brands of
+European. Owing to its possession of this characteristic of what
+millers term &ldquo;strength,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the relative capacity of flour to
+make large loaves of good quality, Canadian flour is largely in
+demand for blending with the flour of the softer English wheats.
+For this reason some of the strong Canadian wheats have commanded
+in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter more than
+English-grown wheat. At the general census of 1901 the number
+of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five
+persons and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes
+being 4251 and the value of products $31,835,873. A special
+census of manufactures in 1906 shows that these figures had
+grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619 employes and
+$56,703,269 value of the products. There is room for a great
+extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and
+exportation of flour.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelve months of 1907 Canada exported 37,503,057
+bushels of wheat of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485
+barrels of flour of the value of $7,626,408. The corresponding
+figures in 1900 were&mdash;wheat, 16,844,650 bushels, value, $11,995,488,
+and flour, 768,162 bushels, value, $2,791,885.</p>
+
+<p>Oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from Prince
+Edward Island on the Atlantic coast to Vancouver Island on the
+Pacific coast. Over large areas the Canadian soil and climate
+are admirably adapted for producing oats of heavy weight per
+bushel. In all the provinces of eastern Canada the acreage under
+oats greatly exceeds that under wheat. The annual average
+oat crop in all Canada is estimated at about 248 million bushels.
+As the total annual export of oats is now less than three million
+bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an advantage
+in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In 1907 the area under
+oats in Ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301
+bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage
+under hay and larger than the combined total of the other
+principal cereals grown in the province. Canadian oatmeal is
+equal in quality to the best. It is prepared in different forms,
+and in various degrees of fineness.</p>
+
+<p>Barley was formerly grown for export to the United States
+for malting purposes. After the raising of the duty on barley
+under the McKinley and Dingley tariffs that trade was practically
+destroyed and Canadian farmers were obliged to find other uses
+for this crop. Owing to the development of the trade with the
+mother-country in dairying and meat products, barley as a home
+feeding material has become more indispensable than ever.
+Before the adoption of the McKinley tariff about nine million
+bushels of barley were exported annually, involving the loss of
+immense stores of plant food. In 1907, with an annual production
+of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage was
+exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of
+produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. The
+preparation of pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry.</p>
+
+<p>Rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human
+food. Flour from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from Indian
+corn are preferred.</p>
+
+<p>Buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some
+districts for the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple
+syrup. These two make an excellent breakfast dish, characteristic
+of Canada and some of the New England states. There are
+also numerous forms of preparations from cereals, sold as breakfast
+foods, which, owing to the high quality of the grains grown
+in Canada and the care exercised in their manufacture, compare
+favourably with similar products in other countries.</p>
+
+<p>Peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with
+insect pests. Split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and
+sweet peas for canning are obtained of good quality.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of
+the diet of the people. There is a comparatively small export,
+except in the case of turnips and potatoes and of vegetables
+which have been canned or dried. Besides potatoes, which
+thrive well and yield large quantities of excellent quality, there
+are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. The cultivation of
+sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been established
+in Ontario and in southern Alberta, where in 1906 an acreage
+under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of
+8.13 tons per acre. Among the common vegetables used in the
+green state are peas, beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus,
+Indian corn, onions, leeks, tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery,
+parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash and rhubarb. Hay, of
+good quality of timothy (<i>Phleum pratense</i>), and also of timothy
+and clover, is grown over extensive areas. For export it is put
+up in bales of about 150 &#8468; each. Since 1899 a new form of
+pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to
+stow in about 70 cub. ft. per ton. This has been a means of
+reducing the ocean freight per ton. The compact condition
+permits the hay to be kept with less deterioration of quality
+than under the old system of more loose baling. Austrian brome
+grass (<i>Bromus inermis</i>) and western rye grass (<i>Agropyrum
+tenerum</i>) are both extensively grown for hay in the North-West
+Provinces.</p>
+
+<p>The almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns
+has not led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to
+the extent that was at one time anticipated. Heavy
+draught horses are reared in Ontario, and to a less
+<span class="sidenote">Live stock.</span>
+but increasing extent in the North-West Provinces,
+the breeds being mainly the Clydesdale and the Shire.
+Percherons are also bred in different parts of Canada, and a
+few Belgian draught horses have been introduced. Good
+horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs, omnibuses,
+and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local
+markets and for export. Thoroughbred and pure bred hackney
+stallions are maintained in private studs and by agricultural
+associations throughout the Dominion, and animals for cavalry
+and mounted infantry remounts are produced in all the provinces
+including those of the North-West. Useful carriage horses
+and saddle horses are bred in many localities. Horse ranching
+is practised largely in Alberta. There are no government
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span>
+stud farms. The total number of horses in the Dominion was
+estimated on the basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the
+year 1907, an increase of 609,309 since 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance.
+The bracing weather of Canadian winters is followed by the
+warmth and humidity of genial summers, under which crops
+grow in almost tropical luxuriance, while the cool evenings and
+nights give the plants a robustness of quality which is not
+to be found in tropical regions, and also make life for the various
+domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. In the North-West
+Provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which
+cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks
+are shipped annually. Throughout other parts bullocks are
+fed on pasture land, and also in stables on nourishing and
+succulent feed such as hay, Indian corn fodder, Indian corn
+silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats, barley, peas,
+Indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. The breeding
+of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of
+dairy cows for the production of milk, butter and cheese,
+has received much attention. There is government control of
+the spaces on the steamships in which the cattle are carried,
+and veterinary inspection prevents the exportation of diseased
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable trade has been established in the exportation
+of dressed beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation
+of meat and other foods in hermetically sealed receptacles.
+By the Meat and Canned Foods Act of 1907 of the Dominion
+parliament and regulations thereunder, the trade is carried
+on under the strictest government supervision, and no canned
+articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely
+wholesome and officially marked as such by government
+inspectors. There is a considerable trade in &ldquo;lunch tongues.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The cattle breeds are principally those of British origin.
+For beef, shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways and Aberdeen-Angus
+cattle are bred largely, whilst for dairying purposes,
+shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys, Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians
+prevail. The French-Canadian cattle are highly esteemed in
+eastern Canada, especially by the farmers of the French provinces.
+They are a distinct breed of Jersey and Brittany type, and
+are stated to be descended from animals imported from France
+by the early settlers. The estimated number of cattle in Canada
+in 1907 was 7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures
+of the census of 1901.</p>
+
+<p>All parts of the Dominion are well adapted for sheep; but
+various causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity
+of other branches of agriculture, including wheat-growing and
+dairying, have in several of the provinces contributed to prevent
+that attention to this branch which its importance deserves,
+though there are large areas of rolling, rugged yet nutritious
+pastures well suited to sheep-farming. In the maritime provinces
+and in Prince Edward Island sheep and lambs are reared in large
+numbers. In Ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree
+of perfection, and other parts of the American continent draw
+their supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province.
+All the leading British varieties are reared, the Shropshire,
+Oxford Down, Leicester and Cotswold breeds being most
+numerous. There are also excellent flocks of Lincolns and Southdowns.
+The number of sheep and lambs in Canada was estimated
+for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565
+in 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Pigs, mostly of the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth
+breeds, are reared and fattened in large numbers, and there
+is a valuable export trade in bacon. Canadian hogs are fed,
+as a rule, on feeds suited for the production of what are known
+as &ldquo;fleshy sides.&rdquo; Bacon with an excess of fat is not wanted,
+except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers of
+Canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having
+plenty of lean and firm flesh. The great extension of the dairy
+business has fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of
+swine. Experimental work has shown that swine fattened with
+a ration partly of skim-milk were lustier and of a more healthy
+appearance than swine fattened wholly on grains. Slaughtering
+and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing houses. The
+use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork
+has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a
+small percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered
+in European markets. Regular supplies are exported during
+every week of the year. Large quantities of lard, brawn and
+pigs&rsquo; feet are exported. In 1907 the number of pigs in Canada
+was estimated at 3,530,060, an increase of 1,237,385 over the
+census record of 1901. Turkeys thrive well, grow to a fine
+size and have flesh of tender quality. Chickens are raised
+in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly
+since the opening of the 20th century. Canadian eggs are
+usually packed in cases containing thirty dozens each. Cardboard
+fillers are used which provide a separate compartment
+for each egg. There are cold storage warehouses at various
+points in Canada, at which the eggs are collected, sorted and
+packed before shipment. These permit the eggs to be landed
+in Europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with
+the shells quite full.</p>
+
+<p>Canada has been called the land of milk and honey. Milk
+is plentiful, and enters largely into the diet of the people.
+With a climate which produces healthy, vigorous animals,
+notably free from epizootic diseases, with a fertile
+<span class="sidenote">Dairy products.</span>
+soil for the growth of fodder crops and pasture, with
+abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful supply
+of ice, the conditions in Canada are ideal for the dairying
+industry. Large quantities of condensed milk, put up in
+hermetically sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and
+on board steamships. The cheese is chiefly of the variety known
+as &ldquo;Canadian Cheddar.&rdquo; It is essentially a food cheese rather
+than a mere condiment, and 1 &#8468; of it will furnish as much
+nourishing material as 2¼ &#8468; of the best beefsteak. The industry
+is largely carried on by co-operative associations of farmers.
+The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864,
+and from that time the production and exportation of cheese
+grew rapidly. Legislation was passed to protect Canadian
+dairy produce from dishonest manipulation, and soon Canadian
+cheese obtained a deservedly high reputation in the British
+markets. In 1891 cheese factories and creameries numbered
+1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. In 1908 there were 4355
+of these factories, of which 1284 were in Ontario, 2806 in
+Quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of Canada.
+Those in Ontario are the largest in size. Amongst the British
+imports of cheese the Canadian product ranks first in quality,
+whilst in quantity it represents about 72% of the total value
+of the cheese imports, and 84% of the total value of the imports
+of that kind of cheese which is classed as Cheddar. In 1906
+the total exports of cheese to all countries from Canada reached
+215,834,543 &#8468; of the value of $24,433,169.</p>
+
+<p>Butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk,
+cream and butter are handled by skilled makers. The creameries
+are provided with special cold storage rooms, into which the
+butter is placed on the same day in which it is made. From them
+it is carried in refrigerator railway cars and in cold storage
+chambers on steamships to its ultimate destination. For the
+export trade it is packed in square boxes made of spruce or
+some other odourless wood. These are lined with parchment
+paper, and contain each 56 &#8468; net of butter. The total export of
+butter from Canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 &#8468;., of the value
+of $7,075,539. According to a census of manufactures taken
+in 1906, the total value of factory cheese and butter made in
+Canada during that year was $32,402,265.</p>
+
+<p>There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes
+and westward of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine
+quality can be grown; and there are other smaller
+areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are grown
+<span class="sidenote">Fruits.</span>
+in quantities in the open air. The climate is favourable to the
+growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants,
+gooseberries, etc. There are many localities in which cranberries
+are successfully grown, and in which blueberries also
+grow wild in great profusion.</p>
+
+<p>Apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span>
+high flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities
+of the Canadian apples are their chief merits. Apples are
+exported in barrels and also in boxes containing about one
+bushel each. Large quantities are also evaporated and exported.
+Establishments for evaporating fruit are now found in most
+of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning factories and
+jam factories have been established in many parts of Canada, and
+are conducted with advantage and profit.</p>
+
+<p>The chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern
+and western Ontario and in Nova Scotia; but recently much
+attention has been devoted to fruit-growing in British Columbia,
+where large areas of suitable land are available for the cultivation
+of apples, pears and other fruits. In some parts of the semi-arid
+districts in the interior of the province irrigation is being
+successfully practised for the purpose of bringing land under
+profitable cultivation for fruit. Collections of fruit grown in
+British Columbia have received premier honours at the competitive
+exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in London,
+where their high quality and fine colour have been greatly
+appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>Wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal
+vine-growing districts, and in several localities large vineyards
+have been planted for this purpose. An abundance of cider
+is also made in all the large apple-growing districts.</p>
+
+<p>Honey is one of the minor food-products of Canada, and
+in many localities bees have abundance of pasturage. Canadian
+honey for colour, flavour and substance is unsurpassed. Maple
+sugar and syrup are made in those areas of the country where
+the sugar-maple tree flourishes. The syrup is used chiefly
+as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and the sugar is
+used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes
+and for the making of confectionery. The processes of manufacture
+have been improved by the introduction of specially
+constructed evaporators, and quantities of maple sugar and
+syrup are annually exported.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in Canada
+since 1904. Its cultivation promises to be successful in parts
+of Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>The department of agriculture of the Dominion government
+renders aid to agriculture in many ways, maintaining the
+experimental farms and various effective organizations
+for assisting the live-stock, dairying and fruit-growing
+<span class="sidenote">State aid.</span>
+industries, for testing the germination and purity of
+agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in
+agricultural and dairy produce. The health of animals branch,
+through which are administered the laws relating to the
+contagious diseases of animals, and the control of quarantine
+and inspection stations for imported animals, undertakes also
+valuable experiments on the diseases of farm livestock, including
+glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &amp;c. The policy of
+slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been successfully
+initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts
+of the country indicating a considerable decrease from the
+previous year in the number of horses destroyed and the amount
+of compensation paid. A disease of cattle in Nova Scotia,
+known as the Pictou cattle disease, long treated as contagious,
+has now been demonstrated by the veterinary officers of the
+department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the ragwort,
+<i>Senecio Jacobea</i>. Hog cholera or swine fever has been almost
+eradicated. A laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and
+pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive
+vaccines. Canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia
+and foot-and-mouth disease.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the
+improvement of the stock-raising industry, and is carried on
+through the agencies of expert teachers and stock judges, the
+systematic distribution of pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly
+testing of pure-bred dairy herds, the supervision of the accuracy
+of the registration of pure-bred animals and the nationalization
+of live-stock records. The last two objects are secured by act
+of the Dominion parliament passed in 1905. Under this act
+a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud,
+herd and flock book associations of Canada, perform the duties
+of accepting the entries of pure-bred animals for the respective
+pedigree registers, and are provided with an office and with
+stationery and franking privileges by the government. Pedigree
+certificates are certified as correct by an officer of the department
+of agriculture, so that in Canada there exist national registration
+and government authority for the accuracy of pedigree livestock
+certificates. The government promotes the extension
+of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the
+United Kingdom who make reports from time to time on the
+condition in which Canadian goods are delivered from the steamships,
+and also on what they can learn from importing and
+distributing merchants regarding the preferences of the market
+for different qualities of farm goods and different sorts of packages.
+Through this branch of the public service a complete chain of
+cold-storage accommodation between various points in Canada
+and markets in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, has been
+arranged. The government offered a bonus to those owners of
+creameries who would provide cold-storage accommodation at
+them and keep the room in use for a period of three years. It also
+arranged with the various railway companies to run refrigerator
+cars weekly on the main lines leading to Montreal and other
+export points. The food-products from any shippers are received
+into these cars at the various railway stations at the usual
+rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service.
+The government offered subventions to those who would provide
+cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were
+necessary, and also arranged with the owners of ocean steamships
+to provide cold-storage chambers on them by means of
+mechanical refrigerators. The policy of encouraging the provision
+of ample cold-storage accommodation has been developed
+still further by the Cold Storage Act of the Dominion parliament
+passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part payment
+of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage warehouses
+in Canada for the preservation of perishable food-products.</p>
+
+<p>Besides furnishing technical and general information as to
+the carrying on of dairying operations, the government has
+established and maintained illustration cheese factories and
+creameries in different places for the purpose of introducing the
+best methods of co-operative dairying in both the manufacturing
+and shipping of butter and cheese. Inspectors are employed
+to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to
+see to the enforcement of the Fruit Marks Acts, which prohibit
+the marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any
+fraudulent manner.</p>
+
+<p>The seed branch of the department of agriculture was established
+in 1900 for the purpose of encouraging the production and
+use of seeds of superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of
+field and garden crops grown in Canada. Seeds are tested in
+the laboratory for purity and germination on behalf of farmers
+and seed merchants, and scientific investigations relating to
+seeds are conducted and reported upon. In the year 1906-1907
+6676 samples of seeds were tested. Encouragement to seed-growing
+is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are
+issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against
+smut and on other subjects. Collections of weed seeds are
+issued to merchants and others to enable them readily to identify
+noxious weed seeds. The Seed Control Act of 1905 brings under
+strict regulations the trade in agricultural seeds, prohibiting
+the sale for seeding of cereals, grasses, clovers or forage plants
+unless free from weeds specified, and imposing severe penalties
+for infringements.</p>
+
+<p>The census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the
+department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census
+of population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the
+natural products of the Dominion every ten years, a census of
+the population and agriculture of the three North-West Provinces
+every five years, and various supplemental statistical inquiries
+at shorter intervals.</p>
+
+<p>Experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts
+of the Dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span>
+to the farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the
+same time to cover the varied climatic and other conditions
+which influence agriculture in Canada. The central experimental
+<span class="sidenote">Experimental farms.</span>
+farm is situated at Ottawa, near the boundary line
+between Quebec and Ontario, where it serves as an aid
+to agriculture in these two important provinces. One
+of the four branch farms then established is at Nappan,
+Nova Scotia, near the boundary between that province and New
+Brunswick, where it serves the farmers of the three maritime
+provinces. A second branch experimental farm is at Brandon
+in Manitoba, a third is at Indian Head in Saskatchewan and
+the fourth is at Agassiz in the coast climate of British Columbia.
+In 1906-1907 two new branch farms were established. One is
+situated at Lethbridge, southern Alberta, where problems will
+be investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and
+dry farming under conditions of a scanty rainfall. The other
+is at Lacombe, northern Alberta, about 70 m. south of Edmonton,
+in the centre of a good agricultural district on the Canadian
+Pacific railway. Additional branch farms in different parts of
+the Dominion are in process of establishment. At all these
+farms experiments are conducted to gain information as to the
+best methods of preparing the land for crop and of maintaining
+its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow, and
+how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest
+advantage. To this end experiments are conducted in the
+feeding of cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows
+for the production of milk, and Of poultry both for flesh and eggs.
+Experiments are also conducted to test the merits of new or
+untried varieties of cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage
+plants, fruits, vegetables, plants and trees; and samples,
+particularly of the most promising cereals, are distributed
+freely among farmers for trial, so that those which promise to
+be most profitable may be rapidly brought into general cultivation.
+Annual reports and occasional bulletins are published
+and widely distributed, giving the results of this work. Farmers
+are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large correspondence
+is conducted with those interested in agriculture in
+all parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and
+information from the officers of the farms.</p>
+
+<p>The governments of the several provinces each have a department
+of agriculture. Among other provincial agencies for
+imparting information there are farmers&rsquo; institutes,
+travelling dairies, live-stock associations, farmers&rsquo;,
+<span class="sidenote">Agricultural organizations and education.</span>
+dairymen&rsquo;s, seed-growers&rsquo;, and fruit-growers&rsquo; associations,
+and agricultural and horticultural societies.
+These are all maintained or assisted by the several
+provinces. Parts of the proceedings and many of the addresses
+and papers presented at the more important meetings of
+these associations are published by the provincial governments,
+and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them. There
+are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important
+character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural
+and horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &amp;c., are
+shown in competition. The Dominion government makes in
+turn to one of the chief local agricultural exhibition societies a
+grant of $50,000 for the purposes of the national representation
+of agriculture and live-stock. The exhibition receiving the grant
+loses its local character, and thus becomes the Dominion exhibition
+or fair for that year.</p>
+
+<p>There are several important agricultural colleges for the
+practical education of young men in farming, foremost amongst
+them being the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. Agricultural
+colleges are also maintained at Truro, Nova Scotia,
+and Winnipeg, Manitoba. In most of the provinces are dairy
+schools where practical instruction and training are given.
+Since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education
+and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by
+the munificence of Sir William C. Macdonald of Montreal. A
+donation by him of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on
+Canadian farms for prizes in a competition for the selection of
+seed grain, as recommended by Professor J.W. Robertson, led
+to the Macdonald-Robertson Seed Growers&rsquo; Association. This
+soon assumed national proportions in the Canadian Seed Growers&rsquo;
+Association, which, with the seed branch of the department of
+agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a
+uniform standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas
+of the Canadian wheat-fields. The Macdonald Institute at
+Guelph, Ontario, the buildings and equipment of which Sir
+William provided at a cost of $182,500, and the Macdonald
+College at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. west of Montreal, have
+been established to promote the cause of rural education upon
+the lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training
+domestic science, &amp;c., which on both sides of the Atlantic are
+now being found so effective in the hands of properly trained
+and enthusiastic teachers. The property of the Macdonald
+College at Ste Anne de Bellevue comprises 561 acres, of which
+74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research plots, 100 acres
+to a <i>petite culture</i> farm and 387 acres to a live-stock and
+grain farm. The college includes a school for teachers, a school
+of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of household
+science for the training of young women. The land, buildings
+and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were
+presented by Sir William Macdonald, who in addition has provided
+for the future maintenance of the work by a trust fund of
+over $2,000,000. In connexion with the public elementary schools
+throughout Canada, where the principles of agriculture are taught
+to some extent, manual training centres, provided out of funds
+supplied by the same public-spirited donor, are now maintained
+by local and provincial public school authorities.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. H. G.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">History</p>
+
+<p>About <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, led an expedition
+from Greenland to the shores probably of what is now Canada,
+but the first effective contact of Europeans with Canada
+was not until the end of the 15th century. John
+<span class="sidenote">Discovery.</span>
+Cabot (<i>q.v.</i>), sailing from Bristol, reached the shores of Canada
+in 1497. Soon after fishermen from Europe began to go in
+considerable numbers to the Newfoundland banks, and in time
+to the coasts of the mainland of America. In 1534 a French
+expedition under Jacques Cartier, a seaman of St Malo, sent
+out by Francis I., entered the Gulf of St Lawrence. In the
+following year Cartier sailed up the river as far as the Lachine
+Rapids, to the spot where Montreal now stands. During the
+next sixty years the fisheries and the fur trade received some
+attention, but no colonization was undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 17th century we find the first great
+name in Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (<i>q.v.</i>), who
+had seen service under Henry IV. of France, was
+employed in the interests of successive fur-trading
+<span class="sidenote">French colony.</span>
+monopolies and sailed up the St Lawrence in 1603.
+In the next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share
+in founding the first permanent French colony in North America&mdash;that
+of Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia. In 1608
+he began the settlement which was named Quebec. From 1608
+to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to develop
+Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore
+the interior. He passed southward from the St Lawrence to
+the beautiful lake which still bears his name and also westward,
+up the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching
+the shores of China. He reached Lake Huron and Lake Ontario,
+but not the great lakes stretching still farther west.</p>
+
+<p>The era was that of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War (1618-48), and
+during that great upheaval England was sometimes fighting
+France. Already, in 1613, the English from Virginia had
+almost completely wiped out the French settlement at Port
+Royal, and when in 1629 a small English fleet appeared at
+Quebec, Champlain was forced to surrender. But in 1632
+Canada was restored to France by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye.
+Just at this time was formed under the aegis of Cardinal
+Richelieu the &ldquo;Company of New France,&rdquo; known popularly
+as &ldquo;The Company of One Hundred Associates.&rdquo; With 120
+members it was granted the whole St Lawrence valley; for
+fifteen years from 1629 it was to have a complete monopoly
+of trade; and products from its territory were to enter France
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span>
+free of duty. In return the company was to take to New
+France 300 colonists a year; only French Catholics might
+go; and for each settlement the company was to provide
+three priests. Until 1663 this company controlled New
+France.</p>
+
+<p>It was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman Catholic church,
+and Canada became the favourite mission. The Society of
+Jesus was only one of several orders&mdash;Franciscans (Recollets),
+Sulpicians, Ursulines, &amp;c.&mdash;who worked in New France. The
+Jesuits have attracted chief attention, not merely on account
+of their superior zeal and numbers, but also because of the
+tragic fate of some of their missionaries in Canada. In the
+voluminous <i>Relations</i> of their doings the story has been preserved.
+Among the Huron Indians, whose settlements bordered on the
+lake of that name, they secured a great influence. But there was
+relentless war between the Hurons and the Iroquois occupying
+the southern shore of Lake Ontario, and when in 1649 the
+Iroquois ruined and almost completely destroyed the Hurons,
+the Jesuit missionaries also fell victims to the conquerors&rsquo;
+rage. Missionaries to the Iroquois themselves met with a similar
+fate and the missions failed. Commercial life also languished.
+The company planned by Richelieu was not a success. It did
+little to colonize New France, and in 1660, after more than thirty
+years of its monopoly, there were not more than 2000 French
+in the whole country. In 1663 the charter of the company
+was revoked. No longer was a trading company to discharge
+the duties of a sovereign. New France now became a royal
+province, with governor, intendant, &amp;c., on the model of the
+provinces of France.</p>
+
+<p>In 1664 a new &ldquo;Company of the West Indies&rdquo; (<i>Compagnie
+des Indes Occidentales</i>) was organized to control French trade
+and colonization not only in Canada but also in West Africa,
+South America and the West Indies. At first it promised well.
+In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent to Canada; the
+European population was soon doubled, and Louis XIV. began
+to take a personal interest in the colony. But once more,
+in contrast with English experience, the great trading company
+proved a failure in French hands as a colonizing agent, and in
+1674 its charter was summarily revoked by Louis XIV. Henceforth
+in name, if not in fact, monopoly is ended in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>By this time French explorers were pressing forward to
+unravel the mystery of the interior. By 1659 two Frenchmen,
+Radisson and Groseillers, had penetrated beyond the great
+lakes to the prairies of the far West; they were probably the
+first Europeans to see the Mississippi. By 1666 a French
+mission was established on the shores of Lake Superior, and
+in 1673 Joliet and Marquette, explorers from Canada, reached
+and for some distance descended the Mississippi. Five years
+later Cavelier de la Salle was making his toilsome way westward
+from Quebec to discover the true character of the great river
+and to perform the feat, perilous in view of the probable hostility
+of the natives, of descending it to the sea. In 1682 he accomplished
+his task, took possession of the valley of the Mississippi
+in the name of Louis XIV. and called it Louisiana. Thus
+from Canada as her basis was France reaching out to grasp
+a continent.</p>
+
+<p>There was a keen rivalry between church and state for
+dominance in this new empire. In 1659 arrived at Quebec
+a young prelate of noble birth, Francois Xavier de Laval-Montmorency,
+who had come to rule the church in Canada.
+An ascetic, who practised the whole cycle of medieval austerities,
+he was determined that Canada should be ruled by the church,
+and he desired for New France a Puritanism as strict as that
+of New England. His especial zeal was directed towards the
+welfare of the Indians. These people showed, to their own
+ruin, a reckless liking for the brandy of the white man. Laval
+insisted that the traders should not supply brandy to the natives.
+He declared excommunicate any one who did so and for a
+time he triumphed. More than once he drove from Canada
+governors who tried to thwart him. In 1663 he was actually
+invited to choose a governor after his own mind and did so,
+but with no cessation of the old disputes. In 1672 Louis de
+Buade, comte de Frontenac (<i>q.v.</i>), was named governor of New
+France, and in him the church found her match. Yet not
+at once; for, after a bitter struggle, he was recalled in 1682.
+But Canada needed him. He knew how to control the ferocious
+Iroquois, who had cut off France from access to Lake Ontario;
+to check them he had built a fort where now stands the city
+of Kingston. With Frontenac gone, these savages almost
+strangled the colony. On a stormy August night in 1689
+1500 Iroquois burst in on the village of Lachine near Montreal,
+butchered 200 of its people, and carried off more than 100 to
+be tortured to death at their leisure. Then the strong man
+Frontenac was recalled to face the crisis.</p>
+
+<p>It was a critical era. James II. had fallen in England, and
+William III. was organizing Europe against French aggression.
+France&rsquo;s plan for a great empire in America was
+now taking shape and there, as in Europe, a deadly
+<span class="sidenote">Struggles with England.</span>
+struggle with England was inevitable. Frontenac
+planned attacks upon New England and encouraged
+a ruthless border warfare that involved many horrors. Him,
+in return, the English attacked. Sir William Phips sailed from
+Boston in 1690, conquered Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and then
+hazarded the greater task of leading a fleet up the St Lawrence
+against Quebec. On the 16th of October 1690 thirty-four
+English ships, some of them only fishing craft, appeared in
+its basin and demanded the surrender of the town. When
+Frontenac answered defiantly, Phips attacked the place; but
+he was repulsed and in the end sailed away unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>Each side had now begun to see that the vital point was
+control of the interior, which time was to prove the most
+extensive fertile area in the world. La Salle&rsquo;s expedition had
+aroused the French to the importance of the Mississippi, and
+they soon had a bold plan to occupy it, to close in from the
+rear on the English on the Atlantic coast, seize their colonies
+and even deport the colonists. The plan was audacious, for
+the English in America outnumbered the French by twenty
+to one. But their colonies were democracies, disunited because
+each was pursuing its own special interests, while the French
+were united under despotic leadership. Frontenac attacked
+the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these proud savages
+to sue for peace. But in the next year was made the treaty
+of Ryswick, which brought a pause in the conflict, and in 1698
+Frontenac died.</p>
+
+<p>After Frontenac the Iroquois, though still hostile to France,
+are formidable no more, and the struggle for the continent is
+frankly between the English and the French. The peace of
+Ryswick proved but a truce, and when in 1701, on the death of
+the exiled James II., Louis XIV. flouted the claims of William III.
+to the throne of England by proclaiming as king James&rsquo;s son,
+renewed war was inevitable. In Europe it saw the brilliant
+victories of Marlborough; in America it was less decisive, but
+France lost heavily. Though the English, led by Sir Hovenden
+Walker, made in 1711 an effort to take Quebec which proved
+abortive, they seized Nova Scotia; and when the treaty of
+Utrecht was made in 1713, France admitted defeat in America
+by yielding to Britain her claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland
+and Nova Scotia. But she still held the shores of the St Lawrence,
+and she retained, too, the island of Cape Breton to command its
+mouth. There she built speedily the fortress of Louisbourg, and
+prepared once more to challenge British supremacy in America.
+With a sound instinct that looked to future greatness, France
+still aimed, more and more, at the control of the interior of the
+Continent. The danger from the Iroquois on Lake Ontario had
+long cut her off from the most direct access to the West, and from
+the occupation of the Ohio valley leading to the Mississippi, but
+now free from this savage scourge she could go where she would.
+In 1701 she founded Detroit, commanding the route from Lake
+Erie to Lake Huron. Her missionaries and leaders were already
+at Sault Ste Marie commanding the approach to Lake Superior,
+and at Michilimackinac commanding that to Lake Michigan.
+They had also penetrated to what is now the Canadian West, and
+it was a French Canadian, La Vérendrye, who, by the route
+leading past the point where now stands the city of Winnipeg,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span>
+pressed on into the far West until in 1743, first recorded of
+white men, he came in sight of the Rocky Mountains. In the
+south of the continent France also crowned La Salle&rsquo;s work by
+founding early in the 18th century New Orleans at the mouth of
+the Mississippi. It was a far cry from New Orleans to Quebec.
+If France could link them by a chain of settlements and shut in
+the English to their narrow strip of Atlantic seaboard there was
+good promise that North America would be hers.</p>
+
+<p>The project was far-reaching, but France could do little to
+make it effective. Louis XV. allowed her navy to decline and
+her people showed little inclination for emigration to the colonies.
+In 1744, when the war of the Austrian Succession broke out, the
+New England colonies planned and in 1745 effected the capture
+of Louisbourg, the stronghold of France in Cape Breton Island,
+which menaced their commerce. But to their disgust, when the
+peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was made in 1748, this conquest was
+handed back to France. She continued her work of building a
+line of forts on the great lakes&mdash;on the river Niagara, on the Ohio,
+on the Mississippi; and the English colonies, with the enemy
+thus in their rear, grew ever more restive. In 1753 Virginia
+warned the French on the Ohio that they were encroaching on
+British territory. The next year, in circumstances curiously
+like those which were repeated when the French expedition under
+Marchand menaced Britain in Egypt by seeking to establish a
+post on the Upper Nile, George Washington, a young Virginian
+officer, was sent to drive the French from their Fort Duquesne
+on the Ohio river, where now stands Pittsburgh. The result was
+sharp fighting between English and French in a time of nominal
+peace. In 1755 the British took the stern step of deporting the
+Acadian French from Nova Scotia. Though this province had
+been ceded to Great Britain in 1713 many of the Acadians had
+refused to accept British sovereignty. In 1749 the British
+founded Halifax, began to colonize Nova Scotia, and, with war
+imminent, deemed it prudent to disperse the Acadians, chiefly
+along the Atlantic seaboard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nova Scotia</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In
+1756 the Seven Years&rsquo; War definitely began. France had no
+resources to cope with those of Britain in America, and the
+British command of the sea proved decisive. On the 13th of
+September 1759 Wolfe won his great victory before Quebec,
+which involved the fall of that place, and a year later at
+Montreal the French army in Canada surrendered. By the
+peace of Paris, 1763, the whole of New France was finally ceded
+to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>With only about 60,000 French in Canada at the time of the
+conquest it might have seemed as if this population would soon
+be absorbed by the incoming British. Some thought
+that, under a Protestant sovereign, the Canadian
+<span class="sidenote">English possesion.</span>
+Catholics would be rapidly converted to Protestantism.
+But the French type proved stubbornly persistent
+and to this day dominates the older Canada. The first English
+settlers in the conquered country were chiefly petty traders, not
+of a character to lead in social or public affairs. The result was
+that the government of the time co-operated rather with the
+leaders among the French.</p>
+
+<p>After peace was concluded in 1763, Canada was governed
+under the authority of a royal proclamation, but sooner or later
+a constitution specially adapted to the needs of the country was
+inevitable. In 1774 this was provided by the Quebec Act passed
+by the Imperial parliament. Under this act the western territory
+which France had claimed, extending as far as the Mississippi
+and south to the Ohio, was included with Canada in what was
+called the Province of Quebec. This vast territory was to be
+governed despotically from Quebec; the Roman Catholic church
+was given its old privileges in Canada; and the French civil law
+was established permanently side by side with the English
+criminal law. The act linked the land-owning class in Canada
+and the church by ties of self-interest to the British cause. The
+<i>habitant</i>, placed again under their authority, had less reason to be
+content.</p>
+
+<p>In 1775 began the American Revolution. Its leaders tried to
+make the revolt continental, and invaded Canada, hoping that
+the French would join them. They took Montreal and besieged
+Quebec during the winter of 1775-1776; but the prudent leadership
+of Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, saved
+Quebec and in 1776 the revolutionary army withdrew unsuccessful
+from Canada. Since that time any prospect of Canada&rsquo;s
+union to the United States has been very remote.</p>
+
+<p>But the American Revolution profoundly influenced the life
+of Canada. The country became the refuge of thousands of
+American loyalists who would not desert Great Britain. To
+Nova Scotia, to what are now New Brunswick (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ontario
+(<i>q.v.</i>) they fled in numbers not easily estimated, but probably
+reaching about 40,000. Until this time the present New Brunswick
+and Ontario had contained few European settlers; now
+they developed, largely under the influence of the loyalists of the
+Revolution. This meant that the American type of colonial life
+would be reproduced in Canada; but it meant also bitter
+hostility on the part of these colonists to the United States, which
+refused in any way to compensate the loyalists for their confiscated
+property. Great Britain did something; the loyalists
+received liberal grants of land and cash compensation amounting
+to nearly £4,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>A prevailingly French type of government was now no longer
+adequate in Canada, and in 1791 was passed by the British
+parliament the Constitutional Act, separating Canada at the
+Ottawa river into two parts, each with its own government;
+Lower Canada, chiefly French, retaining the old system of laws,
+with representative institutions now added, and Upper Canada,
+on the purely British model. (For the history of Lower and
+Upper Canada, now Quebec and Ontario, the separate articles
+must be consulted.) Each province had special problems; the
+French in Lower Canada aimed at securing political power for
+their own race, while in Upper Canada there was no race problem,
+and the great struggle was for independence of official control
+and in all essential matters for government by the people. It
+may be doubted whether at this time it would have been safe to
+give these small communities complete self-government. But
+this a clamorous radical element demanded insistently, and the
+issue was the chief one in Canada for half a century.</p>
+
+<p>But before this issue matured war broke out between Great
+Britain and the United States in 1812 from causes due chiefly to
+Napoleon&rsquo;s continental policy. The war seemed to furnish a
+renewed opportunity to annex Canada to the American Union,
+and Canada became the chief theatre of conflict. The struggle
+was most vigorous on the Niagara frontier. But in the end the
+American invasion failed and the treaty made at Ghent in 1814
+left the previous status unaltered.</p>
+
+<p>In 1837 a few French Canadians in Lower Canada, led by Louis
+Joseph Papineau (<i>q.v.</i>), took up arms with the wild idea of
+establishing a French republic on the St Lawrence. In the same
+year William Lyon Mackenzie (<i>q.v.</i>) led a similar armed revolt in
+Upper Canada against the domination of the ruling officialdom
+called, with little reason, the &ldquo;Family Compact.&rdquo; Happening,
+as these revolts did, just at the time of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s accession,
+<span class="sidenote">Lord Durham.</span>
+they attracted wide attention, and in 1838 the earl of
+Durham (<i>q.v.</i>) was sent to govern Canada and report on
+the affairs of British North America. Clothed as he was
+with large powers, he undertook in the interests of leniency and
+reconciliation to banish, without trial, some leaders of the
+rebellion in Lower Canada. For this reason he was censured at
+home and he promptly resigned, after spending only five months
+in the country. But his <i>Report</i>, published in the following year,
+is a masterly survey of the situation and included recommendations
+that profoundly influenced the later history of Canada. He
+recommended the union of the two Canadian provinces at once,
+the ultimate union of all British North America and the granting
+to this large state of full self-government. The French element
+he thought a menace to Canada&rsquo;s future, and partly for this
+reason he desired all the provinces to unite so that the British
+element should be dominant.</p>
+
+<p>To carry out Lord Durham&rsquo;s policy the British government
+passed in 1840 an Act of Union joining Upper and Lower
+Canada, and sent out as governor Charles Poulett Thompson,
+who was made Baron Sydenham and Toronto In the single
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span>
+parliament each province was equally represented. By this
+time there was more than a million people in Canada, and the
+country was becoming important. Lord Sydenham died in
+1841 before his work was completed, and he left Canada still
+in a troubled condition. The French were suspicious of the
+Union, aimed avowedly at checking their influence, and the
+complete self-government for which the &ldquo;Reformers&rdquo; in
+English-speaking Canada had clamoured was not yet conceded
+by the colonial office. But rapidly it became obvious that
+the provinces united had become too important to be held
+in leading strings. The issue was finally settled in 1849 when
+the earl of Elgin was governor and the Canadian legislature,
+sitting at Montreal, passed by a large majority the Rebellion
+Losses Bill, compensating citizens, some of them French, in
+Lower Canada, for losses incurred at the hands of the loyal
+party during the rebellion a decade earlier. The cry was easily
+raised by the Conservative minority that this was to vote
+reward for rebellion. They appealed to London for intervention.
+The mob in Montreal burned the parliament buildings
+and stoned Lord Elgin himself because he gave the royal assent
+to the bill. He did so in the face of this fierce opposition, on
+the ground that, in Canadian domestic affairs, the Canadian
+parliament must be supreme.</p>
+
+<p>The union of the two provinces did not work well. Each
+was jealous of the other and deadlocks frequently occurred.
+Commercially, after 1849, Canada was prosperous. In 1854
+Lord Elgin negotiated a reciprocity treaty with the United
+States which gave Canadian natural products free entrance
+to the American market. The outbreak of the Civil War in
+the United States in 1861 increased the demand for such products,
+and Canada enjoyed an extensive trade with her neighbour.
+But, owing largely to the unfriendly attitude of Great Britain
+to the northern side during the war, the United States cancelled
+the treaty, when its first term of ten years ended in 1865, and
+it has never been renewed.</p>
+
+<p>Under the party system in Canada cabinets changed as
+often as, until recently, they did in France, and the union of
+the two provinces did not give political stability. The French
+and English were sufficiently equal in strength to make the
+task of government well nigh impossible. In 1864 came the
+opportunity for change, when New Brunswick, Nova Scotia
+and Prince Edward Island were considering a federal union.
+Canada suggested a wider plan to include herself and, in October
+1864, a conference was held at Quebec. The conference outlined
+a plan of federation which subsequently, with slight
+modifications, passed the imperial parliament as &ldquo;The British
+North America Act,&rdquo; and on the 1st of July 1867, the Dominion
+of Canada came into existence. It was born during the era
+of the American Civil War, and was planned to correct defects
+which time had revealed in the American federation. The
+provinces in Canada were conceded less power than have the
+states in the American union; the federal government retaining
+the residuum of power not conceded.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. M. W.)</div>
+
+<p>When federation was accomplished in 1867 the Dominion
+of Canada comprised only the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec,
+New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Lord Monck was
+appointed the first governor-general, and at his
+<span class="sidenote">Canada since federation.</span>
+request the Hon. John Alexander Macdonald undertook
+the formation of an administration. A coalition
+cabinet was formed, including the foremost Liberals and Conservatives
+drawn from the different provinces. Under a
+proclamation issued from Windsor Castle by Queen Victoria on
+the 22nd of May the new constitution came into effect on the
+1st of July. This birthday of the Dominion has been fixed
+by statute as a public holiday, and is annually observed under
+the name of &ldquo;Dominion Day.&rdquo; Seventy-two senators&mdash;half
+Conservatives and half Liberals&mdash;were appointed, and lieutenant-governors
+were named for the four provinces. The prime
+minister was created a K.C.B., and minor honours were conferred
+on other ministers in recognition of their services in
+bringing about the union.</p>
+
+<p>The first general election for the Dominion House of Commons
+was held during the month of August, and except in the province
+of Nova Scotia was favourable to the administration,
+which entered upon its parliamentary work with a
+<span class="sidenote">Nova Scotia question.</span>
+majority of thirty-two. The first session of parliament
+was opened on the 8th of November, but adjourned
+on the 21st of December till the 12th of March 1868, chiefly
+on account of the fact that members of the Dominion parliament
+were allowed, in Ontario and Quebec, to hold seats in the local
+legislatures, so that it was difficult for the different bodies
+to be in session simultaneously. It was not till 1873 that an
+act was passed making members of the local legislatures ineligible
+for seats in the House of Commons. Immediately after the
+completion of federation a serious agitation for repeal of the
+union arose in Nova Scotia, which had been brought into the
+federal system by a vote of the existing legislature, without
+any direct preliminary appeal to the people. Headed by Joseph
+Howe (<i>q.v.</i>), the advocates of repeal swept the province at the
+Dominion election. Out of 19 members then elected 18 were
+pledged to repeal, Dr Tupper, the minister responsible for
+carrying the Act of Union, alone among the supporters of
+federation securing a seat. The local assembly, in which 36
+out of 38 members were committed to repeal, passed an address
+to Her Majesty praying her not to &ldquo;reduce this free, happy
+and hitherto self-governed province to the degraded condition
+of a servile dependency of Canada,&rdquo; and sent Howe with a
+delegation to London to lay the petition at the foot of the
+throne. Howe enlisted the support of John Bright and other
+members of parliament, but the imperial government was
+firm, and the duke of Buckingham, as colonial secretary, soon
+informed the governor-general in a despatch that consent could
+not be given for the withdrawal of Nova Scotia from the
+Dominion. Meanwhile Howe, convinced of the impossibility
+of effecting separation, and fearing disloyal tendencies which
+had manifested themselves in some of its advocates, entered
+into negotiations with Dr Tupper in London, and later with
+the Dominion government, for better financial terms than those
+originally arranged for Nova Scotia in the federal system.
+The estimated amount of provincial debt assumed by the general
+government was increased by $1,186,756, and a special annual
+subsidy of $82,698 was granted for a period of ten years. These
+terms having been agreed to, Howe, as a pledge of his approval
+and support, accepted a seat as secretary of state in the Dominion
+cabinet. By taking this course he sacrificed much of his remarkable
+popularity in his native province, but confirmed the work
+of consolidating the Dominion. It was many years before
+the bitterness of feeling aroused by the repeal agitation entirely
+subsided in Nova Scotia.</p>
+
+<p>A gloom was cast over the first parliament of the Dominion
+by the assassination in 1868 of one of the most brilliant figures
+in the politics of the time, D&rsquo;Arcy McGee (<i>q.v.</i>) His murderer,
+a Fenian acting under the instructions of the secret society to
+which he belonged, was discovered, and executed in 1869.</p>
+
+<p>The reorganization of the various departments of state,
+in view of the wider interests with which they had to deal,
+occupied much of the attention of the first parliament of the
+Dominion. In 1867 the postal rates were reduced and unified.
+In 1868 a militia system for the whole Dominion was organized,
+the tariff altered and systematized, and a Civil Service Act
+passed. The banking system of the country was put on a sound
+footing by a series of acts culminating in 1871, and in the same
+year a uniform system of decimal currency was established for
+the whole Dominion. While the new machinery of state was
+thus being put in operation other large questions presented
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of the Inter-Colonial railway as a connecting
+link between the provinces on the seaboard and those along
+the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes was a part
+of the federation compact, a clause of the British
+<span class="sidenote">Inter-Colonial railway.</span>
+North America Act providing that it should be begun
+within six months after the date of union. The
+guarantee of the imperial government made easy the provision
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span>
+of the necessary capital, but as this was coupled with a voice
+in the decision of the route, it complicated the latter question,
+about which a keen contest arose. The most direct and therefore
+commercially most promising line of construction passed near
+the boundary of the United States. Recent friction with that
+country made this route objected to by the imperial and many
+Canadian authorities. Ultimately the longer, more expensive,
+but more isolated route along the shores of the Gulf of
+St Lawrence was adopted. The work was taken in hand at once,
+and pressed steadily forward to completion. It has since been
+supplemented by other lines built for more distinctly commercial
+ends. Though not for many years a financial success,
+the Inter-Colonial railway, which was opened in 1876, has
+in a marked way fulfilled its object by binding together socially
+and industrially widely separated portions of the Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>Within a month of the meeting of the first parliament of the
+Dominion a question of vast importance to the future of the
+country was brought forward by the Hon. W. McDougall
+in a series of resolutions which were adopted, and on
+<span class="sidenote">Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company territories.</span>
+which was based an address to the queen praying that
+Majesty would unite Rupert&rsquo;s Land and the North-West
+Territories to Canada. A delegation consisting
+of Sir G.E. Cartier and the Hon. W. McDougall was in 1868 sent
+to England to negotiate with the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company (<i>q.v.</i>)
+for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the imperial
+government for the transfer of the territory. After prolonged
+discussions the company agreed to surrender to the crown, in
+consideration of a payment of £300,000, the rights and interests
+in the north-west guaranteed by its charter, with the exception
+of a reservation of one-twentieth part of the fertile belt, and
+45,000 acres of land adjacent to the trading posts of the company.
+For the purposes of this agreement the &ldquo;fertile belt&rdquo; was to be
+bounded as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;On the south by the U.S. boundary,
+on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on the north by the
+northern branch of the Saskatchewan river, on the east by
+Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connecting
+them.&rdquo; An act authorizing the change of control was passed
+by the imperial parliament in July 1868; the arrangement made
+with the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company was accepted by the Canadian
+parliament in June 1869; and the deed of surrender from the
+Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company to Her Majesty is dated November 19th,
+1869. In anticipation of the formal transfer to the Dominion
+an act was passed by the Canadian parliament in the same month
+providing for the temporary government of Rupert&rsquo;s Land and
+the North-West Territories. On the 28th of September the Hon.
+W. McDougall was appointed the first governor, and left at once
+to assume control on the 1st of December, when it had been
+understood that the formal change of possession would take place.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a serious condition of affairs was developing in the
+Red river settlement, the most considerable centre of population
+in the newly acquired territory. The half-breeds
+regarded with suspicion a transfer of control concerning
+<span class="sidenote">Red river rebellion.</span>
+which they had not been consulted. They resented the
+presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads
+and townships, and the tactless way in which some of these
+did their work increased the suspicion that long-established
+rights to the soil would not be respected. A population largely
+Roman Catholic in creed, and partly French in origin and
+language, feared that an influx of new settlers would overthrow
+cherished traditions. Some were afraid of increased taxation.
+A group of immigrants from the United States fomented disturbance
+in the hope that it would lead to annexation. Louis Riel,
+a fanatical half-breed, placed himself at the head of the movement.
+His followers established what they called a &ldquo;provisional
+government&rdquo; of which he was chosen president, and when the
+newly appointed governor reached the boundary line he was
+prevented from entering the territory. Several of the white
+settlers who resisted this rebellious movement were arrested and
+kept in confinement. One of these, a young man named Thomas
+Scott, having treated Riel with defiance, was court-martialled
+for treason to the provisional government, condemned, and on
+the 4th of March 1870, shot in cold blood under the walls of Fort
+Garry. This crime aroused intense excitement throughout the country, and
+the Orange body, particularly, to which Scott belonged, demanded the
+immediate punishment of his murderer and the suppression of the
+rebellion. An armed force, composed partly of British regulars and
+partly of Canadian volunteers, was made ready and placed under the
+command of Colonel Garnet Wolseley, afterwards Lord Wolseley. As a
+military force could not pass through the United States, the expedition
+was compelled to take the route up Lake Superior, and from the head of
+that lake through 500 m. of unbroken and difficult wilderness. In August
+1870, the force reached Fort Garry, to find the rebels scattered and
+their leader, Riel, a fugitive in the neighbouring states. Meanwhile,
+during the progress of the expedition, an act had been passed creating
+Manitoba a province, with full powers of self-government, and the
+arrival of the military was closely followed by that of the first
+governor, Mr (later Sir) Adams G. Archibald, who succeeded in organizing
+the administration on a satisfactory basis. Fort Garry became Winnipeg,
+and there were soon indications that it was destined to be a great city,
+and the commercial doorway to the vast prairies that lay beyond.
+Meanwhile, till adequate means of transportation were provided, it was
+seen that city and prairie alike must wait for any large inflow of
+population.</p>
+
+<p>Provision was made in the British North America Act to receive new
+provinces into the Dominion. Manitoba was the first to be constituted;
+in 1871 British Columbia, which had hitherto held aloof, determined,
+under the persuasion of a sympathetic governor, Mr (later Sir) Antony
+<span class="sidenote">New provinces.</span>
+Musgrave, to throw in its lot with the Dominion. Popular feeling in
+British Columbia itself was not strongly in favour of union, and the
+terms under which the new province was to be received were the subject
+of much negotiation with the provincial authorities, and were keenly
+debated in parliament before the bill in which they were embodied was
+finally carried. The clause on which there was the widest divergence of
+opinion was one providing that a trans-continental railway, connecting
+the Pacific province with the eastern part of the Dominion, should be
+begun within two, and completed within ten years. To a province which at
+the time contained a population of only 36,000, and but half of this
+white, the inducement thus held out was immense. The Opposition in
+parliament claimed that the contract was one impossible for the Dominion
+to fulfil. The government of Sir John Macdonald felt, however, that the
+future of the Dominion depended upon linking together the Atlantic and
+the Pacific, and in view of the vast unoccupied spaces lying between the
+Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, open to immigration from the United
+States, their audacity in undertaking the work was doubtless justified.
+The construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, thus inaugurated,
+became for several years the chief subject of political contention
+between opposing parties.</p>
+
+<p>Anticipating the order of chronology slightly, it may be mentioned here
+that in 1873 Prince Edward Island (<i>q.v.</i>), which had in 1865 decisively
+rejected proposals of the Quebec conference and had in the following
+year repeated its rejection of federation by a resolution of the
+legislature affirming that no terms Canada could offer would be
+acceptable, now decided to throw in its lot with the Dominion. The
+island had become involved in heavy railway expenditure, and financial
+necessities led the electors to take a broader view of the question. In
+the end the federal government assumed the railway debt, arrangements
+were made for extinguishing certain proprietary rights which had long
+been a source of discontent, and on the 1st of July 1873 the Dominion
+was rounded off by the accession of the new province.</p>
+
+<p>Finally in 1878, in order to remove all doubts about unoccupied
+territory, an imperial order in council was passed in response to an
+address of the Canadian parliament, annexing to the Dominion all British
+possessions in North America, except Newfoundland. That small colony,
+which had been represented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the proposals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span>
+of 1865, and, in spite of various efforts to arrange satisfactory
+terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has proved the only
+obstacle to the complete political unification of British North
+America.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:595px; height:850px" src="images/img160a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:598px; height:850px" src="images/img160b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img160a1.jpg">(Click to enlarge left section.)</a><br />
+<a href="images/img160b1.jpg">(Click to enlarge right section.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">A signal proof was soon furnished of  the new standing in
+the empire which federation had given to the Canadian provinces.
+A heritage of differences and difficulties had been
+left to be settled between England, Canada and the
+<span class="sidenote">Difficulties with the United States.</span>
+American Union as the result of the Civil War. In
+retaliation for the supposed sympathy of Canadians
+with the South in this struggle the victorious North
+took steps to abrogate in 1866 the reciprocity treaty of
+1854, which had conferred such great advantages on both
+countries. It followed that the citizens of the United States
+lost the right which they had received under the treaty to
+share in the fisheries of Canada. American fishermen, however,
+showed so little inclination to give up what they had
+enjoyed so long, that it was found necessary to take vigorous
+steps to protect Canadian fishing rights, and frequent causes
+of friction consequently arose. During the progress of the
+Civil War American feeling had been greatly exasperated by
+the losses inflicted on commerce by the cruiser &ldquo;Alabama,&rdquo;
+which, it was claimed, was allowed to leave a British port in,
+violation of international law. On the other hand, Canadian
+feeling had been equally exasperated by the Fenian raids,
+organized on American soil, which had cost Canada much
+expenditure of money and some loss of life. In, addition to
+these causes of difference there was an unsettled boundary
+dispute in British Columbia, and questions about the navigation
+of rivers common to the United States and Canada. In 1869
+the government of Canada sent a deputation to England to
+press upon the imperial government the necessity of asserting
+Canada&rsquo;s position in regard to the fisheries, and the desirability
+of settling other questions in dispute with the republic. The
+outcome of this application was the appointment of a commission
+to consider and if possible settle outstanding differences between
+the three countries. The prime minister of the Dominion,
+Sir John Macdonald, was asked to act as one of the imperial
+commissioners in carrying on these negotiations. This was
+the first time that a colonist had been called upon to assist
+in the settlement of international disputes. The commission
+assembled at the American capital in February 1871, and
+after discussions extending over several weeks  signed what
+is known as the treaty of Washington. By the terms of this
+treaty the &ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; claims and the San Juan boundary
+were referred to arbitration; the free navigation of the St
+Lawrence was granted to the United States in return for the
+free use of Lake Michigan and certain Alaskan rivers; and
+it was settled that a further commission should decide the
+excess of value of the Canadian fisheries thrown open to the
+United States over and above the reciprocal concessions made
+to Canada. Much to the annoyance of the people of the
+Dominion the claims for the Fenian raids were withdrawn
+at the request of the British government, which undertook, to
+make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To some of
+these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous
+opposition, and in finally signing the treaty stated that he
+did so chiefly for imperial interests, although in these he
+believed Canadian interests to be involved. The clauses relating
+to the fisheries and the San Juan boundary were reserved for
+the approval of the Canadian parliament, which, in spite of
+much violent opposition, ratified them by a large majority.
+Under the &ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; arbitration Great Britain paid to
+the United States damages to the amount of $15,500,000,
+while the German Emperor decided the San Juan boundary
+in favour of the United States. The Fishery Commission, on
+the other hand, which sat in Halifax, awarded Canada $5,500,000
+as the excess value of its fisheries for twelve years, and after
+much hesitation this sum was paid by the United States into
+the Canadian treasury. An imperial guarantee of a loan for
+the construction of railways was the only compensation Canada
+received for the Fenian raids.</p>
+
+<p>The second general election for the Dominion took place
+in 1872. It was marked by the complete defeat of the Anti-Unionist
+party in Nova Scotia, only one member of
+which secured his election, thus exactly reversing the
+<span class="sidenote"><i>Canadian Pacific railway question</i>.</span>
+vote of 1867. While Sir John Macdonald&rsquo;s administration
+was supported in Nova Scotia, it was weakened
+in Ontario on account of the clemency shown to Riel, and in
+Quebec by the refusal to grant a general amnesty to all who had
+taken part in the rebellion. Two important members of the
+cabinet, Sir G. Cartier and Sir F. Hincks, were defeated.
+Opposition to the Washington treaty and dread of the bold
+railway policy of the government also contributed to weaken
+its position. But a graver blow, ending in the complete overthrow
+of the administration, was soon to fall as the result of
+the election. In 1872 two companies had been formed and
+received charters to build the Canadian Pacific railway. Sir
+Hugh Allan of Montreal was at the head of the one, and the
+Hon. David Macpherson of Toronto was president of the other.
+The government endeavoured to bring about an amalgamation
+of these rival companies, believing that the united energies
+and financial ability of the whole country were required for
+so vast an undertaking. While negotiations to this end were
+still proceeding the election of 1872 came on with the result
+already mentioned. Soon after the meeting of parliament,
+a Liberal member of the House, Mr L.S. Huntingdon, formally
+charged certain members of the cabinet with having received
+large sums of money, for use in the election, from Sir Hugh Allan,
+on condition, as it was claimed, that the Canadian Pacific
+contract should be given to the new company, of which he
+became the head on the failure of the plan for amalgamation.
+These charges were investigated by a royal commission, which
+was appointed after it had been decided that the parliamentary
+committee named for that purpose could not legally take
+evidence under oath. Parliament met in October 1873, to receive
+the report of the commission. While members of the government
+were exonerated by the report from the charge of personal
+corruption, the payment of large sums of money by Sir Hugh
+Allan was fully established, and public feeling on the matter
+was so strong that Sir J. Macdonald, while asserting his own
+innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the
+vote, of parliament. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord
+Lisgar as governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the
+leader of the Opposition, Mr Alexander Mackenzie (<i>q.v.</i>),
+who succeeded in forming a Liberal administration which,
+on appealing to the constituencies, was supported by an overwhelming
+majority, and held power for the five following years.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy
+was adopted for the construction of the trans-continental
+railway. It was proposed to lessen the cost of construction by
+utilizing the water stretches along the route, while, on the ground
+that the contract made was impossible of fulfilment, the period
+of completion was postponed indefinitely. Meanwhile the
+surveys and construction were carried forward not by a company,
+but as a government work. Under this arrangement British
+Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the Dominion
+to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the
+union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir
+James) Edgar, sent out to conciliate the province by some
+new agreement, failed to accomplish his object, and all the
+influence of the governor-general, Lord Dufferin, who paid
+a visit at this time to the Pacific coast, was required to quiet
+the public excitement, which had shown itself in a resolution
+passed by the legislature for separation from the Dominion
+unless the terms of union were fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a policy destined to affect profoundly the future
+of the Dominion had, along with that of the  construction
+of the Canadian Pacific railway, become a subject
+of burning political discussion and party division.
+<span class="sidenote">Economic &ldquo;national policy.&rdquo;</span>
+During the period of Mr Mackenzie&rsquo;s administration
+a profound  business depression affected the whole
+continent of America. The Dominion revenue showed a series
+of deficits for several years in succession. The factories of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span>
+the United States, unduly developed by an extreme system
+of protection, sought in Canada a slaughter market for their
+surplus products, to the detriment or destruction of Canadian
+industries. Meanwhile the republic, which had for many
+years drained Canada of hundreds of thousands of artisans to
+work its factories, steadily declined to consider any suggestion
+for improving trade relations between the two countries. In
+these circumstances Sir J. Macdonald brought forward a proposal
+to adopt what was called a &ldquo;national policy,&rdquo; or, in other
+words, a system of protection for Canadian industries. Mr
+Mackenzie and his chief followers, whose inclinations were
+towards free trade, pinned their political fortunes to the maintenance
+of a tariff for revenue only. After some years of fierce
+discussion in parliament and throughout the country the question
+was brought to an issue in 1878, when, with a large majority
+of followers pledged to carry out protection, Sir John Macdonald
+was restored to power. The new system was laid before parliament
+in 1879 by the finance minister, Sir Leonard Tilley;
+and the tariff then agreed upon, although it received considerable
+modification from time to time, remained, under both Conservative
+and Liberal administrations, the basis of Canadian
+finance, and, as Canadians generally believed, the bulwark of
+their industry. It had almost immediately the effect of lessening
+the exodus of artisans to the United States, and of improving
+the revenue and so restoring the national credit.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1878 Lord Dufferin&rsquo;s term of office expired, and
+his place as governor-general was taken by the marquess of Lorne,
+whose welcome to the Dominion was accentuated by the fact
+that he was the son-in-law of the queen, and that his viceroyalty
+was shared by the princess Louise. The election of 1878 marked
+the beginning of a long period of Conservative rule&mdash;the premiership
+of Sir J. Macdonald continuing from that time without a
+break until his death in 1891, while his party remained in power
+till 1896. This long-continued Conservative supremacy was
+apparently due to the policy of bold and rapid development
+which it had adopted, and which appealed to a young and
+ambitious country more strongly than the more cautious proposals
+of the Liberal leaders. As soon as the government had
+redeemed its pledge to establish a system of protection a vigorous
+<span class="sidenote">Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. </span>
+railway policy was inaugurated. A contract was made
+with a new company to complete the Canadian Pacific
+railway within ten years, on condition of receiving a
+grant of $25,000,000 and 25,000,000 acres of land,
+together with those parts of the line already finished
+under government direction. After fierce debate in parliament
+these terms were ratified in the session of 1881. The financial
+difficulties encountered by the company in carrying out their
+gigantic task were very great, and in 1884 they were compelled
+to obtain from the Dominion government a loan of $20,000,000
+secured on the company&rsquo;s property. This loan was repaid by
+1887. Meanwhile the work was carried forward with so much
+energy that, five years before the stipulated period of completion,
+on the 7th of November 1886, the last spike was driven by Mr
+Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), whose fortune had been
+largely pledged to the undertaking, along with those of other
+prominent Canadian business men, especially Mr George Stephen
+(Lord Mountstephen), Mr Duncan McIntyre, and Mr R.B.
+Angus. Under the energetic management of Mr (later Sir)
+W.C. Van Home, who was appointed president of the company
+in 1888, the new railway soon became the most prominent
+feature in the development of the country; lines of steamships
+were established on the great lakes and the Pacific; a stream of
+immigration began to flow into the prairie region; and the
+increasing prosperity of the railway had a poverful influence in
+improving the public credit.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the Canadian Pacific railway was fully completed,
+it proved of great service in a national emergency which suddenly
+arose in the north-west. With the organization of Manitoba
+and the opening of improved communication immigrants began
+to move rapidly westward, and government surveyors were soon
+busy laying off lands in the Saskatchewan valley. The numbers
+of the half-breed settlers of this district had been increased by
+the migration of many of those who had taken part in the first
+uprising at Fort Garry. Influenced by somewhat similar motives,
+<span class="sidenote">Riel&rsquo;s rebellion.</span>
+fearing from the advance of civilization the destruction
+of the buffalo, on which they chiefly depended for food,
+with some real grievances and others imaginary, the
+discontented population sent for Riel, who had been living,
+since his flight from Fort Garry, in the United States. He
+returned to put himself at the head of a second rebellion. At
+first he seemed inclined to act with moderation and on lines of
+constitutional agitation, but soon, carried away by fanaticism,
+ambition and vanity, he turned to armed organization against
+the government. To half-breed rebellion was added the imminent
+danger of an Indian uprising, to which Riel looked for support.
+The authorities at Ottawa were at first careless or sceptical in
+regard to the danger, the reality of which was only brought home
+to them when a body of mounted police, advancing to regain a
+small post at Duck Lake, of which the rebels had taken possession,
+was attacked and twelve of their number killed. Volunteers
+and militia were at once called out in all the old provinces of
+Canada, and were quickly conveyed by the newly constructed
+line of railway to the neighbourhood of the point of disturbance.
+Major-general Middleton, of the imperial army, who was then in
+command of the Canadian militia, led the expedition. Several
+minor engagements with half-breeds or Indians preceded the
+final struggle at Batoche, where Gabriel Dumont, Riel&rsquo;s military
+lieutenant, had skilfully entrenched his forces. After a cautious
+advance the eagerness of the troops finally overcame the hesitation
+of the commander in exposing his men, the rifle pits were
+carried with a rush, and the rebellion crushed at a single stroke.
+Dumont succeeded in escaping across the United States boundary;
+Riel was captured, imprisoned, and in due course tried for
+treason. This second rebellion carried on under his leadership
+had lasted about three months, had cost the country many
+valuable lives, and in money about five millions of dollars. Clear
+as was his guilt, Riel&rsquo;s trial, condemnation and execution on the
+16th of November 1885, provoked a violent political storm which
+at one time threatened to overthrow the Conservative government.
+The balance of power between parties in parliament was
+held by the province of Quebec, and there racial and religious
+feeling evoked no slight sympathy for Riel. But while a section
+of Quebec was eager to secure the rebel&rsquo;s pardon, Ontario was
+equally bent on the execution of justice, so that in the final vote
+on the question in parliament the defection of French Conservatives
+was compensated for by the support of Ontario Liberals.
+In the end 25 out of 53 French members voted in justification
+of Kiel&rsquo;s punishment. With him were executed several Indian
+chiefs who had been concerned in a massacre of whites. Painful
+as were the circumstances connected with this rebellion, it is
+certain that the united action of the different provinces in
+suppressing it tended to consolidate Canadian sentiment, and
+the short military campaign had the effect of fixing public
+attention upon the immense fertile territory then being opened
+up.</p>
+
+<p>The general election of 1882 turned chiefly upon endorsement
+of the national policy of protection; in that of 1887 the electoral
+test was again applied to the same issue, while Sir John
+Macdonald also asked for approval of the government&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Macdonald&rsquo;s fiscal policy.</span>
+action in exacting from Riel the full penalty of his
+guilt. On both issues the Conservative policy was
+upheld by the electors, and Macdonald was continued in power
+with a large parliamentary majority. From the election of 1887
+the Riel agitation ceased to seriously influence politics, but the
+fiscal controversy continued under new forms. Between 1887
+and 1891 a vigorous agitation was kept up under Liberal auspices
+in favour of closer trade relations with the United States, at
+first under the name of Commercial Union and later under that
+of Unrestricted Reciprocity. The object in both cases was to
+break down tariff barriers between the United States and Canada,
+even though that should be at the expense of discrimination
+against Great Britain. The Conservative party took the position
+that commercial union, involving as it would a common protective
+tariff against all other countries, including the motherland,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span>
+would inevitably lead to political unification with the United
+States. The question after long and vehement discussion was
+brought to a final issue in the election of 1891, and Sir John
+Macdonald&rsquo;s government was again sustained. From that time
+protection became the settled policy of the country. On their
+accession to power in 1896 it was adopted by the Liberals, who
+joined to it a preference for the products of the mother country.
+Under the protective policy thus repeatedly confirmed, Canada
+gradually became more independent of the American market
+than in earlier times, and enjoyed great commercial prosperity.
+Soon after the election of 1891 Sir John Macdonald (<i>q.v.</i>) died,
+after an active political career of more than forty years. Under
+his direction the great lines of policy which have governed the
+development of Canada as a confederated state within the
+empire were inaugurated and carried forward with great success,
+so that his name has become indissolubly connected with the
+history of the Dominion at its most critical stage.</p>
+
+<p>During the years which succeeded the death of Sir John
+Macdonald a succession of losses weakened the position of
+the Conservative party which had held power so long.
+The Hon. J.C.C. Abbott, leader of the party in the
+<span class="sidenote">Macdonald&rsquo;s successors.</span>
+Senate, became prime minister on Macdonald&rsquo;s death in
+1891, but in 1892 was compelled by ill-health to resign,
+and in 1893 he died. His successor, Sir John Thompson, after
+a successful leadership of about two years, died suddenly of
+heart disease at Windsor Castle, immediately after being sworn
+of the imperial privy council. Charges of corruption in the
+administration of the department of public works, which led
+to the expulsion of one member of parliament, involved also
+the resignation from the cabinet of Sir Hector Langevin, leader
+of the French Conservatives, against whom carelessness at least
+in administration had been established. The brief premiership
+of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, between 1894 and 1896, was marked
+by much dissension in the Conservative ranks, ending finally
+in a reconstruction of the government in 1896 under Sir Charles
+Tupper. Breaks had been made in the Liberal ranks also by the
+death in 1892 of the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie and the withdrawal
+of the Hon. Edward Blake from Canadian politics to
+accept a seat in the British parliament as a member of the
+Home Rule party. But the appeal made to the electors in
+1896 resulted in a decisive victory for the Liberal party, and
+marked the beginning of a long period of Liberal rule.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Wilfrid Laurier (<i>q.v.</i>) became prime minister, and
+strengthened the cabinet which he formed by drawing into
+it from provincial politics the premiers of Ontario,
+New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The administration
+<span class="sidenote">Laurier.</span>
+thus established underwent many changes, but after winning
+three general elections it was still in power in 1909. The period
+of Sir Wilfrid Laurier&rsquo;s rule was one of striking progress in
+material growth, and a marked development of national feeling.
+While the federation of the provinces favoured the growth
+of a strong sentiment of Canadian individuality, the result
+of unification had been to strengthen decidedly the ties that
+bind the country to the empire. This was as true under Liberal
+as under Conservative auspices&mdash;as Canadians understood the
+meaning of these party names. The outbreak of the South
+African war in 1899 furnished an occasion for a practical display
+of Canadian loyalty to imperial interests. Three contingents
+of troops were despatched to the seat of war and took an active
+part in the events which finally secured the triumph of the
+British arms. These forces were supplemented by a regiment
+of Canadian horse raised and equipped at the sole expense
+of Lord Strathcona, the high commissioner of the Dominion
+in London. The same spirit was illustrated in other ways. In
+bringing about a system of penny postage throughout the empire;
+in forwarding the construction of the Pacific cable to secure close
+and safe imperial telegraphic connexion; in creating rapid and
+efficient lines of steamship communication with the motherland
+and all the colonies; in granting tariff preference to British
+goods and in striving for preferential treatment of inter-imperial
+trade; in assuming responsibility for imperial defence at the two
+important stations of Halifax and Esquimalt,&mdash;Canada, under the
+guidance of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and his party, took a leading
+part and showed a truly national spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The opening years of the 20th century were marked by a
+prolonged period of great prosperity. A steady stream of
+emigrants from Europe and the United States, sometimes
+rising in number to 300,000 in a single year,
+<span class="sidenote">Canadian expansion.</span>
+began to occupy the vast western prairies. So
+considerable was the growth of this section of the Dominion
+that in 1905 it was found necessary to form two new provinces,
+Alberta and Saskatchewan, from the North-West Territories,
+the area of each being 275,000 sq. m. Each province has a
+lieutenant-governor and a single legislative chamber, with a
+representation of four members in the Senate and five in the
+House of Commons of the Dominion parliament. The control of
+the public lands is retained by the general government on the
+ground that it has been responsible for the development of the
+country by railway construction and emigration. With the
+rapid increase of population, production in Canada also greatly
+increased; exports, imports and revenue constantly expanded,
+and capital, finding abundant and profitable employment,
+began to flow freely into the country for further industrial
+development. New and great railway undertakings were a
+marked feature of this period. The Canadian Pacific system
+was extended until it included 12,000 m. of line. The Canadian
+Northern railway, already constructed from the Great Lakes
+westward to the neighbourhood of the Rockies, and with water
+and rail connexions reaching eastward to Quebec, began to
+transform itself into a complete transcontinental system, with
+an extension to the Hudson Bay. That this line owed its
+inception and construction chiefly to the joint enterprise of
+two private individuals, Messrs Mackenzie and Mann, was a
+striking proof of the industrial capacities of the country. To
+a still more ambitious line, the Grand Trunk Pacific, extending
+from the Atlantic to the Pacific, aiming at extensive steamship
+connexion on both oceans, and closely associated with the
+Grand Trunk system of Ontario and Quebec, the government
+of Canada gave liberal support as a national undertaking.
+The eastern section of 1875 m., extending from Winnipeg to
+Moncton, where connexion is secured with the winter ports
+of Halifax and St John, was, under the act of incorporation,
+to be built by the government, and then leased for fifty years,
+under certain conditions, to the Grand Trunk Pacific Company.
+The western portion, of 1480 m., from Winnipeg to the Pacific,
+was to be built, owned and operated by the company itself,
+the government guaranteeing bonds to the extent of 75%
+of the whole cost of construction. The discovery of large
+deposits of nickel at Sudbury; of extremely rich gold mines
+on the head-waters of the Yukon, in a region previously considered
+well-nigh worthless for human habitation; of extensive
+areas of gold, copper and silver ores in the mountain regions of
+British Columbia; of immense coal deposits in the Crow&rsquo;s
+Nest Pass of the same province and on the prairies; of veins
+of silver and cobalt of extraordinary richness in northern Ontario&mdash;all
+deeply affected the industrial condition of the country
+and illustrated the vastness of its undeveloped resources. The
+use of wood-pulp in the manufacture of paper gave a greatly
+enhanced value to many millions of acres of northern forest
+country. The application of electricity to purposes of manufacture
+and transportation made the waterfalls and rapids
+in which the country abounds the source of an almost unlimited
+supply of energy capable of easy distribution for industrial
+purposes over wide areas.</p>
+
+<p>Since confederation a series of attempts has been made with
+varying degrees of success to settle the questions in dispute
+between the Dominion and the United States, naturally
+arising from the fact that they divide between them
+<span class="sidenote">Relations with the United States.</span>
+the control of nearly the whole of a large continent and
+its adjoining waters. Considering the vastness of the
+interests involved, there is much cause for satisfaction in the fact
+that these differences have been settled by peaceful arbitrament
+rather than by that recourse to force which has so often marked
+the delimitation of rights and territory on other continents
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span>
+The Washington Treaty of 1871 has already been referred to.
+Its clauses dealing with the fisheries and trade lasted for fourteen
+years, and were then abrogated by the action of the United
+States. Various proposals on the part of Canada for a renewal
+of the reciprocity were not entertained. After 1885 Canada was
+therefore compelled to fall back upon the treaty of 1818 as the
+guarantee of her fishing rights. It became necessary to enforce
+the terms of that convention, under which the fishermen of the
+United States could not pursue their avocations within the three
+miles&rsquo; limit, tranship cargoes of fish in Canadian ports, or enter
+them except for shelter, water, wood or repairs. On account of
+infractions of the treaty many vessels were seized and some were
+condemned. In 1887 a special commission was appointed to
+deal with the question. On this commission Mr Joseph Chamberlain,
+Sir Sackville West and Sir Charles Tupper represented
+British and Canadian interests; Secretary T.F. Bayard, Mr
+W. le B. Putnam and Mr James B. Angell acted for the United
+States. The commission succeeded in agreeing to the terms of
+a treaty, which was recommended to Congress by President
+Cleveland as supplying &ldquo;a satisfactory, practical and final
+adjustment, upon a basis honourable and just to both parties,
+of the difficult and vexed questions to which it relates.&rdquo; This
+agreement, known as the Chamberlain-Bayard treaty, was
+rejected by the Senate, and as a consequence it became necessary
+to carry on the fisheries under a <i>modus vivendi</i> renewed annually.</p>
+
+<p>In 1886 a difference about international rights on the high seas
+arose on the Pacific coast in connexion with the seal fisheries
+of Bering Sea. In that year several schooners, fitted out in
+British Columbia for the capture of seals in the North Pacific,
+were seized by a United States cutter at a distance of 60 m.
+from the nearest land, the officers were imprisoned and fined,
+and the vessels themselves subjected to forfeiture. The British
+government at once protested against this infraction of international
+right, and through long and troublesome negotiations
+firmly upheld Canada&rsquo;s claims in the matter. The dispute was
+finally referred to a court of arbitration, on which Sir John
+Thompson, premier of the Dominion, sat as one of the British
+arbitrators. It was decided that the United States had no
+jurisdiction in the Bering Sea beyond the three miles&rsquo; limit, but
+the court also made regulations to prevent the wholesale slaughter
+of fur-bearing seals. The sum of $463,454 was finally awarded
+as compensation to the Canadian sealers who had been unlawfully
+seized and punished. This sum was paid by the United States
+in 1898.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of communications during 1897 between Sir
+Wilfrid Laurier and Secretary Sherman, the governments of
+Great Britain and the United States agreed to the appointment
+of a joint high commission, with a view of settling all outstanding
+differences between the United States and Canada. The commission,
+which included three members of the Canadian cabinet
+and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord
+Herschell was appointed chairman, met at Quebec on the 23rd
+of August 1898. The sessions continued in Quebec at intervals
+until the 10th of October, when the commission adjourned to
+meet in Washington on the 1st of November, where the discussions
+were renewed for some weeks. Mr Nelson Dingley, an American
+member of the commission, died during the month of January,
+as did the chairman, Lord Herschell, in March, as the result of
+an accident, soon after the close of the sittings of the commission.
+The Alaskan boundary, the Atlantic and inland fisheries, the
+alien labour law, the bonding privilege, the seal fishery in the
+Bering Sea and reciprocity of trade in certain products were
+among the subjects considered by the commission. On several
+of these points much progress was made towards a settlement,
+but a divergence of opinion as to the methods by which the
+Alaskan boundary should be determined put an end for the time
+to the negotiations.</p>
+
+<p>In 1903 an agreement was reached by which the question of
+this boundary, which depended on the interpretation put upon
+the treaty of 1825 between Russia and England, should be
+submitted to a commission consisting of &ldquo;six impartial jurists
+of repute,&rdquo; three British and three American. The British
+commissioners appointed were: Lord Alverstone, lord chief
+justice of England; Sir Louis Jette, K.C., of Quebec; and A.B.
+Aylesworth, K.C., of Toronto. On the American side were
+appointed: the Hon. Henry C. Lodge, senator for Massachusetts;
+the Hon. Elihu Root, secretary of war for the United States
+government; and Senator George Turner. Canadians could not
+be persuaded that the American members fulfilled the condition
+of being &ldquo;impartial jurists,&rdquo; and protest was made, but, though
+the imperial government also expressed surprise, no change
+in the appointments was effected. The commission met in
+London, and announced its decision in October. This was
+distinctly unfavourable to Canada&rsquo;s claims, since it excluded
+Canadians from all ocean inlets as far south as the Portland
+Channel, and in that channel gave to Canada only two of the
+four islands claimed. A statement made by the Canadian
+commissioners, who refused to sign the report, of an unexplained
+change of opinion on the part of Lord Alverstone, produced a
+widespread impression for a time that his decision in favour
+of American claims was diplomatic rather than judicial. Later
+Canadian opinion, however, came to regard the decision of the
+commission as a reasonable compromise. The irritation caused
+by the decision gradually subsided, but at the moment it led
+to strong expressions on the part of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and
+others in favour of securing for Canada a fuller power of making
+her own treaties. While the power of making treaties must
+rest ultimately in the hands that can enforce them, the tendency
+to give the colonies chiefly interested a larger voice in international
+arrangements had become inevitable. The mission
+of a Canadian cabinet minister, the Hon. R. Lemieux, to Japan
+in 1907, to settle Canadian difficulties with that country, illustrated
+the change of diplomatic system in progress.</p>
+
+<p>Under the British North American Act the control of education
+was reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation
+that all rights enjoyed by denominational schools at
+the time of confederation should be respected. Provincial
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+control has caused some diversity of management; the
+interpretation of the denominational agreement has led to acute
+differences of opinion which have invaded the field of politics.
+In all the provinces elementary, and in some cases secondary,
+education is free, the funds for its support being derived from
+local taxation and from government grants. The highly organized
+school system of Ontario is directed by a minister of education,
+who is a member of the provincial cabinet. The other provinces
+have boards of education, and superintendents who act under
+the direction of the provincial legislatures. In Quebec the
+Roman Catholic schools, which constitute the majority, are
+chiefly controlled by the local clergy of that church. The
+Protestant schools are managed by a separate board. In
+Ontario as well as in Quebec separate schools are allowed to
+Roman Catholics. In Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince
+Edward Island, Manitoba and British Columbia the public
+schools are strictly undenominational. This position was only
+established in New Brunswick and Manitoba after violent
+political struggles, and frequent appeals to the highest courts of
+the empire for decisions on questions of federal or provincial jurisdiction.
+The right of having separate schools has been extended
+to the newly constituted provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.</p>
+
+<p>Secondary education is provided for by high schools and
+collegiate institutes in all towns and cities, and by large residential
+institutions at various centres, conducted on the principle
+of the English public schools. The largest of these is Upper
+Canada College at Toronto. Each province has a number of
+normal and model schools for the training of teachers. For
+higher education there are also abundant facilities. M&lsquo;Gill
+University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly endowed
+by the munificence of a few private individuals, Toronto
+University by the provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen&rsquo;s
+University at Kingston largely by the support of its own graduates
+and friends. University work in the maritime provinces, instead
+of being concentrated, as it might well be, in one powerful
+institution, is distributed among five small, but within their
+range efficient universities. The agricultural college at Guelph and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span>
+the experimental farms maintained by the federal government
+give excellent training and scientific assistance to farmers.
+Sir William Macdonald in 1908 built and endowed, at an expenditure
+of at least £700,000, an agricultural college and normal
+school at St Anne&rsquo;s, near Montreal. While the older universities
+have increased greatly in influence and efficiency, the following
+new foundations have been made since confederation:&mdash;University
+of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1877; Presbyterian College,
+Winnipeg, 1870; Methodist College, Winnipeg, 1888; Wesleyan
+College, Montreal, 1873; Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868;
+School of Practical Science, Toronto, 1877; Royal Military
+College, Kingston, 1875; M&lsquo;Master University, Toronto, 1888.
+All the larger universities have schools of medicine in affiliation,
+and have the power of conferring medical degrees. Since 1877
+Canadian degrees have been recognized by the Medical Council
+of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>In her treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
+(numbering 93,318 in 1901) Canada has met with conspicuous
+success. Since the advance of civilization and indiscriminate
+slaughter have deprived them of the bison,
+<span class="sidenote">Indian tribes.</span>
+so long their natural means of subsistence, the north-west
+tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of
+the country. As a result of the great care now used in watching
+over them there has been a small but steady increase in their
+numbers. Industrial and boarding schools, established in
+several of the provinces, by separating the children from the
+degrading influences of their home life, have proved more
+effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and
+ideas of a higher civilization. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt
+made to adapt British principles and methods of government
+to a federal system. The chief executive authority
+is vested in the sovereign, as is the supreme command
+<span class="sidenote">Constitution.</span>
+of the military and naval forces. The governor-general
+represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown,
+which appoints him. He holds office for five years, and his
+powers are strictly limited, as in the case of the sovereign,
+all executive acts being done on the advice of his cabinet, the
+members of which hold office only so long as they retain the
+confidence of the people as expressed by their representatives
+in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the independent
+right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers
+in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-general
+have represented the crown since the federation of the
+provinces, with the year of their appointment: Viscount Monck,
+1867; Sir John Young (afterwards Baron Lisgar), 1868; the
+earl of Dufferin, 1872; the marquess of Lome (afterwards duke
+of Argyll), 1878; the marquess of Lansdowne, 1883; Lord
+Stanley of Preston (afterwards earl of Derby), 1888; the earl
+of Aberdeen, 1893; the earl of Minto, 1898; Earl Grey, 1904.
+The upper house, or Senate, is composed of members who hold
+office for life and are nominated by the governor-general in
+council. It originally consisted of 72 members, 24 from Quebec,
+24 from Ontario, and 24 from the maritime provinces, but this
+number has been from time to time slightly increased as new
+provinces have been added. The House of Commons consists
+of representatives elected directly by the people. The number
+of members, originally 196, is subject to change after each
+decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North
+America Act is that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives,
+and each of the other provinces such a number as will give
+the same proportion of members to its population as the number
+65 bears to the population of Quebec at each census. In 1908
+the number of members was 218.</p>
+
+<p>Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive
+an annual indemnity of $2500, with a travelling allowance.
+Legislation brought forward in 1906 introduced an innovation
+in assigning a salary of $7000 to the recognized leader of the
+Opposition, and pensions amounting to half their official income
+to ex-cabinet ministers who have occupied their posts for
+five consecutive years. This pension clause has since been
+repealed. One principal object of the framers of the Canadian
+constitution was to establish a strong central government. An
+opposite plan was therefore adopted to that employed in the
+system of the United States, where the federal government
+enjoys only the powers granted to it by the sovereign states.
+The British North America Act assigns to the different provinces,
+as to the central parliament, their spheres of control, but all
+residuary powers are given to the general government. Within
+these limitations the provincial assemblies have a wide range of
+legislative power. In Nova Scotia and Quebec the bicameral
+system of an upper and lower house is retained; in the other
+provinces legislation is left to a single representative assembly.
+For purely local matters municipal institutions are organized
+to cover counties and townships, cities and towns, all based
+on an exceedingly democratic franchise.</p>
+
+<p>The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of
+Sir John Macdonald in the early years after federation, but
+was only finally accomplished in 1876, during the premiership
+of Alexander Mackenzie. This court is presided over by a chief
+justice, with five puisne judges, and has appellate civil and
+criminal jurisdiction for the Dominion. By an act passed in
+1891 the government has power to refer to the supreme court
+any important question of law affecting the public interest.
+The right of appeal from the supreme court, thus constituted,
+to the judicial committee of the privy council marks, in questions
+judicial, Canada&rsquo;s place as a part of the British empire.</p>
+
+<p>The appointment, first made in 1897, of the chief justice
+of Canada, along with the chief justices of Cape Colony and
+South Australia, as colonial members of the judicial committee
+still further established the position of that body as the final
+court of appeal for the British people. The grave questions
+of respective jurisdiction which have from time to time arisen
+between the federal and provincial governments have for the
+most part been settled by appeal to one or both of these judicial
+bodies. Some of these questions have played a considerable
+part in Canadian politics, but are of too complicated a nature
+to be dealt with in the present brief sketch. They have
+generally consisted in the assertion of provincial rights against
+federal authority. The decision of the courts has always been
+accepted as authoritative and final.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An excellent bibliography of Canadian history will be found in the
+volume <i>Literature of American History</i>, published by the American
+Library Association. The annual <i>Review of Historical Publications
+Relating to Canada</i>, published by the University of Toronto, gives
+a critical survey of the works on Canadian topics appearing from
+year to year.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. R. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Literature</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>English-Canadian Literature</i> is marked by the weaknesses
+as well as the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence,
+the conquering of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad
+culture or scholarship, and the very fact that Canada is a colony,
+however free to control her own affairs, has stood in the way
+of the creation of anything like a national literature. And yet,
+while Canada&rsquo;s intellectual product is essentially an offshoot
+of the parent literature of England, it is not entirely devoid of
+originality, either in manner or matter. There is in much of
+it a spirit of freedom and youthful vigour characteristic of the
+country. It is marked by the wholesomeness of Canadian life
+and Canadian ideals, and the optimism of a land of limitless
+potentialities.</p>
+
+<p>The first few decades of the period of British rule were lean
+years indeed so far as native literature is concerned. This
+period of unrest gave birth to little beyond a flood of political
+pamphlets, of no present value save as material for the historian.
+We may perhaps except the able though thoroughly partisan
+writings of Sir John Beverley Robinson and Bishop Strachan
+on the one side, and Robert Fleming Gourlay and William
+Lyon Mackenzie on the other. In the far West, however, a
+little group of adventurous fur-traders, of whom Sir Alexander
+Mackenzie, David Thompson, Alexander Henry and Daniel
+Williams Harmon may be taken as conspicuous types, were
+unfolding the vast expanse of the future dominion. They were
+men of action, not of words, and had no thought of literary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span>
+fame, but their absorbingly interesting journals are none the
+less an essential part of the literature of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Barring the work of Francis Parkman, who was not a Canadian,
+no history of the first rank has yet been written in or of Canada.
+Canadian historians have not merely lacked so far the genius
+for really great historical work, but they have lacked the point
+of view; they have stood too close to their subject to get the
+true perspective. At the same time they have brought together
+invaluable material for the great historian of the future. Robert
+Christie&rsquo;s <i>History of Lower Canada</i> (1848-1854) was the first
+serious attempt to deal with the period of British rule. William
+Kingsford&rsquo;s (1819-1898) ambitious work, in ten volumes, comes
+down like Christie&rsquo;s to the Union of 1841, but goes back to the
+very beginnings of Canadian history. In the main it is impartial
+and accurate, but the style is heavy and sometimes slovenly.
+J.C. Dent&rsquo;s (1841-1888) <i>Last Forty Years</i> (1880) is practically
+a continuation of Kingsford. Dent also wrote an interesting
+though one-sided account of the rebellion of 1837. Histories
+of the maritime provinces have been written by Thomas Chandler
+Haliburton, Beamish Murdoch and James Hannay. Haliburton&rsquo;s
+is much the best of the three. The brief but stirring
+history of western Canada has been told by Alexander Begg
+(1840-1898); and George Bryce (b. 1844) and Beckles Willson
+(b. 1869) have written the story of the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company.
+Much scholarship and research have been devoted to local and
+special historical subjects, a notable example of which is Arthur
+Doughty&rsquo;s exhaustive work on the siege of Quebec. J. McMullen
+(b. 1820), Charles Roberts (b. 1860) and Sir John Bourinot
+(1837-1902) have written brief and popular histories, covering
+the whole field of Canadian history more or less adequately.
+Alpheus Todd&rsquo;s (1821-1884) <i>Parliamentary Government in
+England</i> (1867-1869) and <i>Parliamentary Government in the
+British Colonies</i> (1880) are standard works, as is also Bourinot&rsquo;s
+<i>Parliamentary Procedure and Practice</i> (1884).</p>
+
+<p>Biography has been devoted mainly to political subjects.
+The best of these are Joseph Pope&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of Sir John
+Macdonald</i> (1894), W.D. le Sueur&rsquo;s <i>Frontenac</i> (1906), Sir John
+Bourinot&rsquo;s <i>Lord Elgin</i> (1905), Jean McIlwraith&rsquo;s <i>Sir Frederick
+Haldimand</i> (1904), D.C. Scott&rsquo;s <i>John Graves Simcoe</i> (1905),
+A.D. de Celles&rsquo; <i>Papineau and Cartier</i>(1904), Charles Lindsey&rsquo;s
+<i>William Lyon Mackenzie</i> (1862), J.W. Longley&rsquo;s <i>Joseph Howe</i>
+(1905) and J.S. Willison&rsquo;s <i>Sir Wilfrid Laurier</i> (1903).</p>
+
+<p>In <i>belles lettres</i> very little has been accomplished, unless we
+may count Goldwin Smith (<i>q.v.</i>) as a Canadian. As a scholar,
+a thinker, and a master of pure English he has exerted a marked
+influence upon Canadian literature and Canadian life.</p>
+
+<p>While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most
+of what passes for poetry in Canada, a few writers have risen
+to a higher level. The conditions of Canadian life have not been
+favourable to the birth of great poets, but within the limits
+of their song such men as Archibald Lampman (1861-1891),
+William Wilfred Campbell (b. 1861), Charles Roberts, Bliss
+Carman (b. 1861) and George Frederick Cameron have written
+lines that are well worth remembering. Lampman&rsquo;s poetry is
+the most finished and musical. He fell short of being a truly
+great poet, inasmuch as great poetry must, which his does not,
+touch life at many points, but his verses are marked by the
+qualities that belonged to the man&mdash;sincerity, purity, seriousness.
+Campbell&rsquo;s poetry, in spite of a certain lack of compression, is
+full of dramatic vigour: Roberts has put some of his best work
+into sonnets and short lyrics, while Carman has been very
+successful with the ballad, the untrammelled swing and sweep
+of which he has finely caught; the simplicity and severity of
+Cameron&rsquo;s style won the commendation of even so exacting a
+critic as Matthew Arnold. One remarkable drama&mdash;Charles
+Heavysege&rsquo;s (1816-1876) <i>Saul</i> (1857)&mdash;belongs to Canadian
+literature. Though unequal in execution, it contains passages
+of exceptional beauty and power. The sweetness and maturity
+of Isabella Valency Crawford&rsquo;s (1851-1887) verse are also very
+worthy of remembrance. The <i>habitant</i> poems of Dr W.H.
+Drummond (1854-1907) stand in a class by themselves,
+between English and French Canadian literature, presenting
+the simple life of the <i>habitant</i> with unique humour and
+picturesqueness.</p>
+
+<p>The first distinctively Canadian novel was John Richardson&rsquo;s
+(1796-1852) <i>Wacousta</i> (1832), a stirring tale of the war of 1812.
+Richardson afterwards wrote half a dozen other romances,
+dealing chiefly with incidents in Canadian history. Susanna
+Moodie (1803-1885) and Katharine Parr Traill (1802-1899),
+sisters of Agnes Strickland, contributed novels and tales to one
+of the earliest and best of Canadian magazines, the <i>Literary
+Garland</i> (1838-1847). <i>The Golden Dog</i>, William Kirby&rsquo;s (1817-1906)
+fascinating romance of old Quebec, appeared in 1877,
+in a pirated edition. Twenty years later the first authorized
+edition was published. James de Mille (1833-1880) was the
+author of some thirty novels, the best of which is <i>Helena&rsquo;s
+Household</i> (1868), a story of Rome in the 1st century. <i>The
+Dodge Club</i> (1869), a humorous book of travel, appeared, curiously
+enough, a few months before <i>Innocents Abroad</i>. De Mille&rsquo;s
+posthumous novel, <i>A Strange Manuscript found in a Copper
+Cylinder</i> (1888), describes a singular race whose cardinal doctrine
+is that poverty is honourable and wealth the reverse. Sir Gilbert
+Parker (b. 1862) stands first among contemporary Canadian
+novelists. He has made admirable use in many of his novels
+of the inexhaustible stores of romantic and dramatic material
+that lie buried in forgotten pages of Canadian history. Of
+later Canadian novelists mention may be made of Sara Jeannette
+Duncan (Mrs Everard Cotes, b. 1862), Ralph Connor (Charles
+W. Gordon, b. 1866), Agnes C. Laut (b. 1872), W.A. Fraser
+(b. 1859) and Ernest Thompson Seton (b. 1860). Thomas
+Chandler Haliburton (<i>q.v.</i>) stands in a class by himself. In many
+respects his is the most striking figure in Canadian literature.
+He is best known as a humorist, and as a humorist he ranks
+with the creators of &ldquo;My Uncle Toby&rdquo; and &ldquo;Pickwick.&rdquo; But
+there is more than humour in Haliburton&rsquo;s books. He lacked,
+in fact, but one thing to make him a great novelist: he had no
+conception of how to construct a plot. But he knew human
+nature, and knew it intimately in all its phases; he could
+construct a character and endow it with life; his people talk
+naturally and to the point; and many of his descriptive
+passages are admirable. Those who read Haliburton&rsquo;s books
+only for the sake of the humour will miss much of their value.
+His inimitable <i>Clockmaker</i> (1837), as well as the later books,
+<i>The Old Judge</i> (1849), <i>The Attaché</i> (1843), <i>Wise Saws and
+Modern Instances</i> (1853) and <i>Nature and Human Nature</i> (1855),
+are mirrors of colonial life and character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For general treatment of English-Canadian literature, reference
+may be made to Sir John Bourinot&rsquo;s <i>Intellectual Development of the
+Canadian People</i> (1881); G. Mercer Adam&rsquo;s <i>Outline History of
+Canadian Literature</i> (1887); &ldquo;Native Thought and Literature,&rdquo;
+in J.E. Collins&rsquo;s <i>Life of Sir John A. Macdonald</i> (1883); &ldquo;Canadian
+Literature,&rdquo; by J.M. Oxley, in the <i>Encyclopaedia Americana</i>, vol. ix.
+(1904); A. MacMurchy&rsquo;s <i>Handbook of Canadian Literature</i> (1906);
+and articles by J. Castell Hopkins, John Reade, A.B. de Mille and
+Thomas O&rsquo;Hagan, in vol. v. of <i>Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the
+Country</i> (1898-1900); also to Henry J. Morgan&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca Canadensis</i>
+(1867) and <i>Canadian Men and Women of the Time</i> (1898);
+W.D. Lighthall, <i>Songs of the Great Dominion</i>; Theodore Rand&rsquo;s
+<i>Treasury of Canadian Verse</i> (1900); C.C. James&rsquo;s <i>Bibliography of
+Canadian Verse</i> (1898); L.E. Horning&rsquo;s and L.J. Burpee&rsquo;s <i>Bibliography
+of Canadian Fiction</i> (1904); S.E. Dawson&rsquo;s <i>Prose Writers of
+Canada</i> (1901); &ldquo;Canadian Poetry,&rdquo; by J.A. Cooper, in <i>The
+National</i>, 29, p. 364; &ldquo;Recent Canadian Fiction,&rdquo; by L.J. Burpee,
+in <i>The Forum</i>, August 1899. For individual authors, see Haliburton&rsquo;s
+<i>A Centenary Chaplet</i> (1897), with a bibliography; &ldquo;Haliburton,&rdquo;
+by F. Blake Crofton, in <i>Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the
+Country</i>; C.H. Farnham&rsquo;s <i>Life of Francis Parkman</i> and H.D.
+Sedgwick&rsquo;s <i>Francis Parkman</i> (1901); and articles on &ldquo;Parkman,&rdquo;
+by E.L. Godkin, in <i>The Nation</i>, 71, p. 441; by Justin Winsor in
+<i>The Atlantic</i>, 73, p. 660; by W.D. Howells, <i>The Atlantic</i>, 34, p. 602;
+by John Fiske, <i>The Atlantic</i>, 73, p. 664; by J.B. Gilder in <i>The
+Critic</i>, 23, p. 322; &ldquo;Goldwin Smith as a Critic,&rdquo; by H. Spencer,
+<i>Contemp. Review</i>, 41, p. 519; &ldquo;Goldwin Smith&rsquo;s Historical Works,&rdquo;
+by C.E. Norton, <i>North American Review</i>, 99, p. 523; &ldquo;Poetry of
+Charles Heavysege,&rdquo; by Bayard Taylor, <i>Atlantic</i>, 16, p. 412;
+&ldquo;Charles Heavysege,&rdquo; by L.J. Burpee, in <i>Trans. Royal Society of
+Canada</i>, 1901; &ldquo;Archibald Lampman,&rdquo; by W.D. Howells, <i>Literature</i>
+(N.Y.), 4, p. 217; &ldquo;Archibald Lampman,&rdquo; by L.J. Burpee, in
+<i>North American Notes and Queries</i> (Quebec), August and September
+1900; &ldquo;Poetry of Bliss Carman,&rdquo; by J.P. Mowbray, <i>Critic</i>, 41,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span>
+p. 308; &ldquo;Isabella Valency Crawford,&rdquo; in <i>Poet-Lore</i> (Boston), xiii. No.
+4; <i>Roberts and the Influences of his Time</i> (1906), by James Cappon;
+&ldquo;William Wilfred Campbell,&rdquo; <i>Sewanee Review</i>, October 1900;
+&ldquo;Kingsford&rsquo;s History of Canada,&rdquo; by G.M. Wrong, <i>N.A. Review</i>,
+I p. 550; &ldquo;Books of Gilbert Parker,&rdquo; by C.A. Pratt, <i>Critic</i>, 33,
+p. 271.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. J. B.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>French-Canadian Literature</i> at the opening of the 20th
+century might be described as entirely the work of two generations,
+and it was separated from the old régime by three more
+generations whose racial sentiment only found expression in
+the traditional songs and tales which their forefathers of the
+17th century had brought over from the <i>mère patrie</i>. Folk-lore
+has always been the most essentially French of all imaginative
+influences in Canadian life; and the songs are the quintessence
+of the lore. Not that the folk-songs have no local variants.
+Indian words, like <i>moccasin</i> and <i>toboggan</i>, are often introduced.
+French forms are freely turned into pure Canadianisms, like
+<i>cageux</i>, raftsman, <i>boucane</i>, brushwood smoke, <i>portage</i>, &amp;c.
+New characters, which appeal more directly to the local audience,
+sometimes supplant old ones, like the <i>quatre vieux sauvages</i>
+who have ousted the time-honoured <i>quatre-z-officiers</i> from the
+Canadian version of <i>Malbrouk</i>. There are even a few entire
+songs of transatlantic origin. But all these variants together
+are mere stray curios among the crowding souvenirs of the
+old home over sea. No other bridge can rival <i>le Pont d&rsquo;Avignon</i>.
+&ldquo;<i>Ici</i>&rdquo; in <i>C&rsquo;est le ban vin qui danse ici</i> can be nowhere else but
+in old France&mdash;<i>le ban vin</i> alone proves this. And the Canadian
+folk-singer, though in a land of myriad springs, still goes <i>à la
+claire fontaine</i> of his ancestral fancy; while the lullabies his
+mother sang him, like the love-songs with which he serenades
+his <i>blonde</i>, were nearly all sung throughout the Normandy of
+<i>le Grand Monarque</i>. The <i>habitant</i> was separated from old-world
+changes two centuries ago by difference of place and
+circumstances, while he has hitherto been safeguarded from
+many new-world changes by the segregative influences of race,
+religion, language and custom; and so his folk-lore still remains
+the intimate <i>alter et idem</i> of what it was in the days of the great
+pioneers. It is no longer a living spirit among the people at
+large; but in secluded villages and &ldquo;back concessions&rdquo; one
+can still hear some charming melodies as old and pure as the
+verses to which they are sung, and even a few quaint survivals
+of Gregorian tunes. The best collection, more particularly
+from the musical point of view, is <i>Les Chansons populaires
+du Canada</i>, started by Ernest Gagnon (1st ed. 1865).</p>
+
+<p>Race-patriotism is the distinguishing characteristic of French-Canadian
+literature, which is so deeply rooted in national
+politics that L.J. Papineau, the most insistent demagogue
+of 1837, must certainly be named among the founders, for
+the sake of speeches which came before written works both
+in point of time and popular esteem. Only 360 volumes had
+been published during 80 years, when, in 1845, the first famous
+book appeared&mdash;François Xavier Garneau&rsquo;s (1809-1866) <i>Histoire
+du Canada</i>. It had immense success in Canada, was favourably
+noticed in France, and has influenced all succeeding men of
+letters. Unfortunately, the imperfect data on which it is based,
+and the too exclusively patriotic spirit in which it is written,
+prevent it from being an authoritative history: the author
+himself declares &ldquo;<i>Vous verrez si la défaite de nos ancêtres ne
+vaut pas toutes las victoires</i>.&rdquo; But it is of far-reaching importance
+as the first great literary stimulus to racial self-respect. &ldquo;<i>Le
+Canada français avait perdu ses Ictlres de noblesse; Garneau
+les lui a rendues</i>.&rdquo; F.X. Garneau is also remembered for his
+poems, and he was followed by his son Alfred Garneau (1836-1904).</p>
+
+<p>A. Gérin-Lajoie was a mere lad when the exile of some compatriots
+inspired <i>Le Canadien errant</i>, which immediately became
+a universal folk-song. Many years later he wrote discriminatingly
+about those <i>Dix ans au Canada</i> (1888) that saw the
+establishment of responsible government. But his fame rests
+on <i>Jean Rivard</i> (1874), the prose bucolic of the <i>habitant</i>. The
+hero, left at the head of a fatherless family of twelve when
+nearly through college, turns from the glut of graduates swarming
+round the prospects of professional city-bred careers, steadfastly
+wrests a home from the wilderness, helps his brothers and
+sisters, marries a <i>habitante</i> fit for the wife of a pioneer, brings
+up a large family, and founds a settlement which grows into
+several parishes and finally becomes the centre of the electoral
+district of &ldquo;Rivardville,&rdquo; which returns him to parliament.
+These simple and earnest <i>Scènes de la vie réelle</i> are an appealing
+revelation of that eternal secret of the soil which every people
+wishing to have a country of its own must early lay to heart;
+and <i>Jean Rivard, le défricheur</i>, will always remain the eponym
+of the new <i>colons</i> of the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>Philippe de Gaspé&rsquo;s historical novel, <i>Les Anciens Canadiens</i>
+(1863), is the complement of Garneau and Gérin-Lajoie. Everything
+about the author&rsquo;s life helped him to write this book.
+Born in 1784, and brought up among reminiscent eye-witnesses
+of the old régime, he was an eager listener, with a wonderful
+memory and whole-hearted pride in the glories of his race and
+family, a kindly <i>seigneur</i>, who loved and was loved by all his
+<i>censitaires</i>, a keen observer of many changing systems, down
+to the final Confederation of 1867, and a man who had felt
+both extremes of fortune (<i>Mémoires</i>, 1866). The story rambles
+rather far from its well-worn plot. But these very digressions
+give the book its intimate and abiding charm; for they keep
+the reader in close personal touch with every side of Canadian
+life, with songs and tales and homely forms of speech, with
+the best features of seigniorial times and the strong guidance
+of an ardent church, with <i>voyageurs, coureurs de bois</i>, Indians,
+soldiers, sailors and all the strenuous adventurers of a wild,
+new, giant world. The poet of this little band of authors was
+Octave Crémazie, a Quebec bookseller, who failed in business
+and spent his last years as a penniless exile in France. He
+is usually rather too derivative, he lacks the saving grace of
+style, and even his best Canadian poems hardly rise above
+fervent occasional verse. Yet he became a national poet,
+because he was the first to celebrate occasions of deeply felt
+popular emotion in acceptable rhyme, and he will always remain
+one because each occasion touched some lasting aspiration
+of his race. He sings what Garneau recounts&mdash;the love of
+mother country, mother church and Canada. The <i>Guerre de
+Crimée, Guerre d&rsquo;ltalie</i>, even <i>Castel-fidardo</i>, are duly chronicled.
+An ode on <i>Mgr. de Montmorency-Laval</i>, first bishop of Quebec,
+brings him nearer to his proper themes, which are found in full
+perfection in the <i>Chant du vieux soldat canadien</i>, composed in
+1856 to honour the first French man-of-war that visited British
+Quebec, and <i>Le Drapeau de Carillon</i> (1858), a centennial paean
+for Montcalm&rsquo;s Canadians at Ticonderoga. Much of the mature
+work of this first generation, and of the juvenilia of the second,
+appeared in <i>Les Soirées canadiennes</i> and <i>Le Foyer canadien</i>,
+founded in 1862 and 1863 respectively. The abbé Ferland was
+an enthusiastic editor and historian, and Etienne Parent should
+be remembered as the first Canadian philosopher.</p>
+
+<p>At Confederation many eager followers began to take up the
+work which the founders were laying down. The abbé Casgrain
+devoted a life-time to making the French-Canadians appear as
+the chosen people of new-world history; but, though an able
+advocate, he spoilt a really good case by trying to prove too
+much. His <i>Pèlerinage au pays d&rsquo;Evangéline</i> (1888) is a splendid
+defence of the unfortunate Acadians; and all his books attract
+the reader by their charm of style and personality. But his
+<i>Montcalm et Lévis</i> (1891) and other works on the conquest, are
+all warped by a strong bias against both Wolfe and Montcalm,
+and in favour of Vandreuil, the Canadian-born governor; while
+they show an inadequate grasp of military problems, and
+practically ignore the vast determining factor of sea-power
+altogether. Benjamin Sulte&rsquo;s comprehensive <i>Histoire des
+Canadiens-français</i> (1882) is a well-written, many-sided work.
+Thomas Chapais&rsquo; monographs are as firmly grounded as they
+are finely expressed; his <i>Jean Talon</i> (1904) is of prime importance;
+and his <i>Montcalm</i> (1901) is the generous <i>amende
+honorable</i> paid by French-Canadian literature to a much misrepresented,
+but admirably wrought, career. A. Gérin-Lajoie&rsquo;s
+cry of &ldquo;back to the land&rdquo; was successfully adapted to modern
+developments in <i>Le Saguenay</i> (1896) and <i>L&rsquo;Outaouais supérieur</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span>
+(1889) by Arthur Buies, who showed what immense inland
+breadths of country lay open to suitable &ldquo;Jean Rivards&rdquo; from
+the older settlements along the St Lawrence. In oratory,
+which most French-Canadians admire beyond all other forms
+of verbal art, Sir Wilfrid Laurier has greatly surpassed L.J.
+Papineau, by dealing with more complex questions, taking a
+higher point of view, and expressing himself with a much apter
+flexibility of style.</p>
+
+<p>Among later poets may be mentioned Pierre Chauveau (1820-1890),
+Louis Fiset, (b. 1827), and Adolphe Poisson (b. 1849).
+Louis Fréchette (1830-1908) has, however, long been the only poet
+with a reputation outside of Canada. In 1879 <i>Les Fleurs boréales</i>
+won the Prix Monthyon from the French Academy. In 1887
+<i>La Légende d&rsquo;un peuple</i> became the acknowledged epic of a race.
+He occasionally nods; is rather strident in the patriotic vein;
+and too often answers the untoward call of rhetoric when his
+subject is about to soar into the heights of poetry. But a rich
+vocabulary, a mastery of verse-forms quite beyond the range
+of Crémazie, real originality of conception, individual distinction
+of style, deep insight into the soul of his people, and, still more,
+the glow of warm-blooded life pulsing through the whole poem,
+all combine to give him the greatest place at home and an important
+one in the world at large. <i>Les Vengeances</i> (1875),
+by Leon Pamphile Le May, and <i>Les Aspirations</i> (1904), by W.
+Chapman, worthily represent the older and younger contemporaries.
+Dr Nérée Beauchemin keeps within somewhat narrow limits
+in <i>Les Floraisons matutinales</i> (1897); but within them
+he shows true poetic genius, a fine sense of rhythm, rhyme and
+verbal melody, a <i>curiosa felicitas</i> of epithet and phrase, and
+so sure an eye for local colour that a stranger could choose no
+better guide to the imaginative life of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>A Canadian drama hardly exists; among its best works are
+the pleasantly epigrammatic plays of F.G. Marchand. Novels
+are not yet much in vogue; though Madame Conan&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Oublié</i>
+(1902) has been crowned by the Academy; while Dr Choquette&rsquo;s
+<i>Les Ribaud</i> (1898) is a good dramatic story, and his <i>Claude
+Paysan</i> (1899) is an admirably simple idyllic tale of the hopeless
+love of a soil-bound <i>habitant</i>, told with intense natural feeling
+and fine artistic reserve. Chief-Justice Routhier, a most accomplished
+occasional writer, is very French-Canadian when arraigning
+<i>Les Grands Drames</i> of the classics (1889) before his
+ecclesiastical court and finding them guilty of Paganism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best bibliographies are Philéas Gagnon&rsquo;s <i>Essai de bibliographie
+canadienne</i> (1895), and Dr N.E. Dionne&rsquo;s list of publications
+from the earliest times in the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society of
+Canada</i> for 1905.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Wo.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The census is taken every ten years, save in these three provinces,
+where it is  taken every five. Their population in 1906 was:&mdash;
+Manitoba, 360,000; Saskatchewan, 257,000; Alberta, 184,000.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The areas assigned to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New
+Brunswick and  British Columbia are exclusive of the territorial
+seas, that to Quebec is exclusive of the Gulf of St Lawrence (though
+including the islands lying within it), and that to Ontario is exclusive
+of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes. About 500,000 sq. m.
+belong to the Arctic region and 125,755 sq. m. are water.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In Canada a city must have over 10,000 inhabitants, a town
+over 2000.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The date of foundation is given in brackets.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANAL<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>canalis</i>, &ldquo;channel&rdquo; and &ldquo;kennel&rdquo; being
+doublets of the word), an artificial water course used for the
+drainage of low lands, for irrigation (<i>q.v.</i>), or more especially
+for the purpose of navigation by boats, barges or ships. Probably
+the first canals were made for irrigation, but in very early times
+they came also to be used for navigation, as in Assyria and Egypt.
+The Romans constructed various works of the kind, and Charlemagne
+projected a system of waterways connecting the Main
+and the Rhine with the Danube, while in China the Grand Canal,
+joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in the
+13th century, formed an important artery of commerce, serving
+also for irrigation. But although it appears from Marco Polo
+that inclines were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways
+suffered in general from the defect that no method being known
+of conveniently transferring boats from one level to another
+they were only practicable between points that lay on nearly
+the same level; and inland navigation could not become
+generally useful and applicable until this defect had been remedied
+by the employment of locks. Great doubts exist as to the person,
+and even the nation, that first introduced locks. Some writers
+attribute their invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a
+century earlier than in Italy locks were used in Holland where
+canals are very numerous, owing to the favourable physical
+conditions. On the other hand, the contrivance has been claimed
+for engineers of the Italian school, and it is said that two brothers
+Domenico of Viterbo constructed a lock-chamber enclosed by
+a pair of gates in 1481, and that in 1487 Leonardo da Vinci
+completed six locks uniting the canals of Milan. Be that as it
+may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th
+century gave a new character to inland navigation and laid the
+basis of its successful extension.</p>
+
+<p>The Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as
+the pioneer of the canals of modern Europe. Joining the Bay
+of Biscay and the Mediterranean it is 148 m. long and rises
+620 ft. above sea-level with 119 locks, its depth being about
+6½ ft. It was designed by Baron Paul Riquet de Bonrepos
+(1604-1680) and was finished in 1681. With it and the still
+earlier Briare canal (1605-1642) France began that policy of
+canal construction which has provided her with over 3000 m.
+of canals, in addition to over 4600 m. of navigable rivers. In
+Russia Peter the Great undertook the construction of a system
+of canals about the beginning of the 18th century, and in Sweden
+a canal with locks, connecting Eskilstuna with Lake Malar,
+was finished in 1606. In England the oldest artificial canal
+is the Foss Dyke, a relic of the Roman occupation. It extends
+from Lincoln to the river Trent near Torksey (11 m.), and
+formed a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin
+but now filled up, which ran from Lincoln to Peterborough
+(40 m.). Camden in his <i>Britannia</i> says that the Foss Dyke was
+deepened and to some extent rendered navigable in 1121. Little,
+however, was done in making canals in Great Britain until the
+middle of the 18th century, though before that date some
+progress had been made in rendering some of the larger rivers
+navigable. In 1759 the duke of Bridgewater obtained powers
+to construct a canal between Manchester and his collieries at
+Worsley, and this work, of which James Brindley was the
+engineer, and which was opened for traffic in 1761, was followed by
+a period of great activity in canal construction, which, however,
+came to an end with the introduction of railways. According
+to evidence given before the royal commission on canals in 1906
+the total mileage of existing canals in the United Kingdom was
+3901. In the United States the first canal was made in 1792-1796
+at South Hadley, Massachusetts, and the canal-system,
+though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has
+attained a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New
+York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The splendid inland navigation
+system of Canada mainly consists of natural lakes and rivers,
+and the artificial waterways are largely &ldquo;lateral&rdquo; canals, cut
+in order to enable vessels to avoid rapids in the rivers. (See
+the articles on the various countries for accounts of the canal-systems
+they possess.)</p>
+
+<p>The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construction
+were mostly of the class known as <i>barge</i> or <i>boat canals</i>,
+and owing to their limited depth and breadth were only available
+for vessels of small size. But with the growth of commerce
+the advantage was seen of cutting canals of such dimensions
+as to enable them to accommodate sea-going ships. Such
+<i>ship-canals</i>, which from an engineering point of view chiefly
+differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they
+involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the
+voyage between two seas by cutting through an intervening
+isthmus, or to convert important inland places into seaports.
+An early example of the first class is afforded by the Caledonian
+Canal (<i>q.v.</i>), while among later ones may be mentioned the
+Suez Canal (<i>q.v.</i>), the Kaiser Wilhelm, Nord-Ostsee or Kiel
+Canal, connecting Brunsbüttel at the mouth of the Elbe with
+Kiel (<i>q.v.</i>) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have
+been proposed across the isthmus that joins North and South
+America (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panama Canal</a></span>). Examples of the second class
+are the Manchester Ship Canal and the canal that runs from
+Zeebrugge on the North Sea to Bruges (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;In laying out a line of canal the engineer is
+more restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway.
+Since water runs downhill, gradients are inadmissible, and the
+canal must either be made on one uniform level or must be
+adapted to the general rise or fall of the country through which
+it passes by being constructed in a series of level reaches at
+varying heights above a chosen datum line, each closed by a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span>
+lock or some equivalent device to enable vessels to be transferred
+from one to another. To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the
+reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings
+of valleys, but from time to time it will become necessary to
+cross a sudden depression by the aid of an embankment or
+aqueduct, while a piece of rising ground or a hill may involve
+a cutting or a tunnel. Brindley took the Bridgewater canal
+over the Irwell at Barton by means of an aqueduct of three
+stone arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft., and T.
+Telford arranged that the Ellesmere canal should cross the Dee
+valley at Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly
+by aqueduct. The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft.
+above the ground, when it was succeeded by an aqueduct, 1000 ft.
+long and 127 ft. above the river, consisting of a cast iron trough
+supported on iron arches with stone piers. Occasionally when
+a navigable stream has to be crossed, a swing viaduct is necessary
+to allow shipping to pass. The first was that built by Sir E.
+Leader Williams to replace Brindley&rsquo;s aqueduct at Barton,
+which was only high enough to give room for barges (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchester
+Ship Canal</a></span>). One of the earliest canal tunnels was
+made in 1766-1777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and
+Mersey canal; it is 2880 yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide,
+and has no tow-path, the boats being propelled by men lying
+on their backs and pushing with their feet against the tunnel
+walls (&ldquo;leggers&rdquo;). A second tunnel, parallel to this but 16 ft.
+high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by Telford in
+1827. Standedge tunnel, on the Huddersfield canal, is over 3 m.
+long, and is also worked by leggers.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of
+water-supply, are regulated by the size of the vessels which
+are to be used on it. According to J.M. Rankine, the depth of
+<span class="sidenote">Dimensions.</span>
+water and sectional area of waterway should be such
+as not to cause any material increase of the resistance
+to the motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered
+in open water, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling
+these conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Least breadth of bottom</td> <td class="tcl">= 2 × greatest breadth of boat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Least depth of water</td> <td class="tcl">= 1½ ft. + greatest draught of boat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Least area of waterway</td> <td class="tcl">= 6 × greatest midship section of boat.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="noind">The ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide
+at the bottom, which is flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water
+level, with a depth of 4 or 5 ft., the angle of slope of the sides
+varying with the nature of the soil. To retain the water in porous
+ground, and especially on embankments, a strong watertight
+lining of puddle or tempered clay must be provided on the bed
+and sides of the channel. Puddle is made of clay which has been
+finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being supplied
+until it is in a semi-plastic state. It is used in thin layers, each
+of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the lower
+stratum. The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft. To prevent
+the erosion of the sides at the water-line by the wash from the
+boats, it may be necessary to pitch them with stones or face
+them with brushwood. In some of the old canals the slopes have
+been cut away and vertical walls built to retain the towing-paths,
+with the result of adding materially to the sectional area
+of the waterway.</p>
+
+<p>A  canal cannot be properly  worked without a  supply of
+water calculated to last over the driest season of the year.
+If there be no natural lake available in the district for
+storage and supply, or if the engineer cannot draw upon
+<span class="sidenote">Water supply.</span>
+some stream of sufficient size, he must form artificial
+reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must
+be attended to in selecting the positions of these and in
+constructing them are the same as those for drinking-water supply,
+except that the purity of the water is not a matter of moment.
+They must be situated at such an elevation that the water from
+them may flow to the summit-level of the canal, and if the
+expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command a
+sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the
+canal by evaporation from the surface, percolation through the
+bed, and lockage. If the supply be inadequate, the draught of
+the boats plying on the canal may have to be reduced in a dry
+season, and the consequent decrease in the size of their cargoes
+will both lessen the carrying capacity of the canal and increase
+the working expenses in relation to the tonnage handled. Again,
+since the consumption of water in lockage increases both with
+the size of the locks and the frequency with which they are used,
+the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may put a
+limit to the density of traffic possible on a canal or may prohibit
+its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the
+size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under
+modern conditions. It may be pointed out that the up consumes
+more water than the down traffic. An ascending boat
+on entering a lock displaces a volume of water equal to its
+submerged capacity. The water so displaced flows into the lower
+reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through the lock is
+replaced by water flowing from the upper reach. A descending
+boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its
+submerged capacity, but in this case the water flows back into
+the higher reach where it is retained when the gates are
+closed.</p>
+
+<p>An essential adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of
+waste-weirs to discharge surplus water accumulating during
+floods, which, if not provided with an exit, may
+overflow the tow-path, and cause a breach in the banks,
+<span class="sidenote">Waste-weirs and stop-gates.</span>
+stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining
+lands. The number and positions of these waste-weirs
+must depend on the nature of the country through which the
+canal passes. Wherever the canal crosses a stream a waste-weir
+should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently
+of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes
+of water may be apprehended, and must at such places form not
+only waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but
+also artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams.
+These waste-weirs are placed at the top water-level of the
+canal, so that when a flood occurs the water flows over them
+and thus relieves the banks.</p>
+
+<p>Stop-gates are necessary at short intervals of a few miles
+for the purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches,
+so that in the event of a breach the gates may be shut, and
+the discharge of water confined to the small reach intercepted
+between two of them, instead of extending throughout the
+whole line of canal. In broad canals these stop-gates may be
+formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates being made
+to shut in opposite directions. In small works they may be
+made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow
+points of the canal under road bridges, or at contractions made
+at intermediate points to receive them. Self-acting stop-gates
+have been tried, but have not proved trustworthy. When
+repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of the water being
+run off by &ldquo;off-lets&rdquo; from a short reach, and afterwards restored
+with but little interruption of the traffic. These off-lets are pipes
+placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided
+with valves which can be opened when required. They are
+generally formed at aqueducts or bridges crossing rivers, where
+the contents of the canal between the stop-gates can be run
+off into the stream.</p>
+
+<p>Locks are chambers, constructed of wood, brickwork, masonry
+or concrete, and provided with gates at each end, by the aid
+of which vessels are transferred from one reach of
+the canal to another. To enable a boat to ascend,
+<span class="sidenote">Locks.</span>
+the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of
+water from the upper reach are closed. The sluices at the lower
+end of the lock are then opened, and when the level of the water
+in the lock has fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes
+in to the lock. The lower gates and sluices being then closed,
+the upper sluices are opened, and when the water rising in
+the lock has floated the boat up the level of the upper reach
+the upper gates are opened and it passes out. For a descending
+boat the procedure is reversed. The sluices by which the lock is
+filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks,
+or consist of openings in the gates in small ones. The gates
+are generally of oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when
+open, and closing against sills in the lock bottom when shut.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span>
+In small narrow locks single gates only are necessary; in large
+locks pairs of gates are required, fitting together at the head
+or &ldquo;mitre-post&rdquo; when closed. The vertical timber at the
+end of the gate is known as the &ldquo;heel-post,&rdquo; and at its foot is
+a casting that admits an iron pivot which is fixed in the lock
+bottom, and on which the gate turns. Iron straps round the
+head of the heel-post are let into the lock-coping to support
+the gate. The gates are opened and closed by balance beams
+projecting over the lock side, by gearing or in cases where
+they are very large and heavy by the direct action of a hydraulic
+ram. In order to economize water canal locks are made only
+a few inches wider than the vessels they have to accommodate.
+The English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or 8 ft.
+in beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft.
+in width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit
+two of the narrower canal boats side by side. In general canal
+locks are just long enough to accommodate the longest vessels
+using the navigation. In some cases, however, provision is
+made for admitting a train of barges; such long locks have
+sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective length
+is reduced when a single vessel is passing. The lift of canal
+locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining
+reaches, is in general about 8 or 10 ft., but sometimes is as
+little as 1½ ft. On the Canal du Centre (Belgium) there are locks
+with a lift of 17 ft., and on the St Denis canal near La Villette
+basins in Paris there is one with a lift of 32½ ft. In cases where
+a considerable difference of level has to be surmounted the
+locks are placed close together in a series or &ldquo;flight,&rdquo; so that
+the lower gates of one serve also as the upper gates of the next
+below. To save water, expecially where the lift is considerable,
+side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs into
+which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead
+of being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards
+used for partially filling the chamber again. Double locks,
+that is, two locks placed side by side and communicating by
+a passage which can be opened or closed at will, also tend to
+save water, since each serves as a side pond to the other. The
+same advantage is gained with double flights of locks, and time
+also is saved since vessels can pass up and down simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>A still greater economy of water can be effected by the use
+of inclined planes or vertical lifts in place of locks. In
+China rude inclines appear to have been used at an early
+date, vessels being carried down a sloping plane of
+<span class="sidenote">Inclines.</span>
+stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up it by
+capstans. On the Bude canal (England) this plan was adopted
+in an improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed
+being fitted with wheels to facilitate their course over the
+inclines. Another variant, often adopted as an adjunct to
+locks where many small pleasure boats have to be dealt with,
+is to fit the incline itself with rollers, upon which the boats
+travel. In some cases the boats are conveyed on a wheeled
+trolley or cradle running on rails; this plan was adopted on
+the Morris canal, built in 1825-1831, in the case of 23 inclines
+having gradients of about 1 in 10, the rise of each varying
+from 44 to 100 ft. Between the Ourcq canal and the Marne,
+near Meaux, the difference of level is about 40 ft., and barges
+weighing about 70 tons are taken from the one to the other on
+a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a wire rope over an incline
+nearly 500 yards long. But heavy barges are apt to be strained
+by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this
+objection they are sometimes drawn up the inclines floating
+in a tank or caisson filled with water and running on wheels.
+This arrangement was utilized about 1840 on the Chard canal
+(England), and 10 years later it was adapted at Blackhill on
+the Monkland canal (Scotland) to replace a double flight of
+locks, in consequence of the traffic having been interrupted
+by insufficiency of water. There the height to be overcome
+was 96 ft. Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. gauge, were laid down
+on a gradient of 1 in 10, and on these ran two carriages having
+wrought iron, water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each
+end, in which the barges floated partially but not wholly
+supported by water. The carriages, with the barge and water,
+weighed about 80 tons each, and were arranged to counterbalance
+each other, one going up as the other was going down.
+The power required was provided by two high pressure steam
+engines of 25 h.p., driving two large drums round which was
+coiled, in opposite directions, the 2-inch wire rope that hauled
+the caissons. An incline constructed on the Union canal at
+Foxton (England) to replace 10 locks giving a total rise of
+75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two canal boats
+of 33 tons. It is in some respects like the Monkland canal
+incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails
+on an incline of 1 in 14, broadside on, and the boats are entirely
+waterborne. Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic
+accumulator which enables hydraulic power to be used in
+keeping the caisson in position at the top of the incline while
+the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight joint being
+maintained with the final portion of the canal during the
+operation. The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked
+by hydraulic power. The incline is capable of passing 200 canal
+boats in 12 hours, and the whole plant is worked by three men.</p>
+
+<p>Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage
+at places where the difference in level occurs in a short length
+of canal, since otherwise long embankments or
+aqueducts would be necessary to obtain sites for
+<span class="sidenote">Lifts.</span>
+their construction. An early example was built in 1809 at
+Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham canal. It
+consisted of a timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when full of
+water, counterpoised by heavy weights carried on timber
+platforms. The lift of 12 ft. was effected in about three minutes
+by two men working winches. Seven lifts, erected on the Grand
+Western canal between Wellington and Tiverton about 1835,
+consisted of two chambers with a masonry pier between them.
+In each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended
+at either end of a chain hung over large pulleys above. As
+one caisson descended the other rose, and the apparatus was
+worked by putting about a ton more water in the descending
+caisson than in the ascending one. At Anderton a lift was
+erected in 1875 to connect the Weaver navigation with the
+Trent and Mersey canal, which at that point is 50 ft. higher than
+the river. The lift is a double one, and can deal with barges
+up to 100 tons. The change is made while the vessels are
+floating in 5 ft. of water contained in a wrought iron caisson,
+75 ft. long and 15½ ft. wide. An hydraulic ram 3 ft. in diameter
+supports each caisson, the bottom of which is strengthened
+so as to transfer the weight to the side girders. The descending
+caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater depth
+of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240
+tons) being otherwise constant, since the barge displaces its
+own weight of water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to overcome
+the loss of weight in the descending caisson when it begins
+to be immersed in the lower level of the river. The two presses
+in which the rams work are connected by a 5-in. pipe, so that
+the descent of one caisson effects the raising of the other. A
+similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the Neuffossé
+canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total
+weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example
+on the Canal du Centre at La Louvière in Belgium has a rise
+of 50 ft., with caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons,
+the total weight lifted amounting to over 1000 tons. This lift,
+with three others of the same character, overcomes the rise
+of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in the course of 4<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m.</p>
+
+<p><i>Haulage.</i>&mdash;The horse or mule walking along a tow-path
+and drawing or &ldquo;tracking&rdquo; a boat or barge by means of a
+towing rope, still remains the typical method of
+conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on ship-canals
+<span class="sidenote">Animal power.</span>
+vessels proceed under their own steam or are
+aided by tugs. Horse traction is very slow. The maximum
+speed on a narrow canal is about 3½ m. an hour, and the
+average speed, which, of course, depends largely on the number
+of locks to be passed through, very much less. It has been
+calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls
+one narrow canal boat about 2 m. an hour loaded or 3 m.
+empty, or two narrow canal boats 1½ m. loaded and 2½ m.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span>
+empty. Efforts have accordingly been made not only to quicken
+the rate of transit, but also to move heavier loads, thus increasing
+the carrying capacity of the waterways. But at speeds exceeding
+about 3½ m. an hour the &ldquo;wash&rdquo; of the boat begins to cause
+erosion of the banks, and thus necessitates the employment
+of special protective measures, such as building side walls
+of masonry or concrete. For a canal of given depth there is
+a particular speed at which a boat can be hauled with a smaller
+expenditure of energy than at a higher or a lower speed, this
+maximum being the speed of free propagation of the primary
+wave raised by the motion of the boat (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wave</a></span>). About
+1830 when, in the absence of railways, canals could still aspire
+to act as carriers of passengers, advantage was taken of this
+fact on the Glasgow and Ardrossan canal, and subsequently
+on some others, to run fast passenger boats, made lightly of
+wrought iron and measuring 60 ft. in length by about 6 ft.
+in breadth. Provided with two horses they started at a low speed
+behind the wave, and then on a given signal were jerked on the
+top of the wave, when their speed was maintained at 7 or 8 m.
+an hour, the depth of the canal being 3 or 4 ft. This method,
+however, is obviously inapplicable to heavy barges, and in their
+case improved conditions of transport had to be sought in other
+directions.</p>
+
+<p>Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and Clyde
+canal in 1802, when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by
+W. Symington drew two barges for a distance of
+19½ m. in 6 hours in the teeth of a strong headwind.
+<span class="sidenote">Mechanical power.</span>
+As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed
+to employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the
+project fell through owing to the death of the duke of
+Bridgewater, and the directors of the Forth and Clyde canal also
+decided against this method because they feared damage to
+the banks. Steam tugs are only practicable on navigations on
+which there are either no locks or they are large enough to admit
+the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the
+advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at
+locks. On the Bridgewater canal, which has an average width
+of 50 ft. with a depth of 5½ ft., is provided with vertical stone
+walls in place of sloping banks, and has no locks for its entire
+length of 40 m. except at Runcorn, where it joins the Mersey,
+tugs of 50 i.h.p., with a draught of 4 ft., tow four barges, each
+weighing 60 tons, at a rate of nearly 3 m. an hour. On the
+Aire and Calder navigation, where the locks have a minimum
+length of 215 ft., a large coal traffic is carried in trains of
+boat-compartments on a system designed by W.H. Bartholomew.
+The boats are nearly square in shape, except the leading one
+which has an ordinary bow; they are coupled together by
+knuckle-joints fitted into hollow stern-posts, so that they can
+move both laterally and vertically, and a wire rope in tension
+on each side enables the train to be steered. No boat crews are
+required, the crew of the steamer regulating the train. If the
+number of boats does not exceed 11 they can be pushed, but
+beyond that number they are towed. Each compartment
+carries 35 tons, and the total weight in a train varies from
+700 to 900 tons. On the arrival of a train at Goole the boats
+are detached and are taken over submerged cradles under
+hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle sufficiently
+high to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole
+cargo at once into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers.
+Another method of utilizing steam-power, which was also first
+tried on the Forth and Clyde canal by Symington in 1789,
+is to provide each vessel with a separate steam engine, and
+many barges are now running fitted in this way. Experiments
+have also been made with internal combustion engines in place
+of steam engines. In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a
+strong current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain
+passed round a drum on a tug: this drum is rotated by steam
+power and thus the tug is hauled up against the current. To
+obviate the inconvenience of passing several turns of the chain
+round the drum in order to get sufficient grip, the plan was
+introduced on the Seine and Oise in 1893 of passing the chain
+round a pulley which could be magnetized at will, the necessary
+adhesion being thus obtained by the magnetic attraction
+exercised on the iron chain; and it was also adopted about
+the same time in combination with electrical haulage on a small
+portion of the Bourgogne canal, electricity being employed
+to drive the motor that worked the pulley. Small locomotives
+running on rails along the towpath were tried on the Shropshire
+Union canal, where they were abandoned on account of practical
+difficulties in working, and also on certain canals in France
+and Germany, where, however, the financial results were not
+satisfactory. On portions of the Teltow canal, joining the
+Havel and the Spree, electrical tractors run on rails along
+both banks, taking their power from an overhead wire; they
+attain a speed of 2½ m. an hour when hauling two 600-ton
+barges. The electrical supply is also utilized for working the
+lock gates and for various other purposes along the route of
+the canal. In the Mont-de-Rilly tunnel, at the summit level of the
+Aisne-Marne canal, a system of cable-traction was established
+in 1894, the boats being taken through by being attached to
+an endless travelling wire rope supported by pulleys on the
+towpath.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>When railways were being carried out in England some canal
+companies were alarmed for their future, and sold their canals to
+the railway companies, who in 1906 owned 1138 m. of canals out
+of a total length in the United Kingdom of 3901 m. As some of these
+canals are links in the chain of internal water communication
+complaints have frequently arisen on the question of through traffic
+and tolls. The great improvements carried out in America and on
+the continent of Europe by state aid enable manufacturers to get
+the raw material they use and goods they export to and from their
+ports at much cheaper rates than those charged on British canals.
+The association of chambers of commerce and other bodies having
+taken up the matter, a royal commission was appointed in 1906 to
+report on the canals and water-ways of the kingdom, with a view to
+considering how they could be more profitably used for national
+purposes. Its Report was published in December 1909.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;L.F. Vernon-Harcourt, <i>Rivers and Canals</i> (2nd
+ed., 1896); Chapman, <i>Canal Navigation</i>; Firisi, <i>On Canals</i>;
+R. Fulton, <i>Canal Navigation</i>;
+Tatham, <i>Economy of Inland Navigation</i>;
+Valancy, <i>Treatise on Inland Navigation</i>;
+D. Stevenson, <i>Canal and River Engineering</i>;
+John Phillips, <i>History of Inland Navigation</i>; J. Priestley,
+<i>History of Navigable Rivers, Canals, &amp;c. in Great Britain</i> (1831);
+T. Telford, <i>Life</i> (1838);
+John Smeaton, <i>Reports</i> (1837);
+<i>Reports of the International Congresses on Interior Navigation</i>;
+<i>Report and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Canals</i>
+(<i>Great Britain</i>), 1906-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. L. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANAL DOVER,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> a city of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+on the Tuscarawas river, about 70 m. S. by E. of Cleveland.
+Pop. (1890) 3470; (1900) 5422 (930 foreign-born); (1910) 6621.
+It is served by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio and the Pennsylvania
+railways, and by the Ohio canal, and is connected with Cleveland
+by an inter-urban electric line. It lies on a plateau about 880 ft.
+above sea-level and commands pleasant views of diversified
+scenery. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and the city
+manufactures iron, steel, tin plate, electrical and telephone
+supplies, shovels, boilers, leather, flour, brick and tile, salt,
+furniture and several kinds of vehicles. The municipality owns
+and operates its water-works. Canal Dover was laid out as a
+town in 1807, and was incorporated as a village in 1842, but its
+charter was soon allowed to lapse and was not revived until 1867.
+Canal Dover became a city under the Ohio municipal code of 1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANALE<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Canaletto</span>), <span class="bold">ANTONIO</span> (1697-1768), Venetian
+painter, born on the 18th of October 1697, was educated under
+his father Bernard, a scene-painter of Venice, and for some
+time followed his father&rsquo;s line of art. In 1719 he went to Rome,
+where he employed himself chiefly in delineating ancient ruins,
+and particularly studied effects of light and shade, in which he
+became an adept. He was the first painter who made practical
+use of the camera lucida. On returning home he devoted his
+powers to views in his native city, which he painted with a clear
+and firm touch and the most facile mastery of colour in a deep
+tone, introducing groups of figures with much effect. In his
+latter days he resided some time in England. His pictures, in
+their particular range, still remain unrivalled for their magnificent
+perspective. The National Gallery, London, has five pictures
+by him, notably the &ldquo;View on the Grand Canal, Venice,&rdquo; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span>
+the &ldquo;Regatta on the Grand Canal.&rdquo; He died on the 20th of
+August 1768. Bellotto (commonly named Bernardo), who is
+also sometimes called <span class="sc">Canaletto</span> (1724-1780), was his nephew
+and pupil, and painted with deceptive resemblance to the style
+of the more celebrated master.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANALIS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (also &ldquo;canal&rdquo; and &ldquo;channel&rdquo;; from the Latin),
+in architecture, the sinking between the fillets of the volute of
+the Ionic capital: in the earliest examples, though sunk below
+the fillets, it is slightly convex in section.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANANDAIGUA,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Ontario
+county, New York, U.S.A., 30 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop.
+(1890) 5868; (1900) 6151; (1910) 7217. It is served
+by the New York Central and Hudson River, and the Northern
+Central (Pennsylvania system) railways, and is connected
+with Rochester by an inter-urban electric line. Among
+the manufactures are pressed bricks, tile, beer, ploughs, flour,
+agate and tin-ware. The village, picturesquely situated at the
+north end of Canandaigua Lake, a beautiful sheet of water about
+15 m. long with a breadth varying from a mile to a mile and a
+half, is a summer resort. It has a county court house; the
+Canandaigua hospital of physicians and surgeons; the Frederick
+Ferris Thompson memorial hospital, with a bacteriological
+laboratory supported by the county; the Clark Manor House
+(a county home for the aged), given by Mrs Frederick Ferris
+Thompson in memory of her mother and of her father, Myron
+Holley Clark (1806-1892), president of the village of Canandaigua
+in 1850-1851 and governor of New York in 1855-1857; the
+Ontario Orphan Asylum; Canandaigua Academy; Granger Place
+school for girls; Brigham Hall (a private sanatorium for nervous
+and mental diseases); Young Men&rsquo;s Christian Association
+building (1905); and two libraries, the Wood (public) library
+and the Union School library, founded in 1795. There is a
+public playground in the village with free instruction by a
+physical director; and a swimming school, endowed by Mrs
+F.F. Thompson, gives free lessons in swimming. The village
+owns its water-supply system. A village of the Seneca Indians,
+near the present Canandaigua, bearing the same name, which
+means &ldquo;a settlement was formerly there&rdquo; (not, as Lewis
+Morgan thought, &ldquo;chosen spot&rdquo;), was destroyed by Gen. John
+Sullivan in 1779. There are boulder memorials of Sullivan&rsquo;s
+expedition and of the treaty signed here on the 11th of November
+1794 by Timothy Pickering, on behalf of the United States with
+the Six Nations&mdash;a treaty never ratified by the Senate. Canandaigua
+was settled in 1789 and was first incorporated in
+1812.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANARD<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (the Fr. for &ldquo;duck&rdquo;), a sensational or extravagant
+story, a hoax or false report, especially one circulated by newspapers.
+This use of the word in France dates from the 17th
+century, and is supposed by Littré to have originated in the
+old expression, &ldquo;<i>vendre un canard à moitié</i>&rdquo; (to half-sell a duck);
+as it is impossible to &ldquo;half-sell a duck,&rdquo; the phrase came to
+signify to take in, or to cheat.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANARY<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>Serinus canarius</i>), a well-known species of passerine
+bird, belonging to the family <i>Fringillidae</i> or finches (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Finch</a></span>).
+It is a native of the Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs
+abundantly in the wild state, and is of a greyish-brown colour,
+slightly varied with brighter hues, although never attaining
+the beautiful plumage of the domestic bird. It was first domesticated
+in Italy during the 16th century, and soon spread over
+Europe, where it is now the most common of cage-birds. During
+the years of its domestication, the canary has been the subject
+of careful artificial selection, the result being the production
+of a bird differing widely in the colour of its plumage, and in a
+few of its varieties even in size and form, from the original wild
+species. The prevailing colour of the most admired varieties
+of the canary is yellow, approaching in some cases to orange,
+and in others to white; while the most robust birds are those
+which, in the dusky green of the upper surface of their plumage,
+show a distinct approach to the wild forms. The least prized
+are those in which the plumage is irregularly spotted and speckled.
+In one of the most esteemed varieties, the wing and tail feathers
+are at first black&mdash;a peculiarity, however, which disappears
+after the first moulting. Size and form have also been modified
+by domestication, the wild canary being not more than 5½ in.
+in length, while a well-known Belgian variety usually measures
+8 in. There are also hooped or bowed canaries, feather-footed
+forms and top-knots, the latter having a distinct crest on the
+head; but the offspring of two such top-knotted canaries,
+instead of showing an increased development of crest, as might
+be expected, are apt to be bald on the crown. Most of the
+varieties, however, of which no fewer than twenty-seven were
+recognized by French breeders so early as the beginning of the
+18th century, differ merely in the colour and the markings of
+the plumage. Hybrids are also common, the canary breeding
+freely with the siskin, goldfinch, citril, greenfinch and linnet.
+The hybrids thus produced are almost invariably sterile. It is
+the female canary which is almost invariably employed in
+crossing, as it is difficult to get the females of the allied species
+to sit on the artificial nest used by breeders. In a state of
+nature canaries pair, but under domestication the male bird
+has been rendered polygamous, being often put with four or
+five females; still he is said to show a distinct preference for the
+female with which he was first mated. It is from the others,
+however, that the best birds are usually obtained. The canary
+is very prolific, producing eggs, not exceeding six in number,
+three or four times a year; and in a state of nature it is said to
+breed still oftener. The work of building the nest, and of incubation,
+falls chiefly on the female, while the duty of feeding
+the young rests mainly with the cock bird. The natural song
+of the canary is loud and clear; and in their native groves the
+males, especially during the pairing season, pour forth their
+song with such ardour as sometimes to burst the delicate vessels
+of the throat. The males appear to compete with each other
+in the brilliancy of their melody, in order to attract the
+females, which, according to the German naturalist Johann
+Matthaus Bechstein (1757-1822) always select the best singers
+for their mates. The canary readily imitates the notes of
+other birds, and in Germany and especially Tirol, where the
+breeding of canaries gives employment to a large number of
+people, they are usually placed for this purpose beside the
+nightingale.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANARY ISLANDS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (<i>Canarias</i>), a Spanish archipelago in the
+Atlantic Ocean; about 60 m. W. of the African coast, between
+27° 40&prime; and 29° 30&prime; N., and between 13° 20&prime; and 18° 10&prime; W. Pop.
+(1900) 358,564; area 2807 sq. m. The Canary Islands resemble
+a roughly-drawn semicircle, with its convex side facing south-wards,
+and with the island of Hierro detached on the south-west.
+More precisely, they may be considered as two groups, one of
+which, including Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Palma, Hierro and
+Gomera, consists of mountain peaks, isolated and rising directly
+from an ocean of great depth; while the other, comprising
+Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and six uninhabited islets, is based
+on a single submarine plateau, of far less depth. Teneriffe and
+Gomera, the only members of the principal group which have
+a common base, may be regarded as the twin peaks of one great
+volcanic mass. Ever since the researches of Leopold von Buch
+the Canary Islands have been classical ground to the student of
+volcanic action. Buch considered them to be representative
+of his &ldquo;craters of elevation.&rdquo; In common with the other West
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span>
+African islands they are of volcanic origin. The lavas consist
+chiefly of trachytes and basalts.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:514px; height:286px" src="images/img172.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;From April to October a north or north-east wind
+blows upon the islands, beginning about 10 A.M. and continuing
+until 5 or 6 P.M. In summer this wind produces a dense stratum
+of sea-cloud (<i>cumuloni</i>), 500 ft. thick, whose lower surface is
+about 2500 ft. above the sea at Teneriffe. This does not reach up
+to the mountains, which have on every side a stratum of their
+own, about 1000 ft. thick, the lower surface being about 3500 ft.
+above the level of the sea. Between these two distinct strata
+there is a gap, through which persons on a vessel near the island
+may obtain a glimpse of the peak. The sea-cloud conceals from
+view the other islands, except those whose mountains pierce
+through it. On the south-west coasts there is no regular sea or
+land breeze. In winter they are occasionally visited by a hot
+south-east wind from Africa, which is called the <i>Levante</i>, and
+produces various disagreeable consequences on the exposed
+parts of the person, besides injuring the vegetation, especially
+on the higher grounds. Locusts have sometimes been brought
+by this wind. In 1812 it is said that locusts covered some
+fields in Fuerteventura to the depth of 4 ft. Hurricanes, accompanied
+by waterspouts, sometimes cause much devastation;
+but, on the whole, the islands are singularly free from such
+visitations. The climate generally is mild, dry and healthy.
+On the lower grounds the temperature is equable, the daily
+range seldom exceeding 6° Fahr. At Santa Cruz the mean for
+the year is about 71°. The rainy season occurs at the same
+period as in southern Europe. The dry season is at the time of
+the trade-winds, which extend a few degrees farther north than
+this latitude.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The indigenous mammals of the Canary Islands
+are very few in number. The dog, swine, goat and sheep were
+alone found upon the island by the Spanish conquerors: The
+race of large dogs which is supposed to have given a name to the
+islands has been long extinct. A single skeleton has been found,
+which is deposited in one of the museums at Paris. The ferret,
+rabbit, cat, rat, mouse and two kinds of bat have become
+naturalized. The ornithology is more interesting, on account
+at once of the birds native to the islands, and the stragglers
+from the African coast, which are chiefly brought over in winter,
+when the wind has blown for some time from the east. Among
+the indigenous birds are some birds of prey, as the African
+vulture, the falcon, the buzzard, the sparrow-hawk and the kite.
+There are also two species of owl, three species of sea-mew, the
+stockdove, quail, raven, magpie, chaffinch, goldfinch, blackcap,
+canary, titmouse, blackbird, house-swallow, &amp;c. As to the
+insects, mention may be made of a species of gnat or mosquito
+which is sometimes troublesome, especially to strangers. The
+list of reptiles is limited to three varieties of lizard and one
+species of frog. The only fresh-water fish is the eel. Marine
+fishes are not numerous, the reason perhaps being that the
+steepness of the coast does not allow seaweed to grow in sufficient
+quantity to support the lower forms of marine animal life.
+Whales and seals are occasionally seen. The cuttle-fish is
+abundant, and is sought for as an article of food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The position of mountainous islands like the Canaries,
+in the subtropical division of the temperate zone, is highly
+favourable to the development, within a small space, of plants
+characteristic of both warm and cold climates. Von Buch
+refers to five regions of vegetation in Teneriffe:&mdash;(1) From the
+sea to the height of 1300 ft. This he styles the African region.
+The climate in the hottest parts is similar to that of Egypt.
+Here grow, among the introduced plants, the coffee tree, the
+date-palm, the sugar-cane, the banana, the orange tree, the
+American agave and two species of cactus; and among indigenous
+plants, the dragon tree on the north-west of Teneriffe.
+A leafless and fantastic euphorbia, <i>E. canariensis</i>, and a shrubby
+composite plant, <i>Cacalia kleinia</i>, give a character to the landscape
+about Santa Cruz. (2) Between 1300 ft. and 2800 ft. This
+is the region of south European vegetation, the climate answering
+to that of southern France and central Italy. Here nourish
+vines and cereals. (3) The region of indigenous trees, including
+various species of laurel, an <i>Ardisia, Ilex, Rhamnus, Olea, Myrica</i>,
+and other trees found wild also at Madeira. The clouds rest on
+this region during the day, and by their humidity support a
+vegetation amongst the trees, partly of shrubs, and partly of
+ferns. It extends to the height of 4000 ft. (4) The region of the
+beautiful <i>Pinus canariensis</i>, extending to the height of 6400 ft.;
+here the broad-leaved trees have ceased to grow, but arborescent
+heaths are found throughout its whole extent, and specimens of
+<i>Juniperus oxycedrus</i> may be met with. (5) The region of Retama
+(<i>Cytisus nubigenus</i>), a species of white-flowering and sweet-scented
+broom, which is found as high as 11,000 ft. At the upper
+edge of this region a lilac-coloured violet clings to the soil, and
+above there is nothing but a little lichen. The number of wild
+flowering plants may be estimated at 900, upwards of 270 of
+which are peculiar to the Canaries. The forms of vegetation
+must in the main be considered North African. The character
+of the vegetation in Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, islands composed
+of extensive plains and low hills, with few springs, is
+different from that of the other islands, which are more elevated
+and have many springs. The wood is less abundant, and the
+vegetation less luxuriant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.&mdash;The Guanches (<i>q.v.</i>), who occupied the Canaries
+at the time of the Spanish invasion, no longer exist as a separate
+race, for the majority were exterminated, and the remainder
+intermarried with their conquerors. The present inhabitants are
+slightly darker than the people of Spain, but in other respects
+are scarcely distinguishable from them. The men are of middle
+height, well-made and strong; the women are not striking
+in respect of beauty, but they have good eyes and hair. Spanish
+is the only language in use. The birth-rate is uniformly high
+and the death-rate low; and, despite the emigration of many
+families to South America and the United States, the census of
+1900 showed that the population had increased by over 75,000
+since 1877. The excess of females over males, which in 1900
+amounted to upwards of 22,000, is partly explained by the fact
+that few women emigrate. Fully 80% of the inhabitants could
+neither read nor write in 1900; but education progresses more
+rapidly than in many other Spanish provinces. Good schools
+are numerous, and the return of emigrants and their children
+who have been educated in the United States, tends to raise
+the standard of civilization. The sustenance of the poorer
+classes is chiefly composed of fish, potatoes and <i>gofio</i>, which is
+merely Indian corn or wheat roasted, ground and kneaded
+with water or milk. The land is, in great part, strictly
+entailed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government</i>.&mdash;The archipelago forms one Spanish province,
+of which the capital is Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the residence
+of the civil governor, who has under his command one of the
+two districts into which the archipelago is divided, this first
+district comprising Teneriffe, Palma, Gomera and Hierro.
+The other district includes Grand Canary, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura,
+and has at its head a sub-governor, residing in Las
+Palmas, on Grand Canary, who is independent of the governor
+except in regard to elections and municipal administration.
+The chief finance office is at Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The
+court of appeal, created in 1526, is in Las Palmas. The captain-general
+and second commandant of the archipelago reside in
+Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and there is a brigadier-governor of
+Grand Canary, residing in Las Palmas, besides eight inferior
+military commandants. The province furnishes no men for
+the Spanish peninsular army, but its annual conscription provides
+men for the local territorial militia, composed of regiments of
+infantry, squadrons of mounted rifles and companies of garrison
+artillery&mdash;about 5000 men all told. The archipelago is divided
+into two naval districts, commanded by royal navy captains.
+Roman Catholicism is the official religion, and ecclesiastical
+law is the same as in other Spanish provinces. The convents
+have been suppressed, and in many cases converted to secular
+uses. Laguna and Las Palmas are episcopal sees, in the archbishopric
+of Seville.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industry and Commerce.</i>&mdash;Owing to the richness of the volcanic
+soil, agriculture in the Canaries is usually very profitable.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span>
+Land varies in value according to the amount of water available,
+but as a rule commands an extraordinarily high price. In the
+<i>Terrenos de secano</i>, or non-irrigable districts, the average price
+of an acre ranges from £7 to £17; in the <i>Terrenes de riego</i>,
+or irrigable land, it ranges from £100 to £250. Until 1853
+wine was the staple product, and although even the finest brand
+(known as <i>Vidonia</i>) never equalled the best Madeira vintages,
+it was largely consumed abroad, especially in England. The
+annual value of the wine exported often exceeded £500,000.
+In 1853, however, the grape disease attacked the vineyards;
+and thenceforward the production of cochineal, which had
+been introduced in 1825, took the place of viticulture so completely
+that, twenty years later, the exports of cochineal were
+worth £556,000. France and England were the chief purchasers.
+This industry declined in the later years of the 19th century,
+and was supplanted by the cultivation of sugar-cane, and
+afterwards of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and onions. Bananas
+are the most important crop. Other fruits grown in
+smaller quantities include oranges, figs, dates, pineapples,
+guavas, custard-apples and prickly pears. Tobacco-planting
+is encouraged by the Spanish government, and the sugar trade
+is maintained, despite severe competition. The grain harvest
+does not supply the needs of the islanders. Pigs and sheep of a
+small, coarse-woolled breed, are numerous; and large herds
+of goats wander in an almost wild state over the higher hills.
+Fishing is a very important industry, employing over 10,000
+hands. The fleet of about 2200 boats operates along some
+600 m. of the African coast, between Cape Cantin and the
+Arguin Bank. Shipbuilding is carried on at Las Palmas;
+and the minor industries include the manufacture of cloth,
+drawn-linen (<i>calado</i>) work, silk, baskets, hats, &amp;c. A group
+of Indian merchants, who employ coolie labour, produce silken,
+jute and cotton goods, Oriental embroideries, wrought silver,
+brass-ware, porcelain, carved sandal-wood, &amp;c. The United
+Kingdom heads the import trade in coal, textiles, hardware,
+iron, soap, candles and colonial products. Timber comes chiefly
+from North America and Scandinavia, alcohol from Cuba and
+the United States, wheat and flour from various British
+possessions, maize from Morocco and Argentina. Large
+quantities of miscellaneous imports are sent by Germany,
+Spain, France and Italy. Bananas, tomatoes, potatoes, sugar
+and wine are exported. The total value of the foreign trade
+fluctuates very greatly, and the difficulty of forming an estimate
+is enhanced in many years by the absence of official statistics;
+but imports and exports together probably amount in a normal
+year to about £1,000,000. The chief ports are Las Palmas
+and Santa Cruz, which annually accommodate about 7000
+vessels of over 8,000,000 tons. In 1854 all the ports of the
+Canaries were practically declared free; but on the 1st of
+November 1904 a royal order prohibited foreign vessels from
+trading between one island and another. This decree deprived
+the outlying islands of their usual means of communication, and,
+in answer to a protest by the inhabitants, its operation was
+postponed.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;There is ground for supposing that the Phoenicians
+were not ignorant of the Canaries. The Romans learned of
+their existence through Juba, king of Mauretania, whose account
+of an expedition to the islands, made about 40 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, was preserved
+by the elder Pliny. He mentions &ldquo;Canaria, so called from
+the multitude of dogs of great size,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Nivaria, taking
+its name from perpetual snow, and covered with clouds,&rdquo;
+doubtless Teneriffe. Canaria was said to abound in palms
+and pine trees. Both Plutarch and Ptolemy speak of the
+Fortunate Islands, but from their description it is not clear
+whether the Canaries or one of the other island groups in the
+western Atlantic are meant; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isles Of The Blest</a></span>. In
+the 12th century the Canaries were visited by Arab navigators,
+and in 1334 they were rediscovered by a French vessel driven
+among them by a gale. A Portuguese expedition, undertaken
+about the same time, failed to find the archipelago, and want
+of means frustrated the project of conquest entertained by a
+grandson of Alphonso X. of Castile, named Juan de la Cerda,
+who had obtained a grant of the islands and had been crowned
+king of them at Avignon, by Pope Clement VI. Two or possibly
+more Spanish expeditions followed, and a monastic mission
+was established, but at the close of the 14th century the Guanches
+remained unconquered and unconverted. In 1402, however,
+Gadifer de la Salle and Jean de Béthencourt (<i>q.v.</i>) sailed with
+two vessels from Rochelle, and landed early in July on Lanzarote.
+The relations between these two leaders, and their respective
+shares in the work of conquest and exploration, have been
+the subject of much controversy. Between 1402 and 1404
+La Salle conquered Lanzarote and part of Fuerteventura,
+besides exploring other islands; Béthencourt meanwhile sailed
+to Cadiz for reinforcements. He returned in 1404 with the
+title of king, which he had secured from Henry III. of Castile.
+La Salle, thus placed in a position of inferiority, left the islands
+and appealed unsuccessfully for redress at the court of Castile.
+In 1405 Béthencourt visited Normandy, and returned with fresh
+colonists who conquered Hierro. In December 1406 he left the
+Canaries, entrusting their government to his nephew Maciot
+de Béthencourt, and reserving for himself a share in any profits
+obtained, and the royal title. Eight years of misrule followed
+before Queen Catherine of Castile intervened. Maciot thereupon
+sold his office to her envoy, Pedro Barba de Campos;
+sailed to Lisbon and resold it to Prince Henry the Navigator;
+and a few years afterwards resold it once more to Enrique de
+Guzman, count of Niebla. Jean de Béthencourt, who died
+in 1422, bequeathed the islands to his brother Reynaud; Guzman
+sold them to another Spaniard named Paraza, who was forced
+to re-sell to Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile in 1476; and
+Prince Henry twice endeavoured to enforce his own claims.
+Meanwhile the Guanches remained unconquered throughout
+the greater part of the archipelago. In 1479 the sovereignty
+of Ferdinand and Isabella over the Canaries was established
+by the treaty of Alcaçova, between Portugal and Castile. After
+much bloodshed, and with reinforcements from the mother
+country, the Spaniards, under Pedro de Vera, became masters
+of Grand Canary in 1483. Palma was conquered in 1491, and
+Teneriffe in 1495, by Alonzo de Lugo. The archipelago was
+included for administrative purposes in the captaincy-general
+of Andalusia until 1833, when it was made a separate province.
+In 1902 a movement in favour of local autonomy was repressed
+by Spanish troops.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For a general description of the islands, see <i>Les
+Îles Canaries</i>, by J. Pitard and L. Proust (Paris, 1909); <i>Madeira and
+the Canary Islands</i>, by A. Samler Brown, a guide for travellers and
+invalids, with coloured maps and plates (London, 1901); <i>A Guide
+to the Canary Islands</i>, by J.H.T. Ellerbeck (London, 1892); <i>The
+Canary Islands as a Winter Resort</i>, by J. Whitford (London, 1890,
+with maps and illustrations); <i>De la Tierra Canaria</i>, by L. and A.
+Millares Cubas (Madrid, 1894); and <i>Physikalische Beschreibung der
+kanarischen Inseln</i>, by L. von Buch (Berlin, 1825). Besides the interesting
+folio atlas of von Buch (Paris, 1836), good modern maps have
+been published by E. Stanford (London, 1891, 12½ English m. to
+1 in.), and M. Perez y Rodriquez (Madrid, 1896-1898, 4 sheets). See
+also <i>Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries</i>, by P. Barker-Webb and S.
+Berthelot (Paris, 1835-1849); and &ldquo;Les Îles Canaries et les parages
+de pêche canariens,&rdquo; by Dr. A. Taquin, in the <i>B.S.R. Beige G. 26</i>
+(1902), and 27 (1903); and, for history and antiquities, the <i>Historia
+general de las islas Canarias</i>, by A. Millares Cubas, in 10 vols. (Las
+Palmas, 1893-1895), and <i>Historia de la Inquisicion en las islas Canarias</i>,
+by the same author (Las Palmas, 1874); <i>Antiquités canariennes</i>,
+by S. Berthelot (Paris, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCALE,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a fishing port of north-western France in the department
+of Ille-et-Vilaine on the Bay of Cancale, 9 m. E.N.E. of
+St Malo by road. Pop. (1906) town 3827, commune 7061.
+It exports oysters, which are found in its bay in large numbers
+and of excellent quality, and equips a fleet for the Newfoundland
+cod-fisheries. The harbour is protected by the rocks known
+as the Rochers de Cancale. In 1758 an English army under
+the duke of Marlborough landed here for the purpose of attacking
+St Malo and pillaged the town. It was again bombarded by the
+English in 1779.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCEL<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>cancelli</i>, a plural diminutive of <i>cancer</i>,
+a grating or lattice, from which are also derived &ldquo;chancel&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;chancellor&rdquo;), a word meaning to cross out, from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span>
+crossed latticed lines drawn across a legal document to annul it,
+hence to delete or destroy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCELLI<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (plural of Lat. <i>cancellus</i>, dim. of <i>cancer</i>, a crossing
+bar), in architecture, the term given to barriers which correspond
+to the modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing
+the body of a church from the part occupied by the ministers;
+hence &ldquo;chancel&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). By the Romans <i>cancelli</i> were similarly
+employed to divide off portions of the courts of law (cf. the
+English &ldquo;bar&rdquo;).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCER, LUIS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (d. 1549), Spanish missionary to Central
+America, was born at Barbastro near Saragossa. After working
+for some time in Dominica and Haiti, he crossed to the mainland,
+where he had great success in pacifying the Indians whom more
+violent methods had failed to subdue. He upheld the cause
+of the natives at an ecclesiastical assembly held in Mexico in
+1546, and three years later, on the 26th of June, met his death
+at their hands on the west coast of Florida.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCER<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (&ldquo;<span class="sc">The Crab</span>&rdquo;), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the
+zodiac, denoted by the symbol <img style="width:17px; height:20px" src="images/img357.jpg" alt="" />. Its name may be possibly
+derived from the fact that when the sun arrives at this part of
+the ecliptic it apparently retraces its path, resembling in some
+manner the sidelong motion of a crab. It is also a constellation,
+mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and Aratus (3rd
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>); Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars in it, Tycho Brahe
+15 and Hevelius 29. Its most interesting objects are: a large
+loose cluster of stars, known as <i>Praesepe</i> or the Beehive, visible
+as a nebulous patch to the naked eye, and &zeta; <i>Cancri</i>, a remarkable
+multiple star, composed of two stars, of magnitudes 5 and 5.7,
+revolving about each other in 60 years, and a third star of magnitude
+5.5 which revolves about these two in an opposite direction
+in a period of 17½ years; from irregularities in the motion of this
+star, it is supposed to be a satellite of an invisible body which
+itself revolves about the two stars previously mentioned, in a
+period of 600 to 700 years.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCER,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Carcinoma</span> (from Lat. <i>cancer</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="karkiuoma">&#954;&#945;&#961;&#954;&#943;&#957;&#969;&#956;&#945;</span>,
+an eating ulcer), the name given to a class of morbid growths
+or tumours which occur in man, and also in most or all vertebrate
+animals. The term &ldquo;malignant disease&rdquo; is commonly used
+as synonymous with &ldquo;cancer.&rdquo; For the general pathology, &amp;c.,
+of tumours see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tumour</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Cancer exists in various forms, which, although differing from
+each other in many points, have yet certain common characters
+to which they owe their special significance.</p>
+
+<p>1. In structure such growths are composed of nucleated cells
+and free nuclei together with a milky fluid called cancer juice,
+all contained within a more or less dense fibrous stroma or
+framework.</p>
+
+<p>2. They have no well-defined limits, and they involve all
+textures in their vicinity, while they also tend to spread by the
+lymphatics and veins, and to cause similar growths in distant
+parts or organs called &ldquo;secondary cancerous growths.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>3. They are undergoing constant increase, and their progress
+is usually rapid.</p>
+
+<p>4. Pain is a frequent symptom.   When present it is generally
+of a severe and agonizing character, and together with the local
+effects of the disease and the resulting condition of ill health or
+&ldquo;cachexia,&rdquo; hastens the fatal termination to which all cancerous
+growths tend.</p>
+
+<p>5. When such growths are removed by the surgeon they are
+apt to return either at the same or at some other part.</p>
+
+<p>The chief varieties of cancer are <i>Scirrhus</i> or hard cancer,
+<i>Encephaloid</i> or soft cancer and <i>Epithelial cancer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Scirrhus is remarkable for its hardness, which is due to the
+large amount of its fibrous, and relatively small proportion of
+its cell elements. It is of comparatively slow growth, but it
+tends to spread and to ulcerate. Its most common seat by far
+is the female breast, though it sometimes affects internal organs.</p>
+
+<p>Encephaloid is in structure the reverse of the last, its softness
+depending on the preponderance of its cell over its fibrous elements.
+Its appearance and consistence resemble brain substance
+(hence its name), and it is of such rapid growth as to have given
+rise to its being occasionally termed <i>acute cancer</i>. Its most
+frequent seats are internal organs or the limbs. Ulceration and
+haemorrhage are common accompaniments of this form of cancer.</p>
+
+<p>Epithelial cancer is largely composed of cells resembling the
+natural epithelium of the body. It occurs most frequently
+in those parts provided with epithelium, such as the skin and
+mucous membranes, or where those adjoin, as in the lips. This
+form of cancer does not spread so rapidly nor produce secondary
+growths in other organs to the same extent as the two other
+varieties, but it tends equally with them to involve the neighbouring
+lymphatic glands, and to recur after removal.</p>
+
+<p>Cancer affects all parts of the body, but is much more frequent
+in some tissues than in others. According to recent statistics
+prepared by the registrar-general for England and Wales (sixty-seventh
+annual report) the most frequent seats are, in numerical
+order, as follows:&mdash;<i>males</i>&mdash;stomach, liver, rectum, intestines,
+aesophagus, tongue; <i>females</i>&mdash;uterus, breast, stomach, liver,
+intestines, rectum. Other statistics give similar, though not
+identical results. It may be said, broadly, that the most frequent
+seats are the female sexual organs and after them the digestive
+tract in both sexes. In children, in whom cancer is rare, the
+most frequent seats appear to be&mdash;under five, the kidneys
+and supra-renal bodies; five to ten, the brain; ten to twenty,
+the arm and leg bones.</p>
+
+<p>Cancer tends to advance steadily to a fatal termination,
+but its duration varies in different cases according to the part
+affected and according to the variety of the disease. Soft
+cancer affecting important organs of the body often proves
+fatal in a few months, while, on the other hand, cases of hard
+or epithelial cancer may sometimes last for several years;
+but no precise limit can be assigned for any form of the disease.
+In some rare instances growths exhibiting all the signs of cancer
+may exist for a great length of time without making any progress,
+and may even dwindle and disappear altogether. This is called
+&ldquo;spontaneous cure.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cancer has been the subject of observation from time
+immemorial, and of the most elaborate investigation by innumerable
+workers in recent years; but the problems of its
+origin and character have hitherto baffled inquiry.
+<span class="sidenote">Cancer research.</span>
+Modern scientific study of them may be said to have
+begun with J. Müller&rsquo;s microscopic work in the structure of
+cancerous tissue early in the 19th century. A great impetus
+to this line of investigation was given by the cellular theory
+of R. Virchow and the pathological researches of Sir J. Paget,
+and general attention was directed to the microscopic examination
+of the cells of which cancer is composed. This led to a
+classification, on which much reliance was once placed, of
+different kinds of cancer, based on the character of the cells,
+and particularly to a distinction between <i>carcinoma</i>, in which the
+cells are of the epithelial type, and <i>sarcoma</i>, in which they are
+of the connective tissue type. The distinction, though still
+maintained, has proved barren; it never had any real significance,
+either clinical or pathological, and the tendency in
+recent research is to ignore it. The increased knowledge gained
+in numerous other branches of biological science has also been
+brought to bear on the problem of cancer and has led to a number
+of theories; and at the same time the apparently increasing
+prevalence of the disease recorded by the vital statistics of
+many countries has drawn more and more public attention
+to it. Two results have followed. One is the establishment
+of special endowed institutions devoted to cancer research;
+the other is the publication and discussion of innumerable
+theories and proposed methods of treatment. Popular interest
+has been constantly fanned by the announcement of some
+pretended discovery or cure, in which the public is invited to
+place its trust. Such announcements have no scientific value
+whatever. In the rare cases in which they are not pure quackery,
+they are always premature and based on inadequate data.</p>
+
+<p>Organized cancer research stands on a different footing.
+It may be regarded as the revival at the end of the 19th century
+of what was unsuccessfully attempted at the beginning. As
+early as 1792, at the suggestion of Mr. John Howard, surgeon,
+a ward was opened at the Middlesex hospital in London for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span>
+the special benefit of persons suffering from cancer. It was
+fitted up and endowed anonymously by Mr. Samuel Whitbread,
+M.P. for Bedford, and according to the terms of the benefaction
+at least six patients were to be continually maintained in it
+until relieved by art or released by death. The purpose was
+both philanthropic and scientific, as Mr. Howard explained in
+bringing forward the suggestion. Two principal objects, he
+said, presented themselves to his mind, &ldquo;namely, the relief of
+persons suffering under this disease and the investigation of
+a complaint which, although extremely common, is both with
+regard to its natural history and cure but imperfectly known.&rdquo;
+This benefaction was the origin of one of the most complete
+institutions for the scientific study of cancer that exists to-day.</p>
+
+<p>In 1804 a Society for Investigating the Nature of Cancer
+was formed by a number of medical men in London, Edinburgh
+and other towns at the instigation of John Hunter. The aim
+was collective investigation, and an attempt was made to carry
+it out by issuing forms of inquiry; but the imperfect means
+of communication then existing caused the scheme to be abandoned
+in a  short  time. Subsequent attempts at collective
+investigation also failed until recently. About 1900 a movement,
+which had been for some time gathering force, began to take
+visible shape simultaneously in different countries. The cancer
+ward at the  Middlesex hospital had then developed into a
+cancer wing, and to it were added special laboratories for the
+investigation of cancer, which were opened on the 1st of March
+1900. In this establishment the fully equipped means of clinical
+and laboratory research were united under one roof and manned
+by a staff of investigators under the direction of Dr W.S.
+Lazarus Barlow. In the same year the <i>Deutsche Comité fur
+Krebsforschung</i> was organized in Berlin, receiving an annual
+subsidy of 5000 marks (£250) from the imperial exchequer.
+This body devoted its energies to making a census of cancer
+patients in Germany on a definite date. A special ward for
+cancer was also set apart at the Charité hospital in Berlin,
+with a state endowment of 53,000 marks (£2560) per annum,
+and a laboratory for cancer research was attached to the first
+medical clinique under Professor Ernst von Leyden at the
+same hospital. A third institution in Germany is a special cancer
+department at the Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental
+Therapeutics at Frankfort-on-Main, which has been supported,
+like the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in England, by private
+contributions on a generous scale. The fund just mentioned
+was initiated in October 1901, and its operations took definite
+shape a year later, when Dr. E.F. Bashford was appointed
+general superintendent of research. The patron of the foundation
+was King Edward VII., and the president was the prince of
+Wales. It had in 1908 a capital endowment of about £120,000,
+subscribed by private munificence and producing an income
+of about £7000 a year. The central laboratory is situated
+in the examination building of the Royal Colleges of Physicians
+and Surgeons in London, and the work is conducted under the
+superintendence of an executive committee formed by representatives
+of those bodies. In the United States a cancer
+laboratory,  which  had been established in Buffalo in 1899
+under Dr Roswell Park, was formally placed under the control
+of New York state in June 1901, and is supported by an annual
+grant of $15,000 (£3000). There are other provisions in the
+United States connected with Harvard and Cornell universities.
+At the former the &ldquo;Caroline Brewer Croft Fund for Cancer
+Research&rdquo; started special investigations in the surgical department
+of the Harvard Medical School in 1900 or the previous
+year, and in connexion with the Cornell University Medical
+School there is a small endowment called the &ldquo;Huntingdon
+Cancer Research Fund.&rdquo; There appear to be institutions of
+a similar character in other countries, in addition to innumerable
+investigators at universities and other ordinary seats of scientific
+research.</p>
+
+<p>Some attempt has been made to co-ordinate the work thus
+carried on in different countries. An international cancer
+congress was held at Heidelberg and Frankfort in 1906, and
+a proposal was put forward by German representatives that a
+permanent international conference on cancer should be established,
+with headquarters in Berlin. The committee of the
+Imperial Cancer Research Fund did not fall in with the proposal,
+being of opinion that more was to be gained in the existing
+stage of knowledge by individual intercourse and exchange
+of material between actual laboratory workers.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the immense concentration of effort indicated
+by the simultaneous establishment of so many centres of endowed
+research, and in spite of the light thrown upon
+the problem from many sides by modern biological
+<span class="sidenote">Theories of cancer.</span>
+science, our knowledge of the origin of cancer is
+still in such a tentative state that a detailed account of
+the theories put forward is not called for; it will suffice to
+indicate their general drift. The actual pathological process
+of cancer is extremely simple. Certain cells, which are apparently
+of a normal character and have previously performed normal
+functions, begin to grow and multiply in an abnormal way
+in some part of the body. They continue this process so persistently
+that they first invade and then destroy the surrounding
+tissues; nothing can withstand their march. They are moreover
+carried to other parts of the body, where they establish themselves
+and grow in the same way. Their activity is carried on
+with relentless determination, though at a varying pace, until
+the patient dies, unless they are bodily removed. Hence the
+word &ldquo;malignant.&rdquo; The problem is&mdash;what are these cells,
+or why do they behave in this way? The principal answers
+put forward may be summarized:&mdash;(1) they are epithelial cells
+which grow without ceasing because the connective tissue has
+lost the capacity to hold their proliferative powers in check
+(H. Freund, following K. Thiersch and W. Waldeyer); (2) they
+are embryonic cells accidentally shut off (J.F. Cohnheim);
+(3) they are epithelial cells with a latent power of unlimited
+proliferation which becomes active on their being dislocated
+from the normal association (M.W.H. Ribbert and Borrmann);
+(4) they are stimulated to unlimited growth by the presence
+of a parasite (Plimmer, Sanfelice, Roncali and others); (5) they
+are fragments of reproductive tissue (G.T. Beatson); (6) they
+are cells which have lost their differentiated character and
+assumed elementary properties (von Hausemann, O. Hertwig).
+The very number and variety of hypotheses show that none
+is established. Most of them attempt to explain the growth
+but not the origin of the disease. The hypothesis of a parasitic
+origin, suggested by recent discoveries in relation to other
+diseases, has attracted much attention; but the observed
+phenomena of cancerous growths are not in keeping with those
+of all known parasitic diseases, and the theory is now somewhat
+discredited. A more recent theory that cancer is due to failure
+of the normal secretions of the pancreas has not met with
+much acceptance.</p>
+
+<p>Some generalizations bearing on the problem have been
+drawn from the work done in the laboratories of the Imperial
+Cancer Research Fund. They may be summarily stated thus.
+Cancer has been shown to be an identical process in all vertebrates
+(including fishes), and to develop at a time which conforms in
+a striking manner to the limits imposed by the long or short
+compass of life in different animals. Cancerous tissue can be
+artificially propagated in the short-lived mouse by actual
+transference to another individual, but only to one of the same
+species. Cancerous tissue thus propagated presents all the
+characteristic features of the malignant growth of sporadic
+tumours; it infiltrates and produces extensive secondary
+growths. Under suitable experimental conditions the aggregate
+growth of a cancer is undefined, of enormous and, so far as we
+can judge, of limitless amount. This extraordinary growth is due
+to the continued proliferation of cancerous cells when transplanted.
+The processes by which growing cancer cells are transferred
+to a new individual are easily distinguishable and fundamentally
+different from all known processes of infection. The
+artificial propagation of cancer causes no specific symptoms of
+illness in the animal in which it proceeds. Under artificial
+propagation cancer maintains all the characters of the original
+tumours of the primary hosts. <i>Carcinoma</i> and <i>sarcoma</i> agree
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span>
+in possessing all the pathological and cellular features of malignant
+new growths.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously with the active pursuit of laboratory research
+much statistical work has been devoted to establishing the broad
+<span class="sidenote">Statistics of cancer.</span>
+facts of the prevalence and incidence of cancer on a
+firm basis. The point of most general interest is the
+apparently steady increase of the disease in all countries
+possessing fairly trustworthy records. It will be sufficient to
+give the figures for England and Wales as an example.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Annual Death-rates from Cancer to a Million Living</span>.<br />
+<i>England and Wales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb f80">1871-1875.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1881-1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1886-1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1891-1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1896-1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">1901-1904.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">445</td> <td class="tcc allb">493</td> <td class="tcc allb">547</td> <td class="tcc allb">631</td> <td class="tcc allb">711</td> <td class="tcc allb">800</td> <td class="tcc allb">861</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In forty years the recorded rate had risen from 403 to 861.
+The question how far these and similar statistics represent a
+real increase cannot be satisfactorily resolved, because it is
+impossible to ascertain how much of the apparent increase is
+due to more accurate diagnosis and improved registration.
+Some of it is certainly due to those causes, so that the recorded
+figures cannot be taken to represent the facts as they stand.
+At the same time it is certain that some increase has taken place
+in consequence of the increased average length of life; a larger
+proportion of persons now reach the ages at which cancer is
+most frequent. Increase due to this fact, though it is a real
+increase, does not indicate that the cause of cancer is more rife
+or more potent; it only means that the condition of the population
+in regard to age is more favourable to its activity. On the
+whole it seems probable that, when allowance has been made
+for this factor and for errors due to improved registration, a real
+increase due to other causes has taken place, though it is not so
+great as the recorded statistics would indicate.</p>
+
+<p>The long-established conclusions concerning the incidence of
+the disease in regard to age and sex have been confirmed and
+rendered more precise by modern statistics. Cancer is a disease
+of old age; the incidence at the ages of sixty-five to seventy-five
+is ten times greater than at the ages thirty-five to forty-five.
+This fact is the source of frequent fallacies when different countries
+or districts and different periods are compared with each other,
+unless account is taken of the differences in age and constitution.
+With regard to sex females are far more liable than males; the
+respective death-rates per million living for England and Wales
+in 1904 were&mdash;males 740; females 1006. But the two rates
+show a tendency to approximate; the increase shown over
+a series of years has been considerably more rapid among males
+than among females. One result of more careful examination
+of statistics has been to discredit, though perhaps somewhat
+hastily, certain observations regarding the prevalence of cancer
+in special districts and special houses. On the other hand the
+fuller statistics now available concerning the relative frequency
+of cancer in the several organs and parts of the body, of which
+some account is given above, go to confirm the old observation
+that cancer commonly begins at the seat of some local irritation.
+By far the most frequent seats of disease are the uterus and
+breast in women and the digestive tract in both sexes, and these
+are all particularly subject to such irritation. With regard to
+the influence of heredity the trend of modern research is to
+minimize or deny its importance in cancer, as in phthisis, and
+to explain family histories by other considerations. At most
+heredity is only thought to confer a predisposition.</p>
+
+<p>The only &ldquo;cure&rdquo; for cancer remains removal by operation;
+but improved methods of diagnosis enable this to be done in
+many cases at an earlier stage of the disease than
+formerly; and modern methods of surgery permit not
+<span class="sidenote">Treatment.</span>
+only of operation in parts of the body formerly inaccessible,
+but also more complete removal of the affected tissues.
+Numerous forms of treatment by modern therapeutic means,
+both internal and external, have been advocated and tried;
+but they are all of an experimental nature and have failed to
+meet with general acceptance. One of the most recent is treatment
+by trypsin, a pancreatic ferment. This has been suggested
+by Dr John Beard of Edinburgh in conformity with the theory,
+mentioned above, that failure of the pancreatic secretions is
+the cause of cancer. It has been claimed that the drug exercises
+a favourable influence in conjunction with operation and even
+without it. The experience of different observers with regard
+to results is contradictory; but clinical investigations conducted
+at Middlesex hospital in a number of cases of undoubted cancer
+in strict accordance with Dr Beard&rsquo;s directions, and summarized
+by Dr Walter Ball and Dr Fairfield Thomas in the <i>Sixth Report
+from the Cancer Research Laboratories</i> (<i>Archives of Middlesex
+Hospital</i>, vol. ix.) in May 1907, resulted in the conclusion &ldquo;that
+the course of cancer, considered both as a disease and as a
+morbid process, is unaltered by the administration of trypsin
+and amylopsin.&rdquo; The same conclusion has been reached after
+similar trials at the cancer hospital. Another experimental
+method of treatment which has attracted much attention
+is application of the X-rays. The results vary in a capricious
+and inexplicable manner; in some cases marked benefit has
+followed, in others the disease has been as markedly aggravated.
+Until more is known both of cancer and of X-rays, their use must
+be considered not only experimental but risky.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. Sl.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (1738-1812), German
+mineralogist and metallurgist, was born on the 21st of February
+1738, at Breitenbach, Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1764 he entered
+the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt at Hanau, becoming
+professor of mathematics at the military academy, head
+of the civil engineering department of the state, director of the
+theatre and (1774) of the mint. A work on the copper mines of
+Hesse (1767) earned him a European reputation, and in 1783 he
+accepted from Catherine II. of Russia the directorship of the
+famous Staraya salt-works, living thenceforth in Russia. In
+1798 he became a councillor of state at St Petersburg. He published
+many works on mineralogy and metallurgy, of which the
+most important, the <i>Grundzüge der Berg- und Salzwerkskunde</i>
+(13 vols., Frankfort, 1773-1791), has been translated into several
+languages. His son, Count Georg von Cancrin, or Kankrin
+(1774-1845), was the eminent Russian minister of finance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDELABRUM<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>candela</i>, a taper or candle),
+the stand on which ancient lamps were placed. The most ancient
+example is the bronze candelabrum made by Callimachus for the
+Erechtheum at Athens, to carry the lamp sacred to Minerva.
+In this case it is probable the lamp was suspended, as in the
+example from Pompeii, now in the Naples museum; this consisted
+of a stalk or reed, the upper part moulded with projecting
+feature to carry the lamps, and a base resting on three lions&rsquo; or
+griffins&rsquo; feet; sometimes there was a disk at the top to carry
+a lamp, and sometimes there was a hollow cup, in which resinous
+woods were burnt. The origin of the term suggests that on the
+top of the disk was a spike to carry a wax or tallow candle (<i>candela</i>
+or <i>funalia</i>). Besides these bronze candelabra, of which there are
+many varieties in museums, the Romans used more ponderous
+supports in stone or marble, of which many examples were found
+in the Thermae. These consisted of a base, often triangular,
+and of similar design to the small sacrificial altars, and a shaft
+either richly moulded or carved with the acanthus plant and
+crowned with a large cup or basin. There is a fine example of
+the latter in the Vatican. The Roman examples seem to have
+served as models for many of the candelabra in the churches in
+Italy. The word &ldquo;candelabrum&rdquo; is also now used to describe
+many different forms of lighting with multiple points, and is
+often applied to hanging lights as well as to those which rise from
+a stand.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDIA,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> formerly the capital and still the most populous city
+of Crete (<i>q.v.</i>), to which it has given its name. It is situated on
+the northern shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western
+end of the island, in 35° 20&prime; N. lat. and 25° 9&prime; E. long. It is still
+surrounded by its extensive Venetian fortifications; but they
+have fallen into disrepair, and a good part of the town is in a
+dilapidated condition, mainly from the effects of earthquakes.
+The principal buildings are the Venetian loggia (barbarously
+mutilated by the new régime), the Konak (now Prefecture),
+the mosques, which are fourteen in number, the new cathedral,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span>
+the two Greek churches, the Armenian church, the Capuchine
+monastery, the bazaars and the baths. There are also some
+beautiful Venetian fountains. The town is the seat of a Greek
+archbishop. A highly interesting museum has been formed
+here containing the antiquities found during the recent excavations.
+The chief trade is in oil and soap, both of which are of
+excellent quality. The coasting trade, which is of considerable
+importance, is mainly carried on in Turkish vessels. The manufacture
+of leather for home consumption is an extensive industry
+and wine of good quality is produced in the neighbourhood.
+The harbour, which had grown almost inaccessible, was deepened
+by Mustapha Pasha between 1820 and 1840. It is formed for
+the most part by the ancient moles, and was never deep enough
+to admit the larger vessels even of the Venetians, which were
+accustomed to anchor in the port of the neighbouring island
+of Standia. A short distance from St George&rsquo;s Gate there was
+a small village exclusively inhabited by lepers, who numbered
+about seventy families, but they have now been transported to
+Spinalonga. The population of the town is estimated at from
+15,000 to 18,000, about half being Mahommedan Greeks. The
+site of Candia, or, as it was till lately locally known, Megalo
+castro (the Great Fortress), has been supposed to correspond
+with that of the ancient <i>Heracleion</i>, the seaport of Cnossus,
+and this appellation has now been officially revived by its Greek
+inhabitants. The ruins of Cnossus are situated at the distance
+of about 3 m. to the south-east at the village of Makryteichos
+or Long Wall. Founded by the Saracens in the 9th century,
+Candia was fortified by the Genoese in the 12th, and was greatly
+extended and strengthened by the Venetians in the 13th, 14th
+and 15th centuries. It was besieged by the Turks under the
+vizier Achmet in 1667; and, in spite of a most heroic defence,
+in which the Venetians lost 30,000 in killed and wounded, it
+was forced to surrender in 1669. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDIDATE,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> one who offers himself or is selected by others
+for an office or place, particularly one who puts up for election
+to parliament or to any public body. The word is derived
+from the Latin <i>candidatus</i>, clad in white (<i>candidus</i>). In Rome,
+candidates for election to the higher magistracies appeared in
+the Campus Martius, the Forum and other public places, during
+their canvass, in togas with the white of the natural wool
+brightened by chalk.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDLE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Lat. <i>candela</i>, from <i>candere</i>, to glow), a cylindrical
+rod of solid fatty or waxy matter, enclosing a central fibrous
+wick, and designed to be burnt for giving light. The oldest
+materials employed for making candles are beeswax and tallow,
+while among those of more recent introduction are spermaceti,
+stearine and paraffin wax. Waxlights (<i>cereus</i>, sc. <i>funis</i>) were
+known to the Romans. In the midlde ages wax candles were
+little used, owing to their expense, except for the ceremonies
+of the church and other religious purposes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lights, Ceremonial
+Use of</a></span>), but in the 15th century, with the cheapening of
+wax, they began to find wider employment. The tallow candle,
+mentioned by Apuleius as <i>sebaceus</i>, was long an article of domestic
+manufacture. The tallow was melted and strained, and then
+lengths of cotton or flax fibre, or rushes from which most of the
+external skin had been stripped, only sufficient being left to
+support the pith (&ldquo;rushlights&rdquo;), were dipped into it, the operation
+being repeated until the desired thickness had been attained.
+In Paris, in the 13th century, there was a gild of candlemakers
+who went from house to house to make tallow candles, the
+manufacture of wax candles being in the hands of another gild.
+This separation of the two branches of the trade is also exemplified
+by the existence of two distinct livery companies in the
+city of London&mdash;the Waxchandlers and the Tallowchandlers;
+the French <i>chandelle</i> properly means tallow candle, candles made
+of materials less fusible than tallow being called <i>bougies</i>, a term
+said to be derived from the town of Bougie in Algeria, either
+because wax was produced there or because the Venetians
+imported wax candles thence into Europe. The old tallow
+&ldquo;dips&rdquo; gave a poor light, and tallow itself is now used only
+to a limited extent, except as a source of &ldquo;stearine.&rdquo; This is
+the trade name for a mixture of solid fatty acids&mdash;mainly
+stearic and palmitic&mdash;manufactured not only from tallow and
+other animal fats, but also from such vegetable fats as palm-oil.
+Paraffin wax, a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained from
+crude North American and Rangoon petroleum, and also yielded
+in large quantities by the Scotch shale oil industry, is, at least
+in Great Britain, a still more important material of candle-manufacture,
+which came into use about 1854. Spermaceti,
+a crystalline fatty substance obtained from the sperm whale
+(<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>), was introduced as a material for
+candles about a century earlier. In practice the candlemaker
+mostly uses mixtures of these materials. For instance, 5-10%
+of stearine, which is used alone for candles that have to be burnt
+in hot climates, is mixed with paraffin wax, to counteract the
+tendency to bend with heat exhibited by the latter substance.
+Again, the brittleness of spermaceti is corrected by the addition
+of beeswax, stearine, paraffin wax or ceresin (obtained from the
+mineral wax ozocerite). In some &ldquo;composite&rdquo; candles stearine
+is mixed with the hard fat (&ldquo;cocoa-nut stearine&rdquo;) expressed from
+cocoa-nut oil by hydraulic pressure; and this cocoa-nut stearine
+is also used for night-lights, which are short thick candles with
+a thin wick, calculated to burn from six to ten hours.</p>
+
+<p>The stearine or stearic acid industry originated in the discovery
+made by M.E. Chevreul about 1815, that fats are glycerides
+or compounds of glycerin with fatty acids, mostly palmitic,
+stearic and oleic. The object of the candlemaker is to remove
+this glycerin, not only because it is a valuable product in itself,
+but also because it is an objectionable constituent of a candle;
+the vapours of acrolein formed by its decomposition in the
+flame are the cause of the unpleasant odours produced by
+tallow &ldquo;dips.&rdquo; He also removes the oleic acid, which is liquid
+at ordinary temperatures, from the palmitic and stearic acids,
+mixtures of which solidify at temperatures varying from about
+130° to 155° F., according to the percentage of each present.
+Several methods are in use for the decomposition of the fats.
+In the autoclave process the fat, whether tallow, palm-oil or a
+mixture of the two, mixed with 25 or 30% of water and about
+3% of lime, is subjected in an autoclave to steam at a pressure
+of about 120 &#8468; per square inch for eight or ten hours, when
+nearly all of it is saponified. On standing the product separates
+into two layers&mdash;&ldquo;sweet water&rdquo; containing glycerin below,
+and the fatty acids with a certain amount of lime soap above.
+The upper layer is then boiled and treated with enough sulphuric
+acid to decompose the lime soap, the calcium sulphate formed
+is allowed to subside, and the fatty acids are run off into shallow
+boxes to be crystallized or &ldquo;seeded&rdquo; prior to the separation
+of the oleic acid, which is effected by pressing the solid blocks
+from the boxes, first cold and then hot, by hydraulic machinery.
+In another process saponification is effected by means of concentrated
+sulphuric acid. The fat is mixed with 4-6% of the
+acid and treated with steam in boiling water till the hydrolysis
+is complete, when on standing the glycerin and sulphuric acid
+sink to the bottom and the fatty acids rise to the top. Owing
+to the darkness of their colour, when this process is employed,
+the latter usually have to be distilled before being crystallized.
+The autoclave process yields about 45% of stearine, one-third
+of which is recovered from the expressed oleic acid, but with
+sulphuric acid saponification the amount of stearine is higher&mdash;
+over 60%&mdash;and that of oleic acid less, part of it being converted
+into solid material by the action of the acid. The yield of
+glycerin is also less. In a combination of the two processes the
+fat may first be treated by the autoclave process, so as to obtain
+a full yield (about 10%) of glycerin, and the resulting fatty
+acids then subjected to acid saponification, so as to get the higher
+amount of stearine. At the best, however, some 30% of oleic
+acid remains, and though often sought, no satisfactory method
+of converting this residue into solid has been discovered. It
+constitutes &ldquo;red oil,&rdquo; and is used in soap-making and in woollen
+manufacture. In the process patented by Ernst Twitchell
+in 1898, decomposition is effected by boiling the fat with half
+its bulk of water in presence of a reagent obtained by the action
+of sulphuric acid on oleic acid and an aromatic hydrocarbon such
+as benzene.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span></p>
+
+<p>The wick is a most important part of a candle, and unless
+it is of proper size and texture either too much or too little
+fuel will be supplied to the flame, and the candle will gutter
+or be otherwise unsatisfactory. The material generally employed
+is cotton yarn, plaited or &ldquo;braided&rdquo; by machinery, and treated
+or &ldquo;pickled&rdquo; with a solution of boracic acid, ammonium or
+potassium nitrate, or other salt. The tightness of the plaiting
+varies with the material used for the candle, wicks for stearine
+being looser than for paraffin, but tighter than for wax or
+spermaceti. The plaited wick is flat and curls over as the
+candle burns, and thus the end is kept projecting into the
+outer part of the flame where it is consumed, complete combustion
+being aided by the pickling process it has undergone.
+In the old tallow dips the strands of cotton were merely twisted
+together, instead of being plaited; wicks made in this way
+had no determinate bias towards the outside of the flame,
+and thus were not wholly consumed, the result being that there
+was apt to be an accumulation of charred matter, which choked
+the flame unless removed by periodical &ldquo;snuffing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Four ways of making candles may be distinguished&mdash;dipping,
+pouring, drawing and moulding, the last being that most commonly
+employed. <i>Dipping</i> is essentially the same as the domestic
+process already described, but the rate of production is increased
+by mounting a number of wicks in a series of frames, each of
+which in turn is brought over the tallow bath so that its wicks
+can be dipped. <i>Pouring</i>, used in the case of wax, which cannot
+well be moulded because it contracts in cooling and also has
+a tendency to stick to the moulds, consists in ladling molten
+wax upon the wicks suspended from an iron ring. When of
+the desired thickness the candles are rolled under a plate on
+a marble slab. In <i>drawing</i>, used for small tapers, the wick,
+rolled on a drum, is passed through the molten wax or paraffin,
+drawn through a circular hole and slowly wound on a second
+drum; it is then passed again through the molten material
+and through a somewhat larger hole, and reeled back on the
+first drum, this process being repeated with larger and larger
+holes until the coating is of the required thickness. In <i>moulding</i>,
+a number of slightly conical moulds are fixed by the larger
+extremity to a kind of trough, with their tapered ends projecting
+downwards and with wicks arranged down their centres. The
+molten material is poured into the trough and fills the moulds,
+from which the candles are withdrawn when solidified. Modern
+candle-moulding machines are continuous in their operation;
+long lengths of wick are coiled on bobbins, one for each mould,
+and the act of removing one set of candles from their moulds
+draws in a fresh set of wicks. &ldquo;Self-fitting ends,&rdquo; which were
+invented by J.L. Field in 1864, and being shaped like a truncated
+cone enable the candles to be fixed in candlesticks of any
+diameter, are formed by means of an attachment to the tops
+of the moulds; spirally twisted candles are, as it were, unscrewed
+from their moulds. It is necessary to be able to regulate the
+temperature of the moulds accurately, else the candles will
+not come out freely and will not be of good appearance. For
+stearine candles the moulds are immersed in tepid water and
+the cooling must be slow, else the material will crystallize,
+though if it be too slow cracking will occur. For paraffin, on
+the other hand, the moulds must be rather hotter than the molten
+material (about 200° F.), and must be quickly cooled to prevent
+the candles from sticking.</p>
+
+<p>A candle-power, as a unit of light in photometry, was defined
+by the (London) Metropolis Gas Act of 1860 as the light given
+by a sperm candle, of which six weighed 1 &#8468; and each burned
+120 grains an hour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Lant Carpenter, <i>Soaps and Candles</i> (London, 1895);
+C.E. Groves and W. Thorp, <i>Chemical Technology</i>, vol. ii. &ldquo;Lighting&rdquo;
+(London, 1895); L.L. Lamborn, <i>Soaps, Candles and Glycerine</i> (New
+York, 1906); J. Lewkowitsch, <i>Oils, Fats, and Waxes</i> (London, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDLEMAS<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Lat. <i>festum candelarum sive luminum</i>), the
+name for the ancient church festival, celebrated annually on
+the 2nd of February, in commemoration of the presentation
+of Christ in the Temple. In the Greek Church it is known as
+<span class="grk" title="Upapantê tou Kuriou">&#910;&#960;&#945;&#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#951; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#922;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span> (&ldquo;the meeting of the Lord,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> with
+Simeon and Anna), in the West as the Purification of the Blessed
+Virgin. It is the most ancient of all the festivals in honour of the
+Virgin Mary. A description is given of its celebration at Jerusalem
+in the <i>Peregrinatio</i> of Etheria (Silvia), in the second half
+of the 4th century. It was then kept on the 14th of February,
+forty days after Epiphany, the celebration of the Nativity
+(Christmas) not having been as yet introduced; the Armenians
+still keep it on this day, as &ldquo;the Coming of the Son of God into
+the Temple.&rdquo; The celebration gradually spread to other parts
+of the church, being moved to the 2nd of February, forty days
+after the newly established feast of Christmas. In 542 it was
+established throughout the entire East Roman empire by
+Justinian. Its introduction in the West is somewhat obscure.
+The 8th-century <i>Gelasian Sacramentary</i>, which embodies a
+much older tradition, mentions it under the title of Purification
+of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which has led some to suppose that
+it was ordained by Pope Gelasius I. in 492<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as a counter-attraction
+to the heathen Lupercalia; but for this there is no warrant.
+The procession on this day was introduced by Pope Sergius I.
+(687-701). The custom of blessing the candles for the whole
+year on this day, whence the name Candlemas is derived, did not
+come into common use until the 11th century.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Quadragesimae de Epiphania</i> as described by Etheria
+there is, as Monsignor Duchesne points out (<i>Christian Worship</i>,
+p. 272), no indication of a special association with the Blessed
+Virgin; and the distinction between the festival as celebrated in
+the East and West is that in the former it is a festival of Christ,
+in the latter a festival pre-eminently of the Virgin Mother.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Duchesne, <i>Christian Worship</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1904);
+art. <i>s.v.</i> by F.G. Holweck in the <i>Catholic Encyclopaedia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Baronius, <i>Ann. ad ann.</i> 544.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDLESTICK,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the receptacle for holding a candle, nowadays
+made in various art-forms. The word was formerly
+used for any form of support on which lights, whether candles
+or lamps, were fixed; thus a candelabrum (<i>q.v.</i>) is sometimes
+spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, <i>e.g.</i> as when Moses
+was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of
+hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting of a base
+with a shaft rising out of it and six arms, and with seven lamps
+supported on the summits of the six arms and central shaft.
+When Solomon built the temple, he placed in it ten golden
+candlesticks, five on the north and five on the south side of the
+Holy Place; but after the Babylonish captivity the golden
+candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it had been
+before in the tabernacle by Moses. On the destruction of
+Jerusalem by Titus, it was carried with other spoils to Rome.
+Representations of the seven-branched candlestick, as it is called,
+occur on the arch of Titus at Rome, and on antiquities found
+in the Catacombs at Rome. The primitive form of candlestick
+was a torch made of slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped
+in wax or tallow, tied together and held in the hand by the
+lower end, such as are frequently figured on ancient painted
+vases. The next step was to attach to them a cup (<i>discus</i>)
+to catch the dripping wax or tallow.</p>
+
+<p>A candlestick may be either &ldquo;flat&rdquo; or &ldquo;tall.&rdquo; The former
+has a short stem, rising from a dish, and is usually furnished
+with an extinguisher fitting into a socket; the latter has a pillar
+which may be only a few inches in height or may rise to several
+feet, and rarely has an extinguisher. The flat variety is sometimes
+called a &ldquo;bedroom candlestick.&rdquo; The beginnings of this
+interesting and often beautiful appliance are not exactly known,
+but it dates certainly as far back as the 14th century and is
+probably older. It is most usually of metal, earthenware or
+china, but originally it was made of some hard wood and had
+no socketed pillar, the candle fitting upon a metal spike, in the
+fashion still familiar in the case of many church candlesticks.
+It has been constantly influenced by mobiliary and architectural
+fashions, and has varied, as it still varies, from the severest
+simplicity of form and material to the most elaborate artistic
+treatment and the costliest materials&mdash;gold and silver, crystal,
+marble and enamel. Previous to the 17th century, iron, latten,
+bronze and copper were chiefly used, but thenceforward the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span>
+most elegant examples were chiefly of silver, though in more
+modern periods Sheffield plate, silver plate and china became
+exceedingly popular. Sometimes the base and sconce are of one
+material and the pillar of another, as when the former are of
+silver and the pillar of marble or china. The choice and combination
+of materials are, indeed, infinite. The golden age of the
+candlestick lasted, roughly speaking, from the third quarter
+of the 17th century to the end of the 18th. The later Jacobean,
+Queen Anne and early Georgian forms were often extremely
+elegant, with broad bases, round, oval or square and swelling
+stems. Fine examples of these periods, especially when of silver,
+are much sought after and command constantly augmenting
+prices. As with most domestic appliances the history of the
+candlestick is an unceasing tendency towards simplicity, the
+most elaborate and fantastic forms, animals and reptiles, the
+monstrous creatures of mythology, lions and men-at-arms, angels
+and cupids, having gradually given place to architectural motives
+such as the baluster stem and to the classic grace of the Adam
+style. The candlestick in its modern form is, indeed, artistically
+among the least unsatisfactory of household plenishings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1806-1873), Scottish divine,
+was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of March 1806, and spent
+his early years in Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. During
+the years 1823-1826 he went through the prescribed course
+at the divinity hall, then presided over by Dr Stevenson MacGill,
+and on leaving, accompanied a pupil as private tutor to Eton,
+where he stayed two years. In 1829 he entered upon his life&rsquo;s
+work, having been licensed to preach during the summer
+vacation of the previous year. After short assistant pastorates at
+St Andrew&rsquo;s, Glasgow, and Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, he obtained
+a settled charge as minister of the important parish of St George&rsquo;s,
+Edinburgh. Here he at once took the place he so long held
+as one of the ablest preachers in Scotland. Destitute of natural
+oratorical gifts and somewhat ungainly in his manner, he
+attracted and even riveted the attention of his audience by
+a rare combination of intellectual keenness, emotional fervour,
+spiritual insight and power of dramatic representation of
+character and life. His theology was that of the Scottish
+Calvinistic school, but his sympathetic character combined
+with strong conviction gathered round him one of the largest
+and most intelligent congregations in the city.</p>
+
+<p>From the very commencement of his ministry in Edinburgh,
+Candlish took the deepest interest in ecclesiastical questions,
+and he soon became involved as one of the chief actors in the
+struggle which was then agitating the Scottish church. His
+first Assembly speech, delivered in 1839, placed him at once
+among the leaders of the party that afterwards formed the
+Free Church, and his influence in bringing about the Disruption
+of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers. Great
+as was his popularity as a preacher, it was in the arena of
+ecclesiastical debate that his ability chiefly showed itself, and
+probably no other single man had from first to last so large a
+share in shaping the constitution and guiding the policy of
+the Free Church. He took his stand on two principles: the
+right of the people to choose their ministers, and the independence
+of the church in things spiritual. On his advice Hugh Miller
+was appointed editor of the <i>Witness</i>, the powerful Free Church
+organ. He was actively engaged at one time or other in nearly
+all the various schemes of the church, but special mention
+should be made of his services on the education committee,
+of which he was convener from 1846 to 1863, and in the unsuccessful
+negotiations for union among the non-established
+Presbyterian denominations of Scotland, which were carried
+on during the years 1863-1873. In the Assembly of 1861 he
+filled the moderator&rsquo;s chair.</p>
+
+<p>As a theologian the position of Candlish was perhaps inferior
+to that which he held as a preacher and ecclesiastic, but it was
+not inconsiderable. So early as 1841 his reputation in this
+department was sufficient to secure for him the government
+nomination to the newly founded chair of Biblical criticism
+in the university of Edinburgh. Owing to the opposition of
+Lord Aberdeen, however, the presentation was cancelled. In
+1847 Candlish, who had received the degree of D.D. from Princeton,
+New Jersey, in 1841, was chosen by the Assembly of the
+Free Church to succeed Chalmers in the chair of divinity in the
+New College, Edinburgh. After partially fulfilling the duties
+of the office for one session, he was led to resume the charge
+of St George&rsquo;s, the clergyman who had been chosen by the
+congregation as his successor having died before entering on
+his work. In 1862 he succeeded William Cunningham as principal
+of New College with the understanding that he should still
+retain his position as minister of St George&rsquo;s. He died on the
+19th of October 1873.</p>
+
+<p>Though his greatest power was not displayed through the
+press, Candlish made a number of contributions to theological
+literature. In 1842 he published the first volume of his
+<i>Contributions towards the Exposition of the Book of Genesis</i>,
+a work which was completed in three volumes several years later.
+In 1854 he delivered, in Exeter Hall, London, a lecture on the
+<i>Theological Essays</i> of the Rev. F.D. Maurice, which he
+afterwards published, along with a fuller examination of the doctrine
+of the essays. In this he defended the forensic aspect of the gospel.
+A treatise entitled <i>The Atonement; its Reality, Completeness
+and Extent</i> (1861) was based upon a smaller work
+which first appeared in 1845. In 1864 he delivered the first series
+of Cunningham lectures, taking for his subject <i>The Fatherhood
+of God</i>. Published immediately afterwards, the lectures
+excited considerable discussion on account of the peculiar views
+they represented. Further illustrations of these views were
+given in two works published about the same time as the
+lectures, one a treatise <i>On the Sonship and Brotherhood of
+Believers</i>, and the other an exposition of the first epistle of
+St John.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See William Wilson, <i>Memorials of R.S. Candlish, D.D.</i>, with a
+chapter on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1778-1841), Swiss
+botanist, was born at Geneva on the 4th of February 1778. He
+was descended from one of the ancient families of Provence,
+whence his ancestors had been expatriated for their religion
+in the middle of the 16th century. Though a weakly boy he
+showed great aptitude for study, and distinguished himself
+at school by his rapid attainments in classical and general
+literature, and specially by a faculty for writing elegant verse.
+He began his scientific studies at the college of Geneva, where
+the teaching of J.P.E. Vaucher first inspired him with the
+determination to make botanical science the chief pursuit of
+his life. In 1796 he removed to Paris. His first productions,
+<i>Historia Plantarum Succulentarum</i> (4 vols., 1799) and
+<i>Astragalogia</i> (1802), introduced him to the notice of Cuvier,
+for whom he acted as deputy at the Collège de France in 1802, and to
+J.B. Lamarck, who afterwards confided to him the publication of the
+third edition of the <i>Flore française</i> (1803-1815). The
+<i>Principes élémentaires de botanique</i>, printed as the introduction
+to this work, contained the first exposition of his principle of
+classification according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or
+artificial method. In 1804 he was granted the degree of doctor
+of medicine by the medical faculty of Paris, and published his
+<i>Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes comparées avec leurs
+formes extérieures et leur classification naturelle</i>, and soon after,
+in 1806, his <i>Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum</i>.
+At the desire of the French government he spent the summers
+of the following six years in making a botanical and agricultural
+survey of the whole kingdom, the results of which were published
+in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of botany in the
+medical faculty of the university of Montpellier, and in 1810
+he was transferred to the newly founded chair of botany of the
+faculty of sciences in the same university. From Montpellier, where
+he published his <i>Théorie élémentaire de la botanique</i> (1813),
+he removed to Geneva in 1816, and in the following year was
+invited by the now independent republic to fill the newly created
+chair of natural history. The rest of his life was spent in an
+attempt to elaborate and complete his &ldquo;natural&rdquo; system of
+botanical classification. The results of his labours in this
+department are to be found in his <i>Regni vegetabilis systema
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span>
+naturale</i>, of which two volumes only were completed (1821)
+when he found that it would be impossible for him to execute
+the whole work on so extensive a scale. Accordingly in 1824
+he began a less extensive work of the same kind&mdash;his <i>Prodromus
+systematis regni vegetabilis</i>&mdash;but even of this he was able to
+finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. He had been
+for several years in delicate health when he died on the 9th of
+September 1841 at Geneva.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyrame de Candolle</span>,
+born at Paris on the 28th of October 1806, at first devoted
+himself to the study of law, but gradually drifted to botany
+and finally succeeded to his father&rsquo;s chair. He published a
+number of botanical works, including continuations of the
+<i>Prodromus</i> in collaboration with his son, Anne Casimir
+Pyrame de Candolle. He died at Geneva on the 4th of April
+1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDON,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of South Ilocos province, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, on the W. coast, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila.
+Pop. (1903) 18,828. Its climate is hot, though healthy. Candon
+is surrounded by an extensive and fertile plain, and is defended by
+a small fort. Its inhabitants are noted for their honesty and
+industry, as well as for their regard for law and order. They carry
+on an extensive traffic with the wild tribes of the neighbouring
+mountains. Indigo is grown in considerable quantity, as are
+rice and tobacco. The weaving of blankets, handkerchiefs, and
+cotton and silk cloths constitutes quite an important industry.
+The language is Ilocanc.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANDYTUFT<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>Iberis amara</i>, so called from Iberia, <i>i.e.</i> Spain,
+where many species of the genus are native, and <i>amara</i>, bitter,
+<i>i.e.</i> in taste), a small annual herb (natural order Cruciferae) with
+white or purplish flowers, the outer petals of which are longer
+than the rest. It is a native of western Europe and found wild
+on dry soil in cultivated ground in the centre and east of England.
+This and several other species of the genus are known as garden
+plants, and are of easy culture in ordinary garden soil if well
+exposed to sun and air. The common candytuft of gardens is
+<i>I. umbellata</i>, a hardy annual, native of southern Europe, and
+known in a number of varieties differing in colour of flowers.
+<i>I. coronaria</i> (rocket candytuft) has long dense heads of white
+flowers and is also an annual. Some species have a shrubby
+growth and are evergreen perennials; the best-known is <i>I.
+sempervirens</i>, a native of southern Europe, a much-branched
+plant about a foot high with long racemes of white flowers.
+<i>I. gibraltarica</i> is a showy, handsome half hardy evergreen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a name applied to many plants which have long,
+slender, reed-like stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane,
+the bamboo-cane or the reed-cane. From the use as walking-sticks
+to which many of these plants have been applied, the
+name &ldquo;cane&rdquo; is improperly given to sticks, irrespective of the
+source from which they are derived. Properly it should be restricted
+to a peculiar class of palms, known as rattans, included under the
+two closely allied genera <i>Calamus</i> and <i>Daemonorops</i>, of
+which there are a large number of species. The plants are found
+widely extended throughout the islands of the Indian Archipelago,
+the Malay Peninsula, China, India and Ceylon; and also
+in Australia and Africa. They were described by Georg Eberhard
+Rumpf or Rumphius (1627-1702), governor of Amboyna, and
+author of the <i>Herbarium Amboynense</i> (6 vols. folio, Amsterdam,
+1741-1755), under the name of Palmijunci, as inhabitants of
+dense forests into which the rays of the sun scarce can penetrate,
+where they form spiny bushes, obstructing the passage through
+the jungle. The slender stems rarely exceed an inch in diameter
+and are generally much smaller. They creep or trail to an
+enormous length, often reaching 500 or 600 ft., and support
+themselves on trees or bushes by recurved spines borne on the
+stalk or back of the midrib of the leaf, or by stiff hooks replacing
+the upper leaflets. In some cases the midrib is elongated beyond
+the leaflets to form a long whip-like structure, bearing recurved
+hooks at intervals. The natives, in preparing the canes for the
+market, strip off the leaves by pulling the cut plant through a
+notch made in a tree. The canes always present distinct rings
+at the junction of the sheathing leaves with the stem. They
+assume a yellow colour as they dry; and those imported from
+Calcutta have a glossy surface, while the produce of the Eastern
+Archipelago presents a dull exterior.</p>
+
+<p>Canes, on account of their lightness, length, strength and
+flexibility, are used for a great variety of purposes by the inhabitants
+of the countries in which they grow. Split into thin strips
+they are twisted to form ropes and ships&rsquo; cables, an application
+mentioned by Captain Dampier in his <i>Voyages</i>. A more important
+application, however, is for basket-work, and for making
+chairs, couches, pillows, &amp;c., as the great strength and durability
+of thin and easily prepared strips admit of such articles being
+made at once airy, strong and flexible. Much of the beautiful
+and elaborate basket-work of the Chinese and Japanese is made
+from thin strips of cane, which are also used by the Chinese for
+larger works, such as door-mats, houses and sheds.</p>
+
+<p>A very large trade with Western countries and the United
+States is carried on in canes and rattans, the principal centres
+of the trade being Batavia, Sarawak, Singapore, Penang and
+Calcutta. In addition to the varieties used for walking-sticks,
+whip and umbrella handles, &amp;c., the common rattans are in
+extensive demand for basket-making, the seats and backs of
+chairs, the ribs of cheap umbrellas, saddles and other harness-work;
+and generally for purposes where their strength and
+flexibility make them efficient substitutes for whalebone. The
+walking-stick &ldquo;canes&rdquo; of commerce include a great many
+varieties, some of which, however, are not the produce of trailing
+palms. The well-known Malacca canes are obtained from
+<i>Calamus Scipionum</i>, the stems of which are much stouter than
+is the case with the average species of <i>Calamus</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANEA,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Khania</span>, the principal seaport and since 1841
+the capital of Crete, finely situated on the northern coast of
+the island, about 25 m. from its western extremity, on the
+isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula, which lies between the Bay
+of Canea and the Bay of Suda (latitude 35° 31&prime; N., longitude
+24° 1&prime; E.). Surrounded by a massive Venetian wall, it forms
+a closely built, irregular and overcrowded town, though of late
+years a few of its streets have been widened. The ordinary
+houses are of wood; but the more important buildings are of
+more solid materials. The Turks have a number of mosques;
+there are Greek churches and a Jewish synagogue; an old
+Venetian structure serves as a military hospital; and the
+prison is of substantial construction. The town is now the
+principal seat of government; the seat of a Greek bishop, who
+is suffragan to the metropolitan at Candia, and the official
+residence of the European consuls. The harbour, formed by
+an ancient transverse mole nearly 1200 ft. long, and protected
+by a lighthouse and a fort, would admit vessels of considerable
+tonnage; but it has been allowed to silt up until it shoals off
+from 24 ft. to 10 or even 8, so that large vessels have to anchor
+about 4 or 5 m. out. The principal articles of trade are oil and
+soap, and there is a pretty extensive manufacture of leather.
+The fosse is laid out in vegetable gardens; public gardens have
+been constructed outside the walls; and artesian wells have
+been bored by the government. To the east of the town a
+large Arab village had grown up, inhabited for the most part
+by natives of Egypt and Cyrenaica, who acted as boatmen,
+porters and servants, but since the fall of the Turkish government
+most of these have quitted the island; while about a
+mile off on the rising ground is the village of Khalepa, where
+the consuls and merchants reside. The population of the town
+is estimated at 20,000. Canea probably occupies the site of
+the ancient Cydonia, a city of very early foundation and no small
+importance. During the Venetian rule it was one of the strongest
+cities in the island, but it fell into the hands of the Turks in
+1646, several years before the capture of Candia. In 1856 it
+suffered from an earthquake. The neighbouring plain is famous
+for its fruitfulness, and the quince is said to derive its name
+<i>Cydonia</i> from the town. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANE-FENCING<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (the Fr. <i>canne</i>), the art of defending oneself
+with a walking-stick. It may be considered to be single-stick
+fencing without a guard for the hand, with the important
+difference that in cane-fencing the thrust is as important as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span>
+the cut, and thus <i>canne</i> approaches nearer to sabre-play.
+The cuts are practically identical with those of the single-stick
+(<i>q.v.</i>), but they are generally given after one or more rapid
+preliminary flourishes (<i>moulinets</i>, circles) which the lightness
+of the stick facilitates, and which serve to perplex and disconcert
+an assailant. The thrusts are similar to those in foil-play, but
+are often carried out with both hands grasping the stick, giving
+greater force and enabling it to be used at very close quarters.
+The canes used in French fencing schools are made of several
+kinds of tough wood and are about 3 ft. long, tapering towards
+the point. As very severe blows are exchanged, masks, gloves,
+padded vests and shin-guards, similar to those used in football,
+are worn.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Georges d&rsquo;Amoric, <i>French Method of the Noble Art of Self-Defence</i>
+(London, 1898); J. Charlemont, <i>L&rsquo;Art de la Boxe française
+et de la Canne</i> (Paris, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANEPHORAE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kaneon">&#954;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#959;&#957;</span>, a basket, and <span class="grk" title="ferein">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to carry),
+&ldquo;basket-bearers,&rdquo; the title given of old to Athenian maidens of
+noble family, annually chosen to carry on their heads baskets
+with sacrificial implements and apparatus at the Panathenaic
+and other festivals. The term (also in the form <i>Canephori</i>) is
+applied in architecture to figures of either sex carrying on
+their heads baskets, containing edibles or material for sacrifices.
+The term might well be applied to the Caryatide figures of the
+Erechtheum. Those represented in the Panathenaic frieze of
+the Parthenon carry vases on their shoulders.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANES VENATICI<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (&ldquo;The <span class="sc">Hounds</span>,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the <span class="sc">Greyhounds</span>&rdquo;),
+in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere named
+by Hevelius in 1690, who compiled it from the stars between
+the older asterisms Ursa Major, Boötes and Coma Berenices.
+Interesting objects in this portion of the heavens are: the famous
+spiral nebula first described by Lord Rosse; <i>a-Canum Venaticorum</i>,
+a double star, of magnitudes 3 and 6; this star was
+named <i>Cor Caroli</i>, or The Heart of Charles II., by Edmund
+Halley, on the suggestion of Sir Charles Scarborough (1616-1694),
+the court physician; a cluster of stars of the 11th magnitude
+and fainter, extremely rich in variables, of the 900 stars examined
+no less than 132 being regularly variable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSÉ<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1770-1843), Spanish statesman,
+was born in 1770. He took an active part in the Spanish resistance
+to Napoleon in a civil capacity and was an energetic
+member of the cortes of 1812. On the return of the Bourbon
+line in 1814, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile in the province
+of Valencia. On the restoration in 1820 of the constitution of
+1812, he was appointed minister of finance. He continued at
+this post till the spring of 1821, distinguishing himself by the
+zeal and ability with which he sought to reform the finances
+of Spain. It was high time; for the annual deficit was greater
+than the entire revenue itself, and landed and other property
+was, to an unheard-of extent, monopolized by the priests.
+The measures he proposed had been only partially enforced,
+when the action of the king with regard to the ministry, of
+which he was a member, obliged him to resign. Thereafter,
+as a member of the Moderate Liberal party, Canga-Arguelles
+advocated constitutional government and financial reform, till
+the overthrow of the constitution in 1823, when he fled to
+England. He did not return to Spain till 1829, and did not
+again appear in public life, being appointed keeper of the archives
+at Simancas. He died in 1843. Canga-Arguelles is the author
+of three works: <i>Elementos de la Ciencia de Hacienda</i> (Elements
+of the Science of Finance), London, 1825; <i>Diccionario de
+Hacienda</i> (Dictionary of Finance), London, 1827; and <i>Observaciones
+sobre la guerra de la Peninsula</i> (Observations on the
+Peninsular War), in which he endeavoured to show that his
+countrymen had taken a far more effective part in the national
+struggle against the French than English historians were willing
+to admit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANGAS DE ONÍS<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cangas</span>, a town of northern Spain, in
+the province of Oviedo; situated on the right bank of the river
+Sella, in a fertile, well-watered, partly wooded, undulating
+region. Pop. (1900) 8537. The trade of Cangas de Onís is chiefly
+in live-stock and coal from the neighbouring mines. A Latin
+inscription on the town-hall records the fact that this place
+was the residence of the first Spanish kings after the spread of
+the Moors over the Peninsula. Here early in the 8th century
+lived King Pelayo, who started the Christian reconquest of
+Spain. His historic cave of Covadonga is only 8 m. distant
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asturias</a></span>). The church of the Assumption, rebuilt in the
+19th century, is on the model and site of an older church of the
+middle ages. Near Cangas are ruins and bridges of the Roman
+period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANGAS DE TINÉO,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of northern Spain, in the province
+of Oviedo, and on the river Narcea. Pop. (1900) 22,742. There
+is no railway and the river is not navigable, but a good road
+runs through Tinéo, Grado and the adjacent coal-fields, to the
+ports of Cudillero and Avilés. The inhabitants have thus an
+easily accessible market for the farm produce of the fertile hills
+round Cangas de Tinéo, and for the cloth, leather, pottery, &amp;c.,
+manufactured in the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANGUE,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cang</span>, the European name for the Chinese <i>Kia</i>
+or <i>Kea</i>, a portable pillory, carried by offenders convicted of
+petty offences. It consists of a square wooden collar weighing
+from 20 to 60 &#8468;., through a hole in which the victim&rsquo;s head
+is thrust. It fits tight to the neck and must be worn day and
+night for the period ordered. The offender is left exposed in
+the street. Over the parts by which it fastens slips of paper
+bearing the mandarin&rsquo;s seal are pasted so that no one can liberate
+the condemned. The length of the punishment is usually from
+a fortnight to a month. As the cangue is 3 to 4 ft. across the
+convict is unable to feed himself or to lie down, and thus, unless
+fed by friends or passersby, often starves to death. As in the
+English pillory, the name of the man and the nature of his
+offence are inscribed on the cangue.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANINA, LUIGI<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1795-1856), Italian archaeologist and
+architect, was born at Casale in Piedmont. He became professor
+of architecture at Turin, and his most important works were
+the excavation of Tusculum in 1829 and of the Appian Way in
+1848, the results of which he embodied in a number of works
+published in a costly form by his patroness, the queen of
+Sardinia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1617-1666), Italian designer
+and engraver, was born at Rome. He was a pupil of Domenichino
+and afterwards of Antonio Barbalonga. He painted some
+altar-pieces at Rome, including two admired pictures for the
+church of San Martino a&rsquo; Monti, representing the martyrdom
+of St Stephen and of St Bartholomew. Having accompanied
+Cardinal Chigi to France, he was encouraged by the minister
+Colbert to carry into execution his project of designing from
+medals, antique gems and similar sources a series of portraits
+of the most illustrious characters of antiquity, accompanied
+with memoirs; but shortly after the commencement of the
+undertaking Canini died at Rome. The work, however, was
+prosecuted by his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance
+of Picard and Valet, completed and published it in 1699, under
+the title of <i>Iconografia di Gio. Ag. Canini</i>. It contains 150
+engravings. A reprint in Italian and French appeared at Amsterdam
+in 1731.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANIS MAJOR<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (&ldquo;Great Dog&rdquo;), in astronomy, a constellation
+placed south of the Zodiac, just below and behind the heels of
+Orion. <i>Canis minor</i>, the &ldquo;little dog,&rdquo; is another constellation,
+also following Orion and separated from Canis major by the
+Milky Way. Both these constellations, or at least their principal
+stars, Sirius in the Great Dog and Procyon in the Little Dog,
+were named in very remote times, being referred to as the &ldquo;dogs
+of Orion&rdquo; or in equivalent terms. Sirius is the brightest star
+in the heavens; and the name is connected with the adjectives
+<span class="grk" title="seirhos">&#963;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="sehirios">&#963;&#949;&#943;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, scorching. It may possibly be related to
+the Arabic <i>Sir&#257;j</i>, thus meaning the &ldquo;glittering one.&rdquo; Hommel
+has shown that Sirius and Procyon were &ldquo;the two <i>Si&rsquo;ray</i>&rdquo;
+or glitterers. It is doubtful whether Sirius is referred to in the
+Old Testament. By some it has been identified with the Hebrew
+<i>mazzaroth</i>, the <i>Lucifer</i> of the Vulgate; by others with <i>mazzaloth</i>,
+the <i>duodecim signa</i> of the Vulgate; while Professor M.A. Stern
+identifies it with the Hebrew <i>kimah</i>, which is rendered variously
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span>
+in the Vulgate as Arcturus, Hyades and Pleiades.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The inhabitants
+of the Euphrates valley included both constellations
+in their stellar system; but considerable difficulty is encountered
+in the allocation of the Babylonian names to the dominant
+stars. The name <i>kak-ban</i>, which occurs on many tablets, has
+been determined by Epping and Strassmaier, and also by
+Jensen and Hommel, as equivalent to Sirius; etymologically
+this word means &ldquo;dog-star&rdquo; (or, according to R. Brown,
+<i>Primitive Constellations</i>, &ldquo;bow-star&rdquo;). On the other hand,
+<i>Kaksidi</i> or <i>Kak-si-sa</i>, meaning the &ldquo;leader,&rdquo; has been identified
+by Sayce and others with Sirius, while Hommel regards it as
+Procyon. The question is mainly philological, and the arguments
+seem inconclusive. We may notice, however, that connexions
+were made between Kaksidi and the weather, which have
+strong affinities with the ideas expressed at a later date by the
+Greeks. For example, its appearance in the morning with the
+sun heralded the &ldquo;north winds,&rdquo; the <span class="grk" title="boreai etaesiai">&#946;&#959;&#961;&#941;&#945;&#953; &#7952;&#964;&#951;&#963;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span> or
+<i>aquilones etesiae</i>, the strong and dangerous north-westerly winds
+of Greece which blow for forty days from the rising of the star;
+again, when Sirius appeared misty the &ldquo;locusts devour.&rdquo;
+Sirius also appears in the cosmogony of Zoroaster, for Plutarch
+records that Ormuzd appointed this star to be a guard and
+overseer in the heavens, and in the <i>Avesta</i> we find that Tistrya
+(Sirius) is &ldquo;the bright and happy star, that gives happy dwelling.&rdquo;
+With the Egyptians Sirius assumed great importance. Appearing
+with the sun when the Nile was rising, Sirius was regarded as a
+herald of the waters which would overspread the land, renewing
+its fertility and promising good harvests for the coming season.
+Hephaestion records that from its aspect the rise of the water
+was foretold, and the Roman historian Florus adds that the
+weather was predicted also. Its rising marked the commencement
+of their new year, the <i>annus canarius</i> and <i>annus cynicus</i>
+of the Romans. It was the star of Sept or Sothis, and, according
+to one myth, was identified with the goddess Hathor&mdash;the
+Aphrodite of the Greeks. It was the &ldquo;second sun&rdquo; of the
+heavens, and according to Maspero (<i>Dawn of Civilization</i>, 1894)
+&ldquo;Sahu and Sopdit, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this
+mysterious world of night and stars.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks, borrowing most of their astronomical knowledge
+from the Babylonians, held similar myths and ideas as to the
+constellations and stars. Sirius was named <span class="grk" title="Seirios, Kuon">&#931;&#949;&#943;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#962;, &#922;&#973;&#969;&#957;</span>
+(the dog) and <span class="grk" title="to astron">&#964;&#8056; &#7940;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, the star; and its heliacal rising was
+associated with the coming of the dry, hot and sultry season.
+Hesiod tells us that &ldquo;Sirius parches head and knees&rdquo;; Homer
+speaks similarly, calling it <span class="grk" title="kakon saema">&#954;&#945;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#963;&#8134;&#956;&#945;</span>, the evil star, and the
+star of late summer (<span class="grk" title="opora">&#8000;&#960;&#974;&#961;&#945;</span>), the rainy and stormy season.
+Procyon (<span class="grk" title="Prokuon">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#973;&#969;&#957;</span>) was so named because it rose before <span class="grk" title="Kuon">&#922;&#973;&#969;&#957;</span>.
+The Euphratean myth of the dogs has its parallel in Greece,
+Sirius being the hound of the hunter Orion, and as recorded by
+Aratus always chasing the Hare; Pindar refers to the chase
+of Pleione, the mother of the Pleiads, by Orion and his dogs.
+Similarly Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius, when
+Boötes became Icarius, and Virgo his daughter Erigone.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans adopted the Greek ideas. They named the
+constellation <i>Canis</i>, and Sirius was known as <i>Canis</i> also, and
+as <i>Canicula</i>. Procyon became <i>Antecanem</i> and <i>Antecanis</i>, but
+these names did not come into general use. They named the
+hottest part of the year associated with the heliacal rising of
+Sirius the <i>Dies caniculares</i>, a phrase which has survived in the
+modern expression &ldquo;dog-days&rdquo;; and the pestilences which
+then prevailed occasioned the offering of sacrifices to placate
+this inimical star. Festus narrates, in this connexion, the sacrificing
+of red dogs at the feast of Floralia, and Ovid of a dog
+on the Robigalia. The experience of the ancient Greeks that
+Sirius rose with the sun as the latter entered Leo, <i>i.e.</i> the hottest
+part of the year, was accepted by the Romans with an entire
+disregard of the intervening time and a different latitude. To
+quote Sir Edward Sherburne (<i>Sphere of Manilius</i>, 1675),
+&ldquo;The greater part of the Antients assign the Dog Star rising
+to the time of the Sun&rsquo;s first entering into Leo, or, as Pliny
+writes, 23 days after the summer solstice, as Varro 29, as
+Columella 30.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> ...At this day with us, according to
+Vulgar computation, the rising and setting of the said Star
+is in a manner coincident with the Feasts of St Margaret
+(which is about the 13th of our July) and St Lawrence (which
+falls on the 10th of our August).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sirius is the most conspicuous star in the sky; it sends to
+the earth eleven times as much light as Aldebaran, the unit
+standard adopted in the revised Harvard Photometry; numerically
+its magnitude is -1.6. At the present time its colour is
+white with a tinge of blue, but historical records show that this
+colour has not always prevailed. Aratus designated it <span class="grk" title="poikilos">&#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+many coloured; the Alexandrian Ptolemy classified it with
+Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse as <span class="grk" title="upokirros">&#8017;&#960;&#972;&#954;&#953;&#961;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, fiery red;
+Seneca describes it as &ldquo;redder than Mars&rdquo;; while, in the
+10th century, the Arabian Biruni termed it &ldquo;shining red.&rdquo;
+On the other hand Sufi, who also flourished in the 10th century,
+pointedly omits it from his list of coloured stars. The question
+has been thoroughly discussed by T.J.J. See, who shows
+that Sirius has shone white for the last 1000 to 1200 years.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+The parallax has been determined by Sir David Gill and W.L.
+Elkin to be 0.37&Prime;; it is therefore distant from the earth over
+5 × 10^13 miles, and its light takes 8.6 years to traverse the intervening
+space. If the sun were at the same distance Sirius would
+outshine it 30 times, the sun appearing as a star of the second
+magnitude. It has a large proper motion, which shows recurrent
+undulations having a 50-year period. From this Bessel surmised
+the existence of a satellite or companion, for which C.A.F.
+Peters and A. Auwers computed the elements. T.H. Safford
+determined its position for September 1861; and on the 31st
+of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark, of Cambridgeport, Mass.,
+telescopically observed it as a barely visible, dull yellow star
+of the 9th to 10th magnitude. The mean distance apart is
+about 20 astronomical units; the total mass of the pair is 3.7
+times the mass of the sun, Sirius itself being twice as massive
+as its companion, and, marvellously enough, forty thousand
+times as bright. The spectrum of Sirius is characterized by
+prominent absorption lines due to hydrogen, the metallic lines
+being weak; other stars having the same spectra are said
+to be of the &ldquo;Sirian type.&rdquo; Such stars are the most highly
+heated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Procyon</i>, or a Canis minoris, is a star of the 2nd magnitude,
+one-fifth as bright as Sirius, or numerically 0.47 when compared
+with Aldebaran. It is more distant than Sirius, its parallax
+being 0.33&Prime;; and its light is about six times that of the sun.
+Its proper motion is large, 1.25&Prime;, and its velocity at right angles
+to the line of sight is about 11 m. per second. Its proper motion
+shows large irregularities, pointing to a relatively massive companion;
+this satellite was discovered on the 13th of November
+1896 by J.M. Schaeberle, with the great Lick telescope, as a
+star of the 13th magnitude. Its mass is equal to about that
+of the sun, but its light is only one twenty-thousandth.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See G. Schiaparelli, <i>Astronomy in the Old Testament</i> (1905).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For other values of the interval between the summer solstice
+and the rising of Sirius, see Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of Greek and Roman
+Antiquities</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Thomas Barker, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1760, 51, p. 498, for quotations
+from classical authors; also T.J.J. See, <i>Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>.
+vol. xi. p. 269.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr Von</span>
+(1654-1699), German poet and diplomatist, was born at Berlin
+on the 27th of November 1654. He attended the universities
+of Leiden and Leipzig, travelled in England, France, Italy and
+Holland, and on his return was appointed groom of the bedchamber
+(Kammerjunker) to the elector Frederick William
+of Brandenburg, whom he accompanied on his campaigns in
+Pomerania and Sweden. In 1680 he became councillor of legation,
+and he was employed on various embassies. In 1697 the
+elector Frederick III. made him a privy councillor, and the
+emperor Leopold I. created him a baron of the Empire. Having
+fallen ill on an embassy to the Hague, he obtained his discharge
+and died at Berlin in 1699. Canitz&rsquo;s poems (<i>Nebenstunden
+unterschiedener Gedichte</i>), which did not appear until after his
+death (1700), are for the most part dry and stilted imitations
+of French and Latin models, but they formed a healthy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span>
+contrast to the coarseness and bombast of the later Silesian
+poets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of Canitz&rsquo;s poems was published by U. König
+in 1727; see also L. Fulda, <i>Die Gegner der zweiten schlesischen
+Schule</i>, ii. (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAÑIZARES, JOSÉ DE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1676-1750), Spanish dramatist, was
+born at Madrid on the 4th of July 1676, entered the army, and
+retired with the rank of captain in 1702 to act as censor of the
+Madrid theatres and steward to the duke of Osuna. In his
+fourteenth year Cañizares recast a play by Lope de Vega under
+the title of <i>Las Cuentas del Gran Capitán</i>, and he speedily became
+a fashionable playwright. His originality, however, is slight,
+and <i>El Dómine Lucas</i>, the only one of his pieces that is still read,
+is an adaptation from Lope de Vega. Cañizares produced a
+version of Racine&rsquo;s <i>Iphigénie</i> shortly before 1716, and is to some
+extent responsible for the destruction of the old Spanish drama.
+He died on the 4th of September 1750, at Madrid.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNAE<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (mod. <i>Canne</i>), an ancient village of Apulia, near the
+river Aufidus, situated on a hill on the right bank, 6 m.
+S.W. from its mouth. It is celebrated for the disastrous defeat
+which the Romans received there from Hannibal in 216 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>). There is a considerable controversy as to
+whether the battle took place on the right or the left bank of the
+river. In later times the place became a <i>municipium</i>, and unimportant
+Roman remains still exist upon the hill known as
+Monte di Canne. In the middle ages it became a bishopric,
+but was destroyed in 1276.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See O. Schwab, <i>Das Schlachtfeld von Canna</i> (Munich, 1898), and
+authorities under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNANORE,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kananore</span>, a town of British India, in the
+Malabar district of Madras, on the coast, 58 m. N. from Calicut
+and 470 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 27,811. Cannanore
+belonged to the Kalahasti or Cherakal rajas till the invasion of
+Malabar by Hyder Ali. In 1498 it was visited by Vasco da
+Gama; in 1501 a Portuguese factory was planted here by
+Cabral; in 1502 da Gama made a treaty with the raja, and in
+1505 a fort was built. In 1656 the Dutch effected a settlement
+and built the present fort, which they sold to Ali Raja in 1771.
+In 1783 Cannanore was captured by the British, and the reigning
+princess became tributary to the East India Company. Here is
+the residence of the Moplah chief, known as the Ali Raja, who
+owns most of the Laccadive Islands. Cannanore was the military
+headquarters of the British on the west coast until 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNES,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a seaport of France, in the department of the Alpes
+Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 19 m. S.W. of Nice and 120 m.
+E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop.(1906) 24,531. It enjoys a southern
+exposure on a seaward slope, and is defended from the northern
+winds by ranges of hills. Previous to 1831, when it first attracted
+the attention of Lord Brougham, it mainly consisted of the old
+quarter (named Sucquet), and had little to show except an
+ancient castle, and a church on the top of Mont Chevalier,
+dedicated in 1603 to Notre Dame du Mont Espérance; but
+since that period it has become a large and important town,
+and is now one of the most fashionable winter resorts in the
+south of France, much frequented by English visitors, the
+Americans preferring Nice. The neighbourhood is thickly studded
+with magnificent villas, which are solidly built of a stone so soft
+that it is sawn and not hewn. There is an excellent quay, and
+a beautiful promenade runs along the beach; and numerous
+sheltered roads stretch up the valleys amidst groves of olive
+trees. On the north the modern town climbs up to Le Cannet
+(2 m.), while on the east it practically extends along the coast
+to Golfe Jouan (3½ m.), where Napoleon landed on the 1st of
+March 1815, on his return from Elba. From Cannes a railway
+runs north in 12½ m. to Grasse. On the top of the hill behind
+the town are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant cemetery.
+In the most prominent part of the latter is the grave of Lord
+Brougham, distinguished by a massive stone cross standing on
+a double basement, with the simple inscription&mdash;&ldquo;Henricus
+Brougham, Natus MDCCLXXVIII., Decessit MDCCCLXVIII.&rdquo;; and
+in the immediate vicinity lies James, fourth duke of Montrose,
+who died December 1874. The country around is very beautiful
+and highly fertile; orange and lemon trees are cultivated like
+peach trees in England, while olives, almonds, figs, peaches,
+grapes and other fruits are grown in abundance, and, along
+with the produce of the fisheries, form the chief exports of the
+town. Essences of various kinds are manufactured, and flowers
+are extensively cultivated for the perfumers. The climate of
+Cannes has been the subject of a considerable variety of opinion,&mdash;the
+preponderance being, however, in its favour. According
+to Dr de Valcourt, it is remarkable by reason of the elevation
+and regularity of the temperature during the height of the day,
+the clearness of the atmosphere and abundance of light, the
+rarity of rain and the absence of fogs.</p>
+
+<p>Cannes is a place of great antiquity, but its earlier history
+is very obscure. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the
+8th and the 10th centuries; but it was afterwards repeopled
+by a colony from Genoa. Opposite the town is the island of
+Ste Marguerite (one of the Lérins), in the citadel of which the Man
+with the Iron Mask was confined from 1686 to 1698, and which
+acquired notoriety as the prison whence Marshal Bazaine escaped
+in August 1874. On the other chief island (St Honorat) of the
+Lérins is the famous monastery (5th century to 1788), in connexion
+with which grew up the school of Lérins, which had a wide
+influence upon piety and literature in the 5th and 6th centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Alliez, <i>Histoire du monastère de Lérins</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1862);
+and <i>Les Îles de Lérins, Cannes, et les rivages environnants</i> (Paris, 1860);
+<i>Cartulaire du monastère de Lérins</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1883 and 1905); de
+Valcourt, <i>Cannes and its Climate</i> (London, 1873); Joanne, special
+<i>Guide to Cannes</i>; J.R. Green, essay on Cannes and St Honorat,
+in the first series of his <i>Stray Studies</i> (1st ed., 1876); A. Cooper-Marsdin,
+<i>The School of Lérins</i> (Rochester, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNIBALISM,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the eating of human flesh by men (from a
+Latinized form of Carib, the name of a tribe of South America,
+formerly found also in the West Indies), also called &ldquo;anthropophagy&rdquo;
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="anthropos">&#7940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, man, and <span class="grk" title="phagein">&#966;&#945;&#947;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to eat). Evidence
+has been adduced from some of the palaeolithic cave-dwellings
+in France to show that the inhabitants practised cannibalism,
+at least occasionally. From Herodotus, Strabo and others we
+hear of peoples like the Scythian Massagetae, a nomad race
+north-east of the Caspian Sea, who killed old people and ate
+them. In the middle ages reports, some of them probably untrustworthy,
+by Marco Polo and others, attributed cannibalism
+to the wild tribes of China, the Tibetans, &amp;c. In our own days
+cannibalism prevails, or prevailed until recently, over a great part
+of West and Central Africa, New Guinea, Melanesia (especially
+Fiji) and Australia. New Zealand and the Polynesian Islands
+were great centres of the practice. It is extensively practised
+by the Battas of Sumatra and in other East Indian islands and
+in South America; in earlier days it was a common feature of
+Indian wars in North America. Sporadic cannibalism occurs
+among more civilized peoples as a result of necessity or as a
+manifestation of disease (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lycanthropy</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;Cannibalistic practices may be classified from
+two points of view: (1) the motives of the act; (2) the ceremonial
+regulations. A third division of subordinate importance
+is also possible, if we consider whether the victims are actually
+killed for food or whether only such are eaten as have met their
+death in battle or other ways.</p>
+
+<p>1. From a psychological point of view the term cannibalism
+groups together a number of customs, whose only bond of union
+is that they all involve eating of human flesh. (<i>a</i>) Food cannibalism,
+where the object is the satisfaction of hunger, may occur
+sporadically as a result of real necessity or may be kept up for
+the simple gratification of a taste for human flesh in the absence
+of any lack of food in general or even of animal food, (i.) Cannibalism
+from necessity is found not only among the lower races,
+such as the Fuegians or Red Indian tribes, but also among
+civilized races, as the records of sieges and shipwrecks show.
+(ii.) Simple food cannibalism is common in Africa; the Niam-Niam
+and Monbuttu carry on wars for the sake of obtaining
+human flesh; in West Africa human flesh could formerly be
+seen exposed for sale in the market like any other article of
+commerce; and among some tribes it is the practice to sell the
+corpses of dead relatives for consumption as food. (<i>b</i>) In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span>
+curious contrast to this latter custom is the practice of devouring
+dead kinsfolk as the most respectful method of disposing of their
+remains. In a small number of cases this practice is combined
+with the custom of killing the old and sick, but in the great
+majority of peoples it is simply a form of burial; it seems to
+prevail in most parts of Australia, many parts of Melanesia,
+Africa and South America, and less frequently in other parts
+of the world. To this group belong the customs described by
+Herodotus; we may perhaps regard as a variant form the custom
+of using the skull of a dead man as a drinking-cup. This practice
+is widely found, and the statement of Herodotus that the skull
+was set in gold and preserved by the Issedones may point in
+this direction; from the account given of the Tibetans some
+seven hundred years ago by William of Ruysbruck (Rubruquis)
+it appears that they had given up cannibalism but still preserved
+the use of the skull as a drinking vessel. Another modification
+of an original ritual cannibalism is the custom of drinking the
+ashes of the dead, which is practised by some African and South
+American tribes. The custom of holding burial feasts has also
+been traced to the same origin. More incomprehensible to the
+European than any other form of cannibalism is the custom of
+partaking of the products of putrefaction as they run down from
+the body. The Australians smoke-dry the bodies of tribesmen;
+here, too, it is the custom to consume the portions of the body
+which are rendered liquid by the heat. (<i>c</i>) The ritual cannibalism
+just mentioned shades over into and may have been originally
+derived from magical cannibalism, of which three sub-species
+may be distinguished. (i.) Savages are accustomed, on the one
+hand, to abstain from certain foods in order that they may not
+acquire certain qualities; on the other hand other foods are
+eagerly desired in order that they may by partaking of the flesh
+also come to partake of the mental or bodily peculiarities of
+the man or animal from which the meat is derived; thus, after
+the birth of a child, especially the first-born, the parents are
+frequently forbidden the flesh of slow-moving animals, because
+that would prevent the child from learning to walk; conversely,
+eating the heart of a lion is recommended for a warrior to make
+him brave; from this point of view therefore we readily understand
+the motives which lead to the eating of those slain in
+battle, both friends and foes. (ii.) We may term protective an
+entirely different kind of magical cannibalism, which consists in
+the consumption of a small portion of the body of a murdered
+man, in order that his ghost may not trouble the murderer;
+according to Hans Egède, the Eskimo, when they kill a witch,
+eat a portion of her heart, that she may not haunt them. (iii.)
+The practice is also said to have the effect of causing the relatives
+of the murdered man to lose heart or to prevent them from
+exercising the right of revenge; in this case it may be brought
+into relation with the ceremony of the blood covenant in one of
+the forms of which the parties drink each other&rsquo;s blood; or, it
+may point to a reminiscence of a ritual eating of the dead kinsman.
+The late survival of this idea in Europe is attested by its
+mention by Dante in the <i>Purgatorio</i>. (<i>d</i>) The custom of eating
+food offered to the gods is widespread, and we may trace to
+this origin Mexican cannibalism, perhaps, too, that of Fiji. The
+Aztec worship of the god of war, Huitzilopochtli, led to the
+sacrifice of prisoners, and the custom of sacrifice to their frequent
+wars. The priest took out the heart, offered it to the sun, and
+then went through the ceremonies of feeding the idol with the
+heart and blood; finally the bodies of the victims were consumed
+by the worshippers. (<i>e</i>) We reach an entirely different set of
+motives in penal and revenge cannibalism. For the origin of
+these ideas we may perhaps look to that of protective magic,
+dealt with above; but it seems possible that there is also some
+idea of influencing the lot of the criminal in a future life; it
+may be noted that the whole of the body is seldom eaten in
+protective cannibalism; among the Battas, however, the
+criminal, and in parts of Africa the debtor, are entirely consumed.
+Other cases, especially where the victim is an enemy, may be due
+to mere fury and bravado. (<i>f</i>) In the west of North America a
+peculiar kind of cannibalism is found, which is confined to a
+certain body of magicians termed &ldquo;Hametzen&rdquo; and a necessary
+condition of admission to their order. Another kind of initiatory
+cannibalism prevailed in the south of Australia, where a magician
+had to eat a portion of a child&rsquo;s body before he was admitted.
+The meaning of these ceremonials is not clear.</p>
+
+<p>2. Most kinds of cannibalism are hedged round with ceremonial
+regulations. Certain tribes, as we have seen above, go to war
+to provide human flesh; in other cases it is only the nearest
+relatives who may not partake of a body; in other cases again
+it is precisely the nearest relatives on whom the duty falls. A
+curious regulation in south-east New Guinea prescribes that the
+killer of the victim shall not partake in the feast; in some cases
+the whole of the clan to which belonged the man for whom
+revenge is taken abstains also; in other cases this clan, together
+with any others of the same intermarrying group, takes part in
+the feast to the exclusion of (<i>a</i>) the clan or group with which
+they intermarry and (<i>b</i>) all outside clans. Some peoples forbid
+women to eat human flesh; in others certain classes, as the
+Muri of the Bambala, a tribe in the Kassai, may be forbidden to
+eat it. In Mindanao the only person who might eat of a slain
+enemy was the priest who led the warriors, and he was not permitted
+to escape this duty. In Grand Bassam all who had taken
+part in a festival at the foundation of a new village were compelled
+to eat of the human victim. But the variations are too
+numerous for any general account to be given of ceremonial
+limitations. S.R. Steinmetz has proposed a division into endo-
+and exo-cannibalism; but these divisions are frequently of
+minor importance, and he has failed to define satisfactorily the
+limits of the groups on which his classification is based.</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin.</i>&mdash;It will probably never be possible to say how cannibalism
+originated; in fact the multiplicity of forms and the
+diversity of ceremonial rules&mdash;some prescribing that tribesmen
+shall on no account be eaten, others that the bodies of none but
+tribesmen shall provide the meal of human flesh&mdash;point to a
+multiple origin. It has been maintained that the various forms
+of endo-cannibalism (eating of tribesmen) spring from an original
+practice of food cannibalism which the human race has in common
+with many animals; but this leaves unexplained <i>inter alia</i> the
+limitation of the right of participation in the funeral meal to the
+relatives of the dead man; at the same time it is possible to
+argue that the magical ideas now associated with cannibalism
+are of later growth. Against the view put forward by Steinmetz
+it may be urged that we have other instances of magical foods,
+such as the eating of a lion&rsquo;s heart, which do not point to an
+original custom of eating the animal as food. We shall probably
+be justified in referring all forms of endo-cannibalism to a ritual
+origin; otherwise the limitation is inexplicable; on the other
+hand exo-cannibalism, in some of its forms, and much of the
+extension of endo-cannibalism must be referred to a desire for
+human flesh, grown into a passion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Steinmetz, in <i>Mitt. Anthrop. Ges. Wien</i>, N.F.
+xvi.; Andree, <i>Die Anthropophagie</i>; Bergmann, <i>Die Verbreitung
+der Anthropophagie</i>; Schneider, <i>Die Naturvölker</i>, i. 121-200; Schaffhausen,
+<i>Anthropologische Studien, Internat. Archiv</i> iii. 69-73;
+xii. 78; E.S. Hartland, <i>Legend of Perseus</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Dictionnaire
+des sci. méd., s.v.</i> &ldquo;Anthropophagie&rdquo;; Dr Seligmann in <i>Reports of
+the Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea.</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNING, CHARLES JOHN,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl</span> (1812-1862), English statesman,
+governor-general of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was
+the youngest child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton,
+near London, on the 14th of December 1812. He was educated
+at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1833, as
+first class in classics and second class in mathematics. In 1836
+he entered parliament, being returned as member for the town
+of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not, however,
+sit long in the House of Commons; for, on the death of his
+mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage which had been
+conferred on her with remainder to her only surviving son,
+and as Viscount Canning took his seat in the House of Lords.
+His first official appointment was that of under-secretary of
+state for foreign affairs, in the administration formed by Sir
+Robert Peel in 1841&mdash;his chief being the earl of Aberdeen.
+This post he held till January 1846; and from January to July
+of that year, when the Peel administration was broken up,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span>
+Lord Canning filled the post of commissioner of woods and
+forests. He declined to accept office under the earl of Derby;
+but on the formation of the coalition ministry under the earl
+of Aberdeen in January 1853, he received the appointment of
+postmaster-general. In this office he showed not only a large
+capacity for hard work, but also general administrative ability
+and much zeal for the improvement of the service. He retained
+his post under Lord Palmerston&rsquo;s ministry until July 1855,
+when, in consequence of the death of Lord Dalhousie and a
+vacancy in the governor-generalship of India, he was selected
+by Lord Palmerston to succeed to that great position. This
+appointment appears to have been made rather on the ground
+of his father&rsquo;s great services than from any proof as yet given
+of special personal fitness on the part of Lord Canning. The new
+governor sailed from England in December 1855, and entered
+upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February
+1856. His strong common sense and sound practical judgment
+led him to adopt a policy of conciliation towards the native
+princes, and to promote measures tending to the betterment
+of the condition of the people.</p>
+
+<p>In the year following his accession to office the deep-seated
+discontent of the people broke out in the Indian Mutiny (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Fears were entertained, and even the friends of the viceroy
+to some extent shared them, that he was not equal to the crisis.
+But the fears proved groundless. He had a clear eye for the
+gravity of the situation, a calm judgment, and a prompt, swift
+hand to do what was really necessary. By the union of great
+moral qualities with high, though not the highest, intellectual
+faculties, he carried the Indian empire safely through the stress
+of the storm, and, what was perhaps a harder task still, he dealt
+wisely with the enormous difficulties arising at the close of such
+a war, established a more liberal policy and a sounder financial
+system, and left the people more contented than they were
+before. The name of &ldquo;Clemency Canning,&rdquo; which was applied
+to him during the heated animosities of the moment, has since
+become a title of honour.</p>
+
+<p>While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation
+declaring the lands of the province forfeited; and this step
+gave rise to much angry controversy. A &ldquo;secret despatch,&rdquo;
+couched in arrogant and offensive terms, was addressed to
+the viceroy by Lord Ellenborough, then a member of the Derby
+administration, which would have justified the viceroy in
+immediately resigning. But from a strong sense of duty he
+continued at his post; and ere long the general condemnation
+of the despatch was so strong that the writer felt it necessary
+to retire from office. Lord Canning replied to the despatch,
+calmly and in a statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating
+his censured policy. In April 1859 he received the thanks
+of both Houses of Parliament for his great services during the
+mutiny. He was also made an extra civil grand cross of the
+order of the Bath, and in May of the same year he was raised
+to the dignity of an earl. By the strain of anxiety and hard
+work his health and strength were seriously impaired, while
+the death of his wife was also a great shock to him; in the
+hope that rest in his native land might restore him, he left
+India, reaching England in April 1862. But it was too late.
+He died in London on the 17th of June following. About a
+month before his death he was created K.G. As he died without
+issue the title became extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir H.S. Cunningham, <i>Earl Canning</i> (&ldquo;Rulers of India&rdquo; series),
+1891; and A.J.C. Hare, <i>The Story of Two Noble Lilies</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNING, GEORGE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1770-1827), British statesman, was born
+in London on the 11th of April 1770. The family was of English
+origin and had been settled at Bishop&rsquo;s Canynge in Wiltshire.
+In 1618 a George Canning, son of Richard Canning of Foxcote in
+Warwickshire, received a grant of the manor of Garvagh in
+Londonderry, Ireland, from King James I. The father of the
+statesman, also named George, was the eldest son of Mr Stratford
+Canning, of Garvagh. He quarrelled with and was disowned by
+his family. He came to London and led a struggling life, partly
+in trade and partly in literature. In May 1768 he married Mary
+Annie Costello, and he died on the 11th of April 1771, exactly
+one year after the birth of his son. Mrs Canning, who was left
+destitute, received no help from her husband&rsquo;s family, and went
+on the stage, where she was not successful. She married a dissolute
+and brutal actor of the name of Reddish. Her son owed
+his escape from the miseries of her household to another member
+of the company, Moody, who wrote to Mr Stratford Canning, a
+merchant in London and younger brother of the elder George
+Canning. Moody represented to Mr Stratford Canning that the
+boy, although full of promise, was on the high road to the gallows
+under the evil influence of Reddish. Mr Stratford Canning
+exerted himself on behalf of his nephew. An estate of the value
+of £200 a year was settled on the boy, and he was sent in succession
+to a private school at Hyde Abbey near Winchester, to
+Eton in 1781, and to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1787. After
+leaving Eton and before going to Oxford, he was entered as a
+student at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. At Eton he edited the school magazine,
+<i>The Microcosm</i>, and at Oxford he took the leading part in the
+formation of a debating society. He made many friends, and his
+reputation was already so high that Sheridan referred to him in
+the House of Commons as a rising hope of the Whigs. According
+to Lord Holland, he had been noted at Oxford as a furious
+Jacobin and hater of the aristocracy. In 1792 he came to London
+to read for the bar. He had taken his B.A. in 1791 and proceeded
+M.A. on the 6th of July 1794.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after coming to London he became acquainted with Pitt
+in some uncertain way. The hatred of the aristocracy, for which
+Lord Holland says he was noted at Oxford, would naturally
+deter an ambitious young man with his way to make in the
+world, and with no fixed principles, from attaching his fortune
+to the Whigs. Canning had the glaring examples of Burke and
+Sheridan himself to show him that the great &ldquo;revolution
+families&rdquo;&mdash;Cavendishes, Russells, Bentincks&mdash;who controlled
+the Whig party, would never allow any man, however able, who
+did not belong to their connexion, to rise to the first rank. He
+therefore took his place among the followers of Pitt. It is,
+however, only fair to note that he always regarded Pitt with
+strong personal affection, and that he may very naturally have
+been influenced, as multitudes of other Englishmen were, by
+the rapid development of the French Revolution from a reforming
+to an aggressive and conquering force. In a letter to his
+friend Lord Boringdon (John Parker, afterwards earl of Morley),
+dated the 13th of December 1792, he explicitly states that this
+was the case. Enlightened self-interest was doubtless combined
+with honest conviction in ranking him among the followers of
+Pitt. By the help of the prime minister he entered parliament
+for the borough of Newtown in the Isle of Wight in July 1793.
+His maiden speech, on the subvention to the king of Sardinia,
+was made on the 31st of January 1794. It is by some said to
+have been a failure, but he satisfied himself, and he soon established
+his place as the most brilliant speaker on the ministerial
+side. It may be most conveniently noted here, that his political
+patrons exerted themselves to provide for his private as well
+as his official prosperity. Their favour helped him to make a
+lucrative marriage with Miss Joan Scott, who had a fortune of
+£100,000, on the 8th of July 1800. The marriage was a very
+happy one, though the bulk of the fortune was worn away in the
+expenses of public and social life. Mrs Canning, who survived
+her husband for ten years, was created a viscountess in 1828.
+Four children were born of the marriage&mdash;a son who died in his
+father&rsquo;s lifetime, and was lamented by him in very touching
+verse; another a captain in the navy, drowned at Madeira in
+1827; a third son, Charles (<i>q.v.</i>), afterwards created Earl
+Canning; and a daughter Harriet, who married the marquess of
+Clanricarde in 1825.</p>
+
+<p>The public life of Canning may be divided into four stages.
+From 1793 to 1801 he was the devoted follower of Pitt, was in
+minor though important office, and was the wittiest of the
+defenders of the ministry in parliament and in the press. From
+1801 to 1809 he was partly in opposition, partly in office, fighting
+for the foremost place. Between 1809 and 1822 there was a
+period of comparative eclipse, during which he was indeed at
+times in office, but in lesser places than he would have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+prepared to accept between 1804 and 1809, and was regarded
+with general distrust. From 1822 till his death in 1827 he was
+the most powerful influence in English, and one of the most
+powerful in European, politics.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1796 he was appointed under-secretary for
+the foreign office, and in the election of that year he was
+returned for Wendover. He was also appointed receiver-general
+of the alienation office, a sinecure post which brought him
+£700 a year. His position as under-secretary brought him into
+close relations with Pitt and the foreign secretary, Lord Grenville
+(<i>q.v.</i>). During the negotiations for peace at Lille (1797), Canning
+was actively concerned in the devices which were employed by
+Pitt and Grenville to keep the real character of the discussion
+secret from other members of the cabinet. Canning had a taste
+for mystery and disguises, which he had shown at Oxford, and
+which did much to gain him his unfortunate reputation for
+trickery. From the 20th of November 1797, till the 9th of July
+1798, he was one of the most active, and was certainly the most
+witty of the contributors to the <i>Anti-Jacobin</i>, a weekly paper
+started to ridicule the frothy philanthropic and eleutheromaniac
+rant of the French republicans, and to denounce their brutal
+rapacity and cruelty. But Canning&rsquo;s position as under-secretary
+was not wholly pleasant to him. He disliked his immediate chief
+Grenville, one of the Whigs who joined Pitt, and a man of
+thoroughly Whiggish aristocratic insolence. In 1799 he left the
+foreign office and was named one of the twelve commissioners
+for India, and in 1800 joint paymaster of the forces, a post which
+he held till the retirement of Pitt in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>During these years of subordinate activity Canning had
+established his position as an orator and a wit. His oratory
+cannot be estimated with absolute confidence. Speeches were
+then badly reported. The text of his own, published by Therry
+(6 volumes, London, 1828), were revised by himself, and not for
+the better. Though his favourite author was Dryden, whose
+prose is uniformly manly and simple, and though he had a keen
+eye for faults of taste in the style of others, Canning had himself
+a leaning to preciosity and tinsel. His wit was, and remains,
+above all question. In public life it did him some harm in the
+opinion of serious people, who could not believe that so jocose
+a politician had solid capacity. It exasperated opponents, some
+of whom, notably Peter Pindar (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wolcot, John</a></span>), retaliated
+by brutal personalities. Canning was constantly reminded that
+his mother was a strolling actress, and was accused of foisting
+his pauper family on the public funds. The accusation was
+perfectly untrue, but this style of political controversy was
+common, and was adopted by Canning. He put himself on a
+level with Peter Pindar when he assailed Pitt&rsquo;s successor
+Addington (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sidmouth, Viscount</a></span>) on the ground that he
+was the son of a doctor.</p>
+
+<p>While out of office with Pitt, Canning proved a somewhat
+insubordinate follower. The snobbery and malignity of his
+attacks on Addington roused considerable feeling against him,
+and his attempts to act as a political go-between in ministerial
+arrangements were unfortunate. On the formation of Pitt&rsquo;s
+second ministry he took the post of treasurer of the navy on the
+12th of May 1804. In office he continued to be insubordinate,
+and committed mistakes which got him into bad odour as untrustworthy.
+He endeavoured to persuade Lord Hawkesbury
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liverpool, Earls of</a></span>) to join in a scheme for turning an old
+friend out of the India Office. Though his relations with Pitt
+began to be somewhat strained towards the end, he left office on
+the minister&rsquo;s death on the 21st of January 1806.</p>
+
+<p>Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of
+Commons on the 3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox&rsquo;s
+ministry of &ldquo;all the talents.&rdquo; Attempts were made to secure
+him, and he was offered the leadership of the House of Commons,
+under the supervision of Fox, an absurd proposal which he had
+the good sense to decline. After the death of Fox, and the
+dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville&rsquo;s ministry, he joined the
+administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state for
+foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807
+till the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a
+large share in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret
+articles of the treaty of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet.
+As foreign secretary it fell to him to defend the ministry when it
+was attacked in parliament. He refused to tell how he became
+aware of the secret articles, and the mystery has never
+been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the prosecution
+of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in resignation
+in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He became
+entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In
+view of the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his
+colleague, Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a
+new prime minister must be found, that he must be in the House
+of Commons, that the choice lay between them, adding that he
+might not be prepared to serve as subordinate. In April of 1809
+he had told the duke of Portland that Lord Castlereagh,
+secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion unfit for his
+post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a
+sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and
+took no steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague.
+When he found that no measures were being taken to make a
+change of office, Canning resigned on the 7th of September.
+Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and after resigning sent
+Canning a challenge on the 19th of September. In the duel on
+Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the
+thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against
+the charge of double dealing, but there can be no question that
+Castlereagh had just ground to be angry. Public opinion was
+strong against Canning, and in the House of Commons he was
+looked upon with distrust. For twelve years he remained out of
+office or in inferior places. His ability made it impossible that he
+should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the Bullion
+Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery
+of the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic
+knowledge which chiefly recommended him to the electors of
+Liverpool in 1812. He had been elected for Tralee in 1803, for
+Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for Harwich in 1807. But in
+parliament he had lost all influence, and is described as wandering
+about neglected and avoided. In 1812 he committed the serious
+mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to Lisbon,
+which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He
+remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to
+enter office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liverpool&rsquo;s
+cabinet, in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now
+become reconciled, was secretary of state for foreign affairs. In
+1820 he resigned his post in order to avoid taking any part in the
+proceedings against Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV.</p>
+
+<p>Canning&rsquo;s return to great office and influence dates from the
+suicide of Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-generalship
+of India, which would have implied his retirement
+from public life at home, and refused to remain unless he was
+promised &ldquo;the whole inheritance&rdquo; of Castlereagh,&mdash;the foreign
+office and the leadership of the House of Commons. His terms
+were accepted, and he took office in September 1822. He held the
+office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime
+minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had
+broken down. Even before this he was the real director of the
+policy of the cabinet&mdash;as Castlereagh had been from 1812 to
+1822. It may be noted that he resigned his seat for Liverpool in
+1823, and was elected for Harwich, which he left for Newport in
+1826. Few English public men have represented so many
+constituencies.</p>
+
+<p>His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy
+which he pursued in those years&mdash;the policy of non-intervention,
+and of the patronage, if not the actual support, of national and
+liberal movements in Europe (see the historical articles under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portugal</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>). To this policy
+he may be said to have given his name, and he has enjoyed the
+reputation of having introduced a generous spirit into British
+politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor at the
+foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of
+despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning
+followed his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+the possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of
+proof, that he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the
+fact remains that when Canning came into office in September
+1822, he found the instructions to be given to the representative
+of the British government at the congress of Verona already
+drawn up by his predecessor, who had meant to attend the
+congress himself (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Londonderry</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robert Stewart, 2nd
+Marquess of</a></span>). These instructions were handed on without
+change by Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as
+representative, and they contain all the principles which have
+been said to have been peculiarly Canning&rsquo;s. Indeed this policy
+was dictated by the character and position of the British government,
+and had been followed in the main since the conference of
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and minister
+rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated with
+his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No
+speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he
+claimed the initiative in recognizing the independence of the
+revolted Spanish colonies in South America in 1823&mdash;&ldquo;I resolved
+that, if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies.
+I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of
+the Old&rdquo; (December 12, 1826).</p>
+
+<p>When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of
+February 1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only
+possible successor. He was not indeed accepted by all the party
+which had followed Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir
+Robert Peel and several other members of the ministry, moved
+perhaps by personal animosity, and certainly by dislike of his
+known and consistent advocacy of the claims of the Roman
+Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in
+constructing a ministry in April&mdash;but the hopes and the fears of
+friends and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His
+health had already begun to give way, and broke down altogether
+under the strain of the effort required to form his ministry. He
+had caught cold in January at the funeral of the duke of York,
+and never recovered. He died on the 8th of August 1827, at
+Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where Fox had
+died, and in the same room.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Speeches</i>, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.G.
+Stapleton, <i>Political Life of Canning</i>, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London,
+1831); <i>Canning and His Times</i> (London, 1859); Lord Dalling and
+Bulwer, <i>Historical Characters</i> (London, 1868); F.H. Hill, <i>George
+Canning</i> (London, 1887); <i>Some Political Correspondence of George
+Canning</i>, ed. E.J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); J.A.R. Marriott,
+<i>George Canning and His Times, a Political Study</i> (London, 1903);
+W. Alison Phillips, <i>George Canning</i> (London, 1903), with reproductions
+of contemporary portraits and caricatures; H.W.V.
+Temperley, <i>George Canning</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1826-1910), Italian chemist,
+was born at Palermo on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he
+entered the university of his native place with the intention of
+making medicine his profession, but he soon turned to the study
+of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as assistant to Rafaelle
+Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin, who was then
+professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied the
+same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served
+as an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for
+Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of
+Messina in September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina.
+On the collapse of the insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in
+May 1849, and after visiting various French towns reached
+Paris in October. There he gained an introduction to M.E.
+Chevreul&rsquo;s laboratory, and in conjunction with F.S. Cloëz
+(1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research
+in 1851, when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia
+on cyanogen chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year
+he was appointed professor of physical chemistry at the National
+College of Alexandria, where he discovered that aromatic
+aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic potash into a mixture
+of the corresponding acid and alcohol, <i>e.g.</i> benzaldehyde into
+benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol (&ldquo;Cannizzaro&rsquo;s reaction&rdquo;).
+In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at
+Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professorships
+at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and
+organic chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying
+the aromatic compounds and continuing to work on the amines,
+until in 1871 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at
+Rome university. Apart from his work on organic chemistry,
+which includes also an investigation of santonin, he rendered
+great service to the philosophy of chemistry when in his memoir
+<i>Sunto di un corso di Filosofia chemica</i> (1858) he insisted on
+the distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between molecular
+and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of
+elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from
+the molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic
+weights of elements of whose compounds the vapour densities
+are unknown can be ascertained from a knowledge of their
+specific heats. For this achievement, of fundamental importance
+for the atomic theory in chemistry, he was awarded the Copley
+medal by the Royal Society in 1891. Cannizzaro&rsquo;s scientific
+eminence in 1871 secured him admission to the Italian senate,
+of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the Council
+of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important
+services to the cause of scientific education in Italy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNOCK,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a market town in the western parliamentary
+division of Staffordshire, England, in the district known as
+Cannock Chase, 130 m. N.W. from London by the London and
+North Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1891) 20,613;
+(1901) 23,974. The church of St Luke is Perpendicular, enlarged
+in modern times. The famous political preacher, Henry Sacheverell,
+held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock has
+tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract
+generally exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis
+from north-west to south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was
+a royal preserve, and remains for the most part an uncultivated
+waste, but it is also a rich coalfield, and there are mines in
+every direction. Brownhills, Burntwood and Chase Town, Great
+Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are townships
+or villages of the mining population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNON<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (a word common to Romance languages, from the
+Lat. <i>canna</i>, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative
+termination <i>-on, -one</i>), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word,
+first found about 1400 (there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407
+referring to <i>&rdquo;canones, seu instrumenta Anglicè gunnes vocata&rdquo;</i>),
+is commonly applied to any form of firearm which is fired from
+a carriage or fixed mounting, in contradistinction to &ldquo;small-arms,&rdquo;
+which are fired without a rest or support of any kind.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+An exception must be made, however, in the case of <i>machine
+guns</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and the word as used in modern times may be
+defined as follows: &ldquo;a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or
+movable carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than
+1½ in.&rdquo; In French, however, <i>canon</i> is the term applied to the
+barrel of small arms, and also, as an alternative to <i>mitrailleuse</i>
+or <i>mitrailleur</i>, to machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly
+so-called. The Hotchkiss machine gun used in several navies is
+officially called &ldquo;revolving cannon.&rdquo; For details see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machine Guns</a></span>, &amp;c. Amongst the many derived
+senses of the word may be mentioned &ldquo;cannon curls,&rdquo; in which
+the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the
+other. For &ldquo;cannon&rdquo; in billiards see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Billiards</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In the 16th and 17th centuries the &ldquo;cannon&rdquo; in England
+was distinctively a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance
+being called by various special names such as culverin, saker,
+falcon, demi-cannon, &amp;c. We hear of Cromwell taking with
+him to Ireland (1649) &ldquo;two cannon of eight inches, two cannon
+of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier
+contemporary with Cromwell, says: &ldquo;The cannon or battering
+ordnance is divided by the English into Cannon Royal, Whole
+Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is likewise called the
+Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and shoots a
+bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs
+7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+The Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet
+of 28 or 30 pound. ... These three several guns are called
+cannons of eight, cannons of seven and cannons of six.&rdquo; The
+generic sense of &ldquo;cannon,&rdquo; in which the word is now exclusively
+used, is found along with the special sense above mentioned
+as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by Edward IV.
+of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide &ldquo;<i>bumbardos,
+canones, culverynes ... et alias canones quoscumque, ac pulveres,
+sulfer ... pro eisdem canonibus necessarias</i>.&rdquo; &ldquo;Artillery&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;ordnance,&rdquo; however, were the more usual terms up to the time
+of Louis XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance began
+to be classified according to the weight of its shot, and the
+special sense of &ldquo;cannon&rdquo; disappears.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand cannon.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNON-BALL TREE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (<i>Couroupita guianensis</i>), a native of
+tropical South America (French Guiana), which bears large
+spherical woody fruits, containing numerous seeds, as in the
+allied genus <i>Bertholletia</i> (Brazil nut).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANNSTATT,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kannstatt</span>, a town of Germany in the
+kingdom of Württemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley
+on both banks of the Neckar, 2½ m. from Stuttgart, with which
+it has been incorporated since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is
+a railway centre, has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, two bridges across the Neckar, handsome streets in the
+modern quarter of the town and fine promenades and gardens.
+There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway plant,
+automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and
+weaving are carried on; and there are chemical works and a
+brewery here. Fruit and vines are largely cultivated in the
+neighbourhood. A large population is temporarily attracted
+to Cannstatt by the fame of its mineral springs, which are
+valuable for diseases of the throat and weaknesses of the
+nervous system. These springs were known to the Romans. Besides
+the usual bathing establishments there are several medical
+institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the
+palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851)
+for King William of Württemberg in the Moorish style, is
+surrounded by beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also
+are immense caves in the limestone where numerous bones of
+mammoths and other extinct animals have been found. On the
+Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral castle of the
+house of Württemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and his
+wife.</p>
+
+<p>Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as
+the place where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the
+trial of the rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians.
+From the emperor Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights
+and privileges as were enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and
+until the middle of the 14th century it was the capital of the
+county of Württemberg. Cannstatt was the scene of a victory
+gained by the French over the Austrians on the 21st of July 1796.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Veiel,
+<i>Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen</i> (Cannstatt, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANO, ALONZO<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and
+sculptor, was born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very
+great number of specimens of his genius, which display the
+boldness of his design, the facility of his pencil, the purity of his
+flesh-tints and his knowledge of chiaroscuro. He learned architecture
+from his father, Miguel Cano, painting from Pacheco
+and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montañes. As a statuary,
+his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church
+of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo.
+As an architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and
+gave way too much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made
+him royal architect and king&rsquo;s painter, and gave him the church
+preferment of a canon. His more important pictures are at
+Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable temper; and
+it is said that once he risked his life by committing the then
+capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when
+in a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded.
+His known passionateness also (according to another story)
+caused him to be suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of
+his wife, though all other circumstances pointed to his servant
+as the culprit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANO, MELCHIOR<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at
+Tarançon, in New Castile, joined the Dominican order at an
+early age at Salamanca, where in 1546 he succeeded to the
+theological chair in that university. A man of deep learning
+and originality, proud and a victim to the <i>odium theologicum</i>,
+he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time could
+compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a
+Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university
+the schools were divided between the partisans of the
+two professors; but Cano pursued his rival with relentless
+virulence, and took part in the condemnation for heresy of his
+brother-friar. The new society of the Jesuits, as being the forerunners
+of Antichrist, also met with his violent opposition; and
+he was not grateful to them when, after attending the council
+of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence, in 1552, as
+bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal influence
+with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made provincial
+of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous
+<i>Consultatio theologica</i>, in which he advised the king to resist the
+temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch,
+to defend his rights by bringing about a radical change in the
+administration of ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain
+less dependent on Rome. With this in his mind Paul IV. styled
+him &ldquo;a son of perdition.&rdquo; The reputation of Cano, however,
+rests on a posthumous work, <i>De Locis theologicis</i> (Salamanca,
+1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its own line. In this, a
+genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to free
+dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and,
+by clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians,
+to bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules,
+method, co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific
+treatment of theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of
+September 1560.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOE<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (from Carib. <i>canáoa</i>, the West Indian name found in
+use by Columbus; the Fr. <i>canot</i>, boat, and Ger. <i>Kahn</i>, are
+derived from the Lat. <i>canna</i>, reed, vessel), a sort of general term
+for a boat sharp at both ends, originally designed for propulsion
+by one or more paddles (not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum,
+the paddler facing the bow. As the historical native name for
+certain types of boat used by savages, it is applied in such cases
+to those which, like other boats, are open within from end to end,
+and the modern &ldquo;Canadian canoe&rdquo; preserves this sense; but
+a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ
+essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck,
+except for a &ldquo;well&rdquo; where the paddler sits. Modern developments
+are the cruising canoe, combining the use of paddle and
+sails, and the racing canoe, equipped with sails only.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which
+skins (as in the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the
+North American lndians&rsquo; birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched.
+The modern painted canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was
+a natural development of this idea. The Indian also used, and
+the African still uses, the &ldquo;dug-out,&rdquo; made from a tree hollowed
+by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe. Many of these are
+of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the New York
+Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte&rsquo;s Island is 63 ft.
+long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The
+&ldquo;war canoe&rdquo; of paddling races is its modern successor. In the
+islands of the Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by
+the natives, who make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening
+them by attaching another hull (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catamaran</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a
+&ldquo;canoe&rdquo; in England was the short covered-in craft, with a
+&ldquo;well&rdquo; for the paddler to sit in, which was popularly used for
+short river practice; and this type still survives. But the sport
+of canoeing in any real sense dates from 1865, when John MacGregor
+(<i>q.v.</i>) designed the canoe &ldquo;Rob Roy&rdquo; for long journeys
+by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light
+enough (about 70 &#8468;) to be carried over land. The general type
+of this canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span>
+12 ft. to 15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in.
+to 16 in. The paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade,
+the canoeist sits low in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades
+first on one side and then the other. The rig is generally yawl.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the
+prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore.
+Its headquarters are at Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the
+leading organization. There is also the British Canoe Association,
+devoted to cruising. After the English canoes were seen in Paris
+at the Exhibition of 1867, others like them were built in France.
+Branches and clubs were formed also at the English universities,
+and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The New York
+Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal
+Canoe Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the
+Irish Channel from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were
+explored in inaccessible parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and
+the Abana and the Pharpar at Damascus, as well as the Lake
+Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the Lake of Galilee and
+Waters of Merom in Syria.</p>
+
+<p>W. Baden Powell modified the type of the &ldquo;Rob Roy&rdquo; in the
+&ldquo;Nautilus,&rdquo; intended only for sailing. From this time the two
+kinds of pleasure canoe&mdash;paddling and sailing&mdash;parted company,
+and developed each on its own lines; the sailing canoe soon
+(1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a smaller and smaller cockpit,
+and a larger and larger sail area, with the consequent necessary
+air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul Butler of Lowell,
+Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat, allowing the
+canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the racing
+machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the
+annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the
+St Lawrence river, or at the more frequent race days of its
+constituent divisions, associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic
+(32 clubs), Central (26 clubs) and Western.</p>
+
+<p>The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also
+represented in single, tandem and crew (&ldquo;war canoe&rdquo;) races,
+and this form of the sport remains more of the amateur type.
+The &ldquo;Canadian,&rdquo; a clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or
+bass-wood canoe, or the painted canvas, bark or compressed
+paper canoe, all on the general lines of the Indian birch bark, are
+as common on American rivers as the punt is on the Thames, and
+are similarly used.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See MacGregor, <i>A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe</i> (1866),
+<i>The Rob Roy on the Baltic</i>, &amp;c.;
+W. Baden Powell, <i>Canoe Travelling</i> (1871);
+W.L. Alden, <i>Canoe and the Flying Proa</i> (New York, 1878);
+J.D. Hayward, <i>Camping out with the British Canoe Association</i>;
+C.B. Vaux, <i>Canoe Handling</i> (New York, 1888);
+Stephens, <i>Canoe and Boat Building</i> (New York, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANON.<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> The Greek word <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span> means originally a straight
+rod or pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing
+upright or straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in
+Gal. vi. 16, and 2 Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former
+passage a measure, in the latter what is measured, a district.
+The general applications of the word fall mainly into two groups,
+in one of which the underlying meaning is that of rule, in the other
+that of a list or catalogue, <i>i.e.</i> of books containing the rule. Of
+the first, such uses as that of a standard or rule of conduct or
+taste, or of a particular form of musical composition (see below)
+may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of the
+laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>). In the
+second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below),
+that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints
+by the Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canonization</a></span>), and that of the authoritative
+body of Scriptures (see below) are examples.</p>
+
+<p><i>Music.</i>&mdash;A canon in part-music is the form taken by the
+earliest compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts
+having the same melody, but each beginning at a stated period
+after its precursor or antecedent. In many early polyphonic
+compositions, one or more voices were imitated note for note by
+the others, so that the other parts did not need to be written out
+at all, but were deduced from the leaders by a rule or canon. Sir
+Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way the term
+&ldquo;canon&rdquo; came to supersede the old name of the art-form, <i>Fuga
+ligata</i>. (See also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fugue</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contrapuntal Forms</a></span> and
+Music.) When the first part completes its rhythmical sentence
+before the second enters, and then continues the melody as an
+accompaniment to the second, and so on for the third or fourth,
+this form of canon in England was styled a &ldquo;round&rdquo; or &ldquo;catch&rdquo;;
+the stricter canon being one in which the succession of parts did
+not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England
+catches and canons were undifferentiated. The &ldquo;round&rdquo;
+derived its name from the fact that the first part returned to the
+beginning while the others continued the melody; the &ldquo;catch&rdquo;
+meant that each later part caught up the tune. The problem of
+the canon, as an artistic composition, is to find one or more points
+in a melody at which one or more successive parts may start the
+same tune harmoniously. Catches were familiar in English folk
+music until after the Restoration; different trades having
+characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of Charles II
+they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental.
+Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now
+survives mainly in its historical interest.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+<p><i>The Church Dignitary</i>.&mdash;A canon is a person who possesses a
+prebend, or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service
+in a cathedral or collegiate church. Though the institute of canons
+as it at present exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it
+has a long history behind it. The name is derived from the list
+(<i>matricula</i>) of the clergy belonging to a church, <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span> being thus
+used in the council of Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea
+the adjective <span class="grk" title="kanonikos">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> is found in this sense (c. 15); and
+during the 6th century the word <i>canonicus</i> occurs commonly in
+western Europe in relation to the clergy belonging to a cathedral
+or other church. Eusebius of Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to
+introduce the system whereby the cathedral clergy dwelt together,
+leading a semi-monastic life in common and according to rule;
+and St Augustine established a similar manner of life for the
+clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely over
+Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory&rsquo;s
+injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his
+clergy should live a common life together, similar to the monastic
+life in which he had been trained; that these &ldquo;clerics&rdquo; at
+Canterbury were not monks is shown by the fact that those of
+them in the lower clerical grades were free to marry and live at
+home, without forfeiting their position or emoluments as members
+of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> i. 27). This
+mode of life for the secular clergy, which became common in the
+west, seems never to have taken root in the east. It came to be
+called <i>vita canonica</i>, canonical life, and it was the object of various
+enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries.
+The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it to rule
+was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (<i>c.</i> 750), who composed
+a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure
+an adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular
+clergy living in common. Chrodegang&rsquo;s Rule was adopted in
+many churches, both cathedral and collegiate (<i>i.e.</i> those served
+by a body of clergy). In 816 the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see
+<i>Mon. Germ. Concil.</i> ii. 307) made further regulations for the
+canonical life, which became the law in the Frankish empire for
+cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of Chrodegang was
+taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some points
+mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a
+common dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon
+was allowed a dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh
+meat was permitted, and the clothing was of better quality than
+that of monks. Each canon retained the use of his private
+property and money, but the revenues of the cathedral or church
+were treated as a common fund for the maintenance of the whole
+establishment. The chief duty of the canons was the performance
+of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks, but
+secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic
+vows or resigning their private means&mdash;a form of life somewhat
+resembling that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham
+Oratory in our day. The bishop was expected to lead the
+common life along with his clergy.</p>
+
+<p>The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted
+in the 9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+intermediate form of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a
+constant tendency to relax the bonds of the common life, and
+attempts in various directions to restore it. In England, by the
+middle of the 10th century, the prescriptions of the canonical
+life seem to have fallen into desuetude, and in nine cathedrals
+the canons were replaced by communities of Benedictines. In
+the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced into
+certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation
+of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The
+turning point came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the
+Lateran, exhorted the clergy of all cathedral and collegiate
+churches to live in community, to hold all property and money in
+common, and to &ldquo;lead the life of the Apostles&rdquo; (cf. Acts ii. 44,
+45). The clergy of numerous churches throughout Western
+Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set themselves
+to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement grew
+the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced
+the institute of secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral
+were divided into two parts, that of the bishop and that of the
+clergy; this latter was again divided among the clergy themselves,
+so that each member received his own separate income,
+and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical grade, were
+the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at
+leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In
+England the final establishment of this order of things was due to
+St Osmund (1090). The nature and functions of the institute of
+secular canons are described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, under &ldquo;Canonicus&rdquo;;
+Amort, <i>Vetus Disciplina Canonicorum</i> (1747),
+to be used with caution for the earlier period;
+C. du Molinet, <i>Réflexions historiques et curieuses sur les
+antiquités des chanoines tant séculiers que réguliers</i> (1674);
+Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), art. &ldquo;Kapitel&rdquo;;
+Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.),
+art. &ldquo;Canonica vita&rdquo; and &ldquo;Canonikat.&rdquo;
+The history of the canonical institute is succinctly told, and the best
+literature named, by Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>,
+1896, i. § 55; also by Otto Zöckler, <i>Askese und Mönchtum</i>, 1897,
+pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard work is Chr.
+Wordsworth&rsquo;s <i>Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral</i> (1892-1897); see also an
+article thereon by Edm. Bishop in <i>Dublin Review</i>, July 1898.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+<p>In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate
+churches retain their traditional character and functions,
+though they are now, of course, permitted to marry. Their
+duties were defined by the Canons of 1603, and included that of
+residence at the cathedrals according to &ldquo;their local customs and
+statutes,&rdquo; and preaching in the cathedral and in the churches of
+the diocese, &ldquo;especially those whence they or their church
+receive any yearly rent or profit.&rdquo; A canonry not being legally a
+&ldquo;cure of souls,&rdquo; a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his
+prebend, in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons
+of 1603 he was subject to discipline if he made his canonry an
+excuse for neglecting his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming
+cathedral chapters the number of canonries was greatly reduced,
+while some were made applicable to the endowment of archdeaconries
+and professorships. At the same time it was enacted
+that a canon must have been six years in priest&rsquo;s orders, except in
+the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or
+other office in any university. The obligatory period of residence,
+hitherto varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform
+period of three months. The right of presentation to canonries
+is now vested in some cases in the crown, in others in the lord
+chancellor, the archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese.</p>
+
+<p>Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or
+other emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the
+case of old cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving
+clergymen by the bishop as a mark of distinction. In new
+cathedrals, <i>e.g.</i> Manchester or Birmingham, where no endowment
+exists for a chapter, the bishop is empowered to appoint honorary
+canons, who carry out the ordinary functions of a cathedral
+body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed
+by the dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to
+sing the service, and they are selected therefore mainly for their
+voices and musical qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if
+it lies within 6 m. of the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical
+officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony,
+however, certain chapters, secularized at the Reformation,
+still exist. The canons (<i>Domherren</i>) are, however, laymen with
+no ecclesiastical character whatever, and their rich prebends are
+merely sources of endowment for the cadets of noble families.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Phillimore, <i>Eccles. Law</i>, 2 vols. (London, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<p><i>The Scriptures.</i>&mdash;There are three opinions as to the origin of
+the application of the term &ldquo;canon&rdquo; to the writings used by the
+Christian Church. According to Semler, Baur and others, the word
+had originally the sense of list or catalogue&mdash;the books publicly
+read in Christian assemblies. Others, as Steiner, suppose that
+since the Alexandrian grammarians applied it to collections of
+old Greek authors as models of excellence or classics, it meant
+classical (canonical) writings. According to a third opinion, the
+term included from the first the idea of a regulating principle.
+This is the more probable, because the same idea lies in the New
+Testament use of the noun, and pervades its applications in the
+language of the early Fathers down to the time of Constantine,
+as Credner has shown.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The &ldquo;<span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span> of the church&rdquo; in the
+Clementine homilies,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the &ldquo;ecclesiastical <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>&rdquo;<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and the &ldquo;<span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>
+of the truth&rdquo; in Clement and Irenaeus,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> the <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span> of the faith in
+Polycrates,<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the <i>regula fidei</i> of Tertullian,<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and the <i>libri regulares</i>
+of Origen<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> imply a <i>normative principle</i>. Credner&rsquo;s view of <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>
+as an abbreviation of <span class="grk" title="grachai kanonos">&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, equivalent to <i>Scripturae
+legis</i> in Diocletian&rsquo;s Act,<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> is too artificial, and is unsanctioned
+by usage.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest example of its application to a catalogue of the
+Old or New Testament books occurs in the Latin translation of
+Origen&rsquo;s homily on Joshua, where the original seems to have
+been <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>. The word itself is certainly in Amphilochius,<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> as
+well as in Jerome<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and Rufinus.<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> As the Latin translation of
+Origen has <i>canonicus</i> and <i>canonizatus</i>, we infer that he used
+<span class="grk" title="kanonikos">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, opposed as it is to <i>apocryphus</i> or <i>secretus</i>. The first
+occurrence of <span class="grk" title="kanonikos">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> is in the 59th canon of the council of
+Laodicea, where it is contrasted with <span class="grk" title="idiotikos">&#7984;&#948;&#953;&#969;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="akanonistos">&#7936;&#954;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#957;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>.
+<span class="grk" title="Kanonixomena">&#922;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#950;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;<i>canonized</i> books,&rdquo; is first used in Athanasius&rsquo;s festal
+epistle.<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The kind of rule which the earliest Fathers thought the
+Scriptures to be can only be conjectured; it is certain that they
+believed the Old Testament books to be a divine and infallible
+guide. But the New Testament was not so considered till
+towards the close of the 2nd century, when the conception of a
+Catholic Church was realized. The collection of writings was not
+called <i>Scripture</i>, or put on a par with the Old Testament as sacred
+and inspired, till the time of Theophilus of Antioch (about 180
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span>). Hence Irenaeus applies the epithets divine and perfect to
+the Scriptures; and Clement of Alexandria calls them inspired.</p>
+
+<p>When distinctions were made among the Biblical writings other
+words were employed, synonymous with <span class="grk" title="kanonixomena">&#922;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#950;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="kekanonismena">&#954;&#949;&#954;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#945;</span>,
+such as <span class="grk" title="endiathaeka">&#7952;&#957;&#948;&#953;&#940;&#952;&#951;&#954;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="orismena">&#8033;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#945;</span>. The canon was thus
+a catalogue of writings, forming a rule of truth, sacred, divine,
+revealed by God for the instruction of men. The rule was
+perfect for its purpose. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: section <i>Canon</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;canonical,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> that which is approved or ordered
+by the &ldquo;canon&rdquo; or rule, is applied to ecclesiastical vestments,
+&ldquo;canonicals,&rdquo; and to those hours set apart by the
+Church for prayer and devotion, the &ldquo;Canonical Hours&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Breviary</a></span>).</p>
+<div class="author">(S. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Zur Geschichte des Kanons</i>, pp. 3-68.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Clement Hom.</i>, ap. Coteler. vol. i. p. 608.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Stromata</i>, vi. 15, p. 803, ed. Potter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Adv. Haeres.</i> i. 95.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Euseb. <i>H.E.</i> v. 24.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>De praescript. Haereticorum</i>, chs. 12, 13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Comment. in Mat.</i> iii. p. 916, ed. Delarue.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Monumenta vetera ad Donatistarum historiam pertinentia</i>, ed. Dupin, p. 168.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> At the end of the <i>Iambi ad Seleucum</i>, on the books of the New
+Testament, he adds,
+<span class="grk" title="outos acheudestatos kanon an ein ton theopneuston grachon">&#959;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#7936;&#968;&#949;&#965;&#948;&#941;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957; &#7938;&#957; &#949;&#7988;&#951; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#952;&#949;&#959;&#960;&#957;&#949;&#973;&#963;&#964;&#969;&#957; &#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#8182;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Prologus galeatus in ii. Reg.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Expos. in Symb. Apost.</i> 37, p. 374, ed. Migne.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> After the word is added <span class="grk" title="kai paradothenta, pioteuthenta te theia einai">&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#948;&#959;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#945;, &#960;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#965;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#964;&#8050; &#952;&#949;&#8150;&#945; &#949;&#943;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>.
+<i>Opp.</i> vol. i. p. 961, ed. Benedict.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CANONESS<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (Fr. <i>chanoinesse</i>, Ger. <i>Kanonissin</i>, Lat. <i>canonica</i>
+or <i>canonica virgo</i>), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In
+the 8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish
+empire, and in imitation of these certain women took common
+vows of obedience and chastity, though not of poverty. Like
+nuns they had common table and dormitory, and recited the
+breviary, but generally the rule was not so strict as in the case of
+nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and were also employed
+in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and transcribing
+liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular and
+secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not
+practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable
+feudal princesses. In Germany several foundations of this
+kind (<i>e.g.</i> Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were
+practically secular institutions before the Reformation, adopted
+the Protestant faith, and still exist, requiring of their members
+the simple conditions of celibacy and obedience to their superior
+during membership. These institutions (<i>Stifter</i>) are now practically
+almshouses for the unmarried daughters of noble families.
+In some cases the right of presentation belongs to the head of the
+family, sometimes admission is gained by purchase; but in
+modern times a certain number of prebends have been created for
+the daughters of deserving officials. The organization of the <i>Stift</i>
+is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient titles of abbess, prioress
+or provostess (<i>Pröbstin</i>), and the canonesses (<i>Stiftsdamen</i>) meet
+periodically in <i>Konvent</i> for the discussion of the affairs of the
+community. The ladies are not bound to residence. In many of
+these <i>Stifter</i> quaint pre-Reformation customs and ceremonies
+still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at
+Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the
+<i>Konvent</i> is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax
+head of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table
+round which the canonesses sit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANONIZATION,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> in its widest sense, an act by which in the
+Christian Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased
+believer the honour of public <i>cultus</i>. In the early Church there
+was no formal canonization. The <i>cultus</i> applied at first to local
+martyrs, and it was only in exceptional circumstances that a
+kind of judiciary inquiry and express decision became necessary
+to legitimate this <i>cultus</i>. The peculiar situation of the Church of
+Africa explains the <i>Vindicatio martyrum</i>, which was early
+practised there (<i>Optatus Milevit.</i>, i. 16). In the <i>cultus</i> rendered to
+confessors, the authorization of the Church had long been merely
+implicit. But when an express decision was given, it was the
+bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came
+to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the
+pope the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest
+acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of
+Ulric of Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in <span class="sc">a.d.</span>
+993. From that time the pontifical intervention became more
+and more frequent, and, in practice, the right of the bishops in
+the matter of canonization continued to grow more restricted.
+In 1170 the new right was sufficiently established for Pope
+Alexander III. to affirm that the bishops could not institute the
+<i>cultus</i> of a new saint without the authority of the Roman Church
+(Cap. <i>Audivimus</i>, Decret. <i>De Rell. et venerat. Sanctorum</i>, iii. 115).
+The 12th and, especially, the 13th centuries furnish many
+examples of canonizations pronounced by the popes, and the
+procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much more
+summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of
+those who had known the holy personages was collected on the
+spot. The inquiry was as rapid as the judgment, and both often
+took place a short time after the death of the saint, as in the cases
+of St Thomas of Canterbury (died 1170, canonized 1173), St Peter
+of Castelnau (died on the 15th of January 1208, canonized on the
+12th of March of the same year), St Francis of Assisi (died on the
+4th of October 1226, canonized on the 19th of July 1228), and St
+Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June 1231, canonized on
+the 3rd of June 1232).</p>
+
+<p>At this period there was no marked difference between canonization
+and beatification. In modern practice, as definitively
+settled by the decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the
+two acts are totally distinct. Canonization is the solemn and
+definitive act by which the pope decrees the plenitude of public
+honours. Beatification consists in permitting a <i>cultus</i>, the
+manifestations of which are restricted, and is merely a step towards
+canonization.</p>
+
+<p>The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either
+<i>exceptional</i> or <i>common</i>. The approval of immemorial
+<i>cultus</i> comes within the category of exceptional procedure.
+Urban VIII., while forbidding the rendering of a public <i>cultus</i>
+without authorization from the Holy See, made an exception in favour
+of the blessed who were at that time (1625) in possession of an
+immemorial <i>cultus, i.e.</i> dating back at least a century (1525).
+The procedure <i>per viam casus excepti</i> consists in the legitimation
+of a <i>cultus</i> which has been rendered to a saint for a very long
+time. The causes of the martyrs (<i>declarationis martyrii</i>) also are
+exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the <i>fact</i> of the
+martyrdom and of its <i>cause, i.e.</i> it must be established that the
+servant of God was put to death through hatred of the faith. These are
+the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>common</i> procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted
+<i>per viam non cultus</i>. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded
+before the tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent
+commission of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of subordinate
+officers and presided over by a cardinal. The supreme judge in the
+matter is the pope himself. The <i>postulator</i>, who is the
+mandatory of a diocese or ecclesiastical commonalty, is the
+solicitor. He must furnish the proofs, which are collected
+according to very stringent rules. The <i>promoter of the faith</i>,
+popularly called the &ldquo;devil&rsquo;s advocate&rdquo; (<i>advocatus diaboli</i>), is
+the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the tribunal
+the weak points of the case.</p>
+
+<p>The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the historical
+explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system, and which
+considerably delay the progress of the causes. The first decisive step
+is the <i>introduction of the cause</i>. If, by the advice of the
+cardinals who have examined the documents, the pope
+pronounce his approval, the servant of God receives the title of
+&ldquo;Venerable,&rdquo; but is not entitled to any manifestation of <i>cultus</i>.
+Only in the event of the claimant passing this test successfully
+can the essential part of the procedure be begun, which will result
+in conferring on the Venerable the title of &ldquo;Blessed.&rdquo; This part
+consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a reputation
+for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the virtues,
+(3) to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on all
+three of these tests is called the decree <i>de tuto</i>, by which the
+pope decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification
+of the servant of God (<i>Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V.S.D.N.
+beatificationem</i>). In the ceremony of beatification the essential
+part consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the
+Venerable in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a
+solemn mass, celebrated with special rites in the great hall
+above the vestibule of the basilica of St Peter.</p>
+
+<p>The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification,
+is usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of
+the miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession
+of the Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great
+number of formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the
+sentence, and indicates eventually the day on which he will
+proceed to the ceremony of canonization, which takes place with
+great solemnity in the basilica of St Peter.</p>
+
+<p>The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for
+the conduct of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for
+exercising rigour and discretion, considerably retards the progress
+of the causes, and necessitates a numerous staff. This circumstance,
+together with the custom of ornamenting the basilica of
+St Peter very richly on the day of the ceremony, accounts for
+the considerable cost which a canonization entails. To prevent
+abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up during the
+pontificate of Leo XIII.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constantinople,
+and the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod,
+also canonize their saints after a preliminary examination of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+titles to public <i>cultus</i>. Their procedure is less rigorous than
+that of the Roman Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly studied.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Fontanini, <i>Codex Constitutionum quas summi pontifices
+ediderunt in solemni canonizatione sanctorum</i> (Rome, 1729, a
+collection of original documents);
+Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.), <i>De servorum Dei
+beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione</i> (Bologna, 1734-1738),
+several times reprinted, and more remarkable for erudition
+and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism;
+Al. Lauri, <i>Codex pro postulatoribus causarum beatificationis
+et canonizationis, recognovit Joseph Fornari</i> (Romae, 1899);
+F.W. Faber, <i>Essay on Beatification, Canonization, &amp;c.</i>
+(London, 1848); A. Boudinhon, <i>Les Procès de béatification
+et de canonisation</i> (Paris, 1905); E. Golubinskij,
+<i>Istorija Kanonizaçii sviatich v russko j çerkvi</i> (Moscow, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. De.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANON LAW.<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> Canon law, <i>jus canonicum</i>, is the sum of the
+laws which regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is
+also called ecclesiastical law, <i>jus ecclesiasticum</i>. It is also
+referred to under the name of <i>canones, sacri canones</i>, a title of
+great antiquity, for the <span class="grk" title="kanones">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>, <i>regulae</i>, were very early
+distinguished from the secular laws, the <span class="grk" title="nomoi">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>, <i>leges</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The word <span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>, canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical
+literature in several different senses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span> above). The
+disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for
+example (can. 1, 2, &amp;c.), employ it in the sense of an
+<span class="sidenote">Word &ldquo;canon.&rdquo; Different meanings.</span>
+established rule, ecclesiastical in its origin and in its
+object. But the expression is most frequently used to
+designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished
+from dogmatic definitions. With regard to form, the decisions of
+councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the
+definitions of the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which
+generally begin with the words &ldquo;<i>Si quis dixerit</i>,&rdquo; and end with
+the anathema, are canons; while the long chapters, even when
+dealing with matters of discipline, retain the name of chapters or
+decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to give the name of
+canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical compilations
+such as the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, while the name of chapters is
+given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the Decretals.
+It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the expression
+<i>jus canonicum</i>, it implies the systematic codification of
+ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the
+labours which resulted in the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the
+former is concerned with the constitution of the Church, and,
+consequently, with the relations between her and other
+bodies, religious and civil; the latter has as its object
+<span class="sidenote">Divisions.</span>
+the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical body and its members.
+This division, which has been found convenient for the study of
+canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts. With
+regard to the texts now in force, the name of <i>jus antiquum</i>,
+ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the <i>Corpus
+juris canonici</i>; the legislation of this <i>Corpus</i> has been called
+<i>jus novum</i>, new law; and finally, the name of recent law, <i>jus
+novissimum</i>, has been given to the law established by the council
+of Trent and subsequent papal constitutions. There is a further
+distinction between the written law, <i>jus scriptum</i>, laws made by
+the councils or popes, which are to be found in the collections,
+and the unwritten law, <i>jus non scriptum</i>, a body of practical
+rules arising rather from natural equity and from custom than
+from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law.
+In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the
+unwritten customary law has undergone a gradual diminution
+in importance, as a consequence of centralization and the
+accumulation of written laws; nowadays it need not be reckoned
+with, save in cases where local customs are involved. The
+common law is that which is intended to regulate the whole
+body; special or local law is that which is concerned with
+certain districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation
+from or addition to the common law.</p>
+
+<p>By the <i>sources</i> or authors of the canon law are meant the
+authorities from which it is derived; they must obviously be of
+such a nature as to be binding upon the whole religious
+body, or at least upon a specified portion of it. In the
+<span class="sidenote">Sources.</span>
+highest rank must be placed Christ and the Apostles, whose
+dispositions for the constitution and government of the Church
+are contained in the New Testament, completed by tradition;
+for the Church did not accept the disciplinary and ritual
+provisions of the Old Testament as binding upon her (see Acts
+xi., xv.). To the apostles succeeded the episcopal body, with
+its chief the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, whose
+legislative and disciplinary power, by a process of centralization,
+underwent a slow but uninterrupted development.  It is then to
+the episcopate, assembled in ecumenical council, and to its chief,
+that the function of legislating for the whole Church belongs;
+the inferior authorities, local councils or isolated bishops and
+prelates, can only make special laws or statutes, valid only for
+that part of the Church under their jurisdiction. Most of the
+canons, however, which constitute the ancient law, and notably
+those which appear in the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, emanate from
+local councils, or even from individual bishops; they have
+found a place in the common law because the collections of
+canons, of which they formed the most, notable part, have been
+everywhere adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Having made these general observations, we must now consider
+the history of those texts and collections of canons which to-day
+form the ecclesiastical law of the Western Church: (1) up to the
+<i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, (2) up to the council of Trent, (3 and 4) up to
+the present day, including the codification ordered by Pius X.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian.</i>&mdash;At no time,
+and least of all during the earliest centuries, was there any
+attempt to draw up a uniform system of legislation for the whole
+of the Christian Church. The various communities ruled themselves
+principally according to their customs and traditions, which,
+however, possessed a certain uniformity resulting from their
+close connexion with natural and divine law. Strangely enough,
+those documents which bear the greatest resemblance to a small
+collection of canonical regulations, such as the Didache, the
+Didascalia and the Canons of Hippolytus, have not been retained,
+and find no place in the collections of canons, doubtless
+for the reason that they were not official documents.  Even the
+Apostolical Constitutions (<i>q.v.</i>), an expansion of the Didache
+and the Didascalia, after exercising a certain amount of influence,
+were rejected by the council in Trullo (692).  Thus the only
+pseudo-epigraphic document preserved in the law of the Greek Church
+is the small collection of the eighty-five so-called &ldquo;Apostolic
+Canons&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). The compilers, in their several collections,
+gathered only occasional decisions, the outcome of no
+pre-determined plan, given by councils or by certain great bishops.</p>
+
+<p>These compilations began in the East. It appears that in
+several different districts canons made by the local
+assemblies<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> were added to those of the council of Nicaea which
+were everywhere accepted and observed.  The first example seems
+<span class="sidenote">Greek collection.</span>
+to be that of the province of Pontus, where after the twenty
+canons of Nicaea were placed the twenty-five canons of the
+council of Ancyra (314), and the fifteen of that of
+Neocaesarea (315-320). These texts were adopted at Antioch,
+where there were further added the twenty-five canons of the
+so-called council <i>in encaeniis</i> of that city (341). Soon
+afterwards, Paphlagonia contributed twenty canons passed at the
+council of Gangra (held, according to the <i>Synodicon orientale</i>,
+in 343),<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Phrygia fifty-nine canons of the assembly of
+Laodicea (345-381?), or rather of the compilation known as the
+work of this council.<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The collection was so well and so widely
+known that all these canons were numbered in sequence, and
+thus at the council of Chalcedon (451) several of the canons of
+Antioch were read out under the number assigned to them in
+the collection of the whole.  It was further increased by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+twenty-eight (thirty) canons of Chalcedon; about the same
+time were added the four canons of the council of Constantinople
+of 381, under the name of which also appeared three (or seven)
+other canons of a later date. Towards the same date, also, the
+so-called &ldquo;Apostolic Canons&rdquo; were placed at the head of the
+group. Such was the condition of the Greek collection when
+it was translated and introduced into the West.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the 6th century the collection was completed
+by the addition of documents already in existence, but which
+had hitherto remained isolated, notably the canonical letters of
+several great bishops, Dionysius of Alexandria, St Basil and
+others. It was at this time that the Latin collection of Dionysius
+Exiguus became known; and just as he had given the Greek
+councils a place in his collection, so from him were borrowed the
+canons of councils which did not appear in the Greek collection&mdash;the
+twenty canons of Sardica (343), in the Greek text, which
+differs considerably from the Latin; and the council of Carthage
+of 410, which itself included, more or less completely, in 105
+canons, the decisions of the African councils. Soon after came
+the council <i>in Trullo</i> (692), also called the <i>Quinisextum</i>,
+because it was considered as complementary to the two councils (5th
+and 6th ecumenical) of Constantinople (553 and 680), which
+had not made any disciplinary canons. This assembly elaborated
+102 canons, which did not become part of the Western law
+till much later, on the initiative of Pope John VIII. (872-881).
+Now, in the second of its canons, the council in Trullo recognized
+<span class="sidenote">Its final form.</span>
+and sanctioned the Greek collection above mentioned;
+it enumerates all its articles, insists on the
+recognition of these canons, and at the same time prohibits
+the addition of others. As thus defined, the collection
+contains the following documents: firstly, the eighty-five
+Apostolic Canons, the Constitutions having been put aside
+as having suffered heretical alterations; secondly, the canons
+of the councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch,
+Laodicea, Constantinople (381), Ephesus (the disciplinary
+canons of this council deal with the reception of the Nestorians,
+and were not communicated to the West), Chalcedon, Sardica,
+Carthage (that of 419, according to Dionysius), Constantinople
+(394); thirdly, the series of canonical letters of the following
+great bishops&mdash;Dionysius of Alexandria, Peter of Alexandria
+(the Martyr), Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil,
+Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Amphilochus of
+Iconium, Timotheus of Alexandria, Theophilus of Alexandria,
+Cyril of Alexandria, Gennadius of Constantinople; the canon
+of Cyprian of Carthage (the Martyr) is also mentioned, but with
+the note that it is only valid for Africa. With the addition of
+the twenty-two canons of the ecumenical council of Nicaea (787),
+this will give us the whole contents of the official collection
+of the Greek Church; since then it has remained unchanged.
+The law of the Greek Church was in reality rather the work of
+the Byzantine emperors.<a name="fa4j" id="fa4j" href="#ft4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The collection has had several commentators; we need only
+mention the commentaries of Photius (883), Zonaras (1120)
+and Balsamon (1170). A collection in which the texts are
+simply reproduced in their chronological order is obviously
+inconvenient; towards 550, Johannes Scholasticus, patriarch
+of Constantinople, drew up a methodical classification of them
+under fifty heads. Finally should be mentioned yet another
+kind of compilation still in use in the Greek Church, bearing
+<span class="sidenote">Nomocanon.</span>
+the name of <i>nomocanon</i>, because in them are inserted,
+side by side with the ecclesiastical canons, the imperial
+laws on each subject: the chief of them are the one
+bearing the name of Johannes Scholasticus, which belongs,
+however, to a later date, and that of Photius (883).</p>
+
+<p>The canon law of the other Eastern Churches had no marked
+influence on the collections of the Western Church, so we need
+not speak of it here. While, from the 5th century onwards a
+certain unification in the ecclesiastical law began to take place
+within the sphere of the see of Constantinople, it was not till
+later that a similar result was arrived at in the West. For
+<span class="sidenote">In the West.</span>
+several centuries there is no mention of any but local
+collections of canons, and even these are not found till
+the 5th century; we have to come down to the 8th
+or even the 9th century before we find any trace of unification.
+This process was uniformly the result of the passing on of the
+various collections from one region to another.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable, and the most homogeneous, as well as
+without doubt the most ancient of these local collections is that
+of the Church of Africa. It was formed, so to speak,
+automatically, owing to the plenary assemblies of the
+<span class="sidenote">Africa.</span>
+African episcopate held practically every year, at which it was
+customary first of all to read out the canons of the previous
+councils. This gave to the collection an official character. At
+the time of the Vandal invasion this collection comprised the
+canons of the council of Carthage under Gratus (about 348)
+and under Genethlius (390), the whole series of the twenty or
+twenty-two plenary councils held during the episcopate of
+Aurelius, and finally, those of the councils held at Byzacene.
+Of the last-named we have only fragments, and the series of the
+councils under Aurelius is very incomplete. The African collection
+has not come to us directly: we have two incomplete and
+confused arrangements of it, in two collections, that of the
+<i>Hispana</i> and that of Dionysius Exiguus. Dionysius knows
+only the council of 419, in connexion with the affair of Apiarius;
+but in this single text are reproduced, more or less fully, almost
+all the synods of the collection; this was the celebrated <i>Concilium
+Africanum</i>, so often quoted in the middle ages, which
+was also recognized by the Greeks. The Spanish collection
+divides the African canons among seven councils of Carthage
+and one of Mileve; but in many cases it ascribes them to the
+wrong source; for example, it gives under the title of the fourth
+council of Carthage, the <i>Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua</i>, an Arlesian
+compilation of Saint Caesarius, which has led to a number of
+incorrect references. Towards the middle of the 6th century
+a Carthaginian deacon, Fulgentius Ferrandus, drew up a <i>Breviatio
+canonum</i>,<a name="fa5j" id="fa5j" href="#ft5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a> a methodical arrangement of the African collection,
+in the order of the subjects. From it we learn that the
+canons of Nicaea and the other Greek councils, up to that of
+Chalcedon, were also known in Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Church, even more than the rest, governed itself
+according to its own customs and traditions. Up to the end
+of the 5th century the only canonical document of
+non-Roman origin which it officially recognized was
+<span class="sidenote">Rome.</span>
+the group of canons of Nicaea, under which name were also
+included those of Sardica. A Latin version of the other Greek
+councils (the one referred to by Dionysius as <i>prisca</i>) was known,
+but no canonical use was made of it. The local law was founded
+on usage and on the papal letters called decretals. The latter
+were of two kinds: some were addressed to the bishops of the
+ecclesiastical province immediately subject to the pope; the
+others were issued in answer to questions submitted from various
+quarters; but in both cases the doctrine is the same.
+At the beginning of the 6th century the Roman Church adopted the
+double collection, though of private origin, which was drawn
+<span class="sidenote">Dionysius Exiguus and his collection.</span>
+up at that time by the monk Dionysius, known by the
+name of Dionysius Exiguus, which he himself had
+assumed as a sign of humility. He was a Scythian
+by birth, and did not come to Rome till after 496,
+his learning was considerable for his times, and to him we owe
+the employment of the Christian era and a new way of reckoning
+Easter. At the desire of Stephen, bishop of Salona, he undertook
+the task of making a new translation, from the original Greek
+text, of the canons of the Greek collection. The manuscript
+which he used contained only the first fifty of the Apostolic
+Canons; these he translated, and they thus became part of the
+law of the West. This part of the work of Dionysius was not
+added to later; it was otherwise with the second part. This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span>
+embodied the documents containing the local law, namely 39
+decretals of the popes from Siricius (384-398) to Anastasius II.
+(496-498). As was natural this collection received successive
+additions as further decretals appeared. The collection formed
+by combining these two parts remained the only official code
+of the Roman Church until the labours undertaken in consequence
+of the reforming movement in the 11th century. In 774 Pope
+Adrian I. gave the twofold collection of the Scythian monk
+to the future emperor Charlemagne as the canonical book of the
+Roman Church; this is what is called the <i>Dionysio-Hadriana</i>.
+This was an important stage in the history of the centralization
+<span class="sidenote">Dionysio-Hadriana.</span>
+of canon law; the collection was officially received by the Frankish
+Church, imposed by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle of 802, and from
+that time on was recognized and quoted as the <i>liber canonum</i>. If
+we consider that the Church of Africa, which had already suffered
+considerably from the Vandal invasion, was at this period almost
+entirely destroyed by the Arabs, while the fate of Spain was but
+little better, it is easy to see why the collection of Dionysius
+became the code of almost the whole of the Western Church, with the
+exception of the Anglo-Saxon countries; though here too it was known.</p>
+
+<p>The other collections of canons, of Italian origin, compiled
+before the 10th century, are of importance on account of the
+documents which they have preserved for us, but as they have
+not exercised any great influence on the development of canon
+law, we may pass them over.</p>
+
+<p>The Dionysio-Hadriana did not, when introduced into Gaul,
+take the place of any other generally received collection of
+canons. In this country the Church had not been
+centralized round a principal see which would have
+<span class="sidenote">In Gaul.</span>
+produced unity in canon law as in other things; even the
+political territorial divisions had been very unstable. The only
+canonical centre of much activity was the Church of Arles,
+which exercised considerable influence over the surrounding
+region in the 5th and 6th centuries. The chief collection known
+throughout Gaul before the Dionysio-Hadriana
+<span class="sidenote">Quesnel collection.</span>
+was the so-called collection of Quesnel, named after its first
+editor.<a name="fa6j" id="fa6j" href="#ft6j"><span class="sp">6</span></a> It is a rich collection, though badly arranged,
+and contains 98 documents&mdash;Eastern and African
+canons and papal letters, but no Gallic councils; so that it is
+not a collection of local law. We might expect to find such a
+collection, in view of the numerous and important councils
+held in Gaul, but their decisions remained scattered among
+a great number of collections none of which had ever a wide
+circulation or an official character.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible to enumerate here all the Gallic councils
+which contributed towards the canon law of that country; we
+will mention only the following:&mdash;Arles (314), of great
+importance; a number of councils in the district
+<span class="sidenote">Councils.</span>
+of Arles, completed by the <i>Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua</i> of St
+Caesarius;<a name="fa7j" id="fa7j" href="#ft7j"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the councils of the province of Tours; the assemblies
+of the episcopate of the three kingdoms of the Visigoths at
+Agde (506), of the Franks at Orleans (511), and of the
+Burgundians at Epaone (517); several councils of the kingdoms
+of the Franks, chiefly at Orleans; and finally, the synods of the
+middle of the 8th century, under the influence of St Boniface.
+Evidently the impulse towards unity had to come from without;
+it began with the alliance between the Carolingians and the
+Papacy, and was accentuated by the recognition of the <i>liber
+canonum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain the case, on the contrary, is that of a strong centralization
+round the see of Toledo. Thus we find Spanish canon law
+embodied in a collection which, though perhaps not
+official, was circulated and received everywhere;
+<span class="sidenote">In Spain.</span>
+this was the Spanish collection, the <i>Hispana</i>.<a name="fa8j" id="fa8j" href="#ft8j"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The collection
+is well put together and includes almost all the important
+canonical documents. In the first part are contained the
+councils, arranged according to the regions in which they were
+held: Greek councils, following a translation of Italian origin,
+<span class="sidenote">The Hispana.</span>
+but known by the name of <i>Hispana</i>; African councils,
+Gallican councils and Spanish councils. The latter,
+which form the local section, are further divided into
+several classes: firstly, the synods held under the Roman
+empire, the chief being that of Elvira<a name="fa9j" id="fa9j" href="#ft9j"><span class="sp">9</span></a> (c. 300); next the texts
+belonging to the kingdom of the Suevi, after the conversion of
+these barbarians by St Martin of Braga: these are, the two
+councils of Braga (563 and 572), and a sort of free translation or
+adaptation of the canons of the Greek councils, made by Martin
+of Braga; this is the document frequently quoted in later days
+under the name of <i>Capitula Martini papae</i>; thirdly, the decisions
+of the councils of the Visigothic Church, after its conversion
+to Catholicism. Nearly all these councils were held at
+Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589. The series
+continued up to 694 and was only interrupted by the Mussulman
+invasion. Finally, the second part of the <i>Hispana</i> contains
+the papal decretals, as in the collection of Dionysius.</p>
+
+<p>From the middle of the 9th century this collection was to
+become even more celebrated; for, as we know, it served as
+the basis for the famous collection of the False Decretals.</p>
+
+<p>The Churches of Great Britain and Ireland remained still
+longer outside the centralizing movement. Their contribution
+towards the later system of canon law consisted in
+<span class="sidenote">Great Britain and Ireland.</span>
+two things: the Penitentials and the influence of the
+Irish collection, the other sources of local law not
+having been known to the predecessors of Gratian
+nor to Gratian himself.</p>
+
+<p>The Penitentials<a name="fa10j" id="fa10j" href="#ft10j"><span class="sp">10</span></a> are collections intended for the guidance
+of confessors in estimating the penances to be imposed for various
+sins, according to the discipline in force in the Anglo-Saxon
+countries. They are all of Anglo-Saxon or
+<span class="sidenote">Penitentials.</span>
+Irish origin, and although certain of them were compiled
+on the continent, under the influence of the island missionaries,
+it seems quite certain that a Roman Penitential has
+never existed.<a name="fa11j" id="fa11j" href="#ft11j"><span class="sp">11</span></a> They are, however, of difficult and uncertain
+ascription, since the collections have been largely amended and
+remodelled as practice required. Among the most important
+we may mention those bearing the names of Vinnianus (d. 589),
+Gildas (d. 583), Theodore of Canterbury (d. 690), the Venerable
+Bede (d. 735) and Egbert of York (732-767); the Penitentials
+which are ascribed to St Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil
+and Bobbio (d. 615), and Cumean (Cumine Ailbha, abbot of
+Iona); in the Prankish kingdom the most interesting work
+is the Penitential of Halitgar, bishop of Cambrai<a name="fa12j" id="fa12j" href="#ft12j"><span class="sp">12</span></a> from 817 to
+831. As penances had for a long time been lightened, and the
+books used by confessors began to consist more and more of
+instructions in the style of the later moral theology (and this
+is already the case of the books of Halitgar and Rhabanus
+Maurus), the canonical collections began to include a greater or
+smaller number of the penitential canons.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish collection,<a name="fa13j" id="fa13j" href="#ft13j"><span class="sp">13</span></a>  though it introduced no important
+documents into the law of the Western Church, at least set
+canonists the example of quoting passages from the
+<span class="sidenote">Irish collection.</span>
+Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers. This collection
+seems to date from the 8th century; besides
+the usual sources, the author has included several documents
+of local origin, beginning with the pretended synod of St
+Patrick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span></p>
+
+<p>In the very middle of the 9th century a much enlarged edition
+of the <i>Hispana</i> began to be circulated in France. To this rich
+collection the author, who assumes the name of Isidore,
+the saintly bishop of Seville, added a good number
+<span class="sidenote">The false decretals.</span>
+of apocryphal documents already existing, as well as
+a series of letters ascribed to the popes of the earliest centuries,
+from Clement to Silvester and Damasus inclusive, thus filling
+up the gap before the decretal of Siricius, which is the first
+genuine one in the collection. The other papal letters only rarely
+show signs of alteration or falsification, and the text of the
+councils is entirely respected.<a name="fa14j" id="fa14j" href="#ft14j"><span class="sp">14</span></a> From the same source and at
+the same date came two other forged documents&mdash;firstly, a
+collection of Capitularies, in three books, ascribed to a certain
+Benedict (Benedictus Levita),<a name="fa15j" id="fa15j" href="#ft15j"><span class="sp">15</span></a> a deacon of the church of Mainz;
+this collection, in which authentic documents find very little
+place, stands with regard to civil legislation exactly in the
+position of the False Decretals with regard to canon law. The
+other document, of more limited scope, is a group of <i>Capitula</i>
+given under the name of Angilram, bishop of Metz. It is nowadays
+admitted by all that these three collections come from the
+same source. For a study of the historical questions connected
+with the famous False Decretals, see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals (False)</a></span>;
+here we have only to consider them with reference
+to the place they occupy in the formation of ecclesiastical law.
+In spite of some hesitation, with regard rather to the official
+character than to the historical authenticity of the letters attributed
+to the popes of the earlier centuries, the False Decretals
+were accepted with confidence, together with the authentic
+texts which served as a passport for them. All later collections
+availed themselves indiscriminately of the contents of this vast
+collection, whether authentic or forged, without the least
+suspicion. The False Decretals did not greatly modify nor corrupt
+the Canon Law, but they contributed much to accelerate its
+progress towards unity. For they were the last of the chronological
+collections, <i>i.e.</i> those which give the texts in the order
+in which they appeared. From this time on, canonists began
+<span class="sidenote">Systematic collections.</span>
+to exercise their individual judgment in arranging
+their collections according to some systematic order,
+grouping their materials under divisions more or less
+happy, according to the object they had in view.
+This was the beginning of a codification of a common canon law,
+in which the sources drawn upon lose, as it were, their local
+character. This is made even more noticeable by the fact that,
+in a good number of the works extant, the author is not content
+merely to set forth and classify the texts; but he proceeds to
+discuss the point, drawing conclusions and sometimes outlining
+some controversy on the subject, just as Gratian was to do more
+fully later on.</p>
+
+<p>During this period, which extended from the end of the 9th
+century to the middle of the 12th, we can enumerate about forty
+systematic collections, of varying value and circulation, which
+all played a greater or lesser part in preparing the juridical
+renaissance of the 12th century, and most of which were
+utilized by Gratian. We need mention only the chief of them&mdash;the
+<span class="sidenote">Regino.</span>
+<i>Collectio Anselmo dedicata</i>, by an unknown author of the
+end of the 9th century; the <i>Libri duo de synodalibus
+causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis</i>,<a name="fa16j" id="fa16j" href="#ft16j"><span class="sp">16</span></a> compiled about 906
+by Regino, abbot of Prüm, and dedicated to Hatto of Mainz,
+relatively a very original treatise; the enormous compilation
+<span class="sidenote">Burchard.</span>
+in twenty books of Burchard, bishop of Worms (1112-1122),
+the <i>Decretum</i> or <i>Collectarium</i>,<a name="fa17j" id="fa17j" href="#ft17j"><span class="sp">17</span></a> very widely
+spread and known under the name of <i>Brocardum</i>, of which the
+19th book, dealing with the process of confession, is specially
+noteworthy. Towards the end of the 11th century, under the
+influence of Hildebrand, the reforming movement makes itself
+felt in several collections of canons, intended to support the
+rights of the Holy See and the Church against the pretensions
+of the emperor. To this group belong an anonymous collection,
+described by M.P. Fournier as the first manual of the
+Reform;<a name="fa18j" id="fa18j" href="#ft18j"><span class="sp">18</span></a> the collection of Anselm, bishop of Lucca,<a name="fa19j" id="fa19j" href="#ft19j"><span class="sp">19</span></a> in 13
+<span class="sidenote">Anselm Deusdedit.</span>
+books (1080-1086); that of Cardinal Deusdedit,<a name="fa20j" id="fa20j" href="#ft20j"><span class="sp">20</span></a>
+in 4 books, dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-1087);
+and lastly that of Bonizo,<a name="fa21j" id="fa21j" href="#ft21j"><span class="sp">21</span></a> bishop of Sutri, in 10 books
+(1089). In the 12th century, the canonical works of Ivo of
+Chartres<a name="fa22j" id="fa22j" href="#ft22j"><span class="sp">22</span></a> are of great importance. His <i>Panormia</i>, compiled
+<span class="sidenote">Ivo of Chartres.</span>
+about 1095 or 1096, is a handy and well-arranged
+collection in 8 books; as to the <i>Decretum</i>, a weighty
+compilation in 17 books, there seems sufficient proof
+that it is a collection of material made by Ivo in view of his
+<i>Panormia</i>. To the 12th century belong the collection in the
+MS. of Saragossa (<i>Caesaraugustana</i>) to which attention was
+drawn by Antonio Agustin; that of Cardinal Gregory, called
+by him the <i>Polycarpus</i>, in 8 books (about 1115); and finally
+the <i>Liber de misericordia et justitia</i> of Algerus,<a name="fa23j" id="fa23j" href="#ft23j"><span class="sp">23</span></a> scholasticus
+of Liége, in 3 books, compiled at latest in 1123.</p>
+
+<p>But all these works were to be superseded by the <i>Decretum</i>
+of Gratian.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Decretum of Gratian and the Corpus Juris Canonici.</i>&mdash;The
+work of Gratian, though prepared and made possible by
+those of his predecessors, greatly surpasses them in
+scientific value and in magnitude. It is certainly
+<span class="sidenote">The Decretum of Gratian.</span>
+the work which had the greatest influence on the
+formation of canon law; it soon became the sole
+manual, both for teaching and for practice, and even after the
+publication of the Decretals was the chief authority in the
+universities. The work is not without its faults; Gratian is
+lacking in historical and critical faculty; his theories are often
+hesitating; but on the whole, his treatise is as complete and as
+perfect as it could be; so much so that no other work of the
+same kind has been compiled; just as there has never been
+made another Book of the Sentences. These two works, which
+were almost contemporary (Gratian is only about two years
+earlier),<a name="fa24j" id="fa24j" href="#ft24j"><span class="sp">24</span></a> were destined to have the same fate; they were the
+manuals, one for theology, the other for canon law, in use in
+all the universities, taught, glossed and commented on by the
+most illustrious masters. From this period dates the more
+marked and definitive separation between theology and ecclesiastical
+law.</p>
+
+<p>Of Gratian we know practically nothing. He was a Camaldulensian
+monk of the convent of St Felix at Bologna, where he
+taught canon law, and published, probably in 1148, his treatise
+called at first <i>Concordantia discordantium canonum</i>, but soon
+known under the name of the <i>Decretum</i>. Nowadays, and for
+some time past, the only part of the <i>Decretum</i> considered is
+the collection of texts; but it is actually a treatise, in which
+the author endeavours to piece together a coherent juridical
+system from the vast body of texts, of widely differing periods
+and origin, which are furnished by the collections. These texts
+<span class="sidenote">Dicta Gratiani.</span>
+he inserts bodily in the course of his dissertation;
+where they do not agree, he divides them into opposite
+groups and endeavours to reconcile them; but the
+really original part of his work are the <i>Dicta Gratiani</i>, inserted
+between the texts, which are still read. Gratian drew his
+materials from the existing collections, and especially from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span>
+richer of them; when necessary, he has recourse to the Roman
+laws, and he made an extensive use of the works of the Fathers
+and the ecclesiastical writers; he further made use of the canons
+of the recent councils, and the recently published decretals,
+up to and including the Lateran council of 1139. His immense
+<span class="sidenote">Contents.</span>
+work   consists  of  three  parts (<i>partes</i>). The first,
+treating of the sources of canon law and of ecclesiastical
+persons and offices, is divided according to the method
+of Paucapalea,  Gratian&rsquo;s pupil, into  101 <i>distinctiones</i>, which
+are subdivided into <i>canones</i>. The second part consists of 36
+<i>causae</i> (cases proposed for solution), subdivided into <i>quaestiones</i>
+(the several questions raised by the case), under each of which
+are arranged the various <i>canones</i> (canons, decretals, &amp;c.) bearing
+on the question. But <i>causa</i> xxxiii. <i>quaestio</i> 3, headed <i>Tractatus
+de Poenitentia</i>, is divided like the main part into seven <i>distinctiones</i>,
+containing each several <i>canones</i>. The third part,
+which is entitled <i>De Consecratione</i>, gives, in five <i>distinctiones</i>,
+the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The
+<span class="sidenote">Mode of citation.</span>
+following is the method of citation. A reference to
+the first part indicates the initial words or number
+of the <i>canon</i> and the number of the <i>distinctio</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
+can. Propter ecclesiasticas, dist. xviii. or c. 15, d. xviii. The
+second part is cited by the <i>canon, causa</i> and <i>quaestio</i>, <i>e.g.</i> can.
+Si quis suadente, C. 17, qu. 4, or c. 29, C. xvii., qu. 4. The treatise
+<i>De Poenitentia</i>, forming the 3rd <i>quaestio</i> of the 33rd <i>causa</i> of the
+second part, is referred to as if it were a separate work, <i>e.g.</i> c.
+Principium, D. ii. de poenit. or c. 45, D. ii. de poenit. In quoting
+a passage from the third part the <i>canon</i> and <i>distinctio</i> are given,
+<i>e.g.</i> c. Missar. solenn. D.I. de consecrat., or c. 12, D.I. de
+consecr.</p>
+
+<p>Considered from the point of view of official authority, the
+<i>Decretum</i> occupies an intermediate position very difficult to
+define. It is not and cannot be a really official code,
+in which every text has the force of a law. It has never
+<span class="sidenote">Authority.</span>
+been recognized as such, and the pretended endorsement of it
+by Pope Eugenius III. is entirely apocryphal. Moreover, it
+could not have become an official code; it would be impossible
+to transform into so many laws either the discordant texts
+which Gratian endeavoured to reconcile or his own <i>Dicta</i>; a
+treatise on canon Law is not a code. Further, there was as yet
+no idea of demanding an official compilation. The <i>Decretum</i>
+has thus remained a work of private authority, and the texts
+embodied in it have only that legal value which they possess
+in themselves. On the other hand, the <i>Decretum</i> actually
+enjoys a certain public authority which is unique; for centuries
+it has been the text on which has been founded the instruction
+in canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed and
+commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it has become,
+without being a body of laws, the first part of the <i>Corpus juris
+canonici</i>, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited
+by the popes. It has thus, by usage, obtained an authority
+perfectly recognized and accepted by the Church.<a name="fa25j" id="fa25j" href="#ft25j"><span class="sp">25</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Gratian&rsquo;s collection, for the very reason that it had for its aim
+the creation of a systematic canon law, was a work of a transitional
+character. Henceforth a significant differentiation
+began to appear; the collections of texts, the
+<span class="sidenote">After Gratian.</span>
+number of which continued to increase, were clearly
+separated from the commentaries in which the canonists continued
+the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the
+way was prepared for official collections. The disciples of
+Gratian, in glossing or commenting on the <i>Decretum</i>, turned to
+the papal decretals, as they appeared, for information and the
+determination of doubtful points. Their idea, then, was to
+make collections of these points, to support their teaching;
+this is the origin of those <i>Compilationes</i> which were soon to be
+embodied in the collection of Gregory IX. But we must not
+forget that these compilations were intended by their authors
+to complete the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian; in them were included
+the decretals called <i>extravagantes, i.e. quae vagabantur extra
+Decretum</i>. This is why we find in them hardly any documents
+earlier than the time of Gratian, and also why canonists have
+continued to refer to the decretals of Gregory IX. by the abbreviation
+X (<i>Extra, i.e. extra Decretum</i>).</p>
+
+<p>There were numerous collections of this kind towards the end
+of the 12th and at the beginning of the 13th century. Passing
+over the first <i>Additiones</i> to the <i>Decretum</i> and the
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Quinque compilationes.&rdquo;</span>
+<i>Appendix concilii Lateranensis</i> (council of 1179), we
+will speak only of the <i>Quinque compilationes</i>,<a name="fa26j" id="fa26j" href="#ft26j"><span class="sp">26</span></a> which
+served as a basis for the works of Raymond of Pennaforte.
+The first and most important is the work of Bernard,
+provost and afterwards bishop of Pavia, namely, the <i>Breviarium
+extravagantium</i>, compiled about 1190; it included the decretals
+<span class="sidenote">Bernard of Pavia, &ldquo;Breviarium.&rdquo;</span>
+from Alexander III. to Clement III., together with
+certain &ldquo;useful chapters&rdquo; omitted by Gratian. The
+important feature of the book is the arrangement
+of the decretals or sections of decretals in five books,
+divided into titles (<i>tituli</i>) logically arranged. The five books
+treat of (1) ecclesiastical persons and dignitaries or judges;
+(2) procedure; (3) rights, duties and property of the clergy, <i>i.e.</i>
+benefices, dues, sacraments, &amp;c., with the exception of marriage,
+which is the subject of book (4); (5) of penalties. There is a
+well-known hexameter summing up this division:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Judex, judicium, clerus, connubia, crimen.</i></p>
+
+<p>This is the division adopted in all the official collections of the
+<i>Corpus juris</i>. By a bull of the 28th of December 1210 Innocent
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Compilatio tertia.&rdquo;</span>
+III. sent to the university of Bologna an authentic
+collection of the decretals issued during the first twelve
+years of his pontificate; this collection he had caused
+to be drawn up by his notary, Petrus Collivacinus of
+Benevento, his object being to supersede the collections in circulation,
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Secunda.&rdquo;</span>
+which were incomplete and to a certain extent
+spurious. This was the <i>Compilatio tertia</i>; for soon
+after, Joannes Galensis (John of Wales) collected the
+decretals published between the collection of Bernard of Pavia
+and the pontificate of Innocent III.; and this, though of later
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Quarta.&rdquo;</span>
+date, became known as the <i>Compilatio secunda</i>. The
+<i>quarta</i>, the author of which is unknown, contained
+the decretals  of the last six years of Innocent  III., and the
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Quinta.&rdquo;</span>
+important decrees of the Lateran council of 1215.
+Finally, in 1226, Honorius III. made an official presentation
+to Bologna of his own decretals, this forming the <i>Compilatio
+quinta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The result of all these supplements to Gratian&rsquo;s work, apart
+from the inconvenience caused by their being so scattered, was
+the accumulation of a mass of material almost as
+considerable as the <i>Decretum</i> itself, from which they
+<span class="sidenote">Decretals of Gregory IX.</span>
+tended to split off and form an independent whole,
+embodying as they did the latest state of the law.
+From 1230 Gregory IX. wished to remedy this condition of
+affairs, and gave to his penitentionary, the Dominican Raymond
+of Pennaforte, the task of condensing the five compilations in use
+into a single collection, freed from useless and redundant documents.
+The work was finished in 1234, and was at once sent by
+the pope to Bologna with the bull <i>Rex pacificus</i>, declaring it to be
+official. Raymond adopts Bernard of Pavia&rsquo;s division into five
+books and into titles; in each title he arranges the decretals in
+chronological order, cutting out those which merely repeat one
+another and the less germane parts of those which he preserves;
+but these <i>partes decisae</i>, indicated by the words &ldquo;<i>et infra</i>&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;<i>et j,</i>&rdquo; are none the less very useful and have been printed in
+recent editions. Raymond does not attempt any original
+work; to the texts already included in the <i>Quinque compilationes</i>,
+he adds only nine decretals of Innocent III. and 196 chapters of
+Gregory IX. This first official code was the basis of the second
+part of the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>. The collection of Gregory IX.
+is cited as follows: the opening words of the chapter are given,
+or else its order or number, then the title to which it belongs;
+earlier scholars added X (<i>extra</i>); nowadays, this indication is
+omitted, and the order or number of the title in the book is given
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span>
+instead, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Quum olim, de Consuetudine</i>, X.; or cap. 6, <i>de consuet.</i>
+(I. iv.); that is to say, book I., title iv., <i>de consuetudine</i>, chapter
+6, beginning with the words <i>Quum olim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Though Gregory IX. wished to supersede the <i>compilationes</i>, he
+had no idea of superseding the <i>Decretum</i> of Gratian, still less of
+codifying the whole of the canon law. Though his
+collection is still in theory the chief monument of
+<span class="sidenote">Their relation to the general law.</span>
+ecclesiastical law, it only marked a certain stage and
+was before long to receive further additions. The
+reason for this is that in most cases the decretals did not formulate
+any law, but were merely solutions of particular cases,
+given as models; to arrive at the abstract law it was necessary
+to examine the solution in each case with regard to the circumstances
+and thus formulate a rule; this was the work of the
+canonists. The &ldquo;decretalists&rdquo; commented on the new collection,
+as the &ldquo;decretists&rdquo; had done for that of Gratian; but the
+canonists were not legislators: even the summaries which they
+placed at the head of the chapters could not be adduced as
+legislative texts. The abstract law was to be found rather in the
+<i>Summae</i> of the canonists than in the decretals. Two important
+results, however, were achieved: on the one hand, supplementary
+collections on private authority ceased to be made, for
+this Gregory IX. had forbidden; on the other hand, the collections
+were no longer indefinitely swelled by the addition of new
+decisions in particular cases, those already existing being enough
+to form a basis for the codification of the abstract law; and for
+this reason subsequent collections contain as a rule only the
+&ldquo;constitutions&rdquo; of popes or councils, <i>i.e.</i> rules laid down as of
+general application. Hence arose a separation, which became
+more and more marked, between legislation and jurisprudence.
+This change was not produced suddenly, the old method being at
+first adhered to. In 1245 Innocent IV. sent to the universities a
+collection of 45 decretals, with the order that they should
+be inserted under their proper titles in the collection of
+Gregory IX. In 1253 he sent a further list of the first words
+(<i>principia</i>) of the complementary constitutions and decretals;
+but the result was practically <i>nil</i> and the popes gave up
+this system of successive additions. It was, however, found
+expedient to publish a new official collection. At the instance of
+the university of Bologna, Boniface VIII., himself an eminent
+canonist, had this prepared by a committee of canonists and
+published it in 1298. As it came as an addition to the five
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Liber Sextus.&rdquo;</span>
+books of Gregory IX., it was called the sixth book, the <i>Liber
+Sextus</i>. It includes the constitutions subsequent to
+1234, and notably the decrees of the two ecumenical
+councils of Lyons, and is arranged in books and titles,
+as above described; the last title, <i>de regulis juris</i>, contains
+no less than eighty-eight legal axioms, mostly borrowed
+from Roman law. The <i>Liber Sextus</i> is cited like the decretals of
+Gregory IX., only with the addition of: <i>in sexto</i> (in VI<sup>o</sup>.).</p>
+
+<p>The same observations apply to the next collection, the
+<i>Clementinae</i>. It was prepared under the care of Clement V., and
+even promulgated by him in consistory in March 1314;
+but in consequence of the death of the pope, which
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Clementinae.&rdquo;</span>
+took place almost immediately after, the publication
+and despatch of the collection to the universities was
+postponed till 1317, under John XXII. It includes the constitutions
+of Clement V., and above all, the decrees of the council of
+Vienne of 1311, and is divided, like preceding collections, into
+books and titles; it is cited in the same way, with the additional
+indication <i>Clem</i>-(<i>entina</i>).</p>
+
+<p>At this point the official collections stop. The two last,
+which have found a place in the editions of the <i>Corpus</i>, are
+collections of private authority, but in which all the
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Extravagantes&rdquo; of John XXII.</span>
+documents are authentic. Evidently the strict prohibition
+of the publishing of collections not approved
+by the Holy See had been forgotten. The <i>Extravagantes</i>
+(<i>i.e. extra collectiones publicas</i>) of John XXII. number 20,
+<span class="sidenote">And &ldquo;communes.&rdquo;</span>
+and are classified under fourteen titles. The <i>Extravagantes
+communes</i> (<i>i.e.</i> coming from several popes)
+number 73, from Boniface VIII. to Sixtus IV. (1484),
+and are classified in books and titles. These two collections
+were included in the edition of Jean Chappuis in 1500; they
+passed into the later editions, and are considered as forming part
+of the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>. As such, and without receiving any
+complementary authority, they have been corrected and re-edited,
+like the others, by the <i>Correctores romani</i>. They are cited,
+like the decretals, with a further indication of the collection to
+which they belong: <i>Extrav. Jo. XXII.,</i> or <i>inter-comm-(unes).</i></p>
+
+<p>Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>;
+but this expression, which is familiar to us nowadays, is only a
+bibliographical term. Though we find in the 15th
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Corpus juris canonici.&rdquo;</span>
+century, for example, at the council of Basel the
+expression <i>corpus juris</i>, obviously suggested by the
+<i>Corpus juris civilis</i>, not even the official edition of
+Gregory XIII. has as its title the words <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>.
+and we do not meet with this title till the Lyons edition of 1671.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the canonical collections forming the <i>Corpus
+juris</i> would not be complete without an account of the labours
+of which they were the object. We know that the
+universities of the middle ages contained a Faculty
+<span class="sidenote">The study of canon law. </span>
+of Decrees, with or without a Faculty of Laws, <i>i.e.</i>
+civil law. The former made <i>doctores decretorum</i>, the
+latter <i>doctores legum</i>. The teaching of the <i>magistri</i> consisted in
+oral lessons (<i>lecturae</i>) directly based on the text. The short
+remarks explanatory of words in the text, originally written
+<span class="sidenote">The glosses. </span>
+in the margin, became the gloss which, formed thus
+by successive additions, took a permanent form and
+was reproduced in the manuscripts of the <i>Corpus</i>, and
+later in the various editions, especially in the official Roman
+edition of 1582; it thus acquired by usage a kind of semi-official
+authority. The chief of the <i>glossatores</i> of the <i>Decretum</i> of
+Gratian were Paucapalea, the first disciple of the master, Rufinus
+(1160-1170), John of Faenza (about 1170), Joannes Teutonicus
+(about 1210), whose glossary, revised and completed by Bartholomeus
+Brixensis (of Brescia) became the <i>glossa ordinaria
+decreti</i>. For the decretals we may mention Vincent the Spaniard
+and Bernard of Botone (Bernardus Parmensis, d. 1263), author of
+the <i>Glossa ordinaria</i>. That on the <i>Liber Sextus</i> is due to the
+famous Joannes Andreae (<i>c</i>. 1340); and the one which he began
+for the Clementines was finished later by Cardinal Zabarella
+(d. 1417). The commentaries not so entirely concerned with the
+text were called <i>Apparatus</i>; and <i>Summae</i> was the name given to
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Summae.&rdquo; </span>
+general treatises. The first of these works are of capital
+importance in the formation of a systematic canon
+law. Such were the <i>Summae</i> of the first disciples of
+Gratian: Paucapalea (1150),<a name="fa27j" id="fa27j" href="#ft27j"><span class="sp">27</span></a> Rolando Bandinelli<a name="fa28j" id="fa28j" href="#ft28j"><span class="sp">28</span></a>
+(afterwards Alexander III., <i>c</i>. 1150), Rufinus<a name="fa29j" id="fa29j" href="#ft29j"><span class="sp">29</span></a> (<i>c</i>. 1165), Étienne
+of Tournai<a name="fa30j" id="fa30j" href="#ft30j"><span class="sp">30</span></a> (Stephanus Tornacensis, <i>c</i>. 1168), John of Faenza
+(<i>c</i>. 1170), Sicard, bishop of Cremona (<i>c</i>. 1180), and above all
+Huguccio (<i>c</i>. 1180). For the Decretals we should mention:
+Bernard of Pavia<a name="fa31j" id="fa31j" href="#ft31j"><span class="sp">31</span></a> (<i>c</i>. 1195), Sinibaldo Fieschi (Innocent IV.,
+<i>c</i>. 1240), Henry of Susa (d. 1271), commonly called (cardinalis)
+Hostiensis, whose <i>Summa Hostiensis</i> or <i>Summa aurea</i> is a work
+of the very highest order; Wilhelmus Durantis or Durandus,
+Joannes Andreae, Nicolas de Tudeschis (<i>abbas siculus</i>), &amp;c.
+The 15th century produced few original treatises; but after
+the council of Trent the <i>Corpus juris</i> was again commented on
+by distinguished canonists, <i>e.g.</i> the Jesuit Paul Laymann (1575-1635),
+the Portuguese Agostinho Barbosa (1590-1649), Manuel
+Gonzalez Tellez (d. 1649) and Prospero Fagnani (1598-1687),
+who, although blind, was secretary to the Congregation of the
+Council. But as time goes on, the works gradually lose the
+character of commentaries on the text, and develop into expositions
+of the law as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span></p>
+
+<p>We can mention here only the chief editions of the <i>Corpus</i>.
+The council of Trent, as we know, ordered that the official books
+of the Roman Church&mdash;sacred books, liturgical books,
+<span class="sidenote">Editions.</span>
+&amp;c.&mdash;should be issued in official and more correct
+editions; the compilations of ecclesiastical law were also revised.
+The commission of the <i>Correctores romani</i>,<a name="fa32j" id="fa32j" href="#ft32j"><span class="sp">32</span></a> established
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Correctores romani.&rdquo;</span>
+about 1563 by Pius IV., ended its work under Gregory
+XIII and the official edition, containing the text and
+the glosses, appeared at Rome in 1582. Richter&rsquo;s
+edition (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839) remains valuable, but
+has been greatly surpassed by that of E. Friedberg (Leipzig,
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Institutiones Lancelotti.&rdquo;</span>
+1879-1881). Many editions contain also the <i>Institutiones</i>
+composed at the command of Paul IV. (1555-1559)
+by Giovanni Paolo Lancelotti, a professor of
+Bologna, on the model of the Institutes of Justinian.
+The work has merits, but has never been officially
+approved.</p>
+
+<p>Though the collections of canon law were to receive no more
+additions, the source of the laws was not dried up; decisions
+of councils and popes continued to appear; but there was no
+attempt made to collect them. Canonists obtained the recent
+texts as they could. Moreover, it was an epoch of trouble: the
+great Schism of the West, the profound divisions which were
+its result, the abuses which were to issue in the Reformation,
+were conditions little favourable for a reorganization
+of the ecclesiastical laws. Thus we are brought to the third
+period.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>After the Council of Trent.</i>&mdash;The numerous important
+decrees made by the council of Trent, in the second part of its
+sessions, called <i>de reformatione</i>, are the starting-point of the
+canon law in its latest stage, <i>jus novissimum</i>; it is this which is
+still in force in the Roman Church. It has in no way undermined
+the official status of the <i>Corpus juris</i>; but it has completed the
+legislation of the latter in many important respects, and in some
+cases reformed it.</p>
+
+<p>The law during this period, as abstracted from the texts and
+compilations, suggests the following remarks. The laws are
+formulated in general terms, and the decisions in
+particular cases relegated to the sphere of jurisprudence;
+<span class="sidenote">Final state of the law.</span>
+and the canonists have definitely lost the
+function which fell to them in the 12th and 13th
+centuries: they receive the law on authority and no longer have
+to deduce it from the texts. The legislative power is powerfully
+centralized in the hands of the pope: since the reforming decrees
+of the council of Trent it is the pontifical constitutions alone
+which have made the common law; the ecumenical council,
+doubtless, has not lost its power, but none were held until that
+of the Vatican (1870), and this latter was unable to occupy
+itself with matters of discipline. Hence the separation, increasingly
+marked, between the common law and the local
+laws, which cannot derogate from the common law except
+by concession of the Holy See, or by right of a lawfully
+authorized custom. This centralization, in its turn, has greatly
+increased the tendency towards unity and uniformity, which
+have reached in the present practice of the Roman Church
+a degree never known before, and considered by some to be
+excessive.</p>
+
+<p>If we now consider the laws in themselves, we shall find that
+the dispersed condition of the legislative documents has not
+been modified since the closure of the <i>Corpus juris</i>;
+on the contrary the enormous number of pontifical
+<span class="sidenote">Dispersion of the texts.</span>
+constitutions, and of decrees emanating from the
+Roman Congregations, has greatly aggravated the
+situation; moreover, the attempts which have been made to
+resume the interrupted process of codification have entirely
+failed. As regards the texts, the canon law of to-day is in a very
+similar position to that of English law, which gave rise to J.S.
+Mill&rsquo;s saying: &ldquo;All ages of English history have given one
+another rendezvous in English law; their several products
+may be seen all together, not interfused, but heaped one upon
+another, as many different ages of the earth may be read in some
+perpendicular section of its surface.&rdquo;<a name="fa33j" id="fa33j" href="#ft33j"><span class="sp">33</span></a> Nothing has been
+abrogated, except in so far as this has been implicitly demanded
+by subsequent laws. From this result insoluble controversies
+and serious uncertainties, both in the study and practice of the
+law; and, finally, it has become impossible for most people to have
+a first-hand knowledge of the actual laws.</p>
+
+<p>For this third period, the most important and most considerable
+of the canonical texts is the body of disciplinary decrees
+of the council of Trent (1545-1563). In consequence
+of the prohibition issued by Pius IV., they have not
+<span class="sidenote">Decrees of the Council of Trent.</span>
+been published separately from the dogmatic texts
+and other acts, and have not been glossed;<a name="fa34j" id="fa34j" href="#ft34j"><span class="sp">34</span></a> but their
+official interpretation has been reserved by the popes to the
+&ldquo;Congregation of the cardinal interpreters of the Council of
+Trent,&rdquo; whose decisions form a vast collection of jurisprudence.
+Next in importance come the pontifical constitutions, which
+<span class="sidenote"> Pontifical constitutions.</span>
+are collected together in the <i>Bullarium</i>; but this is
+a collection of private authority, if we except the
+<i>Bullarium</i> of Benedict XIV., officially published by
+him in 1747; further, the <i>Bullarium</i> is a compilation
+arranged in chronological order, and its dimensions make it
+rather unwieldy. In the third place come the decrees of the
+Roman Congregations, which have the force of law. Several
+<span class="sidenote"> Decrees of the Curia.</span>
+of these organs of the papal authority have published
+official collections, in which more place is devoted
+to jurisprudence than to laws; several others have
+only private compilations, or even none at all, among
+others the most important, viz. the Holy Office (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia
+Romana</a></span>). The resulting confusion and uncertainty may be
+imagined.</p>
+
+<p>These drawbacks were felt a long time back, and to this feeling
+we owe two attempts at a supplementary codification which
+were made in the 16th century, both of which are
+known under the name of <i>Liber Septimus</i>. The first
+<span class="sidenote"> &ldquo;Liber septimus&rdquo; of P. Mathieu.</span>
+was of private origin, and had as its author Pierre
+Mathieu, the Lyons jurist (1563-1621); it appeared
+in 1590 at Lyons. It is a continuation of the <i>Extravagantes
+communes</i>, and includes a selection of papal constitutions,
+from Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to Sixtus V. (1585-1590) inclusive,
+with the addition of a few earlier documents. It follows the
+order of the decretals. This collection has been of some service,
+and appears as an appendix in many editions of the <i>Corpus juris</i>;
+the chief reason for its failure is that it has no official sanction.
+The second attempt was official, but it came to nothing. It
+was connected with the movement of reform and revision which
+followed the council of Trent. Immediately after the publication
+of the official edition of the <i>Corpus juris</i>, Gregory XIII. appointed
+a committee of cardinals charged with the task of drawing up
+a <i>Liber septimus</i>. Sixtus V. hurried on its execution, which was
+<span class="sidenote"> of Clement VIII.</span>
+rapidly proceeded with, mainly owing to Cardinal
+Pinelli, who submitted the draft of it to Clement VIII.
+The pope had this Liber VII. printed as a basis for
+further researches; but after long deliberations the volume was
+suppressed, and the idea of a fresh codification was abandoned.
+The collection included the decrees of the council of Trent, and
+a number of pontifical constitutions, arranged in the order of
+the titles of the decretals.<a name="fa35j" id="fa35j" href="#ft35j"><span class="sp">35</span></a> But even had it been promulgated,
+it is doubtful whether it would have improved the situation.
+It would merely have added another collection to the previous
+ones, which were already too voluminous, without resulting
+in any useful abrogations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Future Codification.</i>&mdash;Neither Clement VIII. nor, at
+a later date, Benedict XIV., could have dreamt of the radical
+reform at present in course of execution. Instead of
+accumulating the texts of the laws in successive collections,
+<span class="sidenote">Demand for codification.</span>
+it is proposed entirely to recast the system of
+editing them. This codification in a series of short
+articles was suggested by the example of the French codes,
+the history of which during the 19th century is well known.
+From all quarters the Catholic episcopate had submitted to the
+Vatican council petitions in this sense. &ldquo;It is absolutely clear,&rdquo;
+said some French bishops, &ldquo;and has for a long time past been
+universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision and
+reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As
+matters now stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes
+in human affairs and in society, many laws have become useless,
+others difficult or impossible to obey. With regard to a great
+number of canons, it is a matter of dispute whether they are
+still in force or are abrogated. Finally, in the course of so many
+centuries, the number of ecclesiastical laws has increased to such
+an extent, and these laws have accumulated in such immense
+collections, that in a certain sense we can well say: We are
+crushed beneath the laws, <i>obruimur legibus</i>. Hence arise
+infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study
+of canon law; an immense field for controversy and litigation;
+a thousand perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for
+the laws.&rdquo;<a name="fa36j" id="fa36j" href="#ft36j"><span class="sp">36</span></a> We know how the Vatican council had to separate
+without approaching the question of canonical reform; but this
+general desire for a recasting of the ecclesiastical code was taken
+up again on the initiative of Rome. On the 19th of March 1904,
+<span class="sidenote">Decision of Pius X.</span>
+Pius X. published a <i>Motu proprio, &ldquo;de ecclesiae legibus
+in unum redigendis</i>.&rdquo; After briefly reviewing the
+present condition of the canonical texts and collections,
+he pointed out its inconvenience, referred to the many
+requests from the episcopate, and decreed the preparation of
+a general code of canon law. This immense undertaking involved
+the codification of the entire canon law, drawing it up in
+a clear, short and precise form, and introducing any expedient
+modifications and reforms. For this purpose the pope appointed
+<span class="sidenote">Method.</span>
+a commission of cardinals, of which he himself became
+president; also a commission of &ldquo;consultors&rdquo;
+resident at Rome, which asked for a certain amount of assistance
+from canonists at various universities and seminaries. Further,
+the assembled bishops of each province were invited to give
+their opinion as to the points in which they considered the canon
+law might profitably be modified or abrogated. Two consultors
+had the duty of separately drawing up a preliminary plan for each
+title, these projects being twice submitted for the deliberation
+of the commission (or sub-commission) of consultors, the version
+adopted by them being next submitted to the commission of
+cardinals, and the whole finally sent up for the papal sanction.
+These commissions started work at the end of 1904.</p>
+
+<p><i>Local Law.</i>&mdash;The common law of the Roman Church cannot
+by itself uniformly regulate all the churches of the different
+nations; each of them has its own local law, which
+we must briefly mention here. In theory, this law
+<span class="sidenote">Local law.</span>
+has as its author the local ecclesiastical authorities, councils
+or bishops; but this is true only for laws and regulations
+which are in harmony with the common law, merely completing
+or defining it. But if it is a question of derogating from the
+common law, the authority of the Holy See must intervene to
+legalize these derogations. This intervention takes the form
+either of &ldquo;indults,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> graceful concessions granted at the
+request of the episcopate, or of special approbation of conciliary
+resolutions. It would, however, be impossible to mention any
+compilations containing only local law. Whether in the case
+of national or provincial councils, or of diocesan synods, the
+chief object of the decrees is to reinforce, define or apply the
+law; the measures which constitute a derogation have only a
+small place in them. It is, then, only in a limited sense that we
+can see a local canon law in the councils of the various regional
+churches. Having made this remark, we must distinguish
+between the countries which are still subject to the system of
+concordats and other countries.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the former, the local law is chiefly founded
+on the concordat (<i>q.v.</i>), including the derogations and privileges
+resulting from it. The chief thing to note is the
+existence, for these countries, of a civil-ecclesiastical
+<span class="sidenote">Countries subject to concordats.</span>
+law, that is to say, a body of regulations made by the
+civil authority, with the consent, more or less explicit,
+of the Church, about ecclesiastical matters, other than spiritual;
+these dispositions are chiefly concerned with the nomination or
+confirmation by the state of ecclesiastics to the most important
+benefices, and with the administration of the property of the
+Church; sometimes also with questions of jurisdiction, both
+civil and criminal, concerning the persons or property of the
+Church. It is plain that the agreements under the concordats
+have a certain action upon a number of points in the canonical
+laws; and all these points go to constitute the local concordatory
+law. This is the case for Austria, Spain, Portugal, Bavaria,
+the Prussian Rhine provinces, Alsace, Belgium, and, in America,
+Peru. Up to 1905 it was also the case in France, where the ancient
+local customs now continue, pending the reorganization of the
+Church without the concordat.</p>
+
+<p>We do not imply that in other countries the Church can always
+find exemption from legislative measures imposed upon her by
+the civil authorities, for example, in Italy, Prussia and Russia;
+but here it is a situation <i>de facto</i> rather than <i>de jure</i>, which the
+Church tolerates for the sake of convenience; and these regulations
+only form part of the local canon law in a very irregular
+sense.</p>
+
+<p>In other countries the episcopal assemblies lay down the local
+law. England has its council of Westminster (1852), the United
+States their plenary councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866,
+1884), without mentioning the diocesan synods; and
+<span class="sidenote">Other Countries.</span>
+the whole of Latin America is ruled by the special law
+of its plenary council, held at Rome in 1899. The same is the
+case with the Eastern Churches united to the Holy See; following
+the example of the famous council of Lebanon for the Maronites,
+held in 1730, and that of Zamosc for the Ruthenians, in
+1720, these churches, at the suggestion of Leo XIII., have drawn
+up in plenary assembly their own local law: the Syrians at
+Sciarfa in 1888; the Ruthenians at Leopol in 1891; and a little
+later, the Copts. The framing of local law will certainly be more
+clear and more easy when the general code of canon law has been
+published.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For the texts and collections: the dissertations
+of Dom Coustant, <i>De antiquis canonum collectionibus, deque variis
+epistolarum Rom. Pont, editionibus</i> (Paris, 1721); P. de Marca,
+<i>De veteribus collectionibus canonum</i> (Paris, 1681}; the brothers
+Peter and Jerome Ballerini, <i>De antiquis tum editis tum ineditis collectionibus
+et collectoribus canonum ad Gratianum usque</i> (Venice, 1757).
+This is the best of all these works; it is reproduced in Migne, <i>P.L.</i>,
+vol. 56; C. Seb. Berardi, <i>De variis sacrorum canonum collectionibus
+ante Gratianum</i> (Turin, 1752); P. Quesnel, <i>De codice canonum
+Ecclesiae Romanae; de variis fidei libellis in antiquo Rom. Eccl.
+codice contentis; de primo usu codicis canonum Dionysii Exigui in
+Gallicanis regionibus</i> (Paris, 1675; with the critical notes of the
+brothers Ballerini, also in Migne, <i>loc. cit.</i>); and finally, Florent,
+<i>De methodo atque auctoritate collectionis Gratiani</i> (Paris, 1679), and
+Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tarragona, <i>De emendatione Gratiani</i>
+(Tarragona, 1586); these have all been brought together in Gallandi,
+<i>De vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge</i> (Venice,
+1778). The most complete work on the texts up to the 9th century
+is F. Maassen, <i>Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des canonischen
+Rechts im Abendlande</i>, vol. i. (all that has yet appeared, Gratz, 1870).
+For the period between the False Decretals and Gratian, there is
+no work of this sort, but the materials have been put together and
+published in part by M.P. Fournier. After Gratian, the classic
+work is Schulte, <i>Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des canonischen
+Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875 et.
+seq.). Manuals for the study of the sources: Ph. Schneider, <i>Die
+Lehre von den Kirchenrechtsquellen</i> (Regensburg, 1892); F. Laurin,
+<i>Introductio in Corpus juris canonici</i> (Freiburg, 1889); Tardif,
+<i>Histoire des sources du droit canonique</i> (Paris, 1887). Most of the
+German manuals on canon law devote considerable space to the
+history of the sources: see Phillips, vol. ii (3rd ed., 1857; French
+translation by the abbé Crouzet); Vering, 3rd ed. (Freiburg, 1893);
+Schulte, <i>Das katholische Kirchenrecht</i>, pt. i. (Giessen, 1860), &amp;c.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span>
+For the Greek Church: Pitra, <i>Juris ecclesiae graecorum historia et
+monumenta</i> (Rome, 1864); the later history of the Greek law:
+Zachariae, <i>Historiae juris graecorum delineatio</i> (Heidelberg, 1839);
+Mortreuil, <i>Histoire du droit byzantin</i> (Paris, 1843-1846); the recent
+texts in the <i>Conciliorum Collectio lacensis</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Acta et decreta
+s. conciliorum, quae ab episcopis rituum orientalium ab a. 1682 usque
+ad a. 1789 indeque ad a. 1869 sunt celebrata</i> (Freiburg, 1876). Short
+manual of Institutions: Jos. Papp-Szilagyi, <i>Enchiridion juris eccl.
+orientalis catholicae</i> (Magno-Varadini, 1862). For recent canonical
+texts: Richter&rsquo;s edition of the council of Trent (Leipzig, 1863);
+the <i>Collectanea S.C. de Propaganda Fide</i> (Rome, 1893); the
+<i>Bullarium</i>, a collection of papal acts and constitutions; the editions
+of Cocquelines (28 vols., Rome, 1733-1756), and of Cherubini (19 vols.,
+Luxemburg, 1727-1758), which are better than the enlarged reprint
+of Turin, which was unfinished (it goes up to 1730). The official
+edition of the <i>Bullarium</i> of Benedict XIV. (4 vols., Rome, 1754-1758)
+has been reprinted several times and is of great importance;
+the continuation of the <i>Bullarium</i> since Benedict XIV. has been
+published by Barberi, <i>Bullarii romani continuatio</i>, in 20 vols., going
+up to the fourth year of Gregory XVI. Every year, since 1854, has
+been printed a collection of pontifical acts, <i>Acta Pii IX., Acta
+Leonis XIII.</i>, &amp;c., which are the equivalents of the <i>Bullarium</i>.
+Dictionaries: Durand de Maillane, <i>Dictionnaire canonique</i> (Paris,
+1786), re-edited by André under the title, <i>Cours alphabétique et
+méthodique de droit canonique</i>, and by Wagner (Paris, 1894), has
+Gallican tendencies; Ferraris, <i>Prompta bibliotheca canonica</i>, &amp;c.,
+several new and enlarged editions; the best is that of Migne (1866),
+completed by Father Bucceroni, <i>Ferraris Supplementum</i> (Rome,
+1899). Articles on canon law in Wetzer und Welte&rsquo;s <i>Kirchenlexicon</i>
+(2nd ed., Freiburg, 1880 et seq.); Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie für prot.
+Theologie und Kirche</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877-1888); Vacant-Mangenot&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionnaire de théologie catholique</i>, in course of publication
+(Paris, 1899 et seq.). Periodicals: <i>Analecta juris pontificii</i>, ed. by
+Mgr. Chaillot (1863-1889); <i>Analecta ecclesiastica</i> (since 1893); <i>Acta
+Sanctae sedis</i> (since 1865); <i>Archiv fur kathol. Kirchenrecht</i> (since
+1857); <i>Le Canoniste contemporain</i> (since 1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Bo.*)</div>
+
+<p><i>Canon Law in England and in the Anglican Communion</i>.&mdash;There
+were matters in which the local English and Irish canon
+law, even before the 16th century, differed from that obtaining
+on the western part of the European continent. Thus (1), it has
+been said that&mdash;whereas the continental canon law recognized
+a quadripartite division of Church revenue of common right
+between (<i>a</i>) the bishop, (<i>b</i>) the clergy, (<i>c</i>) the poor, (<i>d</i>) the fabric&mdash;the
+English law maintained a tripartite division&mdash;(<i>a</i>) clergy,
+(<i>b</i>) the poor, (<i>c</i>) the fabric. Lord Selborne (<i>Ancient Facts and
+Fictions concerning Churches and Tithes</i>, 2nd ed., 1892) denies
+that there was any division of tithe in England. (2) By the
+general canon law the burden of repairing the nave, as well as
+the chancel of the church, was upon the parson or rector who
+collected the whole tithe. But the custom of England transferred
+this burden to the parishioners, and some particular
+local customs (as in the city of London) placed even the burden
+of repair of the chancel on them. To meet this burden church
+rates were levied. (3) A church polluted by the shedding of
+blood, as by suicide or murder, was reconsecrated on the
+continent. In England the custom was (and is) simply to
+&ldquo;reconcile.&rdquo; (4) A much more important difference, if the
+decision of the Irish court of exchequer chamber upheld in
+the House of Lords, where the peers were equally divided,
+correctly stated the English Canon law (<i>Reg.</i> v. <i>Millis</i>, 10 Cl.
+&amp; Fin., 534) was in regard to the essentials of marriage. By
+the general Western canon law before the council of Trent,
+the parties themselves were said to be the &ldquo;ministers of the
+Sacrament&rdquo; in the case of holy matrimony. The declared
+consent of the parties to take each other there and then constituted
+at once (although irregularly) holy matrimony. The
+presence of priest or witnesses was not necessary. In <i>Reg.</i> v.
+<i>Millis</i>, however, it was held that in England it was always
+otherwise and that here the presence of a priest was necessary.
+High authorities, however, have doubted the historical accuracy
+of this decision. (5) The addition of houses of priests to the provincial
+synods seems peculiar to England and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The historical position of the general canon law of the Catholic
+Church in the English provinces has, since the separation from
+Rome, been the subject of much consideration by English
+lawyers and ecclesiastics. The view taken by the king&rsquo;s courts,
+and acquiesced in by the ecclesiastical courts, since Henry VIII.,
+is that the Church of England was always an independent
+national church, subject indeed to the general principles of the
+<i>jus commune ecclesiasticum</i> (Whitlock J. in <i>Ever</i> v. <i>Owen</i>, Godbolt&rsquo;s
+Reports, 432), but unbound by any particular constitutions
+of council or pope; unless those constitutions had been
+&ldquo;received&rdquo; here by English councils, or so recognized by English
+courts (secular or spiritual) as to become part of the ecclesiastical
+custom of the realm. Foreign canon law never bound (so it has
+been taught) <i>proprio vigore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The sources of English ecclesiastical law (purely ecclesiastical)
+were therefore (1) the principles of the <i>jus commune ecclesiasticum</i>;
+(2) foreign particular constitutions received here, as
+just explained; (3) the constitutions and canons of English
+synods (cf. <i>Phill. Ecc. Law</i>, part i. ch. iv., and authorities there
+cited).</p>
+
+<p>1.  On the existence of this <i>jus commune ecclesiasticum</i> and
+that the Church of England, in whatever sense independent,
+takes it over until she repeals it, see <i>Escott</i> v. <i>Mastin</i>, 4 Moo.
+<i>P.C.C.</i> 119. Lord Brougham, in delivering the judgment,
+speaks of the &ldquo;common law prevailing for 1400 years over
+Christian Europe,&rdquo; and (p. 137) says that &ldquo;nothing but express
+enactment can abrogate the common law of all Christendom
+before the Reformation of the Anglican Church.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>2. As to foreign particular constitutions in England, there are
+a great number of them, of which it has been and is admitted,
+that they have currency in England. However papal in their
+origin, post-Reformation lawyers have regarded them as valid,
+unless they can be shown to be contrary to the king&rsquo;s prerogative,
+or to the common or statute law of the realm. To this
+doctrine express statutory authority (as the events have
+happened) has been given by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, sect. 7. A
+striking example of the doctrine is furnished by the decree of
+Innocent III. in the Fourth Lateran Council against pluralities.
+This decree was enforced in the court of Arches against a pluralist
+clerk in 1848 (<i>Burder</i> v. <i>Mavor</i>, I Roberts, 614). The courts
+of common law from Lord Coke&rsquo;s time downwards have recognized
+this &ldquo;constitution of the pope&rdquo; (as the queen&rsquo;s bench
+called it in 1598). The exchequer chamber, in 1837, declared
+it to have &ldquo;become part of the common law of the land&rdquo;
+(<i>Alstan</i> v. <i>Atlay, 7 A.</i> and <i>E.</i> 289).</p>
+
+<p>3.  The particular constitutions of English synods are numerous
+and cover a large field. At least in legal theory, the only
+distinction between pre-Reformation and post-Reformation
+constitutions is in favour of the former&mdash;so long as they do not
+contravene the royal prerogative or the law of the land (see
+25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). The most important are collected together
+and digested (so far as regards England) in Lyndwood&rsquo;s
+<i>Provinciale</i>, a work which remains of great authority in English
+courts. These constitutions are again divided into two classes:
+(<i>a</i>) provincial constitutions promulgated by provincial synods,
+usually in the name of the presiding archbishop or bishop; and
+(<i>b</i>) decrees of papal legates, Otho in 1236 and Othobon (Ottobuono
+de&rsquo; Fieschi, afterwards Pope Adrian V.) in 1269. Canons
+passed since 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 have not the  parliamentary
+confirmation which that act has been held to give to previous
+canons, and do not necessarily bind the laity, although made
+under the king&rsquo;s licence and ratified by him. This doctrine
+laid down by Lord Hardwicke in <i>Middleton</i> v. <i>Croft</i> (2 <i>Stra</i>.
+1056) was approved in 1860 in <i>Marshall</i> v. <i>Bp. of Exeter</i> (L.R. 3
+H.L. 17). Nevertheless, there are many provisions in these post-Reformation
+canons which are declaratory of the ancient usage
+and law of the Church, and the law which they thus record is binding
+on the laity. The chief body of English post-Reformation
+canon law is to be found in the canons of 1603, amended in
+1865 and 1888. The canons of 1640 are apparently upon the
+same footing as those of 1603; notwithstanding objections made
+at the time that they were void because convocation continued
+to sit after the dissolution of parliament. The opinion of all
+the judges taken at the time was in favour of the legality of this
+procedure. 13 Car. ii. c. 12 simply provided that these canons
+should not be given statutory force by the operation of that
+act.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the enactment of canons (strictly so-called) the
+English provincial synods since the Henrician changes have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span>
+legislated&mdash;in 1570 by the enactment of the Thirty-Nine
+Articles, in 1661 by approving the present Book of Common
+Prayer, and in 1873 by approving shorter forms of matins and
+evensong.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction between pre-Henrician and post-Henrician
+procedure lies in the requirement, since 25 Hen. VIII., of the
+royal licence and confirmation. Apparently diocesan synods
+may still enact valid canons without the king&rsquo;s authority; but
+these bodies are not now called.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing legal view of the position of the Church of
+England in regard to canon law has been just stated, and that is
+the view taken by judicial authority for the past three centuries.
+On the other hand, it is suggested by, <i>e.g.</i>, the late
+Professor Maitland, that it was not, in fact, the view taken here
+in the later middle ages&mdash;that in those ages there was no theory
+that &ldquo;reception&rdquo; here was necessary to validate papal decrees.
+It is said by this school of legal historians that, from the Conquest
+down to Henry VIII., the Church of England was regarded
+by churchmen not as in any sense as separate entity, but as two
+provinces of the extra-territorial, super-national Catholic Church,
+and that the pope at this period was contemplated as the <i>princeps</i>
+of this Catholic Church, whose edicts bound everywhere, as those
+of Augustus had bound in the Roman empire.</p>
+
+<p>It is right that this view should be stated, but it is not that
+of the writer of this article.</p>
+
+<p>As to <i>Ireland</i>, in a national synod of the four Irish provinces
+held at Dublin before the four archbishops, in 1634, a hundred
+canons were promulgated with the royal licence, containing
+much matter not dealt with by similar constitutions in England.
+In 1711, some further canons were promulgated (with royal
+licence) by another national synod. Some forms of special
+prayer were appended to these canons.</p>
+
+<p>In 1869 the Irish Church Act (32 and 33 Vict. c. 42) &ldquo;disestablished&rdquo;
+the Irish Church, sect. 19 repealed any act of
+parliament, law or custom whereby the bishops, clergy or laity
+of the said church were prohibited from holding synods or electing
+representatives thereto for the purpose of making rules for
+the well-being and ordering of the said church, and enacted that
+no such law, &amp;c., should hinder the said bishops, clergy and laity,
+by such representatives, lay and clerical, and so elected as they
+shall appoint, from meeting in general synod or convention and
+in such general synod or convention forming constitutions and
+providing for future representation of the members of the church
+in diocesan synods, general convention or otherwise. The
+Church of Ireland, so set free, created for herself new legislative
+authorities, unknown to the old canon law, viz. mixed synods
+of clergy and laity, and a system of representation by election,
+unknown to primitive or medieval times. Similar changes had,
+however, been introduced during the preceding century in some
+parts of the Anglican communion outside the British Isles
+(see <i>infra</i>). Sect. 20 of the same statute kept alive the old
+ecclesiastical law of Ireland by way of assumed contract (cf.
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Under the provisions of this statute, the &ldquo;archbishops and
+bishops of the ancient Apostolic and Catholic Church of Ireland&rdquo;
+(so they describe themselves), together with representatives
+of the clergy and laity, assembled in 1870, in &ldquo;General
+Convention,&rdquo; to &ldquo;provide for the regulation&rdquo; of that church.
+This Convention declared that a General Synod of the archbishops
+and bishops, with representatives of the clergy and
+laity, should have chief legislative power in the Irish Church,
+with such administrative power as might be necessary and consistent
+with the church&rsquo;s episcopal constitution. This General
+Synod was to consist of two Houses&mdash;the House of Bishops and
+the House of Lay and Clerical Representatives. No question was
+to be carried unless there were in its favour a majority of the
+clerical and lay representatives, voting either conjointly or by
+orders, and also a majority of the bishops, should they desire
+to vote. This General Synod was given full power to alter or
+amend canons, or to repeal them, or to enact new ones. For
+any alteration or amendment of &ldquo;articles, doctrines, rites or
+rubrics,&rdquo; a two-thirds majority of each order of the representative
+house was required and a year&rsquo;s delay for consultation of
+the diocesan synods. Provisions were made as to lay representation
+in the diocesan synods. The Convention also enacted
+some canons and a statute in regard to ecclesiastical tribunals
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>). It expressly provided
+that its own legislation might be repealed or amended by future
+general synods.</p>
+
+<p>In 1871 the General Synod attempted to codify its canon
+law in forty-eight canons which, &ldquo;and none other,&rdquo; were to
+have force and effect as the canons of the Church of Ireland.
+Since 1871 the General Synod has, from time to time, put forth
+other canons.</p>
+
+<p>The post-Reformation history of canon law in the Anglican
+communion in <i>Scotland</i> has differed from the story of that law
+in the last four centuries in Ireland. After the legislation under
+William and Mary disestablishing episcopacy in Scotland and
+subjecting its professors to civil penalties, little attention was
+given to canon law for many years. Synods of bishops at
+Edinburgh in 1724 and 1731 dealt with some disputed questions
+of ritual and ceremonial. In 1743 an assembly of five bishops
+enacted sixteen canons. A &ldquo;primus&rdquo; was to be chosen indifferently
+from the bishops, but to have no other powers than those
+of convoking and presiding over synods. He was to hold office
+only during pleasure of the other bishops. Bishops were to be
+elected by the presbyters of the district. Such election was
+subject to the confirmation of the majority of the bishops. In
+1811, a &ldquo;Code of Canons&rdquo; was enacted by a &ldquo;General Ecclesiastical
+Synod,&rdquo; consisting of the bishops, the deans (viz.
+presbyters appointed by the bishops in each diocese to defend
+the interests of the presbyters and now for the first time given
+&ldquo;decisive&rdquo; voice in synods) and certain clerical representatives
+from the &ldquo;districts&rdquo; or dioceses. Future synods, called for the
+purpose of altering the code, were to consist of two chambers.
+The first was to be composed of the bishops; the second to
+consist of the &ldquo;deans&rdquo; and clerical representatives. No law
+or canon was to be enacted or abrogated, save by the consent
+of both chambers. These canons were revised in 1828, 1829
+and 1838. The code of this last year created diocesan synods,
+to be held annually and to consist of the bishop, dean and all
+instituted clergy of the diocese. It also provided for the annual
+meeting of a purely episcopal synod, which was to receive
+appeals from either clergy or laity. In 1862-1863, another
+General Synod further revised and amended the Code of Canons.
+This revised code enabled the bishop to appoint a learned and
+discreet layman to act as his chancellor, to advise him in legal
+matters and be his assessor at diocesan synods. Assistant
+curates and mission priests were, under certain restrictions,
+given seats in diocesan synods. Male communicants were also
+permitted to be present at such synods, with a deliberative but
+not &ldquo;decisive&rdquo; voice; unless in special circumstances the
+bishop excluded them. Canon 46 provides that &ldquo;if any question
+shall arise as to the interpretation of this Code of Canons or of
+any part thereof, the general principles of canon law shall be
+alone deemed applicable thereto.&rdquo; This provision was reenacted
+in Canon 47 of 1876. Canon 51 of 1890, however,
+weakens this provision. It enacts that: &ldquo;The preceding canons
+shall in all cases be construed in accordance with the principles
+of the civil law of Scotland. Nevertheless, it shall be lawful,
+in cases of dispute or difficulty concerning the interpretation
+of these canons, to appeal to any generally recognized principles
+of canon law.&rdquo; The canons of 1862-1863 also provided for a lay
+share in the election of bishops. In 1890 the 32nd canon enacted
+that the &ldquo;General Synod&rdquo; should thereafter be called the
+Provincial Synod.</p>
+
+<p>The canon law in Scotland before the 16th century was generally
+that of the continent of Europe. The usages of the church
+were similar to those in France, and had not the insular character
+of those in England and Ireland. The canon law regulating
+marriage, legitimacy and succession was taken over by the
+Scottish secular courts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>)
+and survived as part of the common law of the land almost unimpaired.
+Thus, the courts recognize marriages by <i>verba de
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span>
+praesenti</i> or by <i>verba de futuro cum copula</i>&mdash;in this last matter
+following a decree of Gregory IX.&mdash;and also legitimation <i>per
+subsequens matrimonium</i>. But though one of the <i>fontes juris
+Scotiae</i>, canon law never was of itself authoritative in Scotland.
+In the canons of her national provincial councils (at whose yearly
+meetings representatives attended on behalf of the king) that
+country possessed a canon law of her own, which was recognized
+by the parliament and the popes, and enforced in the courts of
+law. Much of it, no doubt, was borrowed from the <i>Corpus juris
+canonici</i> and the English provincial canons. But the portions
+so adopted derived their authority from the Scottish Church.
+The general canon law, unless where it has been acknowledged
+by act of parliament, or a decision of the courts, or sanctioned
+by the canons of a provincial council, is only received in Scotland
+according to equity and expediency.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Protestant Episcopal Church <i>in the United States</i>&rdquo; is
+the organization of the Anglican Communion in the American
+colonies before the separation. This communion was subject to
+&ldquo;all the laws of the Church of England applicable to its situation&rdquo;
+(Murray Hoffman, <i>A Treatise on the Law of the Protestant
+Episcopal Church</i>, New York, 1850, p. 17). This body of law
+the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States took over
+(<i>op. cit.</i> p. 41 et seq.; F. Vinton, <i>A Manual Commentary on the
+General Canon Law and the Constitution of the Protestant Episcopal
+Church</i>, New York, 1870, p. 16 et seq.). Much, however,
+of the English post-Reformation canonical legislation was not
+applicable to the United States, because of different circumstances,
+as <i>e.g.</i> a very large portion of the canons of 1603 (Vinton,
+p. 32). In 1789, a General Convention, consisting of clerical
+and lay deputies as well as of bishops, assumed for itself and
+provided for its successors supreme legislative power. The
+concurrence of both &ldquo;orders,&rdquo; clerical and lay, was required
+for the validity of any vote. Since 1853 a lay deputy to the
+Convention has been required to be a communicant (<i>ib.</i> p. 102).
+Upon the American bishops numbering more than three, they
+became a separate &ldquo;House&rdquo; from the &ldquo;Convention.&rdquo; The
+House of Bishops was given a right to propose measures to the
+&ldquo;House of Deputies,&rdquo; and to negative acts of the House of
+Deputies, provided they complied with certain forms. Similar
+&ldquo;constitutions&rdquo; providing for representation of the laity have
+been adopted by the different dioceses (Hoffman, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 184
+et seq.). Deacons are also admitted to a deciding voice in every
+diocese but New Jersey, where they may speak but not vote.
+A great body of legislation has been put forth by these bodies
+during the past century.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1870, at least, the &ldquo;Church of the Province of <i>South
+Africa</i>&rdquo; has secured autonomy while yet remaining a part of
+the Anglican Communion. By its constitution of that year
+the English Church in South Africa adopts the laws and usages
+of the Church of England, as far as they are applicable to an
+unestablished church, accepts the three creeds, the Thirty-Nine
+Articles, the Book of Common Prayer, the decisions of the
+undisputed general councils, the Authorized English Version
+of the Scriptures, disclaims the right of altering any of these
+standards of faith and doctrine, except in agreement with such
+alterations as may be adopted by a general synod of the Anglican
+Communion. But in interpreting these standards of faith and
+doctrine, the Church of the Province of South Africa is not
+bound by decisions other than those of its own Church courts,
+or such court as the Provincial Synod may recognize as a tribunal
+of appeal. The Provincial Synod is the legislative authority
+subject to a general synod of the Anglican Communion, provided
+such latter synod include representatives from the Church of
+South Africa. The Provincial Synod consists of (1) the House
+of Bishops, (2) the House of the Clergy, (3) the House of the
+Laity. No resolution can be passed which is not accepted by
+all three orders. Bishops are elected by the clergy with the
+assent of lay representatives, subject to the confirmation of the
+metropolitan and comprovincial bishops. The metropolitan
+is to be consecrated in England by the archbishop of Canterbury.
+He now bears the title of archbishop. All bishops are to enter
+into a contract to obey and maintain the constitution and canons
+of the province. Canon 18 of the Code of 1870 recognizes the
+offices of catechist, reader and sub-deacon (Wirgman, <i>The
+English Church and People in South Africa</i>, p. 223 et seq.).</p>
+
+<p>In the West Indies, Canada, Australia and New Zealand,
+provincial and diocesan synods or conventions have been formed
+on one or other of the types above mentioned and have enacted
+canons.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. G. F. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th
+century, have been published several times, notably in the great
+collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &amp;c.; they will be found brought
+together in one small volume in Bruns, <i>Canones apostolorum et
+conciliorum</i> (Berlin, 1839).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed
+to 343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by
+M. Chabot, <i>Synodicon Orientale</i>, p. 278, note 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See  Boudinhon, &ldquo;Note  sur le concile de Laodicée,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Compte rendu du premier congrès des savants catholiques à Paris</i>,
+1888 (Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4j" id="ft4j" href="#fa4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that of the
+Eastern Churches, see Vering, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, §§ 14-183 (ed. 1893).
+The Russian Church, as we know, adopted the Greek ecclesiastical law.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5j" id="ft5j" href="#fa5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chifflet,
+<i>Fulg. Ferrandi opera</i> (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne,
+<i>Patr. Lat.</i> vol. 67, col. 949.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6j" id="ft6j" href="#fa6j"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo, vol. ii.
+(Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with learned
+dissertations, <i>Opera S. Leonis</i>, vol. iii., Migne, <i>P.L. 56.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7j" id="ft7j" href="#fa7j"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Malnory, <i>Saint Césaire d&rsquo;Arles</i> (Paris, 1894).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8j" id="ft8j" href="#fa8j"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Collectio canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae</i> (Madrid, 1808);
+reproduced in Migne, <i>P.L. 84.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9j" id="ft9j" href="#fa9j"><span class="fn">9</span></a> L. Duchesne, &ldquo;Le Concile d&rsquo;Elvire&rdquo; in the <i>Mélanges Renier</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10j" id="ft10j" href="#fa10j"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, <i>Die Bussordnungen
+der abendländischen Kirche</i> (Halle, 1851); Mgr. H.J. Schmitz, <i>Die Bussbücher
+und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche</i> (2 vols., Mainz, 1883, 1898).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11j" id="ft11j" href="#fa11j"><span class="fn">11</span></a> This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of Wasserschleben
+and Schmitz, by M. Paul Fournier, &ldquo;Étude sur les Pénitentiels,&rdquo;
+in the <i>Revue d&rsquo;histoire et de littérature religieuses</i>, vol. vi.
+(1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp. 59-70 and 121-127.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12j" id="ft12j" href="#fa12j"><span class="fn">12</span></a> In Migne, <i>P.L.</i> 105, col. 651.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13j" id="ft13j" href="#fa13j"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 1874). See also P. Fournier,
+&ldquo;De l&rsquo;influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des
+collections canoniques,&rdquo; in <i>Nouvelle Revue historique de droit français
+et étranger</i>, vol. xxiii, note I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14j" id="ft14j" href="#fa14j"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The collection of the False Decretals has been published with
+a long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, <i>Decretales
+Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni</i> (Leipzig, 1863).
+For the rest of the bibliography, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals (False)</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15j" id="ft15j" href="#fa15j"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The latest edition is in Pertz, <i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, vol. ii. part ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16j" id="ft16j" href="#fa16j"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840);
+reproduced by Migne, <i>P.L. 132.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17j" id="ft17j" href="#fa17j"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Edited several times; in Migne, <i>P.L. 140.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18j" id="ft18j" href="#fa18j"><span class="fn">18</span></a> P. Fournier, &ldquo;Le Premier Manuel canonique de la réforme du
+XIe siècle,&rdquo; in <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;École française de Rome</i>, xiv. (1894).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19j" id="ft19j" href="#fa19j"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Unpublished.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20j" id="ft20j" href="#fa20j"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Edited by Mgr. Pio Martinucci (Venice, 1869). On this collection
+see Wolf von Glanvell, <i>Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit</i>
+(Paderborn, 1905).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21j" id="ft21j" href="#fa21j"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Unpublished.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22j" id="ft22j" href="#fa22j"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Several times edited; in Migne, <i>P.L.</i> 161. See P. Fournier,
+&ldquo;Les Collections canoniques attribuées à Yves de Chartres,&rdquo; <i>Bibliothèque
+de l&rsquo;École des Chartres</i> (1896 and 1897).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23j" id="ft23j" href="#fa23j"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Printed in Martene, <i>Nov. Thesaur. anecdot.</i> vol. v. col. 1019.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24j" id="ft24j" href="#fa24j"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See P. Fournier, &ldquo;Deux Controverses sur les origines du Décret
+de Gratien,&rdquo; in the <i>Revue d&rsquo;histoire et de littérature religieuses</i>, vol. iii.
+(1898), pp. n. 2 and 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25j" id="ft25j" href="#fa25j"><span class="fn">25</span></a> See Laurin, <i>Introductio in corpus juris canonici</i>, c. vii. p. 73.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26j" id="ft26j" href="#fa26j"><span class="fn">26</span></a> By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts inserted
+there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged
+edition of the <i>Quinque compilationes</i> (Leipzig, 1882).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27j" id="ft27j" href="#fa27j"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Edited by Schulte, <i>Die Summa des Paucapaiea</i> (Giessen, 1890).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28j" id="ft28j" href="#fa28j"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Edited by Thaner, <i>Die Summa Magistri Rolandi</i> (Innsbruck,
+1874); later by Gietl, <i>Die Sentenzen Rolands</i> (Freiburg im B., 1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29j" id="ft29j" href="#fa29j"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Edited by H. Singer, <i>Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus</i>
+(Paderborn, 1902).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30j" id="ft30j" href="#fa30j"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Edited by Schulte, <i>Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis</i>
+(Giessen, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31j" id="ft31j" href="#fa31j"><span class="fn">31</span></a> He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres,
+<i>Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium</i> (Mainz, 1860). The commentaries
+of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently
+published.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32j" id="ft32j" href="#fa32j"><span class="fn">32</span></a> The history of this commission and the rules which it followed
+for editing the <i>Decretum</i>, will be found in Laurin, <i>Introductio in
+corpus juris canonici</i>, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg&rsquo;s
+edition of the <i>Decretum</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33j" id="ft33j" href="#fa33j"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Quoted by Hogan, <i>Clerical Studies</i>, p. 235.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34j" id="ft34j" href="#fa34j"><span class="fn">34</span></a> There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That
+which is favoured by canonists is Richter&rsquo;s edition (Leipzig, 1863),
+in which each chapter <i>de reformatione</i> is followed by a selection of
+decisions of the S.C. of the council.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35j" id="ft35j" href="#fa35j"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have
+escaped destruction: <i>Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo
+nunenpantur Liber septimus Decretalium Clementis VIII.</i> (Freiburg
+im B., 1870).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36j" id="ft36j" href="#fa36j"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Omnium concilii Vaticani ... documentorum collectio</i>, per Conradum
+Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOPUS,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Canobus</span>, an ancient coast town of Lower
+Egypt, a hundred and twenty stadia, or 15 m. east of Alexandria,
+the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation
+of Alexandria, situated at the mouth of the westernmost (Canopic
+or Heracleotic) branch of the Nile, on the western bank. The
+channel, which entered the Mediterranean at the western end
+of the Bay of Aboukir, is entirely silted up, but on the shore at
+Aboukir there are extensive traces of the city with its quays, &amp;c.
+Excavation has disclosed granite monuments with the name
+of Rameses II., but they may have been brought at a late
+period for the adornment of the place. It is not certain that
+Canopus was an old Egyptian town, but it appears in Herodotus
+as an ancient port. In the 9th year of Ptolemy Euergetes
+(239 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) a great assembly of priests at Canopus passed an
+honorific degree, <i>inter alia</i>, conferring the title <span class="grk" title="Euergetaes">&#917;&#8016;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#941;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>
+&ldquo;Benefactor&rdquo; on the king. Two examples of this decree are
+known, inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. From
+it we learn that the native form of the name of Canopus was
+Karob. A temple of Osiris was built by Euergetes, but very
+near to Canopus was an older shrine, a temple of Heracles
+mentioned by Herodotus as an asylum for fugitive slaves. The
+decree shows that Heracles here stands for Ammon. Osiris
+was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, a vase with
+a human head, and was identified with Canopus, the pilot of
+Menelaus, who was said to have been buried here: the name
+canopic has been applied, through an old misunderstanding,
+to the vases with human and animal heads in which the internal
+organs were placed by the Egyptians after embalming. In the
+Roman epoch the town was notorious for its dissoluteness.
+Aboukir means &ldquo;father Cyrus,&rdquo; referring to a Coptic saint of
+that name.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOPY<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>canapé</i>, from Med. Lat. <i>canapeum</i>,
+classical <i>conopeum</i>, a mosquito curtain, Gr. <span class="grk" title="konops">&#954;&#974;&#957;&#969;&#968;</span>, a gnat), the
+upper part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over
+an altar or scat or tomb. Early English canopies are generally
+simple, with trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later
+styles they are very rich, and divided into compartments with
+pendants, knots, pinnacles, &amp;c. The triangular arrangement
+over an Early English and Decorated doorway is often called
+a canopy. The triangular canopies in the north of Italy are
+peculiar. Those in England are generally part of the arrangement
+of the arch mouldings of the door, and form, as it were, the hood-moulds
+to them, as at York. The former are above and independent
+of the door mouldings, and frequently support an
+arch with a tympanum, above which is a triangular canopy,
+as in the Duomo at Florence. Sometimes the canopy and arch
+project from the wall, and are carried on small jamb shafts, as
+at San Pietro Martire, at Verona. There is an extremely curious
+canopy, being a sort of horseshoe arch, surmounting and breaking
+into a circular arch, at Tournai. Similar canopies are often
+over windows, as at York, over the great west window, and lower
+tiers in the towers. These are triangular, while the upper
+windows in the towers have ogee canopies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOSA<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (anc. <i>Canusium</i>), a town of Apulia, Italy, in the
+province of Bari, situated on the right bank of the Ofanto
+(anc. <i>Aufidus</i>), 505 ft. above sea-level, 15 m. S.W. of Barletta
+by rail. Pop. (1901) 24,230. It was rebuilt in 963 below the
+Roman city, which had been abandoned after its devastation
+by the Saracens in the 9th century. The former cathedral
+of S. Sabino (the bishopric passed in 1818 to Andria), in the
+southern Romanesque style, was consecrated in 1101: it has
+five domes (resembling St Mark&rsquo;s at Venice, except that it is
+a Latin cross, instead of a Greek cross, in plan) and many ancient
+columns. The archiepiscopal throne and pulpit of the end of the
+11th century are also fine. On the south side of the building
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard,
+who died in 1111, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in
+the local style. It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions;
+the exterior is entirely faced with <i>cipollino</i> (Carystian) marble.
+The conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this
+period, was undoubtedly derived from the <i>turbeh</i> before a
+mosque; these turbehs are square, domed-roofed tombs in
+which the sultans and distinguished Mahommedans are buried
+(E. Bertaux, <i>L&rsquo;Art dans l&rsquo;Italie mêridionale</i>, Paris, 1904, i. 312).
+A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of which the city
+stands. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canusium</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOSSA,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia,
+Italy, 12 m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of
+the Apennines. It belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany
+(d. 1115), and is famous as the scene of the penance performed
+by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope Gregory VII. in 1077.
+The castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of Reggio in 1255.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOVA, ANTONIO<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born
+on the 1st of November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village
+situated amid the recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these
+form the last undulations of the Venetian Alps, as they subside
+into the plains of Treviso. At three years of age Canova was
+deprived of both parents, his father dying and his mother remarrying.
+Their loss, however, was compensated by the tender
+solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother,
+the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest
+personal attention from her grandson, who, when he had the
+means, gave her an asylum in his house at Rome. His father
+and grandfather followed the occupation of stone-cutters or
+minor statuaries; and it is said that their family had for several
+ages supplied Passagno with members of that calling. As soon
+as Canova&rsquo;s hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated into the
+principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter
+possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture,
+designed well, and showed considerable taste in the execution
+of ornamental works. He was greatly attached to his art;
+and upon his young charge he looked as one who was to perpetuate,
+not only the family name, but also the family profession.</p>
+
+<p>The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of
+his mind was to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the
+gratification of this predilection in the workshop of his grandfather
+were eagerly improved. In his ninth year he executed
+two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant.
+Soon after this period he appears to have been constantly
+employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized
+the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by
+this means young Canova was first introduced to the senator
+of that name, who afterwards became his most zealous patron.
+Between the younger son, Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a
+friendship commenced which terminated only with life. The
+senator Falier was induced to receive him under his immediate
+protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since
+repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to
+a trivial circumstance&mdash;the moulding of a lion in butter&mdash;for
+the warm interest which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote
+may or may not be true. By his patron Canova was placed
+under Bernardi, or, as he is generally called by filiation, Torretto,
+a sculptor of considerable eminence, who had taken up a
+temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity of the
+senator&rsquo;s mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his
+thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two
+years, making in many respects considerable progress. This
+master returned to Venice, where he soon afterwards died; but
+by the high terms in which he spoke of his pupil to Falier, the
+latter was induced to bring the young artist to Venice, whither
+he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of Torretto.
+With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with
+the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement
+he began to work on his own account, and received from his
+patron an order for a group, &ldquo;Orpheus and Eurydice.&rdquo; The
+first figure, which represents Eurydice in flames and smoke,
+in the act of leaving Hades, was completed towards the close
+of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his patron
+and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to appear
+before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied
+him with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a
+monastery. Here for nearly four years he laboured with the
+greatest perseverance and industry. He was also regular in
+his attendance at the academy, where he carried off several
+prizes. But he relied far more on the study and imitation of
+nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for
+their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he reverted
+to living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation.
+A large portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which
+science was regarded by him as &ldquo;the secret of the art.&rdquo; He
+likewise frequented places of public amusement, where he carefully
+studied the expressions and attitudes of the performers.
+He formed a resolution, which was faithfully adhered to for
+several years, never to close his eyes at night without having
+produced some design. Whatever was likely to forward his
+advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On archaeological
+pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With
+ancient and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted
+and he also began to acquire some of the continental languages.</p>
+
+<p>Three years had now elapsed without any production coming
+from his chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for
+his patron, and the Orpheus which followed evinced the great
+advance he had made. The work was universally applauded,
+and laid the foundation of his fame. Several groups succeeded
+this performance, amongst which was that of &ldquo;Daedalus and
+Icarus,&rdquo; the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The
+simplicity of style and the faithful imitation of nature which
+characterized them called forth the warmest admiration. His
+merits and reputation being now generally recognized, his
+thoughts began to turn from the shores of the Adriatic to the
+banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the commencement
+of his twenty-fourth year.</p>
+
+<p>Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the
+Venetian senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies
+without embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful.
+The stipend amounted to three hundred ducats (about
+£60 per annum), and was limited to three years. Canova had
+obtained letters of introduction to the Venetian ambassador,
+the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous protector of
+the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner. His
+arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era
+in his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the
+most splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the
+severest test by a competition with the living masters of the art.
+The result was equal to the highest hopes cherished either by
+himself or by his friends. The work which first established his
+fame at Rome was &ldquo;Theseus vanquishing the Minotaur.&rdquo; The
+figures are of the heroic size. The victorious Theseus is represented
+as seated on the lifeless body of the monster. The
+exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves the
+terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged.
+Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized
+Canova&rsquo;s style; with these were now united more exalted
+conceptions of grandeur and of truth. The Theseus was
+regarded with fervent admiration.</p>
+
+<p>Canova&rsquo;s next undertaking was a monument in honour of
+Clement XIV.; but before he proceeded with it he deemed it
+necessary to request permission from the Venetian senate,
+whose servant he considered himself to be, in consideration of the
+pension. This he solicited in person, and it was granted. He
+returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated
+studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years
+of unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the
+models for the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed,
+other two years were employed in finishing the monument, and
+it was finally opened to public inspection in 1787 The work,
+in the opinion of enthusiastic <i>dilettanti</i>, stamped the author as
+the first artist of modern times. After five years of incessant
+labour, he completed another cenotaph to the memory of Clement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works now came
+rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a butterfly,
+which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with
+the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of
+man&rsquo;s immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect
+the most faultless and classical of Canova&rsquo;s works. In two
+different groups, and with opposite expression, the sculptor has
+represented Cupid with his bride; in the one they are standing,
+in the other recumbent. These and other works raised his
+reputation so high that the most flattering offers were sent him
+from the Russian court to induce him to remove to St Petersburg,
+but these were declined. &ldquo;Italy,&rdquo; says he, in writing of the
+occurrence to a friend, &ldquo;Italy is my country&mdash;is the country and
+native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was
+nurtured here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other
+land, they must be of some utility to Italy; and ought not her
+claim to be preferred to all others?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of
+which several were repetitions of previous productions. One
+was the celebrated group representing the &ldquo;Parting of Venus
+and Adonis.&rdquo; This famous production was sent to Naples. The
+French Revolution was now extending its shocks over Italy;
+and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native Passagno.
+Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a
+year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had
+some knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings
+about this time. One of his productions is a picture representing
+the dead body of the Saviour just removed from the cross,
+surrounded by the three Marys, S. John, Joseph of Arimathea,
+and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus. Above appears
+the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory, and
+surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was
+greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his
+native place. Events in the political world having come to a
+temporary lull, he returned to Rome; but his health being
+impaired from arduous application, he took a journey through a
+part of Germany, in company with his friend Prince Rezzonico.
+He returned from his travels much improved, and again commenced
+his labours with vigour and enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>Canova&rsquo;s sculptures have been distributed under three
+heads:&mdash;(1) Heroic compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and
+elegance; and (3) Sepulchral monuments and relievos. In
+noticing the works which fall under each of these divisions, it
+will be impossible to maintain a strict chronological order, but
+perhaps a better idea of his productions may thus be obtained.
+Their vast number, however, prevents their being all enumerated.</p>
+
+<p>(1)  His &ldquo;Perseus with the Head of Medusa&rdquo; appeared soon
+after his return. The moment of representation is when the
+hero, flushed with conquest, displays the head of the &ldquo;snaky
+Gorgon,&rdquo; whilst the right hand grasps a sword of singular
+device. By a public decree, this fine work was placed in one of
+the <i>stanze</i> of the Vatican hitherto reserved for the most precious
+works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say that it
+wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier
+realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini.
+In 1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired
+to Paris to model a bust of the first consul. The artist was
+entertained with munificence, and various honours were
+conferred upon him. The statue, which is colossal, was not
+finished till six years after. On the fall of the great Napoleon,
+Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British government,
+by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington.
+&ldquo;Palamedes,&rdquo; &ldquo;Creugas and Damoxenus,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Combat of
+Theseus and the Centaur,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Hercules and Lichas&rdquo; may
+close the class of heroic compositions, although the catalogue
+might be swelled by the enumeration of various others, such as
+&ldquo;Hector and Ajax,&rdquo; and the statues of Washington,  King
+Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of &ldquo;Hercules and
+Lichas&rdquo; is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova&rsquo;s
+mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled.</p>
+
+<p>(2)  Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the
+statue of Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times
+has the artist embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each
+time with some variation. The only material improvement,
+however, is the substitution of a support more suitable to the
+simplicity of the art. Each of the statues is, in all its details, in
+expression, attitude and delicacy of finish, strikingly elegant.
+The &ldquo;Dancing Nymphs&rdquo; maintain a character similar to that of
+the Hebe. The &ldquo;Graces&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Venus&rdquo; are more elevated.
+The &ldquo;Awakened Nymph&rdquo; is another work of uncommon
+beauty. The mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa
+(as Concord), to model whom the author made a further journey
+to Paris in 1810, the princess Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia
+(Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in this class, as do the ideal
+heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, Beatrice and Helen
+of Troy.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid
+is the monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria,
+consisting of nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman
+pontiffs already mentioned, there is one for Alfieri, another for
+Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a small model of a cenotaph for
+Nelson, besides a great variety of monumental relievos.</p>
+
+<p>The events which marked the life of the artist during the first
+fifteen years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned
+works scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely
+absorbed in the labours of his studio, and, with the exception of
+his journeys to Paris, one to Vienna, and a few short intervals of
+absence in Florence and other parts of Italy, he never quitted
+Rome. In his own words, &ldquo;his statues were the sole proofs of
+his civil existence.&rdquo; There was, however, another proof, which
+modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence,
+especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the
+Pope to superintend the transmission from Paris of those works
+of art which had formerly been conveyed thither under the
+direction of Napoleon. By his zeal and exertions, for there
+were many conflicting interests to reconcile, he adjusted the
+affair in a manner at once creditable to his judgment and fortunate
+for his country. In the autumn of this year he gratified a wish he
+had long entertained of visiting London, where he received the
+highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed
+particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who
+might at the time be counted the sole representative of historical
+painting there, and whom he especially honoured for his championship
+of the Elgin marbles, then recently transported to
+England, and ignorantly depreciated by polite connoisseurs.
+Canova returned to Rome in the beginning of 1816, with the
+ransomed spoils of his country&rsquo;s genius. Immediately after,
+he received several marks of distinction,&mdash;by the hand of the
+Pope himself his name was inscribed in &ldquo;the Golden Volume of
+the Capitol,&rdquo; and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with
+an annual pension of 3000 crowns, about £625.</p>
+
+<p>He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of
+Religion. The model filled Italy with admiration; the marble
+was procured, and the chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied
+to it, when the jealousy of churchmen as to the site, or some other
+cause, deprived the country of the projected work. The mind of
+Canova was inspired with the warmest sense of devotion, and
+though foiled in this instance he resolved to consecrate a shrine to
+the cause. In his native village he began to make preparations
+for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the above
+statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were
+to repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired
+to Passagno in 1810. At a sumptuous entertainment which he
+gave to his workmen, there occurred an incident which marks
+the kindliness of his character. When the festivities of the day
+had terminated, he requested the shepherdesses and peasantgirls
+of the adjacent hamlets to pass in review before him, and to
+each he made a present, expending on the occasion about £400.
+We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few years afterwards,
+when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in their last
+asylum, the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was
+in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity
+of more pompous mourning.</p>
+
+<p>After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he
+continued to visit Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and
+encourage them with pecuniary rewards and medals. In the
+meantime the vast expenditure exhausted his resources, and
+compelled him to labour with unceasing assiduity notwithstanding
+age and disease. During the period which intervened between
+commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he executed
+or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were
+the group &ldquo;Mars and Venus,&rdquo; the colossal figure of Pius VI., the
+&ldquo;Pietà,&rdquo; the &ldquo;St John,&rdquo; the &ldquo;recumbent Magdalen.&rdquo; The
+last performance which issued from his hand was a colossal bust
+of his friend, the Count Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to
+Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an
+equestrian statue of the perjured Bourbon king Ferdinand.
+This journey materially injured his health, but he rallied again on
+his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the year he paid
+his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he experienced a
+relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the
+13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease
+was one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the
+continual use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs.
+The most distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains,
+which were deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of
+the same month.</p>
+
+<p>Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in
+Italy, and brought it back to that standard from which it had
+declined when the sense both of classical beauty and moderation,
+and of Titanic invention and human or superhuman energy as
+embodied by the unexampled genius of Michelangelo, had
+succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of the 17th
+and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a special
+method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble.
+He formed his models of the same size as the work was intended
+to be. The prominent defect of Canova&rsquo;s attractive and highly
+trained art is that which may be summed up in the word artificiality,&mdash;that
+quality, so characteristic of the modern mind, which
+seizes upon certain properties of conception and execution in the
+art of the past, and upon certain types of beauty or emotion in
+life, and makes a compound of the two&mdash;regulating both by the
+standard of taste prevalent in contemporary &ldquo;high society,&rdquo; a
+standard which, referring to cultivation and refinement as its
+higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of his moral
+character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most
+prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized
+by his works was distributed in acts of this description. He
+established prizes for artists and endowed all the academies of
+Rome. The aged and unfortunate were also the objects of his
+peculiar solicitude. His titles were numerous. He was enrolled
+amongst the nobility of several states, decorated with various orders
+of knighthood, and associated in the highest professional honours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life of Canova</i> by Memes; that by Missirini; the <i>Biografia</i>
+by the Count Cicognara; <i>Canova et ses ouvrages</i>, by Quatremère de
+Quincy (1834); <i>Opere scelte di Antonio Canova</i>, by Anzelmi (Naples,
+1842); <i>Canova</i>, by A.G. Meyer (1898); and <i>La Relazione del Canova
+con Napoli ... memorie con documenti inediti</i>, by Angelo Borzelli
+(1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1828-1897), Spanish
+statesman, was born in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828.
+Educated in his native town, he went to Madrid in 1845, bent
+upon finding means to complete his literary and philosophical
+studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebañez Calderon, found him
+a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but Canovas
+soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to support
+himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University.
+During this period he published his two best works&mdash;an historical
+novel, <i>Las Campanas de Huesca</i>, and the history of the decay of
+Spain from Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria.
+He became a politician through his Junius-like letters to the
+&ldquo;Murcielago&rdquo;&mdash;<i>The Bat</i>, a satirical political journal&mdash;and by
+drawing up the manifesto of Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal
+O&rsquo;Donnell, of whom he always remained a loyal adherent.
+Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor of
+Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858,
+under-secretary at the home office in 1860, minister of the
+interior in 1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of
+finance in 1866, and was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same
+year, afterwards becoming a bitter opponent of all the reactionary
+cabinets until the revolution of 1868. He took no part in
+preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes Constituyentes of
+1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all Radical and
+democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but he
+abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on
+the 16th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his
+political friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets
+of King Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would
+depend on the concessions which government would make to
+Conservative principles. After the abdication of Amadeus and
+the proclamation of the federal republic, Canovas took the lead
+of the propaganda in favour of the restoration of the Bourbons,
+and was their principal agent and adviser. He drew up the
+manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XII., at
+that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the
+military men who were actively conspiring to organize an
+Alphonsist <i>pronunciamiento</i>. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del
+Duero, he would have preferred to let events develop enough to
+allow of the dynasty being restored without force of arms, and he
+severely blamed the conduct of the generals when he first heard
+of the <i>pronunciamiento</i> of Marshal Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta
+thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (30th of December 1874);
+but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed Alphonso
+XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received
+from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a
+regency ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who confirmed
+his appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier
+except during the short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in
+1875  and Marshal Campos for a few months in 1879. Canovas
+was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration. He had to reconstruct a
+Conservative party out of the least reactionary parties of the days
+of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate elements of the
+revolution. With such followers he made the constitution of
+1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise
+in the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience,
+rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking
+democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, conciliating
+the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican,
+the Church and the religious orders, pandering to the protectionists
+by his tariff policy, and courting abroad the friendship of
+Germany and Austria after contributing to the marriage of his
+king to an Austrian princess. Canovas crowned his policy by
+countenancing the formation of a Liberal party under Sagasta,
+flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal generals, which
+took office in 1881. He again became premier in 1883, and
+remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very unpopular,
+and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his
+violent repression of popular and press demonstrations, and of
+student riots in Madrid and the provinces. At the death of
+Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen regent to send for
+Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he looked on
+quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and most
+of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of free
+trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the
+queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff
+policy of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce,
+and passing in 1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the
+starting-point of the decline in foreign trade, the advance of
+foreign exchanges, the decay of railway traffic, and the monetary
+and financial crisis which continued from 1892 to 1898. Splits in
+the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to resign at the end of
+1893, and Sagasta came in for eighteen months, Canovas
+resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of
+the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts,
+with characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and
+means for sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out
+his stern and unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions
+and no reforms. He was making up his mind for another effort
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+to enable General Weyler to enforce the reforms that had
+been wrung from the Madrid government, more by American
+diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the bullet of
+an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda, cut
+short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the
+greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He
+was not only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of
+considerable merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic
+and philosophical questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a
+member of all the Madrid academies and a patron of art and
+letters.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. E. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANROBERT, FRANÇOIS CERTAIN<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1809-1895), marshal of
+France, was born at St Céré (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and
+educated at St Cyr; he received a commission as sub-lieutenant
+in 1828, becoming lieutenant in 1833. He went to Algeria in
+1835, served in the expedition to Mascara, at the capture of
+Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year he was
+wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of
+Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing
+a battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841
+he was again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in
+1846 and colonel of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the
+expedition against Ahmed Sghir in 1848, and defeated the
+Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to the Zouaves, he
+defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage and
+energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in
+command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December
+1849). For his valour on the latter occasion he received the
+rank of general of brigade and the commandership of the Legion
+of Honour. He led the expedition against Narah in 1850 and
+destroyed the Arab stronghold. Summoned to Paris, he was
+made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis Napoleon, and took
+part in the <i>coup d&rsquo;etat</i> of the 2nd of December 1851. In the
+Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he
+was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling
+him to command in case of St Arnaud&rsquo;s death, and he thus
+succeeded to the chief command of the French army a few days
+after the battle. He was slightly wounded and had a horse
+killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of Zouaves.
+Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in
+general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the
+siege of Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he
+did not return to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old
+division almost up to the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to
+France he was sent on diplomatic missions to Denmark and
+Sweden, and made a marshal and senator of France (grand cross
+Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.). He commanded the
+III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing himself at
+Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp
+at Châlons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris.
+In the Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps,
+which won the greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte,
+where Canrobert commanded on the St Privat position. The
+VI. corps was amongst those shut up in Metz and included in the
+surrender of that fortress. After the war Canrobert was appointed
+a member of the superior council of war, and was also active in
+political life, being elected senator for Lot in 1876 and for
+Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the
+28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral.
+His <i>Souvenirs</i> were published in 1898 at Paris.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANT, ANDREW<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1590?-1663), a leader of the Scottish
+Covenanters. About 1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to
+be their minister, but he was rejected by James I. Ten years
+later he was minister of Pitsligo in Aberdeenshire, a charge
+which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in Mid-Lothian. In
+July of that year he went with other commissioners to Aberdeen
+in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery
+of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the
+following November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow
+which abolished episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was chaplain
+to the Scottish army and then settled as minister at Aberdeen.
+Though a stanch Covenanter, he was a zealous Royalist,
+preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and stoutly advocating
+the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the Commonwealth.
+Cant&rsquo;s frequent and bitter attacks on various members of his
+congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magistrates,
+in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son
+Andrew was principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANT,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. <i>cantos</i>, corner),
+in architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut
+off, octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of
+which are not parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said
+to be canted. (2) (From the Lat. <i>cantare</i>, to sing, very early in
+use, in a depreciatory sense, of religious services), a word appearing
+in English in the 16th century &lsquo;for the whining speech of
+beggars; hence it is applied to thieves&rsquo; or gipsies&rsquo; jargon, to the
+peculiar language of any class or sect, to any current phrase or
+turn of language, and particularly to the hypocritical use of
+pious phraseology.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTABRI,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast
+of Spain near Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind&mdash;a
+district hence known as Cantabria. Savage and untameable
+mountaineers, they long defied the Roman arms and made themselves
+a name for wild freedom. They were first attacked by the
+Romans about 150 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; they were not subdued till Agrippa and
+Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) which
+ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land
+was part of the province Hispania Tarraconensis with some
+measure of local self-government. They became slowly Romanized,
+but developed little town life and are rarely mentioned in
+history. They provided recruits for the Roman <i>auxilia</i>, like
+their neighbours the Ast&#365;res, and their land contained lead mines,
+of which, however, little is known.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Span. <i>Cordillera Cantabrica</i>),
+a mountain chain which extends for more than 300 m. across
+northern Spain, from the western limit of the Pyrenees to the
+borders of Galicia, and on or near the coast of the Bay of Biscay.
+The Cantabrians stretch from east to west, nearly parallel to the
+sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos, afterwards trending southward
+between Leon and Galicia. Their western boundary is
+marked by the valley of the river Miño (Portuguese Minho), by
+the lower Sil, which flows into the Miño, and by the Cabrera,
+a small tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the
+mountains of Galicia beyond the Miño as an integral part of the
+same system; others confine the name to the eastern half of the
+highlands between Galicia and the Pyrenees, and call their
+western half the Asturian Mountains. There are also many
+local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a
+whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their
+intricate ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in
+the east, it is possible to distinguish two principal ranges,
+from which the lesser ridges and mountain masses radiate. One
+range, or series of ranges, closely follows the outline of the coast;
+the other, which is loftier, forms the northern limit of the great
+tableland of Castile and Leon, and is sometimes regarded as a
+continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal range rises in some
+parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so abrupt a
+declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and
+swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus
+of Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the
+Ebro, rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the
+Cantabrian chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about
+60 m. in the east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are
+upwards of 6000 ft. high, but the greatest altitudes are attained
+in the central ridges on the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia
+and Santander. Here are the Peña Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta
+(8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an unnamed summit in
+the Peñas de Europa, to which range the Peña Vieja also belongs,
+rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045 ft.; farther
+west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubiña, Rubia and Cuiña all exceed
+7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent
+tableland, is the number of its <i>parameras</i>, isolated plateaus shut
+in by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At
+the south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+lake-bed, now a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by
+mountains which bifurcate from the main range south of the
+pass of Leitariegos&mdash;the Sierra de Justredo and Montañas de
+Leon curving towards the east and south-west, the Sierra de
+Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges curving towards the
+west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in coal and iron;
+an account of their geological structure is given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>.
+They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their
+eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of
+Pájares, the railway from Leon to Gijón passes through the
+Perruca tunnel, which is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level;
+the railway descends northward through fifty-eight smaller
+tunnels. The line from Leon to Orense also traverses a remarkable
+series of tunnels, bridges and deep cuttings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTACUZINO,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> <span class="sc">Cantacuzen</span> or <span class="sc">Cantacuzene</span>, the name
+of a family which traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and
+writers of the same name (see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John V.</a></span>, Cantacuzene).
+The founder of the family, Andronik, migrated to Rumania in
+1633, and from his two sons Constantine and Gheorge sprang the
+two principal lines which afterwards branched into numerous
+families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars
+(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were
+represented in every branch of administration and in the world
+of letters. Under their influence the Rumanian language and
+literature in the 17th century reached their highest development.
+Among the more prominent members of the family the following
+may be mentioned, (1) <span class="sc">Sherban Cantacuzino</span> (1640-1688),
+appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the
+Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is
+alleged that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople
+to drive the Turks out of Europe, the western powers having
+promised him their moral support. In the midst of his preparations
+he died suddenly, poisoned, it is said, by the boyars who
+were afraid of his vast plans. Far more important was his activity
+in economic and literary directions. He introduced the maize
+into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the country. He
+founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted
+liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and
+under his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in
+Bucharest in 1688. Through his influence also the Slavonic
+language was officially and finally abolished from the liturgy
+and the Rumanian language substituted for it. (2) <span class="sc">Stefan
+Cantacuzino</span>, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia, 1714-1716.
+(3) <span class="sc">Demetrius Cantacuzino</span>, prince of Moldavia, 1674-1676.
+He left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and
+Sherban have emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there
+as governors of Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4)
+Of the Moldavian Cantacuzinos, <span class="sc">Theodore</span> is well known as a
+chronicler of his times (<i>c.</i> 1740). (5) <span class="sc">Gheorge Cantacuzino</span>
+(b. 1837), son of <span class="sc">Gregori</span> (1800-1849). He was appointed in
+1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in 1889, president
+of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from
+1899 he was head of the Conservative party, and from 1905
+to 1907 prime minister (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rumania</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+<div class="author">(M. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTAGALLO,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro,
+Brazil, about 100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro,
+with which it is connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop.
+(1890) of the municipality, 26,067, of whom less than one-fourth
+live in the town. Cantagallo is situated in the fertile Parahyba
+valley and is the commercial centre of a rich coffee-producing
+district. There are exhausted gold placer mines in its vicinity,
+but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable development
+in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry,
+but sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention
+is given to the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an
+excellent fruit region.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTAL,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a department of central France, formed from
+Haute-Auvergne, the southern portion of the old province of
+Auvergne. It is bounded N. by the department of Puy-de-Dôme,
+E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozère, S. by Aveyron and
+Lozère, and W. by Corrèze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 228,600. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central
+plateau of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal,
+a volcanic group occupying its central region, and continued
+towards the north and east by ranges of lower altitude. The
+Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit of the department,
+attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the Puy Mary
+and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft.
+respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies
+the lofty but fertile plateau of Planèze, which merges into the
+Monts de la Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the
+Truyère skirts the Planèze on the south and divides it from the
+Monts d&rsquo;Aubrac, at the foot of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted
+for its thermal springs, the most important in the department.
+Northwards the Monts du Cantal are connected with the Monts
+Dore by the volcanic range of Cézallier and the arid plateaus of
+Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus and
+beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central
+heights. Most of the streams of the department have their
+sources in this central ridge and fall by a short and rapid course
+into the rivers which traverse the extensive valleys on either side.
+The principal rivers are the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier;
+the Celle and Truyère, tributaries of the Lot; and the Cère and
+Rue, tributaries of the Dordogne. The climate of the department
+varies considerably in the different localities. In the
+alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour, and in the south-west
+in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally mild and
+dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are
+long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The
+cold and damp of the climate in these districts are great obstacles
+to the cultivation of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown
+in considerable quantities, and in natural pasture Cantal is
+extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly reared with profit,
+especially around Salers and in the Monts d&rsquo;Aubrac, while butter
+and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large flocks
+of sheep pasture in the Monts d&rsquo;Aubrac and elsewhere in the
+department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple
+and primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare.
+Many of them migrate for part of the year to Paris and the provinces,
+where they engage in the humblest occupations. The
+principal articles of food are rye, buckwheat and chestnuts.
+The internal resources of the department are considerable; but
+the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them being sufficiently
+developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and the
+streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic
+and medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal,
+antimony and lime. The department has no prominent manufactures.
+Live-stock, cheese, butter and coal are the principal
+exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour and earthenware are imported.
+The department is served by the railways of the Orléans
+and Southern companies, the construction of which at some
+points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the
+case of the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyère.
+Cantal is divided into four arrondissements&mdash;Aurillac, Mauriac,
+Murat and St Flour&mdash;23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs
+to the region of the XIII. army corps and to the académie
+(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is
+at St Flour and depends on the archbishopric of Bourges. Its
+court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is Aurillac (<i>q.v.</i>), and
+St Flour (<i>q.v.</i>) is the other principal town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTARINI, SIMONE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1612-1648), called <span class="sc">Simone da Pesaro</span>,
+painter and etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 1612.
+He was a disciple of Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domenichino
+and Albano. The irritability of his temper and his vanity
+were extreme; and it is said that his death, which took place
+at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by chagrin at his failure in
+a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others relate that he was
+poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. His
+pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in originality.
+Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido
+Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the
+extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are
+&ldquo;St Anthony,&rdquo; at Cagli; the &ldquo;Magdalene,&rdquo; at Pesaro; the
+&ldquo;Transfiguration,&rdquo; in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the &ldquo;Portrait
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+of Guido,&rdquo; in the Bologna gallery; and &ldquo;St Romuald,&rdquo; in the
+Casa Paolucci. His most celebrated etching is &ldquo;Jupiter,
+Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal Borghese.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTATA<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal
+composition accompanied by instruments and generally containing
+more than one movement. In the 16th century, when
+all serious music was vocal, the term had no reason to exist, but
+with the rise of instrumental music in the 17th century cantatas
+began to exist under that name as soon as the instrumental art
+was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the middle
+of the 17th till late in the 18th century a favourite form of Italian
+chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with
+accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo
+instruments. It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative
+or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated
+at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the church music
+of Carissimi; and the English vocal solos of Purcell (such as
+<i>Mad Tom</i> and <i>Mad Bess</i>) show the utmost that can be made of
+this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the cantata
+became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative.
+Handel&rsquo;s numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a
+rather large scale. His Latin motet <i>Silete Venti</i>, for soprano
+solo, shows the use of this form in church music.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large
+scale, to become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera.
+In the same way the church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable
+from a small oratorio or portion of an oratorio.
+This is equally evident whether we examine the unparalleled
+church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant, or the
+<i>Chandos Anthems</i> of Handel. In Bach&rsquo;s case many of the
+larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the <i>Christmas
+Oratorio</i> is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended
+for performance on six different days, though together forming
+as complete an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.</p>
+
+<p>The essential point, however, in Bach&rsquo;s church cantatas is
+that they formed part of a church service, and moreover of
+a service in which the organization of the music was far more
+coherent than is possible in the Anglican church. Many of
+Bach&rsquo;s greatest cantatas begin with an elaborate chorus followed
+by a couple of arias and recitatives, and end with a plain chorale.
+This has often been commented upon as an example of Bach&rsquo;s
+indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no
+one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church
+cantata occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was
+carefully based upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless
+the cantata was short the sermon probably took place after the
+first chorus or one of the arias, and the congregation joined in
+the final chorale. Thus the unity of the service was the unity
+of the music; and, in the cases where all the movements of the
+cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune, this
+unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century
+masses and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones
+of the festival for which they are written.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively
+to choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has,
+perhaps, been only one kind of cantata since Bach which can
+be recognized as an art form and not as a mere title for works
+otherwise impossible to classify. It is just possible to recognize
+as a distinct artistic type that kind of early 19th-century cantata
+in which the chorus is the vehicle for music more lyric and songlike
+than the oratorio style, though at the same time not <span class="correction" title="amended from exclude ing">excludeing</span>
+the possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light
+order of fugue. Beethoven&rsquo;s <i>Glorreiche Augenblick</i> is a brilliant
+&ldquo;pot-boiler&rdquo; in this style; Weber&rsquo;s <i>Jubel Cantata</i> is a typical
+specimen, and Mendelssohn&rsquo;s <i>Walpurgisnacht</i> is the classic.
+Mendelssohn&rsquo;s &ldquo;Symphony Cantata,&rdquo; the <i>Lobgesang</i>, is a hybrid
+work, partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic
+movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven&rsquo;s
+ninth symphony; but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven&rsquo;s
+work is a symphony of which the fourth movement is
+a choral finale of essentially single design, whereas Mendelssohn&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Symphony Cantata&rdquo; is a cantata with three symphonic
+preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral
+songs were realized at last by Brahms in his <i>Rinaldo</i>, set to a
+text which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of
+the <i>Walpurgisnacht</i>. The point of Brahms&rsquo;s work (his only
+experiment in this <i>genre</i>) has naturally been lost by critics who
+expected in so voluminous a composition the qualities of an
+elaborate choral music with which it has nothing whatever
+to do. Brahms has probably said the last word on this subject;
+and the remaining types of cantata (beginning with Beethoven&rsquo;s
+<i>Meeres-stille</i>, and including most of Brahms&rsquo;s and many notable
+English small choral works) are merely so many different ways
+of setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be
+comprised in one movement.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTEEN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>cantine</i>, from Ital. <i>cantina</i>, a
+cellar), a word chiefly used in a military sense for an official
+sutler&rsquo;s shop, where provisions, &amp;c., are sold to soldiers. The
+word was formerly applied also to portable equipments for carrying
+liquors and food, or for cooking in the field. Another sense
+of the word, which has survived to the present day, is that of a
+soldier&rsquo;s water-bottle, or of a small wooden or metal can for
+carying a workman&rsquo;s liquor, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTEMIR,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin,
+which came from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled in
+Moldavia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Constantine Cantemir</span> became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-1693.
+He was a good and conscientious ruler, who protected
+the people from the rapacity of the tax-gatherers and introduced
+peace into his country. He was succeeded on the throne by his
+son Antioch, who ruled twice, 1696-1700 and 1705-1707.</p>
+
+<p>His youngest brother, <span class="sc">Demetrius</span> or <span class="sc">Demeter Cantemir</span>
+(b. October 26, 1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 1710; he
+ruled only one year, 1710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great
+in his campaign against the Turks and placed Moldavia under
+Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks, Cantemir emigrated
+to Russia, where he and his family finally settled. He died at
+Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest linguists
+of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being
+well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and
+original writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his
+writings range over many subjects. The best known is his
+<i>History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire</i>. He also
+wrote a history of oriental music, which is no longer extant; the
+first critical history of Moldo-Walachia; the first geographical,
+ethnographical and economic description of Moldavia, <i>Descriptio
+Moldaviae</i>, under the name of <i>Historia Hieroglyphica</i>, to
+which he furnished a key, and in which the principal persons are
+represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling
+houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical
+treatise on the old theme of the disputation between soul and
+body, written in Greek and Rumanian under the title <i>Divanul
+Lumii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The latter&rsquo;s son, <span class="sc">Antioch Cantemir</span> (born in Moldavia, 1700;
+died in Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great
+Britain, and in 1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He
+brought to London the Latin MS. from whence the English
+translation of his father&rsquo;s history of the Turkish empire was made
+by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an exhaustive
+biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He
+was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in
+modern Russian literature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;<i>Operele Principelui D. Cantemir</i>, ed. Academia
+Român&#259; (1872 foll.); A. Philippide, <i>Introducere in istoria limbei si
+literat. romane</i> (Iasi, 1888), pp. 192-202; O.G. Lecca, <i>Familiile
+boeresti romane</i> (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M. Gaster, <i>Chrestom.
+româna</i>, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span>
+(1780-1845), speaker of the House of Commons, was the
+elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton (<i>q.v.</i>), afterwards archbishop
+of Canterbury, and was born on the 29th of January 1780.
+Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he graduated
+B.A. in 1802, and was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1806.
+At the general election of this year he was returned to parliament
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span>
+in the Tory interest as member for Scarborough, and in 1809
+became judge-advocate-general in the ministry of Spencer
+Perceval. He retained this position until June 1817, when he
+was elected speaker in succession to Charles Abbot, created
+Baron Colchester, refusing to exchange this office in 1827 for
+that of home secretary. In 1832 he abandoned Scarborough and
+was returned to parliament as one of the members for the
+university of Cambridge. Before the general election of 1832
+Manners-Sutton had intimated his desire to retire from the
+position of speaker and had been voted an annuity of £4000 a
+year. The ministry of Earl Grey, however, reluctant to meet
+the reformed House of Commons with a new and inexperienced
+occupant of the chair, persuaded him to retain his office, and in
+1833 he was elected speaker for the seventh time. Some feeling
+had been shown against him on this occasion owing to his Tory
+proclivities, and the Whigs frequently complained that outside
+the House he was a decided partisan. The result was that when
+a new parliament met in February 1835 a sharp contest ensued
+for the speakership, and Manners-Sutton was defeated by James
+Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline. In March 1835 the
+retiring speaker was raised to the peerage as Baron Bottesford
+and Viscount Canterbury. In 1835 he was appointed high
+commissioner for Canada, but owing to domestic reasons he
+never undertook the appointment. He died in London on the
+21st of July 1845 and was buried at Addington. His first wife
+was Lucy (d. 1815), daughter of John Denison of Ossington, by
+whom he had two sons and a daughter. Both his sons, Charles
+John (1812-1869), and John Henry Thomas (1814-1877),
+succeeded in turn to the viscounty. By his second wife, Ellen
+(d. 1845), widow of John Home-Purves, he had a daughter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTERBURY,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a city and county of a city, the metropolis of
+an archdiocese of the Church of England, and a municipal,
+county and parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 62 m.
+E.S.E, of London by the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway.
+Pop. (1901) 24,889. It lies on the river Stour, which here
+debouches from a beautiful narrow valley of the North Downs,
+the low but abrupt elevations of which command fine views of
+the city from the west and south, while the river presently enters
+upon the flat belt of land which separates the elevated Isle of
+Thanet from the rest of Kent. This belt represents the existence,
+in early historic times, of a sea-strait, and Fordwich, little more
+than 2 m. north-east of Canterbury, was once accessible for shipping.
+The city surrounds the precincts of the great cathedral.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cathedral</i>.&mdash;It was to Canterbury, as the capital of
+Aethelberht, the fourth Saxon king of Kent, that in 597 Augustine
+and his fellow-missionaries came from Rome, and their settlement
+by Aethelberht in his capital became the origin of its
+position, held ever since, as the metropolis of the Church of
+England. Aethelberht, whose queen, Bertha, was already a
+Christian, gave the missionaries a church whose mythical founder
+was King Lucius. Augustine was a Benedictine and established
+the monastery of that order attached to the cathedral; this
+foundation was set upon a firm basis after the Norman Conquest
+by Archbishop Lanfranc, who placed its charge (as distinct from
+that of the diocese) in the hands of a prior.</p>
+
+<p>Preparatory to the description of the cathedral, the principal
+epochs in the history of its erection may be noted. The Romano-British
+church occupied by St Augustine, of basilica
+form, remained long in use, though it was largely
+<span class="sidenote">History of the building.</span>
+rebuilt by Archbishop Odo, <i>c.</i> 950; after further
+vicissitudes it was destroyed by fire in 1067. Archbishop
+Lanfranc, taking up his office in 1070, undertook the
+building of an entirely new church, but under Anselm (<i>c.</i> 1100)
+Prior Ernulf rebuilt the eastern part, and his successor Conrad
+carried on the work. A fire destroyed much of this part of the
+building in 1174, and from that year the architect, William of
+Sens, took up the work of rebuilding until 1178, when, on his
+suffering serious injury by falling from a scaffold, another
+William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carried on
+the work and completed it in 1184. In 1376 Archbishop
+Sudbury entered upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior
+Chillenden continued this under Archbishop Courtenay. The
+building of the central tower was undertaken <i>c</i>. 1495 by Prior
+Goldstone, with the counsel of Selling, his predecessor, and
+Archbishop Morton.</p>
+
+<p>This Perpendicular tower is the most notable feature of the
+exterior. It rises in two storeys to a height of 235 ft. from the
+ground, and is known variously as Bell Harry tower
+from the great bell it contains, or as the Angel steeple
+<span class="sidenote">Exterior.</span>
+from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly adorned the
+summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front
+by towers, whose massive buttresses, rising in tiers, serve to
+enhance by contrast the beautiful effect of the unbroken straight
+lines of Bell Harry tower. The south-western of these towers
+is an original Perpendicular structure by Prior Goldstone, while
+the north-western was copied from it in 1834-1840, replacing a
+Norman tower which had carried a spire until 1705 and had
+become unsafe. The north-west and south-west transepts are
+included in Chillenden&rsquo;s Perpendicular reconstruction; but east
+of these earlier work is met with. The south-east transept
+exhibits Norman work; the projecting chapel east of this is
+known as Anselm&rsquo;s tower. The cathedral terminates eastward in
+a graceful apsidal form, with the final addition of the circular
+eastern chapel built by William the Englishman, and known as
+the Corona or Becket&rsquo;s Crown. St Andrew&rsquo;s tower or chapel
+on the north side, corresponding to Anselm&rsquo;s on the south, is
+the work of Ernulf. From this point westward the various
+monastic buildings adjoin the cathedral on the north side, so
+that the south side is that from which the details of the exterior
+must be examined.</p>
+
+<p>When the nave of the cathedral is entered, the complete
+separation of the interior into two main parts, not only owing
+to the distinction between the two main periods of
+building; but by an actual structural arrangement,
+<span class="sidenote">Interior.</span>
+is realized as an unusual and, as it happens, a most impressive
+feature. In most English cathedrals the choir is separated from
+the nave by a screen; at Canterbury not only is this the case,
+but the separation is further marked by a broad flight of steps
+leading up to the screen, the choir floor (but not its roof) being
+much higher than that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding
+the nave, retained only the lower parts of some of the early
+Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers of the central tower
+arches. These piers were encased or altered on Perpendicular
+lines. In the choir, the late 12th-century work of the two
+Williams, the notable features are its great length, the fine
+ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed,
+a remarkable illustration of the transition between the Norman
+and Early English styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the
+shafts and mouldings strongly contrasting with the light stone
+which is the material principally used; and, finally, the graceful
+incurve of the main arcades and walls at the eastern end of the
+choir where it joins the chapel of the Trinity, an arrangement
+necessitated by the preservation of the earlier flanking chapels
+or towers of St Anselm and St Andrew. From the altar eastward
+the floor of the church is raised again above that of the choir.
+The choir screen was built by Prior de Estria, <i>c.</i> 1300. The
+organ is not seen, being hidden in the triforium and played from
+the choir. There are several tombs of archbishops in the choir.
+The south-east transept serves as the chapel of the King&rsquo;s school
+and exhibits the work of William of Sens in alteration of that
+of Ernulf. Anselm&rsquo;s chapel or tower, already mentioned, may
+be noticed again as containing a Decorated window (1336). This
+style is not common in the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the altar is Trinity Chapel, in the centre of which
+stood the celebrated shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The
+priory owed its chief fame to the murder of Archbishop
+Becket (1170) in the church, his canonization as St
+<span class="sidenote">Becket&rsquo;s shrine. Pilgrimages.</span>
+Thomas of Canterbury, and the resort of the Christian
+world on pilgrimage to his shrine. Miracles were
+almost immediately said to be worked at his grave in the crypt
+and at the well in which his garments had been washed; and
+from the time when Henry II. did his penance for the murder
+in the church, and the battle of Alnwick was gained over the
+Scots a few days afterwards&mdash;it was supposed as a result&mdash;the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span>
+fame of the martyr&rsquo;s power and the popularity of his worship
+became established in England. On the rebuilding of the
+cathedral after the fire of 1174, a magnificent shrine was erected
+for him in Trinity Chapel, which was built for the purpose, and
+became thronged for three centuries by pilgrims and worshippers
+of all classes, from kings and emperors downward. Henceforward
+the interests of the city became bound up in those of
+the cathedral, and were shown in the large number of hostels
+for the accommodation of pilgrims, and of shops containing
+wares especially suited to their tastes. A pilgrimage to Canterbury
+became not only a pious exercise, but a favourite summer
+excursion; and the poet Chaucer, writing in the 14th century,
+gives an admirable picture of such pilgrimages, with the manners
+and behaviour of a party of pilgrims, leisurely enjoying the
+journey and telling stories on the road. The English language
+even preserved two words originating in these customs&mdash;a
+&ldquo;canterbury,&rdquo; or a &ldquo;canterbury tale,&rdquo; a phrase used for a
+fiction, and a &ldquo;canter,&rdquo; which is a short form for a &ldquo;canterbury
+gallop,&rdquo; an allusion to the easy pace at which these pilgrimages
+were performed. The shrine with its vast collected wealth was
+destroyed, and every reminiscence connected with it as far as
+possible effaced, by King Henry VIII.&rsquo;s commissioners in 1538.
+But some of the beautiful old windows of stained glass, illustrating
+the miracles wrought in connexion with the saint, are preserved.
+The north-west transept was the actual scene of Becket&rsquo;s
+murder; the spot where he fell is shown on the floor, but this
+part of the building is of later date than the tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Close to the site of the shrine is the fine tomb of Edward the
+Black Prince, with a remarkable portrait effigy, and above it
+his helmet, shield and other equipment. There is also in this
+chapel the tomb of King Henry IV. The Corona, at the extreme
+cast of the church, contains the so-called St Augustine&rsquo;s chair
+in which the archbishops are enthroned. It is of marble, but
+its name is not deserved, as it dates probably from <i>c.</i> 1200. The
+western part of the crypt, beneath the choir, is the work of
+Ernulf, and perhaps incorporates some of Lanfranc&rsquo;s work.
+The chapel of St John or St Gabriel, beneath Anselm&rsquo;s tower,
+is still used for service, in which the French language is used;
+it was devoted to this purpose in 1561, on behalf of French
+Protestant refugees, who were also permitted to carry on their
+trade as weavers in the crypt. The eastern and loftier part of
+the crypt, with its apsidal termination, is the work of William
+the Englishman. Here for some time lay the body of Becket,
+and here the celebrated penance of Henry II. was performed.</p>
+
+<p>The chief entrance to the precincts is through an ornate gateway
+at the south-west, called Christchurch gateway, and built
+by Prior Goldstone in 1517. Among the remains of
+the monastic buildings there may be mentioned the
+<span class="sidenote">Monastic buildings.</span>
+Norman ruins of the infirmary, the fine two-storeyed
+treasury and the lavatory tower, Norman in the lower part and
+Perpendicular in the upper. The cloisters are of various dates,
+containing a little rich Norman work, but were very largely
+rebuilt by Prior Chillenden. The upper part of the chapter-house
+is also his work, but the lower is by Prior de Estria. The
+library is modern. The site of the New Hall of the monastery
+is covered by modern buildings of King&rsquo;s school, but the Norman
+entry-stair is preserved&mdash;a magnificent example of the style,
+with highly ornate arcading.</p>
+
+<p>The principal dimensions of the cathedral arc: length (outside)
+522 ft., nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in
+breadth and 80 ft. in height.</p>
+
+<p>The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the
+ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England
+<span class="sidenote">Province and diocese.</span>
+and Wales south of Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the
+diocese covers a great part of Kent with a small part
+of Sussex. The following is a list of archbishops of
+Canterbury:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;1. Augustine, 597 to 605.</td> <td class="tcl">49. John Peckham, 1279 to 1292.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;2. Lawrence (Laurentius), 605 to 619.</td> <td class="tcl">50. Robert Winchelsea, 1293 to 1313.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;3. Mellitus, 619 to 624.</td> <td class="tcl">51. Walter Reynolds, 1313 to 1327.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;4. Justin. 624 to 627.</td> <td class="tcl">52. Simon de Meopham, 1328 to 1333.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;5. Honorius, 627 to 653.</td> <td class="tcl">53. John Stratford, 1333 to 1348.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;6. Deusdedit (Frithona), 655 to 664.</td> <td class="tcl">54. John de Ufford, 1348 to 1349.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;7. Theodore, 668 to 690.</td> <td class="tcl">55. Thomas  Bradwardin, 1349.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;8. Brethwald (Berhtuald), 693 to 731.</td> <td class="tcl">56. Simon Islip, 1349 to 1366.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;9. Taetwine. 731 to 734.</td> <td class="tcl">57. Simon Langham, 1366 to 1368.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">10. Nothelm, 734 to 740.</td> <td class="tcl">58. William Whittlesea, 1368 to 1374.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">11. Cuthbert, 740 to 758.</td> <td class="tcl">59. Simon Sudbury, 1375 to 1381.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">12. Breogwine, 759 to 762.</td> <td class="tcl">60. William Courtenay, 1381 to 1396.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">13. Jaenberht, 763 to 790.</td> <td class="tcl">61. Thomas Arundel, 1396 to 1414.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">14. Aethelhard, 790 to 803.</td> <td class="tcl">62. Henry Chicheley, 1414 to 1443.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">15. Wulfred, 803 to 829.</td> <td class="tcl">63. John Stafford, 1443 to 1452.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">16. Fleogild, 829 to 830.</td> <td class="tcl">64. John Kemp, 1452 to 1454.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">17. Ceolnoth, 830 to 870.</td> <td class="tcl">65. Thomas Bourchier, 1454 to 1486.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">18. Aethelred, 870 to 889.</td> <td class="tcl">66. John Morton, 1486 to 1500.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">19. Plegemund, 889 to 914.</td> <td class="tcl">67. Henry Dean (Dene), 1501 to 1503.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">20. Aethelm, 914 to 923.</td> <td class="tcl">68. William Warham, 1503 to 1532.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">21. Wulfelm, 923 to 942.</td> <td class="tcl">69. Thomas Cranmer, 1533 to 1556.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">22. Odo, 942 to 959.</td> <td class="tcl">70. Reginald Pole, 1556 to 1558.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">23. Aelsine, 959.</td> <td class="tcl">71. Matthew Parker, 1559 to 1575.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">24. Dunstan, 960 to 988.</td> <td class="tcl">72. Edmund Grindal, 1575 to 1583.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">25. Aethelgar, 988 to 989.</td> <td class="tcl">73. John Whitgift, 1583 to 1604.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">26. Sigeric, 990 to 994.</td> <td class="tcl">74. Richard Bancroft, 1604 to 1610.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">27. Aelfric, 995 to 1005.</td> <td class="tcl">75. George Abbot, 1610 to 1633.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">28. Alphege (Aelfeah), 1005 to 1012.</td> <td class="tcl">76. William Laud, 1633 to 1645.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">29. Lyfing, 1013 to 1020.</td> <td class="tcl">77. William Juxon, 1660 to 1663.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">30. Aethelnoth, 1020 to 1038.</td> <td class="tcl">78. Gilbert Sheldon, 1663 to 1677.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">31. Eadsige, 1038 to 1050.</td> <td class="tcl">79. William Sancroft, 1678 to 1691.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">32. Robert of Jumièges, 1051 to 1052.</td> <td class="tcl">80. John Tillotson, 1691 to 1694.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">33. Stigand, 1052 to 1070.</td> <td class="tcl">81. Thomas Tenison, 1694 to 1715.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">34. Lanfranc, 1070 to 1089.</td> <td class="tcl">82. William Wake, 1716 to 1737.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">35. Anselm, 1093 to 1109.</td> <td class="tcl">83. John Potter, 1737 to 1747.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">36. Ralph de Turbine,  1114 to 1122.</td> <td class="tcl">84. Thomas Herring, 1747 to 1757.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">37. William de Corbeuil (Curbellio), 1123 to 1136.</td> <td class="tcl">85. Matthew Hutton, 1757 to 1758.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">38. Theobald, 1139 to 1161.</td> <td class="tcl">86. Thomas Secker, 1758 to 1768.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">39. Thomas Becket, 1162 to 1170.</td> <td class="tcl">87. Frederick Cornwallis, 1768 to 1783.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">40. Richard, 1174 to 1184.</td> <td class="tcl">88. John Moore, 1783 to 1805.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">41. Baldwin, 1185 to 1190.</td> <td class="tcl">89. Charles Manners-Sutton, 1805 to 1828.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">42. Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn, 1191.</td> <td class="tcl">90. William Howley, 1828 to 1848.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">43. Hubert Walter, 1193 to 1205.</td> <td class="tcl">91. John Bird Sumner, 1848 to 1862.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">44. Stephen Langton, 1207 to 1228.</td> <td class="tcl">92. Charles Thomas Longley, 1862 to 1868.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">45. Richard Wethershed, 1229 to 1231.</td> <td class="tcl">93. Archibald Campbell Tait, 1868 to 1882.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">46. Edmund Rich (de Abbendon) 1234 to 1240.</td> <td class="tcl">94. Edward White Benson, 1882 to 1896.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">47. Boniface of Savoy, 1241 to 1270.</td> <td class="tcl">95. Frederick Temple, 1896 to 1903.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">48. Robert Kilwardby, 1273 to  1278.</td> <td class="tcl">96. Randall Thomas Davidson.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth Palace, London.
+There are fragments in Palace Street of the old archbishop&rsquo;s
+palace which have been incorporated with a modern palace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Ecclesiastical Foundations.</i>&mdash;Canterbury naturally
+abounded in religious foundations. The most important, apart
+from the cathedral, was the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine.
+This was erected on a site granted by King Aethelberht outside
+his capital, in a tract called Longport. Augustine dedicated
+it to St Peter and St Paul, but Archbishop Dunstan added the
+sainted name of the founder to the dedication, and in common
+use it came to exclude those of the apostles. The site is now
+occupied by St Augustine&rsquo;s Missionary College, founded in 1844
+when the property was acquired by A.J.B. Beresford Hope.
+Some ancient remnants are preserved, the principal being the
+entrance gateway (1300), with the cemetery gate, dated a century
+later, and the guest hall, now the refectory; but the scanty
+ruins of St Pancras&rsquo; chapel are of high interest, and embody
+Roman material. The chapel is said to have received its dedication
+from St Augustine on account of the special association of
+St Pancras with children, and in connexion with the famous
+story of St Gregory, w hose attention was first attracted to Britain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+when he saw the fair-faced children of the Angles who had been
+brought to Rome, and termed them &ldquo;not Angles but angels.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There were lesser houses of many religious orders in Canterbury,
+but only two, those of the Dominicans near St Peter&rsquo;s church
+in St Peter&rsquo;s Street, and the Franciscans, also in St Peter&rsquo;s
+Street, have left notable remains. The Dominican refectory is
+used as a chapel. Among the many churches, St Martin&rsquo;s,
+Longport, is of the first interest. This was the scene of the
+earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury, and had seen Christian
+service before his arrival. Its walls contain Roman masonry,
+but whether it is in part a genuine remnant of a Romano-British
+Christian church is open to doubt. There are Norman, Early
+English and later portions; and the font may be in part pre-Norman,
+and is indeed associated by tradition with the baptism
+of Aethelberht himself. St Mildred&rsquo;s church exhibits Early
+English and Perpendicular work, and the use of Roman material
+is again visible here. St Paul&rsquo;s is of Early English origin;
+St Dunstan&rsquo;s, St Peter&rsquo;s and Holy Cross are mainly Decorated
+and Perpendicular. The village of Harbledown, on the hill
+west of Canterbury on the London road, from the neighbourhood
+of which a beautiful view over the city is obtained, has many
+associations with the ecclesiastical life of Canterbury. It is
+mentioned by Chaucer in his pilgrimage under the name, appropriate
+to its site, of &ldquo;Bob up and down.&rdquo; The almshouses,
+which occupy the site of Lanfranc&rsquo;s hospital for lepers, include
+an ancient hall and a chapel in which the west door and northern
+nave arcade are Norman, and are doubtless part of Lanfranc&rsquo;s
+buildings. The neighbouring parish church is in great part
+rebuilt. Among the numerous charitable institutions in Canterbury
+there are several which may be called the descendants of
+medieval ecclesiastical foundations.</p>
+
+<p><i>City Buildings, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The old city walls may be traced, and
+the public walk called the Dane John (derived probably from
+<i>donjon</i>) follows the summit of a high artificial mound within
+the lines. The cathedral is finely seen from this point. Only
+the massive turreted west gate, of the later part of the 14th
+century, remains out of the former six city gates. The site of
+the castle is not far from the Dane John, and enough remains of
+the Norman keep to show its strength and great size. Among
+other buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the
+guildhall in High Street, of the early part of the 18th century;
+the museum, which includes a fine collection of local, including
+many Roman, relics; and the school of art, under municipal
+management, but founded by the painter T. Sidney Cooper
+(d. 1902), who was a resident at Harbledown. A modern statue
+of a muse commemorates the poet Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593),
+a native of the city; and a pillar indicates the place where
+a number of persons were burnt at the stake in the reign of Mary.</p>
+
+<p>The King&rsquo;s school, occupying buildings adjacent to the
+cathedral, developed out of the early teaching furnished by the
+monastery. It was refounded by Henry VIII. in 1541 (whence
+its name), and is managed on the lines of ordinary public schools.
+It has about 250 boys; and there is besides a junior or preparatory
+school. The school is still connected with the ecclesiastical
+foundation, the dean and chapter being its governors.</p>
+
+<p>A noted occasion of festivity in Canterbury is the Canterbury
+cricket-week, when the Kent county cricket eleven engages in
+matches with other first-class teams, and many visitors are
+attracted to the city.</p>
+
+<p>Canterbury has a considerable agriculture trade, breweries,
+tanneries, brickworks and other manufactures. The parliamentary
+borough returns one member. The city is governed by
+a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3955 acres.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of the City.</i>&mdash;The existence of a Romano-British town
+on the site of Canterbury has already been indicated. It was
+named <i>Durovernum</i>, and was a flourishing county town on the
+road from the Kentish ports to London. Mosaic pavements and
+other remains have been found in considerable abundance. The
+city, known by the Saxons as <i>Cantwaraburh</i>, the town of the men
+of Kent, was the metropolis of Aethelberht&rsquo;s kingdom. At the
+time of the Domesday survey Canterbury formed part of the
+royal demesne and was governed by a portreeve as it had been
+before the Conquest. In the 13th and 14th centuries, two
+bailiffs presided over the burghmote, assisted by a larger and
+smaller council. Henry II., by an undated charter, confirmed
+former privileges and granted to the citizens that no one should
+implead them outside the city walls and that the pleas of the
+crown should be decided according to the customs of the city.
+In 1256 Henry III. granted them the city at an annual fee farm
+of £60, also the right of electing their bailiffs. Confirmations
+of former charters with additional liberties were granted by later
+sovereigns, and Henry VI. incorporated Canterbury, which he
+called &ldquo;one of our most ancient cities,&rdquo; under the style of the
+mayor and commonalty, the mayor to be elected by the burgesses.
+James I. in 1609 confirmed these privileges, giving the burgesses
+the right to be called a body corporate and to elect twelve aldermen
+and a common council of twenty-four. Charles II., after
+calling in the charters of corporations, granted a confirmation in
+1684. Canterbury was first represented in parliament in 1283,
+and it continued to return two members until 1885, when the
+number was reduced to one. A fair was granted by Henry VI.
+to the citizens to be held in the city or suburbs on the 4th of
+August and the two days following; other fairs were in the
+hands of the monasteries; the corn and cattle markets and a
+general market have been held by prescription from time
+immemorial. Canterbury was a great centre of the silk-weaving
+trade in the 17th century, large numbers of Walloons, driven by
+persecution to England, having settled there in the reign of
+Elizabeth. In 1676 Charles II. granted a charter of incorporation
+to the Walloon congregation under style of the master, wardens
+and fellowship of weavers in the city of Canterbury. The market
+for the sale of corn and hops was regulated by a local act in 1801.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.P. Stanley, <i>Historical Memorials of Canterbury</i> (London,
+1855); J. Brent, <i>Canterbury in the Olden Time</i> (Canterbury, 1879);
+J.W. Legg and W.H. St J. Hope, <i>Inventories of Christchurch,
+Canterbury</i> (London, 1902); <i>Victoria County History, Kent</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTHARIDES,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Spanish Flies</span>, the common blister-beetles
+(<i>Cantharis vesicatoria</i>) of European pharmacy. They are
+bright, iridescent, golden-green or bluish-coloured beetles (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span>), with the breast finely punctured and pubescent,
+head and thorax with a longitudinal channel, and elytra with two
+slightly elevated lines. The insect is from half-an-inch to an inch
+in length, and from one to two lines broad, the female being
+broader in the abdomen and altogether larger than the male.
+It is a native of the south of Europe, being found in Spain,
+France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the south of Russia, and
+it is also obtained in Siberia. The Spanish fly is also occasionally
+found in the south of England. The insects feed upon ash, lilac,
+privet and jasmine leaves, and are found more rarely on elder,
+rose, apple and poplar trees. Their presence is made known by
+a powerful disagreeable odour, which penetrates to a considerable
+distance. They are collected for use at late evening or early
+morning, while in a dull bedewed condition, by shaking them off
+the trees or shrubs into cloths spread on the ground; and they
+are killed by dipping them into hot water or vinegar, or by exposing
+them for some time over the vapour of vinegar. They are
+then dried and put up for preservation in glass-stoppered
+bottles; and they require to be very carefully guarded against
+mites and various other minute insects, to the attacks of which
+they are peculiarly liable. It has been shown by means of
+spectroscopic observations that the green colour of the elytra,
+&amp;c., is due to the presence of chlorophyll; and that the variations
+of the spectral bands are sufficient, after the lapse of many
+years, to indicate with some certainty the kind of leaves on which
+the insects were feeding shortly before they were killed.</p>
+
+<p>Cantharides owe their value to the presence of a peculiar
+chemical principle, to which the name <i>cantharidin</i> has been given.
+It is most abundant in large full-grown insects, while in very
+young specimens no cantharidin at all has been found. From
+about one-fourth to rather more than one-half per cent, of
+cantharidin has been obtained from different samples; and it
+has been ascertained that the elytra or wing-sheaths of the
+insect, which alone are used in pharmacy, contain more of the
+active principle than the soft parts taken together; but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+apparently cantharidin is most abundant in the eggs and
+generative organs.</p>
+
+<p>Cantharidin constitutes from ½ to 1% of cantharides. It has the
+formula C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, and on hydrolysis is converted into cantharinic
+acid,  C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">14</span>O<span class="su">5</span>. It crystallizes in colourless plates and is
+readily soluble in alcohol, ether, &amp;c., but not in water. The
+British Pharmacopeia contains a large number of preparations of
+cantharides, but the only one needing special mention is the tincture,
+which is meant for internal administration; the small dose is
+noteworthy, five minims being probably the maximum for safety.</p>
+
+<p>The external action of cantharides or cantharidin is extremely
+characteristic. When it is applied to the skin there are no
+obvious consequences for some hours. Thereafter the part
+becomes warm and painful, owing to marked local vascular
+dilatation. This is the typical <i>rubefacient</i> action. Soon afterwards
+there is an accumulation under the epidermis of a serum
+derived from the dilated blood-vessels. The numerous small
+blisters or vesicles thus derived coalesce, forming a large sac full
+of &ldquo;blister-fluid.&rdquo; The drug is described as a counter-irritant,
+though the explanation of this action is very doubtful. Apparently
+there is an influence on the afferent nerves of the part
+which causes a reflex contraction&mdash;some authors say dilatation&mdash;of
+the vessels in the internal organs that are under the control of
+the same segment of the nervous system as that supplying the area
+of skin from which the exciting impulse comes. When applied
+in this fashion a certain quantity of the cantharides is absorbed.</p>
+
+<p>Taken internally in any but minute doses, the drug causes
+the most severe gastro-intestinal irritation, the vomited and
+evacuated matters containing blood, and the patient suffering
+agonizing pain and extreme depression. The further characteristic
+symptoms are displayed in the genito-urinary tract. The
+drug circulates in the blood in the form of an albuminate and is
+slowly excreted by the kidneys. The effect of large doses is to
+cause great pain in the renal region and urgent wish to micturate.
+The urine is nevertheless small in amount and contains albumen
+and blood owing to the local inflammation produced in the
+kidney by the passage of the poison through that organ. The
+drug often has a marked aphrodisiac action, producing priapism,
+or in the female sex the onset of the catamenia or abortion.</p>
+
+<p>Cantharides is used externally for its counter-irritant action.
+There are certain definite contra-indications to its use. It must
+not be employed in cases of renal disease, owing to the risks
+attendant upon absorption. It must always be employed with
+caution in the case of elderly persons and children; and it must
+not be applied to a paralysed limb (in which the power of healing
+is deficient), nor to parts upon which the patient lies, as otherwise
+a bed-sore is likely to follow its use. The drug is administered
+internally in certain cases of impotence and occasionally
+in other conditions. Its criminal employment is usually intended
+to heighten sexual desire, and has frequently led to death.</p>
+
+<p>The toxic symptoms have already been detailed, the patient
+usually dying from arrest of the renal functions. The treatment
+is far from satisfactory, and consists in keeping up the strength
+and diluting the poison in the blood and in the urine by the
+administration of bland fluids, such as soda-water, milk and plain
+water, in quantities as large as possible. External warmth should
+also be applied to the regions specially affected by the drug.</p>
+
+<p>A very large number of other insects belonging to the same
+family possess blistering properties, owing to their containing
+cantharidin. Of these the most remarkable is the Telini &ldquo;fly&rdquo;
+of India (<i>Mylabris cichorii</i>), the range of which extends from
+Italy and Greece through Egypt and central Asia as far as China.
+It is very rich in cantharidin, yielding fully twice as much as
+ordinary cantharides. Several green-coloured beetles are, on
+account of their colour, used as adulterants to cantharides, but
+they are very easily detected by examination with the eye, or,
+if powdered, with the microscope.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTICLES.<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> The Old Testament book of Canticles, or the
+Song of Solomon, is called in Hebrew <i>The Song of Songs</i> (that is,
+<i>the choicest of songs</i>), or, according to the full title which stands as
+the first verse of the book, <i>The choicest of the songs of Solomon</i>.
+In the Western versions the book holds the third place among
+the so-called Solomonic writings, following Proverbs and Ecclesiastes.
+In Hebrew Bibles it stands among the <i>Megilloth</i>, the five
+books of the Hagiographa which have a prominent place in the
+Synagogue service. In printed Bibles and in German MSS. it
+is the first of these because it is read at the Passover, which is
+the first great feast of the sacred year of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p>No part of the Bible has called forth a greater diversity of
+opinions than the Song of Solomon, and this for two reasons.
+In the first place, the book holds so unique a position in the
+Old Testament, that the general analogy of Hebrew literature
+is a very inadequate key to the verbal difficulties, the artistic
+structure, and the general conception and purpose of the poem.
+In point of language the departures from ordinary Hebrew are
+almost always in the direction of Aramaic. Many forms unique
+in Biblical Hebrew are at once explained by the Aramaic dialects,
+but not a few are still obscure. The philological difficulties
+of the book are, however, less fundamental than those which
+lie in the unique character of the Song of Solomon in point of
+artistic form, and in the whole atmosphere of thought and feeling
+in which it moves. Even in these respects it is not absolutely
+isolated. Parallels to the peculiar imagery may be found in
+the book of Hosea, in Ezekiel xvi. and xxiii. and above all in the
+45th Psalm; but such links of union to the general mass of the
+Old Testament literature are too slight to be of material assistance
+in the solution of the literary problem of the book. Here, again,
+as in the lexical difficulties already referred to, we are tempted
+or compelled to argue from the distant and insecure analogy
+of other Eastern literatures, or are thrown back upon traditions
+of uncertain origin and ambiguous authority.</p>
+
+<p>The power of tradition has been the second great source of
+confusion of opinion about the Song of Solomon. To tradition
+we owe the title, which apparently indicates Solomon as the
+author and not merely as the subject of the book. The authority
+of titles in the Old Testament is often questionable, and in the
+present case it is certain on linguistic grounds that the title is
+not from the hand that wrote the poem; while to admit that it
+gives a correct account of the authorship is to cut away at one
+stroke all the most certain threads of connexion between the
+book and our historical knowledge of the Old Testament people
+and literature.</p>
+
+<p>To tradition, again, we owe the prejudice in favour of an
+allegorical interpretation, that is, of the view that from verse
+to verse the Song sets forth the history of a spiritual and not
+merely of an earthly love. To apply such an exegesis to Canticles
+is to violate one of the first principles of reasonable interpretation.
+True allegories are never without internal marks of their
+allegorical design. The language of symbol is not so perfect
+that a long chain of spiritual ideas can be developed without
+the use of a single spiritual word or phrase; and even were this
+possible it would be false art in the allegorist to hide away his
+sacred thoughts behind a screen of sensuous and erotic imagery,
+so complete and beautiful in itself as to give no suggestion that
+it is only the vehicle of a deeper sense. Apart from tradition,
+no one, in the present state of exegesis, would dream of allegorizing
+poetry which in its natural sense is so full of purpose and
+meaning, so apt in sentiment, and so perfect in imagery as the
+lyrics of Canticles. We are not at liberty to seek for allegory
+except where the natural sense is incomplete. This is not the
+case in the Song of Solomon. On the contrary, every form of
+the allegorical interpretation which has been devised carries
+its own condemnation in the fact that it takes away from the
+artistic unity of the poem and breaks natural sequences of
+thought.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon
+bad its rise in the very same conditions which forced a deeper
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+sense, now universally discarded, upon so many other parts
+of scripture. Yet strangely enough there is no evidence that
+the Jews of Alexandria extended to the book their favourite
+methods of interpretation. The arguments which have been
+adduced to prove that the Septuagint translation implies an
+allegorical exegesis are inadequate;<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Philo does not mention
+the book. Nor is there any allusion to Canticles in the New Testament.
+The first trace of an allegorical view identifying Israel
+with the &ldquo;spouse&rdquo; appears to be in the Fourth Book of Ezra, near
+the close of the 1st Christian century (v. 24, 26; vii. 26). Up
+to this time the canonicity of the Canticles was not unquestioned;
+and the final decision as to the sanctity of the book, so energetically
+carried through by R. Aqiba, when he declared that &ldquo;the
+whole world is not worth the day on which the Song of Songs
+was given to Israel; for all the scriptures (or Hagiographa)
+are holy, but the Canticles most holy,&rdquo; must be understood as
+being at the same time a victory of the allegorical interpretation
+over the last remains of a view which regarded the poem as
+simply erotic.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The form in which the allegorical theory became fixed in the
+synagogue is contained in the Midrash <i>Chazita</i> and in the Targum,
+which is a commentary rather than a translation. The spouse
+is Israel, her royal lover the divine king, and the poem is explained
+as tracing the great events of the people&rsquo;s history from
+the Exodus to the Messianic glory and final restoration.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The authority of Origen, who, according to Jerome, surpassed
+himself in his commentary of ten volumes on this book, established
+the allegorical theory in the Christian church in the two
+main forms in which it has since prevailed. The bridegroom is
+Christ, the bride either the church or the believing soul. The
+latter conception is, of course, that which lends itself most
+readily to purposes of mystical edification, and which has
+made Canticles the manual in all ages of a wide-spread type of
+religious contemplation. But the other view, which identifies
+the bride with the church, must be regarded as the standard of
+orthodox exegesis. Of course the allegorical principle admitted
+of very various modifications, and readily adapted itself to new
+religious developments, such as the rise of Mariolatry. Within
+the limits of the orthodox traditions the allegory took various
+colours, according as its mystical or its prophetical aspect was
+insisted on. Among medieval commentators of the former class
+S. Bernard holds a pre-eminent place; while the second class is
+represented by Nicolaus de Lyra, who, himself a converted Jew,
+modified the Jewish interpretation so as to find in the book an
+account of the <i>processus ecclesiae</i> under the Old and New Testaments.
+The prophetic exegesis reached its culminating point
+in the post-Reformation period, when Cocceius found in the
+Canticles a complete conspectus of church history. But the
+relaxation of traditional authority opened the door to still
+stranger vagaries of interpretation. Luther was tempted to
+understand the book of the political relations of Solomon and
+his people. Others detected the loves of Solomon and Wisdom&mdash;a
+view which found a supporter in Rosenmüller.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the literal interpretation begins with the great
+&ldquo;commentator&rdquo; of the Syrian Church, Theodorus of Mopsuestia
+(died 429), who condemned equally the attempt to find in the
+book a prophecy of the blessings given to the church, and the
+idea even at that time expressed in some quarters that the book
+is immoral. Theodorus regarded the Canticles as a poem
+written by Solomon in answer to the complaints of his people
+about his Egyptian marriage; and this was one of the heresies
+charged upon him after his death, which led to his condemnation
+at the second council of Constantinople (553 <span class="sc">a.d.</span>). A literal
+interpretation was not again attempted till in 1544 Chateillon
+(Castellio or Castalion) lost his regency at Geneva for proposing
+to expel the book from the canon as impure. Grotius (<i>Annot.
+in V.T.</i>, 1644) took up a more moderate position. Without
+denying the possibility of a secondary reference designed by
+Solomon to give his poem a more permanent value, he regards
+the Canticles as primarily an <span class="grk" title="oaristys">&#8000;&#945;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#965;&#962;</span> (conjugal prattle) between
+Solomon and Pharaoh&rsquo;s daughter. The distinction of a primary
+and secondary sense gradually became current not only among
+the Remonstrants, but in England (Lightfoot, Lowth) and even
+in Catholic circles (Bossuet, 1693). In the actual understanding
+of the book in its literal sense no great progress was made.
+Solomon was still viewed as the author, and for the most part
+the idea that the poem is a dramatic epithalamium was borrowed
+from Origen and the allegorists, and applied to the marriage
+of Pharaoh&rsquo;s daughter.</p>
+
+<p>From Grotius to Lowth the idea of a typical reference designed
+by Solomon himself appears as a mere excrescence on the natural
+interpretation, but as an excrescence which could not be removed
+without perilling the place of Canticles in the canon, which,
+indeed, was again assailed by Whiston in 1723. But in his notes
+on Lowth&rsquo;s lectures, J.D. Michaelis, who regarded the poem as a
+description of the enduring happiness of true wedded love long
+after marriage, proposed to drop the allegory altogether, and to
+rest the canonicity of the book, as of those parts of Proverbs
+which treat of conjugal affection, on the moral picture it presents (1758).</p>
+
+<p>Then came Herder&rsquo;s exquisite little treatise on <i>Solomon&rsquo;s
+Songs of Love, the Oldest and Sweetest of the East</i> (1778). Herder,
+possessing delicacy of taste and sympathetic poetical genius,
+delighted in the Canticles as the transparently natural expression
+of innocent and tender love. He expressed the idea that the
+poem is simply a sequence of independent songs without inner
+unity, grouped so as to display various phases and stages of love
+in a natural order, culminating in the placid joys of wedded life.
+The theory of Herder, which refuses to acknowledge any continuity
+in the book, was accepted by Eichhorn on the part of
+scholars, and with some hesitation by Goethe on the part of the
+poets. Commentaries based on this view are those of Döpke
+(1829), Magnus (1842), Noyes (1846).</p>
+
+<p>The prevalent view of the 19th century, however, recognizes
+in the poem a more or less pronounced dramatic character, and
+following Jacobi (1771) distinguishes the shepherd, the true love
+of the Shulamite, from King Solomon, who is made to play an
+ignominious part. Propounded by Stäudlin (1792) and Ammon
+(1795), this view was energetically carried out by Umbreit (1820),
+and above all by Ewald, whose acuteness gave the theory a new
+development, while his commanding influence among Hebrew
+scholars acquired for it general recognition. Ewald assumed a
+very simple dramatic structure, and did not in his first publication
+(1826) venture to suppose that the poem had ever been acted
+on a stage. His less cautious followers have been generally
+tempted to dispose of difficulties by introducing more complicated
+action and additional interlocutors (so, for example, Hitzig,
+1855; Ginsburg, 1857; Renan, 1860); while Böttcher (1850)
+did his best to reduce the dramatic exposition to absurdity by
+introducing the complexities and stage effects of a modern
+operetta. Another view is that of Delitzsch (1851 and 1875)
+and his followers, who also plead for a dramatic form&mdash;though
+without supposing that the piece was ever acted&mdash;but adhere
+to the traditional notion that Solomon is the author, who celebrates
+his love to a peasant maiden, whom he made his wife, and
+in whose company the proud monarch learned to appreciate the
+sweetness of a true affection and a simple rustic life.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the prevalence of the &ldquo;dramatic&rdquo; theory of
+Canticles during the 19th century, and its retention by some
+comparatively recent writers (Oettli, Driver, Adeney, Harper),
+it seems desirable that this theory should be presented in some
+detail. A convenient summary of the form it assumed in the
+hands of Ewald (the shepherd-hypothesis) and of Delitzsch (the
+king-hypothesis) is given by Driver (<i>Literature of the Old
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+Testament</i>, ch. x. § 1). The following presentation of the theory,
+on the general lines of Ewald, gives that form of it which
+Robertson Smith was able to accept in 1876.</p>
+
+<p>The centre of attraction is throughout a female figure, and the
+unity of this figure is the chief test of the unity of the book. In
+the long canto, i. 1-ii .7, the heroine appears in a royal palace
+(i. 4) among the daughters of Jerusalem, who are thus presumably
+ladies of the court of Zion. At i. 9, an additional interlocutor is
+introduced, who is plainly a king, and apparently Solomon
+(i. 9, 12). He has just risen from table, and praises the charms
+of the heroine with the air of a judge of beauty, but without
+warmth. He addresses her simply as &ldquo;my friend&rdquo; (not as
+English version, &ldquo;my love&rdquo;). The heroine, on the contrary, is
+passionately in love, but nothing can be plainer than that the
+object of her affection is not the king. She is not at home in the
+palace, for she explains (i. 6) that she has spent her life as a
+peasant girl in the care of vineyards. Her beloved, whom she
+knows not where to find (i. 7), but who lies constantly on her
+heart and is cherished in her bosom like a spray of the sweet
+henna flowers which Oriental ladies delight to wear (i. 13, 14), is
+like herself a peasant&mdash;a shepherd lad (i. 7)&mdash;with whom she was
+wont to sit in the fresh greenwood under the mighty boughs of
+the cedars (i. 16, 17). Even before the king&rsquo;s entrance the ladies
+of the court are impatient at so silly an affection, and advise her,
+&ldquo;if she is really so witless,&rdquo; to begone and rejoin her plebeian
+lover (i. 8). To them she appeals in ii. 5, 6, where her self-control,
+strung to the highest pitch as she meets the compliments
+of the king with reminiscences of her absent lover, breaks down
+in a fit of half-delirious sickness. The only words directed to the
+king are those of i. 12, which, if past tenses are substituted for the
+presents of the English version, contain a pointed rebuff. Finally,
+ii. 7 is, on the plainest translation, a charge not to arouse love till
+it please. The moral of the scene is the spontaneity of true
+affection.</p>
+
+<p>Now, at viii. 5, a female figure advances leaning upon her
+beloved, with whom she claims inseparable union,&mdash;&ldquo;for love is
+strong as death, its passion inflexible as the grave, its fire a
+divine flame which no waters can quench or floods drown. Yea,
+if a man would give all his wealth for love he would only be
+contemned.&rdquo; This is obviously the sentiment of ii. 7, and the
+suitor, whose wealth is despised, must almost of necessity be
+identified with the king of chapter i., if, as seems reasonable, we
+place viii. ii, 12 in the mouth of the same speaker&mdash;&ldquo;King
+Solomon has vineyards which bring him a princely revenue, and
+enrich even the farmers. Let him and them keep their wealth;
+my vineyard is before me&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> I possess it in present fruition).
+The last expression is plainly to be connected with i. 6. But this
+happiness has not been reached without a struggle. The speaker
+has proved herself an impregnable fortress (ver. 10), and, armed
+only with her own beauty and innocence, has been in his eyes as
+one that found peace. The sense is that, like a virgin fortress,
+she has compelled her assailant to leave her in peace. To these
+marks of identity with the heroine of ch. i. are to be added that
+she appears here as dwelling in gardens, there as a keeper of
+vineyards (i. 6, and viii. 13), and that as there it was her brethren
+that prescribed her duties, so here she apparently quotes words in
+which her brothers, while she was still a child, speculated as to her
+future conduct and its reward (viii. 8, 9).</p>
+
+<p>If this analysis of the commencement and close of the book is
+correct, it is certain that the poem is in a sense dramatic, that is,
+that it uses dialogue and monologue to develop a story. The
+heroine appears in the opening scene in a difficult and painful
+situation, from which in the last chapter she is happily extricated.
+But the dramatic progress which the poem exhibits
+scarcely involves a plot in the usual sense of that word. The
+words of viii. 9, 10 clearly indicate that the deliverance of the
+heroine is due to no combination of favouring circumstances,
+but to her own inflexible fidelity and virtue.</p>
+
+<p>The constant direction of the maiden&rsquo;s mind to her true love is
+partly expressed in dialogue with the ladies of the court (the
+daughters of Jerusalem), who have no dramatic individuality,
+and whose only function in the economy of the piece is to give
+the heroine opportunity for a more varied expression of her
+feelings. In i. 8 we found them contemptuous. In chapter iii.
+they appear to be still indifferent; for when the heroine relates a
+dream in which the dull pain of separation and the uneasy
+consciousness of confinement and danger in the unsympathetic
+city disappear for a moment in imagined reunion with her lover,
+they are either altogether silent or reply only by taking up a
+festal part song describing the marriage procession of King
+Solomon (iii. 6-11), which stands in jarring contrast to the
+feelings of the maiden.<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> A second dream (v. 2-8), more weird
+and melancholy, and constructed with that singular psychological
+felicity which characterizes the dreams of the Old Testament,
+gains more sympathy, and the heroine is encouraged to
+describe her beloved at large (v. 10-vi. 3). The structure of
+these dialogues is so simple, and their purpose is so strictly
+limited to the exhibition of the character and affection of the
+maiden, that it is only natural to find them supplemented by a
+free use of pure monologue, in which the heroine recalls the
+happiness of past days, or expresses her rising hope of reunion
+with her shepherd, and restoration to the simple joys of her
+rustic life. The vivid reminiscence of ii. 8-17 takes the form of a
+dialogue within the main dialogue of the poem, a picture within a
+picture&mdash;the picture of her beloved as he stood at her window in
+the early spring time, and of her own merry heart as she laughingly
+answered him in the song with which watchers of the
+vineyards frighten away the foxes. It is, of course, a fault of
+perspective that this reminiscence is as sharp in outline and as
+strong in colour as the main action. But no one can expect
+perspective in such early art, and recollection of the past is
+clearly enough separated from present reality by ii. 16, 17. The
+last monologue (vii. 10-viii. 3), in which the hope of immediate
+return with her lover is tempered by maidenly shame, and a
+maiden&rsquo;s desire for her mother&rsquo;s counsel, is of special value
+for a right appreciation of the psychology of the love which
+the poem celebrates, and completes a picture of this flower
+of the northern valleys which is not only firm in outline, but
+delicate in touch. The subordinate action which supports the
+portraiture of the maiden of Galilee is by no means easy to
+understand.</p>
+
+<p>We come next to chapter vi., which again sings the praises
+of the heroine, and takes occasion in this connexion to introduce,
+with the same want of perspective as we observed in ch. ii.,
+a dialogue descriptive of Solomon&rsquo;s first meeting with the maiden.
+We learn that she was an inhabitant of Shulem or Shunem in
+Issachar, whom the king and his train surprised in a garden on
+the occasion of a royal progress through the north. Her beauty
+drew from the ladies of the court a cry of admiration. The
+maiden shrinks back with the reply&mdash;&ldquo;I was gone down into
+my garden to see its growth.... I know not how my soul
+hath brought me among the chariots of princes&rdquo;; but she is
+commanded to turn and let herself be seen in spite of her bashful
+protest&mdash;&ldquo;Why do ye gaze on the Shulamite as at a dance of
+Mahanaim (a spectacle)?&rdquo; Now the person in whose mouth
+this relation is placed must be an eye-witness of the scene, and
+so none other than the king. But in spite of the verbal repetition
+of several of the figures of ch. iv.... the tone in which the
+king now addresses the Shulamite is quite changed. She is
+not only beautiful but terrible, her eyes trouble him, and he
+cannot endure their gaze. She is unique among women, the choice
+and only one of her mother. The unity of action can only be
+maintained by ignoring vii. 1-9, and taking the words of Solomon
+in chapter vi. in their obvious sense as implying that the king
+at length recognizes in the maiden qualities of soul unknown in
+the harem, a character which compels respect, as well as a beauty
+that inflames desire. The change of feeling which was wrought
+in the daughters of Jerusalem in the previous scene now extends
+to Solomon himself, and thus the glad utterances of vii. 10, seq.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+have a sufficient motive, and the <i>dénouement</i> is no longer violent
+and unprepared.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>nodus</i> of the action is fully given in chapter i., the final
+issue in chapter viii. The solution lies entirely in the character
+and constancy of the heroine, which prevail, in the simplest
+possible way, first over the ladies of the court and then over
+the king.</p>
+
+<p>The attractiveness of the above theory cannot be denied;
+but it may be asked whether the attraction does not lie in the
+appeal to modern taste of a story which is largely the product
+of modern imagination. It supposes a freedom of intercourse
+between lovers inconceivable for the East. The initial situation
+of the maiden in the harem of Solomon is left as a problem for
+the reader to discover, until he comes to its supposed origin in
+vi. 11; the expedient might be granted in the case of one of
+Browning&rsquo;s <i>Men and Women</i>, but seems very improbable in
+the present case. The more elaborate dramatic theories can
+find no parallel in Semitic literature to the &ldquo;drama&rdquo; of Canticles,
+the book of Job being no exception to this statement; whilst
+even the simpler theories ask us to believe that the essential
+parts of the story&mdash;the rape of the Shulamite, the change in
+Solomon&rsquo;s disposition, her release from the harem&mdash;are to be
+supplied by the reader from obscure and disputable references.
+More serious still is the fact that any progress of action from
+first to last is so difficult to prove. In the first chapter we listen
+to a woman speaker desiring to be kissed by the man who has
+brought her into his chambers, and speaking of &ldquo;our bed&rdquo;;
+in the last we leave her &ldquo;leaning upon her beloved.&rdquo; The
+difficulties of detail are equally great. To suppose that all the
+male love-making, by hypothesis unsuccessful, belongs to
+Solomon, whilst the heroine addresses her passionate words to
+the continuously absent shepherd, is obviously unconvincing;
+yet, if this shepherd speaks in iv. 8-v. 1, how are we to explain
+his appearance in the royal harem? This and other difficulties
+were acknowledged by Robertson Smith, notably the presence
+of vii. 1-9, which he proposed to set aside as an interpolation,
+because of its sensuality and of the difficulty of working it into
+the dramatic scheme. The fact that this passage has subsequently
+become the central element in the new interpretation
+of the book is, perhaps, a warning against violent measures with
+difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>Attention has already been drawn to Herder&rsquo;s proposal,
+accepted by some later writers, including Diestel and Reuss, to
+regard the book as a collection of detached songs. This received
+new and striking confirmation from the anthropological data
+supplied by J.G. Wetstein (1873), Prussian consul at Damascus.
+His observations of the wedding customs of Syrian peasants led
+him to believe that Canticles is substantially a collection of
+songs originally sung at such festivities. Wetstein&rsquo;s contribution
+was republished shortly afterwards by Delitzsch, in an appendix
+to his <i>Commentary</i>; but it received little attention. The first
+amongst Old Testament scholars to perceive its importance
+seems to have been Stade, who accepted Wetstein&rsquo;s view in a
+footnote to his <i>History of the Jewish People</i> (ii. p. 197), published
+in 1888; to Budde, however, belongs the distinction of the
+systematic and detailed use of Wetstein&rsquo;s suggestions, especially
+in his <i>Commentary</i> (1898). This interpretation of the book is
+accepted by Kautzsch (1896), Siegfried (1898), Cheyne (1899),
+and other eminent scholars. The last-named states the theory
+tersely as follows: &ldquo;The book is an anthology of songs used at
+marriage festivals in or near Jerusalem, revised and loosely
+connected by an editor without regard to temporal sequence&rdquo;
+(<i>Ency. Bibl.</i> 691). The character of the evidence which has
+contributed to the acceptance of this view may be indicated
+in Wetstein&rsquo;s own statements:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The finest time in the life of the Syrian peasant consists of the
+first seven days after his wedding, in which he and his young wife
+play the part of king (<i>melik</i>) and queen (<i>melika</i>), both being so
+treated and served by their village and the invited communities of
+the neighbourhood. The majority of the greater village weddings
+fall in the month of March, the finest of the Syrian year. The
+winter rains being over, and the sun still refreshing, not oppressive
+as in the following months, the weddings are celebrated in the open
+air on the village threshing-floor, which at this time of the year is
+with few exceptions a flowery mead. ... We pass over the wedding-day
+itself with its displays, the sword-dance of the bride, and the
+great feast. On the morrow, bridegroom and bride awake as king
+and queen. Already before sunrise they receive the leader of the
+bridesmen, as their vizier, and the bridesmen themselves; the latter
+thereupon fetch the threshing-board and bring it to the threshing-floor,
+singing a rousing song of battle or love, generally both. There
+it is erected as a throne, and after the royal couple have taken their
+seats and the necessary formalities are gone through, a great dance
+in honour of the young couple begins; the accompanying song is
+concerned only with themselves, its principal element being the
+inevitable <i>wasf</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a description of the physical perfections of both
+and their ornaments. The eulogy of the queen is more moderate,
+and praises her visible, rather than veiled, charms; this is due to
+the fact that she is to-day a married woman, and that the <i>wasf</i>
+sung on the previous day during her sword-dance has left nothing
+to desire. This <i>wasf</i> is the weak element in Syrian wedding-songs
+according to our taste; its comparisons are to us frequently too
+clumsy and reveal the stereotyped pattern. It is the same with the
+little collection of charming wedding-songs and fragments of them
+which has been received into the canon of the Old Testament under
+the name of Canticles; the <i>wasf</i> (iv.&mdash;vii.) is considerably below the
+rest in poetical value. With this dance begin the sports, lasting
+seven days, begun in the morning on the first, shortly before midday
+on the other days, and continuing far into the night by the light of
+the fires that are kindled; on the last day alone all is over by sunset.
+During the whole week both royalties are in marriage attire, must do
+no work and have no cares; they have only to look down from the
+<i>merteba</i> (throne) on the sports carried on before them, in which they
+themselves take but a moderate part; the queen, however, occasionally
+gives a short dance to attract attention to her bridal attire.&rdquo;<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the general application of these and the related customs
+to the interpretation of the book, reference should be made to
+Budde&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>, which recognizes four <i>wasfs</i>, viz. iv. 1-7
+(describing the bride from head to breasts), v. 10-16 (the bridegroom),
+vi. 4-7 (similar to and partly repeating iv. 1-7), and
+vii. 1-9, belonging to the sword-dance of the bride, her physical
+charms being sung from feet to head (cf. vii. 1; &ldquo;Why look ye
+on the Shulamite as (on) a dance of camps?&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a war-dance).
+This dance receives its name from the fact that she dances it
+with a sword in her hand in the firelight on the evening of her
+wedding-day, and amid a circle of men and women, whilst such
+a <i>wasf</i> as this is sung by the leader of the choir. The passage
+relating to the litter of Solomon (iii. 6-11)&mdash;an old difficulty
+with the dramatizers&mdash;relates to the erection of the throne
+on the threshing-floor.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The terms &ldquo;Solomon&rdquo; and &ldquo;the
+Shulamite&rdquo; are explained as figurative references to the
+famous king, and to Abishag the Shulamite, &ldquo;fairest among
+women,&rdquo; on the lines of the use of &ldquo;king&rdquo; and &ldquo;queen&rdquo; noted
+above. Other songs of Canticles are referred by Budde to the
+seven days of festivities. It need hardly be said that difficulties
+still remain in the analysis of this book of wedding-songs;
+whilst Budde detects 23 songs, besides fragments, Siegfried
+divides the book into 10.<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Such differences are to be expected
+in the case of a collection of songs, some admittedly in dialogue
+form, all concerned with the common theme of the love of man
+and woman, and without any external indication of the transition
+from one song to the next.</p>
+
+<p>Further, we must ask whether the task has been complicated
+by any editorial rearrangement or interpolation; the collector
+of these songs has certainly not reproduced them in the order
+of their use at Syrian weddings. Can we trace any principle, or
+even any dominant thought in this arrangement? In this
+connexion we touch the reason for the reluctance of some scholars
+to accept the above interpretation, viz. the alleged marks of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+literary unity which the book contains (<i>e.g.</i> Driver, <i>loc. cit.</i>).
+These are (1) general similarity of treatment, seen in the use
+of imagery (the bride as a garden, iv. 12; vi. 2, 3), the frequent
+references to nature and to particular places, and the recurrence
+of descriptions of male and female beauty; (2) references to
+&ldquo;Solomon&rdquo; or &ldquo;the king,&rdquo; to &ldquo;the Shulamite&rdquo; and to &ldquo;the
+daughters of Jerusalem&rdquo; (from which, indeed, the dramatic
+theory has found its chief inspiration); (3) indications that the
+same person is speaking in different places (cf. the two dreams
+of a woman, and the vineyard references, i. 6; viii. 12); (4)
+repetitions of words and phrases especially of the refrains,
+&ldquo;disturb not love&rdquo; (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and &ldquo;until the day
+break&rdquo; (ii. 17; iv. 6). But of these (1) is no more than should
+be expected, since the songs all relate to the same subject, and
+spring from a common world of life and thought of the same
+group of people; (2) finds at least a partial parallel and explanation
+in the use of &ldquo;king&rdquo; and &ldquo;queen&rdquo; noted above; whilst
+(3) and (4) alone seem to require something more than the work
+of a mere collector of the songs. It is, of course, true that, in
+recurrent ceremonies, the same thought inevitably tends to
+find expression in the same words. But this hardly meets the
+case of the refrains, whilst the reference to the vineyard at beginning
+and end does suggest some literary connexion. It is to
+be noted that the three refrains &ldquo;disturb not love&rdquo; severally
+follow passages relating to the consummation of the sexual
+relation, whilst the two refrains &ldquo;until the day break&rdquo; appear
+to form an invitation and an answer in the same connexion,
+whilst the &ldquo;Omnia vincit Amor&rdquo; passage in the last chapter
+forms a natural climax (cf. Haupt&rsquo;s translation). So far, then,
+as this somewhat scanty evidence goes, it may point to some
+one hand which has given its semblance of unity to the book by
+underlining the joy of consummated love&mdash;to which the vineyard
+and garden figures throughout allude&mdash;and by so arranging the
+collection that the descriptions of this joy find their climax
+in viii. 6-7.<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Whatever conclusion, however, may be reached as to the
+present <i>arrangement</i> of Canticles, the recognition of wedding-songs
+as forming its nucleus marks an important stage in the
+interpretation of the book; even Rothstein (1902), whilst
+attempting to resuscitate a dramatic theory, &ldquo;recognizes...
+the possibility that older wedding-songs (as, for instance, the
+<i>wasfs</i>) are worked up in the Song of Songs&rdquo; (Hastings&rsquo; <i>D.B.</i>
+p. 594b). The drama he endeavours to construct might, indeed,
+be called &ldquo;The Tokens of Virginity,&rdquo; since he makes it culminate
+in the procedure of Deut. xxii. 13 f., which still forms part of
+the Syrian ceremonies. But his reconstruction is open to the
+same objection as all similar attempts, in that the vital moments
+of the dramatic action have to be supplied from without. Thus
+between v. 1 and v. 2, the baffled king is supposed to have disappeared,
+and to have been replaced by the happy lover;
+between viii. 7 and viii. 8, we are required to imagine &ldquo;the
+bridal night and its mysteries&rdquo;; whilst between viii. 9 and viii.
+10, we must suppose the evidence that the bride has been found
+a virgin is exhibited. He also attempts, with considerable
+ingenuity, to trace the legend involved in the supposed drama
+to the fact that Abishag remained a virgin in regard to David
+(I Kings i. 4) whilst nothing is said of her marriage to Solomon.<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>On the view accepted above, Canticles describes in a number
+of separate poems the central passion of human life, and is
+wholly without didactic tendencies. Of its earliest history as
+a book we have no information. It is already included in the
+Hebrew canon (though its right to be there is disputed) when
+the first explicit mention of the book occurs. We have no
+evidence, therefore, of the theory of interpretation prevalent
+at the time of its incorporation with the other books of the
+canon. It seems, however, fair to infer that it would hardly
+have found acceptance but for a Solomonic theory of authorship
+and a &ldquo;religious&rdquo; theory of meaning. The problem raised by
+its present place in the canon occurs in relation to mistaken
+Jewish theories about other books also; it suggests, at least,
+that divine inspiration may belong to the life of a people rather
+than to the letter of their literature. Of that life Canticles
+portrays a central element&mdash;the passion of love&mdash;in striking
+imagery and graceful language, however far its oriental standard
+of taste differs from that of the modern West.</p>
+
+<p>From the nature of the book, it is impossible to assign a
+precise date for its origin; the wedding-songs of which it chiefly
+consists must belong to the folklore of more than one century.
+The only evidence we possess as to date is drawn from the character
+of the Hebrew in which the book is written, which shows
+frequent points of contact with new Hebrew.<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> On this ground,
+we may suppose the present form of the work to date from the
+Greek period, <i>i.e.</i> after 332 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> This is the date accepted by
+most recent writers, <i>e.g.</i> Kautzsch, Cheyne, Budde, Rothstein,
+Jacob, Haupt. This late date finds some confirmation in the
+fact that Canticles belongs to the third and latest part of the Old
+Testament canon, and that its canonicity was still in dispute
+at the end of the 1st century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> The evidence offered for a
+north Israelite origin, on the ground of linguistic parallels and
+topographical familiarity (Driver, <i>loc. cit.</i>), does not seem very
+convincing; Haupt, however, places the compilation of the book
+in the neighbourhood of Damascus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Most of the older books of importance are named
+above; Ginsburg, <i>The Song of Songs</i> (1857), gives much information
+as to the history of the exegesis of Canticles; Diestel&rsquo;s
+article, &ldquo;Hohes Lied,&rdquo; in Schenkel&rsquo;s <i>Bibel Lexikon</i> (1871), reviews
+well the history of interpretation prior to Wetstein; cf. also Riedel,
+<i>Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes in der jüdischen Gemeinde und der
+griechischen Kirche</i> (1898). The most important commentary is
+that by Budde, in Marti&rsquo;s <i>Kurzer Hand-Commentar</i> (<i>Die fünf
+Megilloth</i>) (1898), where references to the literature of the 19th
+century are given. To his list add Siegfried, &ldquo;Prediger und Hoheslied,&rdquo;
+in Nowack&rsquo;s <i>Handkommentar</i> (1898); Cheyne&rsquo;s article
+&ldquo;Canticles,&rdquo; in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> (1899); Dalman, <i>Palästinischer
+Diwan</i> (1901), parallels to the songs; Rothstein&rsquo;s article,
+&ldquo;Song of Songs,&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i> (1902); G.
+Jacob, <i>Das Hohelied auf Grund arabischer und anderer Parallelen
+von neuem Untersucht</i> (1902); A. Harper, <i>The Song of Songs</i> (1902);
+Haupt, &ldquo;The Book of Canticles,&rdquo; in <i>The American Journal of
+Semitic Languages</i> (July 1902); Scholz, <i>Kommentar über das
+Hohelied und Psalm 45</i> (1904) (written from the Roman Catholic
+dogmatic standpoint of allegorical interpretation, with a vigorous
+criticism of other positions). No commentator in English, except
+Haupt, in the article named above, has yet worked on the lines of
+the above anthology theory. Haupt gives valuable notes, with a
+translation and rearrangement of the separate songs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An argument for the allegorical interpretation has been often
+drawn from Mahommedan mysticism&mdash;from the poems of Hafiz, and
+the songs still sung by dervishes. See Jones, <i>Poëseos Asiaticae Com.</i>
+pt. in. cap. 9; Rosenmüller&rsquo;s remarks on Lowth&rsquo;s <i>Praelectio</i>, xxxi., and
+Lane&rsquo;s <i>Modern Egyptians</i>, ch. xxiv. But there is no true analogy
+between the Old Testament and the pantheistic mysticism of Islam,
+and there is every reason to believe that, where the allegory takes a
+form really analogous to Canticles, the original sense of these songs
+was purely erotic.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Repeated recently by Scholz, <i>Kommentar</i>, pp. iii. and iv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The chief passages of Jewish writings referring to this dispute are
+Mishna <i>Jadaim</i>, iii. 5 and Tosifta <i>Sanhedrin</i>, xii. For other passages
+see Grätz&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>, p. 115, and in control of his criticism the
+introduction to the commentary of Delitzsch.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The text of the Targum in the Polyglots and in Buxtorf&rsquo;s
+Rabbinic Bible is not complete. The complete text is given in the
+Venice editions, and in Lagarde&rsquo;s <i>Hagiographa Chaldaice</i> (Lipsiae,
+1873). The Polyglots add a Latin version. A German version is
+given by Riedel in his very useful book, <i>Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes</i>
+(1898), which also reviews the interpretation of Canticles by
+Hippolytus, Origen and later Greek writers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Ewald and others make this song a distinct scene in the action of
+the poem, supposing that the author here exhibits the honourable
+form of espousal by which Solomon thought to vanquish the scruples
+of the damsel. This view, however, seems to introduce a complication
+foreign to the plan of the book.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Wetstein, <i>Zeitschrift f. Ethn.</i>, 1873, pp. 270-302; quoted and
+condensed by Budde as above in <i>Comm</i>. p. xvii.; for a fuller reproduction
+of Wetstein in English see Harper, <i>The Song of Songs</i>, pp. 74-76.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For the connexion of the threshing-floor with marriage through
+the idea of sexual fertility, we may compare many primitive ideas
+and customs, such as those described by Frazer (<i>The Golden Bough</i>,
+ii. p. 181 f., 186).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Castelli (<i>Il Cantico dei Cantici</i>, 1892) has written a very attractive
+little book on Canticles (quite apart from the Wetstein development)
+regarded as &ldquo;a poem formed by a number of dialogues mutually
+related by a certain succession&rdquo;; they require for their understanding
+nothing but some indication of the speaker at each transition
+(such as we find in codex A of the Septuagint).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the erotic meaning of many of the figures employed see the
+notes of Haupt in <i>The American Journal of Semitic Languages</i> (July
+1902);   also G. Jacob, <i>Das Hohelied</i> (1902), who rightly protests
+against the limitation in the <i>Comm</i>. of Budde and Siegfried (p. 10)
+of all the songs to the marriage relation. Haupt thinks that the songs
+were  not  originally  composed  for weddings,  though  used  there
+(p. 207, <i>op. cit.</i>). Diestel had pointed out, in another connexion
+(<i>B.L.</i> 125), that nothing is said in the book of the blessing of children,
+the chief end of <i>marriage</i> from a Hebrew standpoint.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Rothstein&rsquo;s  criticism  of  Budde  turns  chiefly  on the  latter&rsquo;s
+admission of redactional  elements,  introducing  &ldquo;movement and
+action,&rdquo; and may be summed up in the statement that &ldquo;Budde
+himself by the characteristics he assigns to the redactor points the
+way again past his own  hypothesis to the dramatical view of the
+Song&rdquo; (<i>loc cit.</i> 594b). A. Harper, &ldquo;The Song of Songs&rdquo; (<i>Cambridge
+Bible</i>) also criticizes Budde at length in favour of the conventional
+dramatical theory (Appendix).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> the late form of the relative pronoun used throughout
+except in title; foreign words, Persian and Greek; Aramaic words
+and usages (details in the <i>Comm</i>. or in <i>E.B.</i> 693).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTILEVER<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived
+from &ldquo;lever,&rdquo; in its ordinary meaning, and &ldquo;cant,&rdquo; an angle
+or edge, or else from modern Lat. <i>quanta libra</i>, of what weight),
+a building term for a stone, iron or wooden bracket, considerably
+greater in length than depth, used to support a gallery, &amp;c.;
+and for a system of bridge-building (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bridges</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1218-1282), English saint and
+prelate, was a son of William de Cantilupe, the 2nd baron (d. 1251),
+one of King John&rsquo;s ministers, and a nephew of Walter de Cantilupe,
+bishop of Worcester. He was educated at Paris and
+Orleans, afterwards becoming a teacher of canon law at Oxford
+and chancellor of the university in 1262. During the Barons&rsquo;
+War Thomas favoured Simon de Montfort and the baronial
+party. He represented the barons before St Louis of France
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span>
+at Amiens in 1264; he was made chancellor of England in
+February 1265, but was deprived of this office after Montfort&rsquo;s
+death at Evesham, and lived out of England for some time.
+Returning to England, he was again chancellor of Oxford University,
+lectured on theology, and held several ecclesiastical
+appointments. In 1274 he attended the second council of Lyons,
+and in 1275 he was appointed bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe
+was now a trusted adviser of Edward I.; he attended the royal
+councils, and even when differing from the king did not forfeit
+his favour. The archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Kilwardby,
+was also his friend; but after Kilwardby&rsquo;s death in 1279 a series
+of disputes arose between the bishop and the new archbishop,
+John Peckham, and this was probably the cause which drove
+Cantilupe to visit Italy. He died at Orvieto, on the 25th of
+August 1282, and he was canonized in 1330. Cantilupe appears
+to have been an exemplary bishop both in spiritual and secular
+affairs. His charities were large and his private life blameless;
+he was constantly visiting his diocese, correcting offenders and
+discharging other episcopal duties; and he compelled neighbouring
+landholders to restore estates which rightly belonged to the
+see of Hereford. In 1905 the Cantilupe Society was founded to
+publish the episcopal registers of Hereford, of which Cantilupe&rsquo;s
+is the first in existence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Ada Sanctorum, Boll.</i>, 1st October; and the <i>Register of
+Thomas de Cantilupe</i>, with introduction by W.W. Capes (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTILUPE, WALTER DE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<i>d.</i> 1265), bishop of Worcester,
+came of a family which had risen by devoted service to the
+crown. His father and his elder brother are named by Roger of
+Wendover among the &ldquo;evil counsellors&rdquo; of John, apparently
+for no better reason than that they were consistently loyal
+to an unpopular master. Walter at first followed in his father&rsquo;s
+footsteps, entering the service of the Exchequer and acting as an
+itinerant justice in the early years of Henry III. But he also
+took minor orders, and, in 1236, although not yet a deacon,
+received the see of Worcester. As bishop, he identified himself
+with the party of ecclesiastical reform, which was then led by
+Edmund Rich and Robert Grosseteste. Like his leaders he was
+sorely divided between his theoretical belief in the papacy as a
+divine institution and his instinctive condemnation of the policy
+which Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. pursued in their dealings
+with the English church. At first a court favourite, the bishop
+came at length to the belief that the evils of the time arose from
+the unprincipled alliance of crown and papacy. He raised his
+voice against papal demands for money, and after the death of
+Grosseteste (1253) was the chief spokesman of the nationalist
+clergy. At the parliament of Oxford (1258) he was elected by
+the popular party as one of their representatives on the committee
+of twenty-four which undertook to reform the administration;
+from that time till the outbreak of civil war he was a man of
+mark in the councils of the baronial party. During the war he
+sided with Montfort and, through his nephew, Thomas, who was
+then chancellor of Oxford, brought over the university to the
+popular side. He was present at Lewes and blessed the Montfortians
+before they joined battle with the army of the king;
+he entertained Simon de Montfort on the night before the final
+rout of Evesham. During Simon&rsquo;s dictatorship, the bishop
+appeared only as a mediating influence; in the triumvirate of
+&ldquo;Electors&rdquo; who controlled the administration, the clergy were
+represented by the bishop of Chichester. Walter de Cantilupe
+died in the year after Evesham (1266). He was respected by
+all parties, and, though far inferior in versatility and force of
+will to Grosseteste, fully merits the admiration which his moral
+character inspired. He is one of the few constitutionalists of his
+day whom it is impossible to accuse of interested motives.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Chronica Maiora</i> of Matthew Paris (&ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series, ed.
+Luard); the <i>Chronicon de Bellis</i> (ed. Halliwell, Camden Society);
+and the <i>Annales Monastici</i> (&ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series, ed. Luard); also T.F.
+Tout in the <i>Political History of England</i>, vol. iii. (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTO<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>cantus</i>, a song), one of the divisions of
+a long poem, a convenient division when poetry was more usually
+sung by the minstrel to his own accompaniment than read. In
+music, the <i>canto</i>, in a concerted piece, is that part to which the
+air is given. In modern music this is nearly always the soprano.
+The old masters, however, more frequently allotted it to the tenor.
+<i>Canto fermo</i>, or <i>cantus firmus</i>, is that part of the melody which
+remains true to the original motive, while the other parts vary
+with the counterpoint; also in Church music the simple straightforward
+melody of the old chants as opposed to <i>canto figurato</i>,
+which is full of embellishments of a florid character (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plain
+Song</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTON, JOHN<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1718-1772), English natural philosopher,
+was born at Stroud, Gloucestershire, on the 31st of July 1718.
+At the age of nineteen, he was articled for five years as clerk to
+the master of a school in Spital Square, London, with whom at
+the end of that time he entered into partnership. In 1750 he
+read a paper before the Royal Society on a method of making
+artificial magnets, which procured him election as a fellow of the
+society and the award of the Copley medal. He was the first
+in England to verify Benjamin Franklin&rsquo;s hypothesis of the
+identity of lightning and electricity, and he made several important
+electrical discoveries. In 1762 and 1764 he published
+experiments in refutation of the decision of the Florentine
+Academy, at that time generally accepted, that water is incompressible;
+and in 1768 he described the preparation, by calcining
+oyster-shell with sulphur, of the phosphorescent material known
+as Canton&rsquo;s phosphorus. His investigations were carried on
+without any intermission of his work as a schoolmaster. He
+died in London on the 22nd of March 1772.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTON<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Kwang-chow Fu</span>), a large and
+populous commercial city of China, in the province of Kwangtung,
+situated on the eastern bank of the Pearl river, which at
+Canton is somewhat broader than the Thames at London Bridge,
+and is navigable 300 m. into the interior. The Pearl river has an
+additional course of 80 m. to the sea, the first part of which lies
+through a rich alluvial plain. Beyond this rises a range of hills
+terminating in abrupt escarpments along the course of the river.
+The bold shore thus formed compresses the stream at this point
+into a narrow pass, to which the Chinese have given the name of
+Hu-mun, or Tiger&rsquo;s Gate. This the Portuguese translated into
+Boca Tigre, whence the designation of &ldquo;the Bogue,&rdquo; by which it
+is commonly known among Europeans. When viewed from the
+hills on the north, Canton appears to be little more than an
+expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large trees,&mdash;two
+pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storeyed tower
+near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects.
+These hills rise 1200 ft. above the river. Little or no vegetation
+is seen on them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with
+graves and tombs, serve as the necropolis of this vast city.
+Three or four forts are built on the points nearest the northern
+walls. Facing the city on the opposite side of the river is the
+suburb and island of Honan. The part of Canton enclosed by
+walls is about 6 m. in circumference, and has a partition wall,
+running east and west, and dividing the city into two unequal
+parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and the
+southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a
+circuit of nearly 10 m. The houses stretch along the river for 4 m.,
+and the banks are almost entirely concealed by boats and rafts.
+The walls of the city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone
+and granite, are 20 ft. thick, and rise to an average height of 25 ft.
+On the north side the wall rises to include a hill which it there
+meets with, and on the other three sides the city is surrounded
+by a ditch, which is filled by the rising tide, when, for a time, the
+revolting mass of filth that lies in its bed is concealed from view.
+There are twelve outer gates&mdash;four of which are in the partition
+wall, and two water gates, through which boats pass from east to
+west across the new city. The gates are all shut at night, and in
+the daytime a guard is stationed at them to preserve order.
+The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long, straight,
+and very narrow. They are mostly paved and are not as dirty
+as those of some of the other cities in the empire; in fact,
+considering the habits of the people and the inattention of the
+government to these matters, Canton may be said to be a well-governed
+and comparatively cleanly city. The houses are in
+general small, seldom consisting of more than two storeys, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span>
+ground floor serving as a shop, and the rest of the house, with the
+court behind, being used as a warehouse. Here are to be found
+the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the merchants
+are in general attentive, civil, expert men of business, and
+generally assiduous.</p>
+
+<p>The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but
+none of them presents features worthy of special remark. There
+are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and 124
+temples, pavilions, halls and other religious edifices within the
+city. One of the pagodas called the <i>Kwangtah</i>, or Plain Pagoda,
+is a Mahommedan mosque, which was erected by the Arabian
+voyagers who were in the habit of visiting Canton about ten
+centuries ago. It rises in an angular tapering tower to the height
+of 160 ft. The other is an octagonal pagoda of nine storeys, 170 ft.
+in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago.
+A Buddhist temple at Honan, opposite the foreign factories, and
+named in Chinese <i>Hai-ch&lsquo;wang-sze</i>, or the Temple of the Ocean
+Banner, is one of the largest in Canton. Its grounds, which
+cover about seven acres, are surrounded by a wall, and are
+divided into courts, gardens and a burial-ground, where are
+deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies are burned. There
+are about 175 priests connected with this establishment. Besides
+the <i>Hai-ch&lsquo;wang-sze</i> the most noteworthy temples in and about
+the city are those of the Five Hundred Gods and of Longevity,
+both in the western suburbs; the Tatar City Temple and the
+Temple of the Five Genii. The number of priests and nuns in
+Canton is not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000,
+nine-tenths of whom are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-looking
+edifices. The areas in front of them are usually occupied
+by hucksters, beggars and idlers, who are occasionally driven
+off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the theatrical
+performances got up by the wealthy inhabitants are acted. The
+principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in
+front, and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men
+almost as senseless as the idols they serve.</p>
+
+<p>The residences of the high officers of government are all
+within the walls of the old city. The residence of the governor-general
+used to be in the south-west corner of the new city, but it
+was utterly destroyed by the bombardment in 1856. The site
+remained desolate until 1860, when it was taken possession of by
+the French authorities, who erected a Roman Catholic cathedral
+upon it. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in the old
+city, and is said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There
+are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. For the space of
+4 or 5 m. opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to
+each other in such close order as to resemble a floating city;
+and these marine dwellings are occupied by numerous families,
+who reside almost constantly on the water. In the middle of the
+river lie the Chinese junks, some of them of from 600 to 1000 tons
+burden, which trade to the north and to the Strait Settlements.
+The various gilds and associations among the people and the
+merchants from other provinces have public halls each for its own
+particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than
+150. Canton was long the only seat of British trade with China,
+and was no doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the
+European trade, as being the most distant from the capital
+Peking.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the
+<i>hong</i> or security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners.
+They were commonly men of large property and were famed
+for integrity in their transactions. All foreign cargoes passed
+through the hands of these merchants, and by them also the
+return cargoes were furnished. They became security for the
+payment of customs duties, and it was criminal for any other
+merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the
+climate of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to
+that of most places situated between the tropics. The extreme
+range of the thermometer is from 38° to 100° F., though these
+extremes are rarely reached. In ordinary years the winter
+minimum is about 42° and the maximum in summer 96°.
+The hot season is considered to last from May to October;
+during the rest of the year the weather is cool. In shallow
+vessels ice sometimes forms at Canton; but so rarely is snow
+seen that when in February 1835 a fall to the depth of 2 in.
+occurred, the citizens hardly knew its proper name. Most of the
+rain falls during May and June, but the amount is nothing in
+comparison with that which falls during a rainy season in
+Calcutta. July, August and September are the regular monsoon
+months, the wind coming from the south-west with frequent
+showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the
+northerly winds begin, with some interruptions at first, but from
+October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear
+and the air invigorating. Few large cities are more generally
+healthy than Canton, and epidemics rarely prevail there.</p>
+
+<p>Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant, and in
+general are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is
+a singular fact that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in
+its natural state or in the form of butter or cheese. Among the
+delicacies of a Chinese market are to be seen horse-flesh,
+dogs, cats, hawks, owls and edible birds&rsquo;-nests. The business
+between foreigners and natives at Canton is generally transacted
+in a jargon known as &ldquo;pidgin English,&rdquo; the Chinese being
+extremely ready in acquiring a sufficient smattering of English
+words to render themselves intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of
+the Cape of Good Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of
+Portugal, sent an ambassador, accompanied by a fleet of eight
+ships, to Peking, on which occasion the sanction of the emperor
+to establish a trade at Canton was obtained. It was in 1596,
+in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first attempted
+to open an intercourse with China, but ineffectually, for the
+two ships which were despatched on this mission were lost on
+the outward voyage, and it was not till about 1634 that English
+ships visited Canton. Unfortunately at this time a misunderstanding
+having occurred with the Chinese authorities owing to
+the treachery of the Portuguese, a rupture and a battle took
+place, and it was with difficulty that peace was again restored.
+In 1673 China was again visited by an English ship which was
+subsequently refused admission into Japan, and in 1677 a factory
+was established at Amoy. But during an irruption of the
+Tatars three years later this building was destroyed, and it was
+not till 1685 that the emperor permitted any trade with Europeans
+at that port. Upon the union of the two East India Companies
+in London, an imperial edict was issued, restricting the foreign
+commerce to the port of Canton.</p>
+
+<p>Tea was first imported into England about the year 1667, and
+in 1689 a customs duty of 5s. per &#8468; was for the first time imposed.
+From this date to 1834 the East India Company held a monopolv
+of the trade at Canton, and during this period the prosperity
+of the port increased and multiplied, notwithstanding the obstructions
+which were constantly thrown in the way of the
+&ldquo;barbarians&rdquo; by the Chinese government. The termination of
+the Company&rsquo;s monopoly brought no alteration in the conduct
+of the native authorities, whose oppressions became before long
+so unbearable that in 1839 war was declared on the part of Great
+Britain. In 1841, while the forces under Sir Hugh (afterwards
+Lord) Gough were preparing to capture Canton, Captain Elliott
+entered into negotiations with the Chinese, and consented to
+receive a pecuniary ransom in lieu of occupying the city. Meanwhile
+the war was carried on in central China, and finally resulted
+in the conclusion of the Nanking treaty in August 1842,
+under the terms of which four additional ports, viz. Shanghai,
+Ningpo, Fu-chow and Amoy, were thrown open to foreign trade,
+and foreigners were granted permission to enter the city of
+Canton, from which they had hitherto been excluded. This
+latter provision of the treaty, however, the Chinese refused to
+carry out; and after endless disputes about this and other
+improper acts of the Chinese government, war was again declared
+in 1856, the immediate cause of which was an insult offered to
+the British flag by the capture of certain Chinese on board the
+&ldquo;Arrow,&rdquo; a small craft trading under English colours. The
+outbreak of hostilities was followed by the pillage and destruction
+of the foreign &ldquo;factories&rdquo; in December 1856 by a Chinese mob,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span>
+and twelve months later Canton was taken by assault by a force
+under Sir Charles Straubenzee, which had been sent out from
+England for the purpose. From this time until October 1861
+the city was occupied by an English and French garrison, and
+the administration of affairs was entrusted to an allied commission,
+consisting of two English officers and one French officer,
+acting under the English general. Since the withdrawal of this
+garrison, the city of Canton has been freely open to foreigners
+of all nationalities, and the English consul has his residence
+in the Yamun formerly occupied by the allied commissioners,
+within the city walls.</p>
+
+<p>On the conclusion of peace it became necessary to provide
+a foreign settlement for the merchants whose &ldquo;factories&rdquo; had
+been destroyed, and after some consultation it was determined
+to fill in and appropriate as the British settlement an extensive
+mud flat lying to the westward of the old factory site, and
+known as Sha-mien or &ldquo;The Sand Flats.&rdquo; This site having
+been leased, it was converted into an artificial island by building
+a massive embankment of granite in an irregular oval form.
+Between the northern face of the site and the Chinese suburb
+a canal of 100 ft. in width was constructed, thus forming an island
+of about 2850 ft. in length and 950 ft. in greatest breadth. The
+expense of making this settlement was 325,000 Mexican dollars,
+four-fifths of which were defrayed by the British government
+and one-fifth by the French government. The British portion
+of the new settlement was laid out in eighty-two lots; and so
+bright appeared the prospect of trade at the time of their sale
+that 9000 dollars and upwards was paid in more than one instance
+for a lot with a river frontage, measuring 12,645 sq. ft. The
+depression in trade, however, which soon followed acted as a
+bar to building, and it was not until the British consulate was
+erected in 1865 that the merchants began to occupy the settlement
+in any numbers. The British consulate occupies six lots,
+with an area of 75,870 sq. ft. in the centre of the site, overlooking
+the river, and is enclosed with a substantial wall. A ground-rent
+of 15,000 cash (about £3) per <i>mow</i> (a third of an acre) is annually
+paid by the owners of lots to the Chinese government.</p>
+
+<p>The Sha-mien settlement possesses many advantages. It is
+close to the western suburb of Canton, where reside all the
+wholesale dealers as well as the principal merchants and brokers;
+it faces the broad channel known as the Macao Passage, up
+which the cool breezes in summer are wafted almost uninterruptedly,
+and the river opposite to it affords a safe and commodious
+anchorage for steamers up to 1000 tons burden.
+Steamers only are allowed to come up to Canton, sailing vessels
+being restricted to the anchorage at Whampoa. There is daily
+communication by steamer with Hong-Kong, and with the
+Portuguese colony of Macao which lies near the mouth of the
+river. Inland communication by steam is now open by the west
+river route to the cities of Wuchow and Nanking. The opening
+of these inland towns to foreign trade, which has been effected,
+cannot but add considerably to the volume of Canton traffic.
+The native population is variously estimated at from 1,500,000
+to 2,000,000, the former being probably nearer the truth. The
+foreign residents number about 400. Canton is the headquarters
+of the provincial government of Kwangtung and Kwangsi,
+generally termed the two Kwang, at the head of which is a
+governor-general or viceroy, an office which next to that of
+Nanking is the most important in the empire. It possesses a
+mint built in 1889 by the then viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and
+equipped with a very complete plant supplied from England.
+It turns out silver subsidiary coinage and copper cash. Contracts
+have been entered into to connect Canton by railway
+with Hong-Kong (Kowlun), and by a grand trunk line with
+Hankow on the Yangtsze. It is connected by telegraph with
+all parts. The value of the trade of Canton for the year 1904
+was £13,749,582, £7,555,090 of which represented imports and
+£6,194,490 exports.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. K. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTON,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a city of Fulton county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W.
+part of the state, 12 m. N. of the Illinois river, and 28 m. S.W.
+of Peoria. Pop. (1890) 5604; (1900) 6564 (424 foreign-born);
+(1910) 10,453. Canton is served by the Chicago, Burlington &amp;
+Quincy, the Toledo, Peoria &amp; Western, and the Illinois Central
+Electric Interurban railways. About 1 m. from the centre of
+the city are the Canton Chautauqua grounds. The city has a
+public library. Canton is situated in a rich agricultural region,
+for which it is a supply point, and there are large coal-mines in
+the vicinity. Among the manufactures are agricultural implements
+(particularly ploughs), machine-shop and foundry products
+(particularly mining-cars and equipment), flour, cigars, cigar-boxes,
+brooms, and bricks and tile. The municipal water-works
+are supplied from a deep artesian well. Canton was laid out in
+1825; it was incorporated as a town in 1837 and as a village in
+1849, and was chartered as a city in 1854.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTON,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of St Lawrence county,
+New York, U.S.A., 17 m. S.E. of Ogdensburg, on the Grasse
+river. Pop. (1890) 2580; (1900) 2757; (1905) 3083; (1910)
+2701. The village is served by the Rome, Watertown &amp; Ogdensburg
+division of the New York Central &amp; Hudson River railway.
+Canton is the seat of St Lawrence University (co-educational;
+chartered in 1856; at first Universalist, afterwards unsectarian),
+having a college of letters and science, which developed from an
+academy, opened in 1859; a theological school (Universalist),
+opened in 1858; a law school, established in 1869, discontinued
+in 1872 and re-established in Brooklyn, New York, in 1903 as
+the Brooklyn Law School of St Lawrence University; and a
+state school of agriculture, established in 1906 by the state
+legislature and opened in 1907. In 1907-1908 the university
+had 52 instructors, 168 students in the college of letters and
+science, 14 students in the theological school, 287 in the law
+school and 13 in the agricultural school. The Clinton Liberal
+Institute (Universalist, 1832), which was removed in 1879 from
+Clinton to Fort Plain, New York, was established in Canton in
+1901. The Grasse river furnishes water-power, and the village
+has saw-, planing- and flour-mills, and plant for the building of
+small boats and launches. The village corporation owns a fine
+water-supply system. Canton was first settled in 1800 by
+Daniel Harrington of Connecticut and was incorporated in
+1845. It was for many years the home of Silas Wright, who was
+buried here.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTON,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Stark county, Ohio,
+U.S.A., on Nimisillen Creek, 60 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop.
+(1890) 26,189; (1900) 30,667, of whom 4018 were foreign-born;
+and (1910) 50,217. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the
+Baltimore &amp; Ohio, and the Wheeling &amp; Lake Erie railways, and
+is connected by an interurban electric system with all the
+important cities and towns within a radius of 50 m. It lies at an
+elevation of about 1030 ft. above sea-level, in a wheat-growing
+region, in which bituminous coal, limestone, and brick and
+potter&rsquo;s clay abound. Meyer&rsquo;s Lake in the vicinity is a summer
+attraction. The principal buildings are the post-office, court-house,
+city hall, an auditorium with a seating capacity of 5000,
+a Masonic building, an Oddfellows&rsquo; temple, a Y.M.C.A. building
+and several handsome churches. On Monument Hill, in West
+Lawn Cemetery, in a park of 26 acres&mdash;a site which President
+McKinley had suggested for a monument to the soldiers and
+sailors of Stark county&mdash;there is a beautiful monument to the
+memory of McKinley, who lived in Canton. This memorial is
+built principally of Milford (Mass.) granite, with a bronze statue
+of the president, and with sarcophagi containing the bodies of
+the president and Mrs McKinley, and has a total height, from
+the first step of the approaches to its top, of 163 ft. 6 in., the
+mausoleum itself being 98 ft. 6 in. high and 78 ft. 9 in. in diameter;
+it was dedicated on the 30th of September 1907, when an address
+was delivered by President Roosevelt. Another monument
+commemorates the American soldiers of the Spanish-American
+War. Among the city&rsquo;s manufactures are agricultural implements,
+iron bridges and other structural iron work, watches and
+watch-cases, steel, engines, safes, locks, cutlery, hardware,
+wagons, carriages, paving-bricks, furniture, dental and surgical
+chairs, paint and varnish, clay-working machinery and saw-mill
+machinery. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$10,591,143, being 10.6% more than the product value of 1900.
+Canton was laid out as a town in 1805, became the county-seat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span>
+in 1808, was incorporated as a village in 1822 and in 1854 was
+chartered as a city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTON<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (borrowed from the Ital. <i>cantone</i>, a corner or angle),
+a word used for certain divisions of some European countries.
+In France, the canton, which is a subdivision of the arrondissement,
+is a territorial, rather than an administrative, unit. The
+canton, of which there are 2908, generally comprises, on an
+average, about twelve communes, though very large communes
+are sometimes divided into several cantons. It is the seat of
+a justice of the peace, and returns a member to the <i>conseil
+d&rsquo;arrondissement</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>). In Switzerland, canton is the
+name given to each of the twenty-two states comprising the
+Swiss confederation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Switzerland</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In heraldry, a &ldquo;canton&rdquo; is a corner or square division on a
+shield, occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). It is in
+area two-thirds of the quarter (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTONMENT<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Fr. <i>cantonnement</i>, from <i>cantonner</i>, to quarter;
+Ger. <i>Ortsunterkunft</i> or <i>Quartier</i>). When troops are distributed
+in small parties amongst the houses of a town or village, they are
+said to be in cantonments, which are also called quarters or
+billets. Formerly this method of providing soldiers with shelter
+was rarely employed on active service, though the normal
+method in &ldquo;winter quarters,&rdquo; or at seasons when active military
+operations were not in progress. In the field, armies lived as a
+rule in camp (<i>q.v.</i>), and when the provision of canvas shelter was
+impossible in bivouac. At the present time, however, it is
+unusual, in Europe at any rate, for troops on active service to
+hamper themselves with the enormous trains of tent wagons that
+would be required, and cantonments or bivouacs, or a combination
+of the two have therefore taken the place, in modern warfare,
+of the old long rectilinear lines of tents that marked the resting-place
+and generally, too, the order of battle of an 18th-century
+army. The greater part of an army operating in Europe at
+the present day is accommodated in widespread cantonments,
+an army corps occupying the villages and farms found within
+an area of 4 m. by 5 or 6. This allowance of space has
+been ascertained by experience to be sufficient, not only for
+comfort, but also for subsistence for one day, provided that the
+density of the ordinary civil population is not less than 200
+persons to the square mile. Under modern conditions there is
+little danger from such a dissemination of the forces, as each
+fraction of each army corps is within less than two hours&rsquo; march
+of its concentration post. If the troops halt for several days, of
+course they require either a more densely populated country from
+which to requisition supplies, or a wider area of cantonments.
+The difficulty of controlling the troops, when scattered in private
+houses in parties of six or seven, is the principal objection to this
+system of cantonments. But since Napoleon introduced the
+&ldquo;war of masses&rdquo; the only alternative to cantoning the troops
+is bivouacking, which if prolonged for several nights is more
+injurious to the well-being of the troops than the slight relaxation
+of discipline necessitated by the cantonment system, when the
+latter is well arranged and policed. The troops nearest the
+enemy, however, which have to be maintained in a state of
+constant readiness for battle, cannot as a rule afford the time
+either for dispersing into quarters or for rallying on an alarm, and
+in western Europe at any rate they are required to bivouac.
+In India, the term &ldquo;cantonment&rdquo; means more generally a
+military station or standing camp. The troops live, not in
+private houses, but in barracks, huts, forts or occasionally camps.
+The large cantonments are situated in the neighbourhood of the
+North-Western frontier, of the large cities and of the capitals of
+important native states. Under Lord Kitchener&rsquo;s redistribution
+of the Indian army in 1903, the chief cantonments are Rawalpindi,
+Quetta, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Nowshera, Sialkot, Mian Mir,
+Umballa, Muttra, Ferozepore, Meerut, Lucknow, Mhow, Jubbulpore,
+Bolarum, Poona, Secunderabad and Bangalore.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANTÙ, CESARE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1804-1895), Italian historian, was born at
+Brivio in Lombardy and began his career as a teacher. His first
+literary essay (1828) was a romantic poem entitled <i>Algiso, o la
+Lega Lombarda</i> (new ed., Milan, 1876), and in the following year
+he produced a <i>Storia di Como</i> in two volumes (Como, 1829). The
+death of his father then left him in charge of a large family, and
+he worked very hard both as a teacher and a writer to provide for
+them. His prodigious literary activity led to his falling under
+the suspicions of the Austrian police, and he was mixed up in a
+political trial and arrested in 1833. While in prison writing
+materials were denied him, but he managed to write on rags with
+a tooth-pick and candle smoke, and thus composed the novel
+<i>Margherita Pusterla</i> (Milan, 1838). On his release a year later,
+as he was interdicted from teaching, literature became his only
+resource. In 1836 the Turinese publisher, Giuseppe Pomba,
+commissioned him to write a universal history, which his vast
+reading enabled him to do. In six years the work was completed
+in seventy-two volumes, and immediately achieved a general
+popularity; the publisher made a fortune out of it, and Cantù&rsquo;s
+royalties amounted, it is said, to 300,000 lire (£12.000). Just
+before the revolution of 1848, being warned that he would be
+arrested, he fled to Turin, but after the &ldquo;Five Days&rdquo; he returned
+to Milan and edited a paper called <i>La Guardia Nazionale</i>.
+Between 1849 and 1850 he published his <i>Storia degli Italiani</i>
+(Turin, 1855) and many other works. In 1857 the archduke
+Maximilian tried to conciliate the Milanese by the promise of a
+constitution, and Cantù was one of the few Liberals who accepted
+the olive branch, and went about in company with the archduke.
+This act was regarded as treason and caused Cantù much annoyance
+in after years. He continued his literary activity after the
+formation of the Italian kingdom, producing volume after
+volume until his death. For a short time he was member of the
+Italian parliament; he founded the Lombard historical society,
+and was appointed superintendent of the Lombard archives.
+He died in March 1895. His views are coloured by strong
+religious and political prejudice, and by a moralizing tendency,
+and his historical work has little critical value and is for the most
+part pure book-making, although he collected a vast amount of
+material which has been of use to other writers. In dealing with
+modern Italian history he is reactionary and often wilfully
+inaccurate. Besides the above-mentioned works he wrote <i>Gli
+Eretici in Italia</i> (Milan, 1873); <i>Cronistoria dell&rsquo; Indipendenza
+italiana</i> (Naples, 1872-1877); <i>II Conciliatore e i Carbonari</i>
+(Milan, 1878), &amp;c.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANUSIUM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kanusion">&#922;&#945;&#957;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, mod. <i>Canosa</i>), an ancient city of
+Apulia, on the right bank of the Aufidus (Ofanto), about 12 m.
+from its mouth, and situated upon the Via Traiana, 85 m. E.N.E.
+of Beneventum. It was said to have been founded by Diomede,
+and even at the time of Horace (<i>Sat.</i> i. 10. 30) both Greek and
+Latin were spoken there. The legends on the coins are Greek,
+and a very large number of Greek vases have been found in the
+necropolis. The town came voluntarily under Roman sovereignty
+in 318 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, afforded a refuge to the Roman fugitives after
+Cannae, and remained faithful for the rest of the war. It
+revolted in the Social War, in which it would appear to have
+suffered, inasmuch as Strabo (vi. 283) speaks of Canusium and
+Arpi as having been, to judge from the extent of their walls, the
+greatest towns in the plain of Apulia, but as having shrunk
+considerably in his day. Its importance was maintained,
+however, by its trade in agricultural products and in Apulian
+wool (which was there dyed and cleaned), by its port (probably
+Cannae) at the mouth of the Aufidus, and by its position on the
+high-road. It was a <i>municipium</i> under the early empire, but was
+converted into a <i>colonia</i> under Antoninus Pius by Herodes Atticus,
+who provided it with a water-supply. In the 6th century it was
+still the most important city of Apulia. Among the ancient
+buildings which are still preserved, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct
+and a city gate may be mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Jacobone, <i>Ricerche sulla storia e la topografia di Canosa
+Antica</i> (Canosa di Puglia, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANUTE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cnut</span>), known as &ldquo;the Great&rdquo; (<i>c</i>. 995-1035), king
+of Denmark and England, second son of King Sweyn Forkbeard
+and his first wife, the daughter of the Polish prince, Mieszko,
+was born <i>c</i>. 995. On the death of his father he was compelled
+to quit England by a general rising of the Anglo-Saxons, on
+which occasion in a fit of rage, for he was not naturally cruel,
+he abandoned his hostages after cutting off their hands, ears
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span>
+and noses. In the following year, 1015, he returned with a
+great fleet manned by a picked host, &ldquo;not a thrall or a freedman
+among them.&rdquo; He speedily succeeded in subduing all England
+except London, now the last refuge of King Æthelred and his
+heroic son, Edmund Ironside. On the death of Æthelred (23rd of
+April 1016) Canute was elected king by an assembly of notables
+at Southampton; but London clung loyally to Edmund, who
+more than once succeeded in raising the western shires against
+Canute. Edmund indeed approved himself the better general
+of the two, and would doubtless have prevailed, but for the
+treachery of his own ealdormen. This was notably the case
+at the great battle of Assandun, in which by the desertion of
+Eadric an incipient Anglo-Saxon victory was converted into
+a crushing defeat. Nevertheless, the antagonists were so evenly
+matched that the great men on both sides, fearing that the
+interminable war would utterly ruin the land, arranged a conference
+between Canute and Edmund on an island in the Severn,
+when they agreed to divide England between them, Canute
+retaining Mercia and the north, while Edmund&rsquo;s territory comprised
+East Anglia and Wessex with London. On the death of
+Edmund, a few months later (November 1016), Canute was
+unanimously elected king of all England at the beginning of
+1017. The young monarch at once showed himself equal to
+his responsibilities. He did his utmost to deserve the confidence
+of his Anglo-Saxon subjects, and the eighteen years of his reign
+were of unspeakable benefit to his adopted country. He identified
+himself with the past history of England and its native
+dynasty by wedding Emma, or Ælgifu, to give her her Saxon
+name (the Northmen called her Alfifa), who came over from
+Normandy at his bidding, Canute previously repudiating his
+first wife, another Ælgifu, the daughter of the ealdorman
+Aelfhem of Deira, who, with her sons, was banished to Denmark.
+In 1018 Canute inherited the Danish throne, his elder brother
+Harold having died without issue. He now withdrew most
+of his army from England, so as to spare as much as possible
+the susceptibilities of the Anglo-Saxons. For the same reason
+he had previously dispersed all his warships but forty. On
+his return from Denmark he went a step farther. In a remarkable
+letter, addressed to the prelates, ealdormen and people,
+he declared his intention of ruling England by the English,
+and of upholding the laws of King Edgar, at the same time
+threatening with his vengeance all those who did not judge
+righteous judgment or who let malefactors go free. The tone
+of this document, which is not merely Christian but sacerdotal,
+shows that he had wisely resolved, in the interests of law and
+order, to form a close alliance with the native clergy. Those
+of his own fellow-countrymen who refused to co-operate with
+him were summarily dismissed. Thus, in 1021, the stiffnecked
+jarl Thorkil was banished the land, and his place taken by an
+Anglo-Saxon, the subsequently famous Godwin, who became
+one of Canute&rsquo;s chief counsellors. The humane and conciliatory
+character of his government is also shown in his earnest efforts
+to atone for Danish barbarities in the past. Thus he rebuilt
+the church of St Edmundsbury in memory of the saintly king
+who had perished there at the hands of the earlier Vikings, and
+with great ceremony transferred the relics of St Alphege from
+St Paul&rsquo;s church at London to a worthier resting-place at
+Canterbury. His work of reform and reconciliation was interrupted
+in 1026 by the attempt of Olaf Haraldson, king of
+Norway, in conjunction with Anund Jakob, king of Sweden,
+to conquer Denmark. Canute defeated the Swedish fleet at
+Stangebjerg, and so seriously injured the combined squadrons
+at the mouth of the Helgeaa in East Scania, that in 1028 he was
+able to subdue the greater part of Norway &ldquo;without hurling
+a dart or swinging a sword.&rdquo; But the conquest was not permanent,
+the Norwegians ultimately rising successfully against
+the tyranny of Alfifa, who misruled the country in the name
+of her infant son Sweyn. Canute also succeeded in establishing
+the dominion of Denmark over the southern shores of the Baltic,
+in Witland and Samland, now forming part of the coast of
+Prussia. Of the details of Canute&rsquo;s government in Denmark
+proper we know but little. His most remarkable institution
+was the <i>Tinglid</i>, a military brotherhood, originally 3000 in
+number, composed of members of the richest and noblest families,
+who not only formed the royal bodyguard, but did garrison duty
+and defended the marches or borders. They were subject to
+strict discipline, embodied in written rules called the <i>Viderlog</i>
+or <i>Vederlag</i>, and were the nucleus not only of a standing army
+but of a royal council. Canute is also said to have endeavoured
+to found monasteries in Denmark, with but indifferent success,
+and he was certainly the first Danish king who coined money,
+with the assistance of Anglo-Saxon mint-masters. Of his
+alliance with the clergy we have already spoken. Like the other
+great contemporary kingdom-builder, Stephen of Hungary,
+he clearly recognized that the church was the one civilizing
+element in a world of anarchic barbarism, and his submission
+to her guidance is a striking proof of his perspicacity. But it
+was no slavish submission. When, in 1027, he went to Rome,
+with Rudolf III. of Burgundy, to be present at the coronation
+of the emperor Conrad II., it was quite as much to benefit his
+subjects as to receive absolution for the sins of his youth. He
+persuaded the pope to remit the excessive fees for granting the
+<i>pallium</i>, which the English and Danish bishops had found such
+a grievous burden, substituting therefor a moderate amount
+of Peter&rsquo;s pence. He also induced the emperor and other
+German princes to grant safe-conducts to those of his subjects
+who desired to make the pilgrimage to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Canute died at Shaftesbury on the 12th of November 1035
+in his 40th year, and was buried at Winchester. He was cut
+off before he had had the opportunity of developing most of his
+great plans; yet he lived long enough to obtain the title of
+&ldquo;Canute the Wealthy&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Mighty&rdquo;), and posterity, still
+more appreciative, has well surnamed him &ldquo;the Great.&rdquo; A
+violent, irritable temper was his most salient defect, and more
+than one homicide must be laid to his charge. But the fierce
+Viking nature was gradually and completely subdued; for
+Canute was a Christian by conviction and sincerely religious.
+His humility is finely illustrated by the old Norman poem which
+describes how he commanded the rising tide of the Thames at
+Westminster to go back. The homily he preached to his courtiers
+on that occasion was to prepare them for his subsequent journey
+to Rome and his submission to the Holy See. Like his father
+Sweyn, Canute loved poetry, and the great Icelandic skalder,
+Thorar Lovtunge and Thormod Kolbrunarskjöld, were as welcome
+visitors at his court as the learned bishops. As an administrator
+Canute was excelled only by Alfred. He possessed in an eminent
+degree the royal gift of recognizing greatness, and the still more
+useful faculty of conciliating enemies. No English king before
+him had levied such heavy taxes, yet never were taxes more
+cheerfully paid; because the people felt that every penny of
+the money was used for the benefit of the country. According
+to the <i>Knytlinga Saga</i> King Canute was huge of limb, of great
+strength, and a very goodly man to look upon, save for his nose,
+which was narrow, lofty and hooked; he had also long fair
+hair, and eyes brighter and keener than those of any man living.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Danmarks Riges Historie. Old Tiden og den aeldre Middelalder</i>,
+pp. 382-406 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>
+(Oxford, 1870-1875); Steenstrup, <i>Normannerne</i> (Copenhagen, 1876-1882).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANUTE VI.<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1163-1202), king of Denmark, eldest son of
+Valdemar I., was crowned in his seventh year (1170), as his
+father&rsquo;s co-regent, so as to secure the succession. In 1182 he
+succeeded to the throne. During his twenty years&rsquo; reign Denmark
+advanced steadily along the path of greatness and prosperity
+marked out for her by Valdemar I., consolidating and
+extending her dominion over the North Baltic coast and adopting
+a more and more independent attitude towards Germany.
+The emperor Frederick I.&rsquo;s claim of overlordship was haughtily
+rejected at the very outset, and his attempt to stir up Duke
+Bogislav of Pomerania against Denmark&rsquo;s vassal, Jaromir of
+Rügen, was defeated by Archbishop Absalon, who destroyed
+465 of Bogislav&rsquo;s 500 ships in a naval action off Strela (Stralsund)
+in 1184. In the following year Bogislav did homage to Canute on
+the deck of his long-ship, off Jomsborg in Pomerania, Canute
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span>
+henceforth styling himself king of the Danes and Wends. This
+victory led two years later to the voluntary submission of the two
+Abodrite princes Niklot and Borwin to the Danish crown, whereupon
+the bulk of the Abodrite dominions, which extended from
+the Trave to the Warnow, including modern Mecklenburg, were
+divided between them. The concluding years of Canute&rsquo;s reign
+were peaceful, as became a prince who, though by no means a
+coward, was not of an overwhelmingly martial temperament.
+In 1197, however, German jealousy of Denmark&rsquo;s ambitions,
+especially when Canute led a fleet against the pirates of Esthonia,
+induced Otto, margrave of Brandenburg, to invade Pomerania,
+while in the following year Otto, in conjunction with Duke
+Adolf of Holstein, wasted the dominions of the Danophil
+Abodrites. The war continued intermittently till 1201, when
+Duke Valdemar, Canute&rsquo;s younger brother, conquered the whole
+of Holstein, and Duke Adolf was subsequently captured at
+Hamburg and sent in chains to Denmark. North Albingia, as
+the district between the Eider and the Elbe was then called, now
+became Danish territory. Canute died on the 12th of November
+1202. Undoubtedly he owed the triumphs of his reign very
+largely to the statesmanship of Absalon and the valour of
+Valdemar. But he was certainly a prudent and circumspect
+ruler of blameless life, possessing, as Arnold of Lübeck (<i>c.</i> 1160-1212)
+expresses it, &ldquo;the sober wisdom of old age even in his
+tender youth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Danmarks Riges Historic. Oldtiden og den aeldre Middelalder</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1897-1905), pp. 721-735.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANVAS,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a stout cloth which probably derives its name from
+<i>cannabis</i>, the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indicate
+that canvas was originally made from yarns of the hemp
+fibre, and there is some ground for the assumption. This fibre
+and that of flax have certainly been used for ages for the production
+of cloth for furnishing sails, and for certain classes of cloth
+used for this purpose the terms &ldquo;sailcloth&rdquo; and &ldquo;canvas&rdquo; are
+synonymous. Warden, in his <i>Linen Trade</i>, states that the
+manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1590, as
+appears by the preamble of James I., cap. 23:&mdash;&ldquo;Whereas the
+cloths called <i>Mildernix</i> and <i>Powel Davies</i>, whereof sails and other
+furniture for the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore
+altogether brought out of France and other parts beyond sea, and
+the skill and art of making and weaving of the said sailcloths
+never known or used in England until about the thirty-second
+year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what time and not before
+the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the said cloths was
+attained to, and since practised and continued in this realm, to the
+great benefit and commodity thereof.&rdquo; But this, or a similar
+cloth of the same name had been used for centuries before this
+time by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. Since the introduction
+of the power loom the cloth has undergone several modifications,
+and it is now made both from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton,
+or a mixture of these, but the quality of sailcloth for the British
+government is kept up to the original standard. All flax canvas
+is essentially of double warp, for it is invariably intended to
+withstand some pressure or rough usage.</p>
+
+<p>In structure it is similar to jute tarpaulin; indeed, if it were
+not for the difference in the fibre, it would be difficult to say
+where one type stopped and the other began. &ldquo;Bagging,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;tarpaulin&rdquo; and &ldquo;canvas&rdquo; form an ascending series of cloths
+so far as fineness is concerned, although the finest tarpaulins are
+finer than some of the lower canvases. The cloth may be
+natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being
+tan. It has an enormous number of different uses other than
+naval.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst other articles made from it are:&mdash;receptacles for
+photographic and other apparatus; bags for fishing, shooting,
+golf and other sporting implements; shoes for cricket and
+other games, and for yachting; travelling cases and hold-alls,
+letter-bags, school-bags and nose-bags for horses. Large
+quantities of the various makes of flax and cotton canvases are
+tarred, and then used for covering goods on railways, wharves,
+docks, etc.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 226px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:176px; height:198px" src="images/img223.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sail canvas is, naturally, of a strong build, and is quite different
+from the canvas cloth used for embroidery purposes, often called
+&ldquo;art canvas.&rdquo; The latter is similar in structure to cheese cloths
+and strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art
+canvas are, in general, of a superior nature. All kinds of
+vegetable fibres are used in their production, chief among which
+are cotton, flax and jute. The yarns are almost invariably two
+or more ply, an arrangement which tends to obtain a uniform
+thickness&mdash;a very desirable element in these open-built fabrics.
+The plain weave A in the figure is extensively used for these
+fabrics, but in many cases special weaves
+are used which leave the open spaces well
+defined. Thus weave B is often employed,
+while the &ldquo;imitation gauze&rdquo; weaves, C
+and D, are also largely utilized in the
+production of these embroidery cloths.
+Weave B is known as the hopsack, and
+probably owes its name to being originally
+used for the making of bags for hops.
+The cloth for this purpose is now called
+&ldquo;hop pocketing,&rdquo; and is of a structure
+between bagging and tarpaulin. Another class of canvas,
+single warp termed &ldquo;artists&rsquo; canvas,&rdquo; is used, as its name implies,
+for paintings in oils. It is also much lighter than sail canvas,
+but must, of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities
+are made of cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual
+to find an admixture of tow, and even of cotton in the commoner
+kinds. When the cloth comes from the loom, it undergoes a
+special treatment to prepare the surface for the paint.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANVASS<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (an older spelling of &ldquo;canvas&rdquo;), to sift by shaking
+in a sheet of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly; as a political
+term it means to examine carefully the chances of the votes in a
+prospective election, and to solicit the support of the electors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANYNGES,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> <span class="sc">Canynge</span>, <span class="bold">WILLIAM</span> (<i>c.</i> 1399-1474), English
+merchant, was born at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a member of a
+wealthy family of merchants and cloth-manufacturers in that
+city. He entered, and in due course greatly extended, the
+family business, becoming one of the richest Englishmen of his
+day. Canynges was five times mayor of, and twice member of
+parliament for, Bristol. He owned a fleet of ten ships, the
+largest hitherto known in England, and employed, it is said,
+800 seamen. By special license from the king of Denmark he
+enjoyed for some time a monopoly of the fish trade between
+Iceland, Finland and England, and he also competed successfully
+with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic, obtaining a large
+share of their business. In 1456 he entertained Margaret of
+Anjou at Bristol, and in 1461 Edward IV. Canynges undertook at
+his own expense the great work of rebuilding the famous Bristol
+church of St Mary, Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred
+workmen in his regular service for this purpose. In 1467 he
+himself took holy orders, and in 1469 was made dean of
+Westbury. He died in 1474. The statesman George Canning
+and the first viscount Stratford de Redcliffe were descendants of
+his family.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Pryce, <i>Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times</i>
+(Bristol, 1854).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CANYON<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (Anglicized form of Span. <i>cañon</i>, a tube, pipe or
+cannon; the Spanish form being also frequently written), a
+type of valley with huge precipitous sides, such as the Grand
+Canyons of the Colorado and the Yellowstone livers, and the gorge
+of the Niagara river below the falls, due to rapid stream erosion
+in a &ldquo;young&rdquo; land. A river saws its channel vertically downwards,
+and a swift stream erodes chiefly at the bottom. In
+rainy regions the valleys thus formed are widened out by slope-wash
+and the resultant valley-slopes are gentle, but in arid
+regions there is very little side-extension of the valleys and
+the river cuts its way downwards, leaving almost vertical
+cliffs above the stream. If the stream be swift as in the
+western plateau of North America, the cutting action will be
+rapid. The ideal conditions for developing a canyon are: great
+altitude and slope causing swift streams, arid conditions with
+absence of side-wash, and hard rock horizontally bedded which
+will hold the walls up.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CANZONE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a form of verse which has reached us from Italian
+literature, where from the earliest times it has been assiduously
+cultivated. The word is derived from the Provençal <i>cansò</i>,
+a song, but it was in Italian first that the form became a literary
+one, and was dedicated to the highest uses of poetry. The
+canzone-strophe consists of two parts, the opening one being
+distinguished by Dante as the <i>fronte</i>, the closing one as the
+<i>sirma</i>. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being usual
+to make the rhyme of the last line of the <i>fronte</i> identical with
+that of the first line of the <i>sirma</i>. In other respects the canzone
+has great liberty, as regards number and length of lines, arrangement
+of rhymes and conduct of structure. An examination
+of the best Italian models, however, shows that the tendency
+of the canzone-strophe is to possess 9, 10, 11, 13, 14 or 16 verses,
+and that of these the strophe of 14 verses is so far the most
+frequent that it may almost be taken as the type. In this form
+it resembles an irregular sonnet. The <i>Vita Nuova</i> contains many
+examples of the canzone, and these are accompanied by so
+many explanations of their form as to lead us to believe that
+the canzone was originally invented or adopted by Dante.
+The following is the <i>proemio</i> or <i>fronte</i> of one of the most celebrated
+canzoni in the <i>Vita Nuova</i> (which may be studied in
+English in Dante Gabriel Rossetti&rsquo;s translation):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Donna pietosa e di novella etate,</p>
+<p class="i05">Adorna assai di gentilezza umane,</p>
+<p class="i05">Era là ov&rsquo; io chiamava spesso Morte.</p>
+<p class="i05">Veggendo gli occhi miei pien di pietate,</p>
+<p class="i05">Ed ascoltando le parole vane,</p>
+<p class="i05">Si mosse con paura a pianger forte;</p>
+<p class="i05">Ed altro donne, che si furo accorte</p>
+<p class="i05">Di me per quella che meco piangia,</p>
+<p class="i05">Fecer lei partir via</p>
+<p class="i05">Ed apprissârsi per farmi sentire.</p>
+<p class="i05">Quel dicea: &lsquo;Non dormire&rsquo;;</p>
+<p class="i05">E qual dicea: &lsquo;Perchè sì te sconforte?&rsquo;</p>
+<p class="i05">Allor lasciai la nuova fantasia,</p>
+<p class="i05">Chiamando il nome della donna mia.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Canzoniere</i> of Petrarch is of great authority as to the
+form of this species of verse. In England the canzone was
+introduced at the end of the sixteenth century by William
+Drummond of Hawthornden, who has left some very beautiful
+examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by A.W. von
+Schlegel and other poets of the Romantic period. It is doubtful,
+however, whether it is in agreement with the genius of any
+language but Italian, and whether the genuine &ldquo;Canzone
+toscana&rdquo; is a form which can be reproduced elsewhere than
+in Italy.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAPE BRETON,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> the north-east portion of Nova Scotia,
+Canada, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, known
+as the Gut of Canceau or Canso. Its extreme length from north
+to south is about 110 m., greatest breadth about 87 m., and area
+3120 sq. m. It juts out so far into the Atlantic that it has been
+called &ldquo;the long wharf of Canada,&rdquo; the distance to the west
+coast of Ireland being less by a thousand miles than from New
+York. A headland on the east coast is also known as Cape
+Breton, and is said by some to be the first land made by Cabot
+on his voyage in 1497-1498. The large, irregularly-shaped,
+salt-water lakes of Bras d&rsquo;Or communicate with the sea by two
+channels on the north-east; a short ship canal connects them
+with St Peter&rsquo;s bay on the south, thus dividing the island into
+two parts. Except on the north-west, the coast-line is very
+irregular, and indented with numerous bays, several of which
+form excellent harbours. The most important are Aspy, St
+Ann&rsquo;s, Sydney, Mira, Louisburg, Gabarus, St Peter&rsquo;s and Mabou;
+of these, Sydney Harbour, on which are situated the towns of
+Sydney and North Sydney, is one of the finest in North America.
+There are numerous rivers, chiefly rapid hill streams not navigable
+for any distance; the largest are the Denys, the Margaree,
+the Baddeck and the Mira. Lake Ainslie in the west is the most
+extensive of several fresh-water lakes. The surface of the island
+is broken in several places by ranges of hills of moderate elevation,
+well wooded, and containing numerous picturesque glens and
+gorges; the northern promontory consists of a plateau, rising
+at Cape North to a height of 1800 ft. This northern projection
+is formed of Laurentian gneiss, the only instance in Nova Scotia
+of this formation, and is fringed by a narrow border of carboniferous
+rocks. South of this extends a Cambrian belt, a continuation
+of the same formation on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia.
+On various portions of the west coast, and on the south side
+of the island at Seacoal Bay and Little River (Richmond county),
+valuable seams of coal are worked. Still more important is
+the Sydney coal-field, which occupies the east coast from Mira
+Bay to St Ann&rsquo;s. The outcrop is plainly visible at various
+points along the coast, and coal has been mined in the neighbourhood
+from a very early period. Since 1893 the operations have
+been greatly extended, and over 3,000,000 tons a year are now
+shipped, chiefly to Montreal and Boston. The coal is bituminous,
+of good quality and easily worked, most of the seams dipping
+at a low angle. Several have been mined for some distance
+beneath the ocean. Slate, marble, gypsum and limestone are
+quarried, the latter, which is found in unlimited quantities,
+being of great value as a flux in the blast-furnaces of Sydney.
+Copper and iron are also found, though not in large quantities.</p>
+
+<p>Its lumber, agricultural products and fisheries are also important.
+Nearly covered with forest at the time of its discovery,
+it still exports pine, oak, beech, maple and ash. Oats, wheat,
+turnips and potatoes are cultivated, chiefly for home consumption;
+horses, cattle and sheep are reared in considerable numbers;
+butter and cheese are exported. The Bras d&rsquo;Or lakes and the
+neighbouring seas supply an abundance of cod, mackerel, herring
+and whitefish, and the fisheries employ over 7000 men. Salmon
+are caught in several of the rivers, and trout in almost every
+stream, so that it is visited by large numbers of tourists and
+sportsmen from the other provinces and from the United States.
+The Intercolonial railway has been extended to Sydney, and
+crosses the Gut of Canso on a powerful ferry. From the same
+strait a railway runs up the west coast, and several shorter
+lines are controlled by the mining companies. Of these the most
+important is that connecting Sydney and Louisburg. Numerous
+steamers, with Sydney as their headquarters, ply upon the
+Bras d&rsquo;Or lakes. The inhabitants are mainly of Highland
+Scottish descent, and Gaelic is largely spoken in the country
+districts. On the south and west coasts are found a number of
+descendants of the original French settlers and of the Acadian
+exiles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nova Scotia</a></span>), and in the mining towns numbers of
+Irish are employed. Several hundred Mic Mac Indians, for the
+most part of mixed blood, are principally employed in making
+baskets, fish-barrels and butter-firkins. Nearly the whole
+population is divided between the Roman and Presbyterian
+creeds, and the utmost cordiality marks the relations between
+the two faiths. The population is steadily increasing, having
+risen from 27,580 in 1851 to over 100,000 in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>There is some evidence in favour of early Norse and Icelandic
+voyages to Cape Breton, but they left no trace. It was probably
+visited by the Cabots in 1497-1498, and its name may either
+have been bestowed in remembrance of Cap Breton near
+Bayonne, by the Basque sailors who early frequented the coast,
+or may commemorate the hardy mariners of Brittany and
+Normandy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1629 James Stewart, fourth Lord Ochiltree, settled a small
+colony at Baleine, on the east side of the island; but he was
+soon after taken prisoner with all his party by Captain Daniell
+of the French Company, who caused a fort to be erected at Great
+Cibou (now St Ann&rsquo;s Harbour). By the peace of St Germain
+in 1632, Cape Breton was formally assigned to France; and in
+1654 it formed part of the territory granted by patent to Nicholas
+Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, who made several small settlements
+on the island, which, however, had only a very temporary success.
+When by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the French were deprived
+of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, they were still left in possession
+of Cape Breton, and their right to erect fortifications for
+its defence was formally acknowledged. They accordingly
+transferred the inhabitants of Plaisance in Newfoundland to
+the settlement of Havre à l&rsquo;Anglois, which soon after, under the
+name of Louisburg, became the capital of Cape Breton (or Ile
+Royale, as it was then called), and an important military post.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span></p>
+
+<p>Cod-fishing formed the staple industry, and a large contraband
+trade in French wines, brandy and sugar, was carried on with
+the English colonies to the south. In 1745 it was captured by
+a force of volunteers from New England, under Sir William
+Pepperell (1696-1759) aided by a British fleet under Commodore
+Warren (1703-1752). By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the town
+was restored to France; but in 1758 was again captured by a
+British force under General Sir Jeffrey Amherst and Admiral
+Boscawen. On the conclusion of hostilities the island was ceded
+to England by the treaty of Paris; and on the 7th of October
+1763 it was united by royal proclamation to the government
+of Nova Scotia. In 1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia,
+and a new capital founded at the mouth of the Spanish river
+by Governor Desbarres, which received the name of Sydney
+in honour of Lord Sydney (Sir Thomas Townshend), then
+secretary of state for the colonies. There was immediately
+a considerable influx of settlers to the island, which received
+another important accession by the immigration of Scottish
+Highlanders from 1800 to 1828. In 1820, in spite of strong
+opposition, it was again annexed to Nova Scotia. Since then,
+its history has been uneventful, chiefly centring in the
+development of the mining industry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Historical: Richard Brown, <i>A History of the
+Island of Cape Breton</i> (1869), and Sir John Bourinot, <i>Historical and
+Descriptive Account of Cape Breton</i> (1892), are both excellent. See
+also Denys, <i>Description géogr. et hist, des côtes de l&rsquo;Amérique septentrionale</i>
+(1672); Pichon, <i>Lettres et mémoires du Cap Bréton</i>(1760).
+General: <i>Reports</i> of Geological Survey, 1872 to 1882-1886, and
+1895 to 1899 (by Robb, H. Fletcher and Faribault); H. Fletcher,
+<i>The Sydney Coal Fields, Cape Breton, N.S.</i> (1900); Richard Brown,
+<i>The Coal Fields of Cape Breton</i> (1871; reprinted, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAPE COAST,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa,
+in 5° 5&prime; N., 1° 13&prime; W., about 80 m. W. of Accra. Pop. (1901)
+28,948, mostly Fantis. There are about 100 Europeans and a
+colony of Krumen. The town is built on a low bank of gneiss
+and micaceous slate which runs out into the sea and affords
+some protection at the landing-place against the violence of
+the surf. (This bank was the <i>Cabo Corso</i> of the Portuguese,
+whence the English corruption of Cape Coast.) The castle faces
+the sea and is of considerable size and has a somewhat imposing
+appearance. Next to the castle, used as quarters for military
+officers and as a prison, the principal buildings are the residence
+of the district commissioner, the churches and schools of various
+denominations, the government schools and the colonial hospital.
+Many of the wealthy natives live in brick-built residences.
+The streets are hilly, and the town is surrounded on the east and
+north by high ground, whilst on the west is a lagoon. Fort
+Victoria lies west of the town, and Fort William (used as a lighthouse)
+on the east.</p>
+
+<p>The first European settlement on the spot was that of the
+Portuguese in 1610. In 1652 the Swedes established themselves
+here and built the castle, which they named Carolusburg. In
+1659 the Dutch obtained possession, but the castle was seized
+in 1664 by the English under Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir)
+Robert Holmes, and it has not since been captured in spite
+of an attack by De Ruyter in 1665, a French attack in 1757,
+and various assaults by the native tribes. Next to Elmina
+it was considered the strongest fort on the Guinea Coast. Up
+to 1876 the town was the capital of the British settlements on
+the coast, the administration being then removed to Accra.
+It is still one of the chief ports of the Gold Coast Colony, and
+from it starts the direct road to Kumasi. In 1905 it was granted
+municipal government. In the courtyard of the castle are
+buried George Maclean (governor of the colony 1830-1843)
+and his wife (Laetitia Elizabeth Landon). The graves are
+marked by two stones bearing respectively the initials &ldquo;L.E.L.&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;G.M.&rdquo; The land on the east side of the town is
+studded with disused gold-diggers&rsquo; pits. The natives are
+divided into seven clans called companies, each under the rule
+of recognized captains and possessing distinct customs and
+fetish.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Ffoulkes, &ldquo;The Company System in Cape Coast Castle,&rdquo;
+in <i>Jnl. African Soc.</i> vol. vii., 1908; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CAPE COLONY<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (officially, &ldquo;<span class="sc">Province of the Cape of Good
+Hope</span>&rdquo;), the most southern part of Africa, a British possession
+since 1806. It was named from the promontory on its south-west
+coast discovered in 1488 by the Portuguese navigator Diaz,
+and near which the first settlement of Europeans (Dutch) was
+made in 1652. From 1872 to 1910 a self-governing colony, in
+the last-named year it entered the Union of South Africa as an
+original province. Cape Colony as such then ceased to exist.
+In the present article, however, the word &ldquo;colony&rdquo; is retained.
+The &ldquo;provinces&rdquo; referred to are the colonial divisions existing
+before the passing of the South Africa Act 1909, except in the
+sections <i>Constitution and Government</i> and <i>Law and Justice</i>, where
+the changes made by the establishment of the Union are set
+forth. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Boundaries and Area.</i>&mdash;The coast-line extends from the mouth
+of the Orange (28° 38&prime; S. 16° 27&prime; E.) on the W. to the mouth of
+the Umtamvuna river (31° 4&prime; S. 30° 12&prime; E.) on the E., a distance
+of over 1300 m. Inland the Cape is bounded E. and N.E. by
+Natal, Basutoland, Orange Free State and the Transvaal; N.
+by the Bechuanaland Protectorate and N.W. by Great Namaqualand
+(German S.W. Africa). From N.W. to S.E. the colony has a
+breadth of 800 m., from S.W. to N.E. 750 m. Its area is 276,995
+sq. m.&mdash;more than five times the size of England. Walfish Bay
+(<i>q.v.</i>) on the west coast north of the Orange river is a detached
+part of Cape Colony.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;The outstanding orographic feature of the
+country is the terrace-formation of the land, which rises from
+sea-level by well-marked steps to the immense plateau which
+forms seven-eighths of South Africa. The coast region varies in
+width from a few miles to as many as fifty, being narrowest on the
+south-east side. The western coast line, from the mouth of the
+Orange to the Cape peninsula, runs in a general south-east
+direction with no deep indentations save just south of 33° S.
+where, in Saldanha Bay, is spacious and sheltered anchorage.
+The shore is barren, consisting largely of stretches of white
+sand or thin soil sparsely covered with scrub. The Cape
+peninsula, which forms Table Bay on the north and False Bay on
+the south, juts pendant beyond the normal coast line and consists
+of an isolated range of hills. The scenery here becomes bold and
+picturesque. Dominating Table Bay is the well-known Table
+Mountain (3549 ft.), flat-topped and often covered with a &ldquo;tablecloth&rdquo;
+of cloud. On its lower slopes and around Table Bay is
+built Cape Town, capital of the colony. Rounding the storm-vexed
+Cape of Good Hope the shore trends south-east in a series of
+curves, forming shallow bays, until at the saw-edged reefs of Cape
+Agulhas (Portuguese, Needles) in 34° 51&prime; 15&Prime; S. 20° E. the
+southernmost point of the African continent is reached. Hence
+the coast, now very slightly indented, runs north by east until at
+Algoa Bay (25° 45&prime; E.) it takes a distinct north-east bend, and so
+continues beyond the confines of the colony. Along the southern
+and eastern shore the country is better watered, more fertile and
+more picturesque than along the western seaboard. Cape Point
+(Cape of Good Hope) stands 840 ft. above the sea; Cape Agulhas
+455 ft. Farther on the green-clad sides of the Uiteniquas
+Mountains are plainly visible from the sea, and as the traveller
+by boat proceeds eastward, stretches of forest are seen and
+numbers of mountain streams carrying their waters to the ocean.
+In this part of the coast the only good natural harbour is the
+spacious estuary of the Knysna river in 23° 5&prime; E. The entrance,
+which is over a bar with 14 ft. minimum depth of water, is
+between two bold sandstone cliffs, called the Heads.</p>
+
+<p>Off the coast are a few small islands, mainly mere rocks within
+the bay. None is far from the mainland. The largest are
+Dassen Island, 20 m. S. of Saldanha Bay, and Robben Island,
+at the entrance to Table Bay. St Croix is a rock in Algoa Bay,
+upon which Diaz is stated to have erected a cross. A number of
+small islands off the coast of German South-West Africa, chiefly
+valuable for their guano deposits, also belong to Cape Colony
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angra Pequena</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Ocean Currents.</i>&mdash;Off the east and south shores of the colony
+the Mozambique or Agulhas current sweeps south-westward
+with force sufficient to set up a back drift. This back drift or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+counter current flowing north-east is close in shore and is taken
+advantage of by vessels going from Cape Town to Natal. On the
+west coast the current runs northwards. It is a deflected stream
+from the west drift of the &ldquo;roaring forties&rdquo; and coming from
+Antarctic regions is much colder than the Agulhas current. Off
+the southern point of the continent the Agulhas current meets the
+west drift, giving rise to alternate streams of warm and cold water.
+This part of the coast, subject alike to strong westerly and southeasterly
+winds, is often tempestuous, as is witnessed by the name,
+Cabo Tormentoso, given to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the
+many wrecks off the coast. The most famous was that of the
+British troopship &ldquo;Birkenhead,&rdquo; on the 26th of February 1852,
+off Danger Point, midway between Cape of Good Hope and Cape
+Agulhas.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:764px" src="images/img226.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img226a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Mountains and Tablelands.</i>&mdash;It has been stated that the land
+rises by well-marked steps to a vast central plateau. Beyond the
+coast plain, which here and there attains a height of 600 ft., are
+mountain ranges running parallel to the shore. These mountains
+are the supporting walls of successive terraces. When the steep
+southern sides of the ranges nearest the sea are ascended the hills
+are often found to be flat-topped with a gentle slope northward
+giving on to a plateau rarely more than 40 m. wide. This
+plateau is called the Southern or Little Karroo, Karroo being a
+corruption of a Hottentot word meaning dry, arid. Having
+crossed the Little Karroo, from which rise minor mountain chains,
+a second high range has to be climbed. This done the traveller
+finds himself on another tableland&mdash;the Great Karroo. It has an
+average width of 80 m. and is about 350 m. long. Northwards
+the Karroo (<i>q.v.</i>) is bounded by the ramparts of the great inner
+tableland, of which only a comparatively small portion is in
+Cape Colony. This sequence of hill and plain&mdash;namely (1) the
+coast plain, (2) first range of hills, (3) first plateau (Little Karroo),
+(4) second range of hills, (5) second plateau (the Great Karroo), (6)
+main chain of mountains guarding, (7) the vast interior tableland&mdash;is
+characteristic of the greater part of the colony but is not
+clearly marked in the south-east and north-west borders. The
+innermost, and most lofty, chain of mountains follows a curve
+almost identical with that of the coast at a general distance of
+120 m. from the ocean. It is known in different places under
+different names, and the same name being also often given to one
+or more of the coast ranges the nomenclature of the mountains is
+confusing (see the map). The most elevated portion of the innermost
+range, the Drakensberg (<i>q.v.</i>) follows the curve of the coast
+from south to north-east. Only the southern slopes of the range
+are in Cape Colony, the highest peaks&mdash;over 10,000 ft.&mdash;being in
+Basutoland and Natal. Going westward from the Drakensberg
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+the rampart is known successively as the Stormberg, Zuurberg,
+Sneeuwberg and Nieuwveld mountains. These four ranges face
+directly south. In the Sneeuwberg range is Compass Berg,
+8500 ft. above the sea, the highest point in the colony. In the
+Nieuwveld are heights of over 6000 ft. The Komsberg range,
+which joins the Nieuwveld on the east, sweeps from the south to
+the north-west and is followed by the Roggeveld mountains,
+which face the western seaboard. North of the Roggeveld the
+interior plateau approaches closer to the sea than in southern
+Cape Colony. The slope of the plateau being also westward, the
+mountain rampart is less elevated, and north of 32° S. few points
+attain 5000 ft. The coast ranges are here, in Namaqualand and
+the district of Van Rhyns Dorp, but the outer edges of the inner
+range. They attain their highest point in the Kamies Berg, 5511
+ft. above the sea. Northward the Orange river, marking the
+frontier of the colony, cuts its way through the hills to the
+Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>From the Olifants river on the west to the Kei river on the
+east the series of parallel ranges, which are the walls of the
+terraces between the inner tableland and the sea, are clearly
+traceable. Their general direction is always that of the coast,
+and they are cut across by rugged gorges or <i>kloofs</i>, through
+which the mountain streams make their way towards the sea.
+The two chief chains, to distinguish them from the inner chain
+already described, may be called the coast and central chains.
+Each has many local names. West to east the central chain is
+known as the Cedarberg, Groote Zwarteberg (highest point
+6988 ft.), Groote river, Winterhoek (with Cockscomb mountain
+5773 ft. high) and Zuurberg ranges. The Zuurberg, owing to the
+north-east trend of the shore, becomes, east of Port Elizabeth, a
+coast range, and the central chain is represented by a more
+northerly line of hills, with a dozen different names, which are a
+south-easterly spur of the Sneeuwberg. In this range the Great
+Winter Berg attains a height of 7800 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The coast chain is represented west to east by the Olifants
+mountains (with Great Winterhoek, 6618 ft. high), Drakenstein,
+Zonder Einde, Langeberg (highest point 5614 ft.), Attaquas,
+Uiteniquas and various other ranges. In consequence of the
+north-east trend of the coast, already noted, several of these
+ranges end in the sea in bold bluffs. From the coast plain rise
+many short ranges of considerable elevation, and on the east side
+of False Bay parallel to Table Bay range is a mountain chain
+with heights of 4000 and 5000 ft. East of the Kei river the whole
+of the country within Cape Colony, save the narrow seaboard, is
+mountainous. The southern part is largely occupied with spurs
+of the Stormberg; the northern portion, Griqualand East and
+Pondoland, with the flanks of the Drakensberg. Several peaks
+exceed 7000 ft. in height. Zwart Berg, near the Basuto-Natal
+frontier, rises 7615 ft. above the sea. Mount Currie, farther
+south, is 7296 ft. high. The Witte Bergen (over 5000 ft. high)
+are an inner spur of the Drakensberg running through the
+Herschel district.</p>
+
+<p>That part of the inner tableland of South Africa which is in the
+colony has an average elevation of 3000 ft., being higher in the
+eastern than in the western districts. It consists of wide rolling
+treeless plains scarred by the beds of many rivers, often dry for a
+great part of the year. The tableland is broken by the Orange
+river, which traverses its whole length. North of the river the
+plateau slopes northward to a level sometimes as low as 2000
+ft. The country is of an even more desolate character than south
+of the Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bechuanaland</a></span>). Rising from the plains
+are chains of isolated flat-topped hills such as the Karree
+Bergen, the Asbestos mountains and Kuruman hills, comparatively
+unimportant ranges.</p>
+
+<p>Although the mountains present bold and picturesque outlines
+on their outward faces, the general aspect of the country north of
+the coast-lands, except in its south-eastern corner, is bare and
+monotonous. The flat and round-topped hills (<i>kopjes</i>), which are
+very numerous on the various plateaus, scarcely afford relief to the
+eye, which searches the sun-scorched landscape, usually in vain,
+for running water. The absence of water and of large trees is one
+of the most abiding impressions of the traveller. Yet the vast
+arid plains are covered with shallow beds of the richest soil,
+which only require the fertilizing power of water to render them
+available for pasture or agriculture. After the periodical rains,
+the Karroo and the great plains of Bushmanland are converted
+into vast fields of grass and flowering shrubs, but the summer sun
+reduces them again to a barren and burnt-up aspect. The
+pastoral lands or <i>velds</i> are distinguished according to the nature
+of their herbage as &ldquo;sweet&rdquo; or &ldquo;sour.&rdquo; Shallow sheets of water
+termed <i>vleis</i>, usually brackish, accumulate after heavy rain at
+many places in the plateaus; in the dry seasons these spots,
+where the soil is not excessively saline, are covered with rich
+grass and afford favourite grazing land for cattle. Only in the
+southern coast-land of the colony is there a soil and moisture
+supply suited to forest growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rivers</i>.&mdash;The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of
+the colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the
+Orange (<i>q.v.</i>), which flows from east to west nearly across the
+continent. For a considerable distance, both in its upper and
+lower courses, the river forms the northern frontier of Cape
+Colony. In the middle section, where both banks are in the
+colony, the Orange receives from the north-east its greatest
+tributary, the Vaal (<i>q.v.</i>).  The Vaal, within the boundaries of the
+colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and
+the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony
+the Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the
+Orange flow, in their lower courses, through the eastern part of
+Griqualand West, the only well-watered portion of the colony
+north of the mountains. From the north, below the Vaal
+confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman, intermittent
+streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional
+surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose themselves
+in some <i>vlei</i> in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob
+mark the frontier between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and
+the Cape; the Kuruman lies wholly within the colony. From
+the south a number of streams, the Brak and Ongers, the Zak
+and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the Hartebeest),
+flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for a
+great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the
+volume of the Orange.</p>
+
+<p>South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic
+or Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast
+rivers fall thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and
+many are little else than mountain torrents. They make their
+way down the mountain sides through great gorges, and are
+noted in the eastern part of the country for their extremely
+sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams after heavy
+rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry up
+altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers
+are obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange
+river also, they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic
+are the Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here
+that the same name is repeatedly applied throughout South
+Africa to different streams, Buffalo, Olifants (elephants&rsquo;) and
+Groote (great) being favourite designations. They all occur
+more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west coast rivers, the
+Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and least important,
+flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150 m.),
+which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the
+Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg
+and Olifants ranges. The Doorn, a stream with a somewhat
+parallel but more easterly course, joins the Olifants about 50 m.
+above its mouth, the Atlantic being reached by a semicircular
+sweep to the south-west. The Berg river (125 m.) rises in the
+district of French Hoek and flows through fertile country, in a
+north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It is
+navigable for a few miles from its mouth.</p>
+
+<p>On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the
+Breede (about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and
+broad channel. Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the
+mountains by Mitchell&rsquo;s Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of
+Ceres and Worcester, and receives, beyond the last-named place,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span>
+the waters which descend from the famous Hex River Pass.
+The Breede thence follows the line of the Langeberg mountains as
+far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and traversing the coast
+plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From its mouth the
+river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m. East of
+the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the inner
+mountain chain, are passed in the order named:&mdash;Gouritz
+(200 m.),<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.),
+Kei (150 m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John&rsquo;s
+(140 m.).</p>
+
+<p>The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the
+Gamka and the Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld
+not far from Beaufort West, traverses the Great Karroo from
+north to south, and forces a passage through the Zwarteberg.
+Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from the east by the
+Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great Karroo,
+being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the
+Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the
+Little Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka.
+The united stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south,
+and receives from the west, a few miles above the point where it
+breaks through the coast range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the
+common name Groote, but known in its upper course as the
+Buffels. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The Touws
+(90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources of
+the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the
+Groote the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and
+enters the Indian Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel
+Bay.</p>
+
+<p>The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams,
+the Kouga, an unimportant river which rises in the coast hills,
+and the Groote river. This, <i>the</i> Groote river of Cape Colony, has
+its rise in the Nieuwveld near Nels Poort, being known in its upper
+course as the Salt river. Flowing south-east, it is joined by the
+Kariega on the left, and breaking through the escarpment of the
+Great Karroo, on the lower level changes its name to the Groote,
+the hills which overhang it to the north-east being known as
+Groote River Heights. Bending south, the Groote river passes
+through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and being
+joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St
+Francis Bay.</p>
+
+<p>Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams,
+change its name on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo
+and again on reaching the coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg
+north-west of Graaff Reinet, flows south-east through one of the
+most fertile districts of the Great Karroo, which it pierces at the
+western end of the Zuurberg (of the coast chain), and reaches the
+ocean in Algoa Bay.</p>
+
+<p>Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with
+the Great Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small
+streams rising in the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form
+the Great Fish river which passes through Cradock, and crossing
+the Karroo, changes its general direction from south to east, and
+is joined by the Kooner (or Koonap) and Kat, both of which
+rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the Great Salt river, it winds
+south to the sea. Great Fish river is distinguished for the sudden
+and great rise of its waters after heavy rain and for its exceedingly
+sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway station it makes an
+almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being scarcely 2 m. apart,
+in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like the other streams
+which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in its upper
+course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000
+cubic ft.</p>
+
+<p>The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise
+in the Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish
+in its many twists, flows in a general south-east direction through
+mountainous country until it reaches the coast plain. Its
+mouth is 40 m. in a direct line north-east of East London. In
+the history of the Cape the Kei plays an important part as long
+marking the boundary between the colony and the independent
+Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei rivers
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.),
+Kowie (40 m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be
+mentioned. The Knysna rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of
+importance as a feeder of the lagoon or estuary of the same
+name, one of the few good harbours on the coast. The banks
+of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which rises
+in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham&rsquo;s Town, is also noted
+for the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The
+water over the bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft.
+draught. The Buffalo river rises in the hilly country north of
+King William&rsquo;s Town, past which it flows. At the mouth of
+the river, where the scenery is very fine, is East London, third
+in importance of the ports of Cape Colony.</p>
+
+<p>The frequency of &ldquo;fontein&rdquo; among the place names of the
+colony bears evidence of the number of springs in the country.
+They are often found on the flat-topped hills which dot the
+Karroo. Besides the ordinary springs, mineral and thermal
+springs are found in several places.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lakes and Caves.</i>&mdash;Cape Colony does not possess any lakes
+properly so called. There are, however, numerous natural
+basins which, filled after heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an
+incrustation of salt on the ground, whence their name of salt
+pans. The largest, Commissioner&rsquo;s Salt Pan, in the arid north-west
+district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference. Besides these
+pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools or
+<i>vleis</i> whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture
+of the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore
+by a sandbank only, are a series of five <i>vleis</i>, turned in flood
+times into one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to
+the ocean. These <i>vleis</i> are known collectively as &ldquo;the lakes.&rdquo;
+In the Zwarteberg of the central chain are the Cango Caves,
+a remarkable series of caverns containing many thousand of
+stalactites and stalagmites. These caves, distant 20 m. from
+Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone bed
+about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers,
+the caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthiness.
+Its chief characteristics are the dryness and clearness
+of the atmosphere and the considerable daily range in temperature;
+whilst nevertheless the extremes of heat and cold are
+rarely encountered. The mean annual temperature over the
+greater part of the country is under 65° F. The chief agents
+in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in the
+southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large
+extent of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature
+of the air in places south of the tropics compared with that
+experienced in countries in the same latitude north of the equator.
+Thus Cape Town, about 34° S., has a mean temperature, 63° F.,
+which corresponds with that of the French and Italian Riviera,
+in 41° to 43° N. For the dryness of the atmosphere the elevation
+of the country is responsible. The east and south-east winds,
+which contain most moisture, dissipate their strength against
+the Drakensberg and other mountain ranges which guard the
+interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially in the south-east,
+enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance west
+and north contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger
+part of the country drought is common and severe. Along the
+valley of the lower Orange rain does not fall for years together.
+The drought is increased in intensity by the occasional hot
+dry wind from the desert region in the north, though this wind
+is usually followed by violent thunderstorms.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here
+outlined, in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there
+are many variations in different districts. In the coast-lands
+the daily range of the thermometer is less marked than in the
+interior and the humidity of the atmosphere is much greater.
+Nevertheless, the west coast north of the Olifants river is practically
+rainless and there is great difference between day and night
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span>
+temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the characteristics
+of the interior plateau. The division of the year into four seasons
+is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where exceptional
+conditions prevail. In general the seasons are but two&mdash;summer
+and winter, summer lasting from September to April
+and winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is
+experienced in December, January and February, whilst June and
+July are the coldest months. In the western part of the colony
+the winter is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains
+come <span class="correction" title="amended from is">in</span> summer. A line drawn from Port Elizabeth north-west
+across the Karroo in the direction of Walfish Bay roughly divides
+the regions of the winter and summer rains. All the country
+north of the central mountain chain and west of 23° E., including
+the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual rainfall
+of under 12 in. East of the 23° E. the plateaus have a mean
+annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-lands
+and the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in.;
+the Cape peninsula by exception having an average yearly
+rainfall of 40 in. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Town</a></span>). Along the south coast and
+in the south-east the mean annual rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is
+over 50 in. at some stations. The rain falls, generally, in heavy
+and sudden storms, and frequently washes away the surface soil.
+The mean annual temperature of the coast region, which, as stated,
+is 63° F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the coast not only
+trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect of the
+warm Mozambique or Agulhas current.</p>
+
+<p>On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77° F., the
+mean minimum 49°, the mean daily range about 27°. In summer
+the drought is severe, the heat during the day great, the nights
+cool and clear. In winter frost at night is not uncommon. The
+climate of the northern plains is similar to that of the Karroo,
+but the extremes of cold and heat are greater. In the summer
+the shade temperature reaches 110° F., whilst in winter nights
+12° of frost have been registered. The hot westerly winds of
+summer make the air oppressive, though violent thunderstorms,
+in which form the northern districts receive most of their scanty
+rainfall, occasionally clear the atmosphere. Mirages are occasionally
+seen. The keen air, accompanied by the brilliant sunshine,
+renders the winter climate very enjoyable. Snow seldom falls
+in the coast region, but it lies on the higher mountains for three
+or four months in the year, and for as many days on the Karroo.
+Violent hailstorms, which do great damage, sometimes follow
+periods of drought. The most disagreeable feature of the
+climate of the colony is the abundance of dust, which seems
+to be blown by every wind, and is especially prevalent in the
+rainy season.</p>
+
+<p>That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the
+history of South Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations
+of settlers, from northern Europe have been born, lived and died
+there, and the race is as strong and vigorous as that from which
+it sprang. Malarial fever is practically non-existent in Cape
+Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;The colony affords the typical development of the
+geological succession south of the Zambezi. The following
+general arrangement has been determined:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table Of Formations</span>.<br />
+<i>Post-Cretaceous and Recent.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Cretaceous System</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Pondoland Cretaceous Series<br />Uitenhage Series</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Cretaceous</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Karroo System</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Stormberg Series<br />Beaufort Series<br />Ecca Series<br />Dwyka Series</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Carboniferous</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm bb1">Cape System</td> <td class="tcl bb1">Witteberg Series<br />Bokkeveld Series<br />Table Mountain Sandstone Series</td> <td class="tclm bb1">Devonian</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="tclm">Pre-Cape Rocks</td> <td class="tcl">Includes several independent<br />&emsp;unfossiliferous formations<br />&emsp;of pre-Devonian age</td>
+     <td class="tclm">Archaean to Silurian(?)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be
+regarded as a shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal
+rocks of the Karroo. These form the plains and plateaus of the
+interior. Rocks of pre-Cape age rise from beneath them on the
+north and west; on the south and east the Lower Karroo and
+Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath which, but in
+quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the folded
+regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south
+and east.</p>
+
+<p>Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different
+development in each:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">North.</td> <td class="tcc allb">West.</td> <td class="tcc allb">South.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Matsap Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nieuwerust Beds</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cango Beds</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ongeluk Volcanic Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Griquatown Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibiquas Beds</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Campbell Rand Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Black Reef Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pniel Volcanic Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Keis Series</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Namaqualand Schists</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Namaqualand Schists and Malmesbury Beds</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Malmesbury Beds</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt
+represent formations of widely different ages, but all that can be
+said is that they are greatly older than the Cape System. The
+hope that they will yield fossils has been held out but not yet
+fulfilled. Their total thickness amounts to several thousand feet.
+The rocks have been greatly changed by pressure in most cases
+and by the intrusion of great masses of igneous material, the
+Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being most altered.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse
+conglomerate; the other rocks include slates, limestone and
+porphyroids. The Ibiquas beds consist of conglomerates and
+grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas series have been invaded
+by granite of older date than the Table Mountain series. The
+Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and shales. They
+rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury beds.</p>
+
+<p>The pre-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Campbell
+Rand, Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in
+the Schuftebergen. They contain a great variety of sediments
+and igneous rocks. The oldest, or Keis, series consists of quartzites,
+quartz-schists, phyllites and conglomerates. These are
+overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great thickness of lavas
+and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer Vley and
+Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites,
+grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the
+Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some
+interbedded quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quartzites,
+limestones and shales are numerous bands of jasper and
+large quantities of crocidolite (a fibrous amphibole); while
+at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200 ft. thick, is locally
+developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known glaciations
+have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The
+Ongeluk volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conformably
+overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites
+and conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great
+discordance.</p>
+
+<p>Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the
+southern and eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member
+(Table Mountain Sandstone) consists of sandstones with subordinate
+bands of shale. It forms the upper part of Table
+Mountain and enters largely into the formation of the southern
+mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous except for a few
+obscure sheils obtained near the base. A bed of conglomerate is
+regarded as of glacial origin.</p>
+
+<p>The Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into
+a sequence of sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well
+exposed in the Cold and Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds
+contain many fossils, including <i>Phacops, Homalonotus, Leptocoelia,
+Spirifer, Chonetes, Orthothetes, Orthoceras, Bellerophon</i>.
+Many of the species are common to the Devonian rocks of the
+Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with
+perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South
+America than to that of any other country.</p>
+
+<p>The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sandstones,
+quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span>
+imperfect remains of plants (<i>Spirophyton</i>) are the only fossils,
+and these are not sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the
+Devonian or Carboniferous System.</p>
+
+<p>The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The Karroo System is <i>par excellence</i> the geological formation of
+South Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do
+large tracts in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes
+the following well-defined subdivisions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Feet.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm bb2" rowspan="4">Stormberg Serie</td> <td class="tcl">Volcanic Beds</td> <td class="tcr">4000</td> <td class="tclm bb3" style="background-color: #e8e8e8;" rowspan="3">Jurassic</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cave Sandstone</td> <td class="tcr">800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Red Beds</td> <td class="tcr">1400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl bb2">Molteno Beds</td> <td class="tcr bb2">2000</td> <td class="tclm bb3" style="background-color: #b8b8b8;" rowspan="3">Trias</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm bb2" rowspan="3">Beaufort Series</td> <td class="tcl">Burghersdorp Beds</td> <td class="tcrm bb2" rowspan="3">5000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dicynodon Beds</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl bb2">Pareiasaurus Beds</td> <td class="tclm bb3" style="background-color: #e8e8e8;" rowspan="2">Permian</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm bb2" rowspan="3">Ecca Series</td> <td class="tcl">Shales and Sandstones</td> <td class="tcrm bb2" rowspan="3">2600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Laingsburg Beds</td> <td class="tclm" style="background-color: #b8b8b8;" rowspan="5">Carboniferus</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl bb2">Shales</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="3">Dwyka Series</td> <td class="tcl">Upper Shales</td> <td class="tcr">600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Conglomerates</td> <td class="tcr">1000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lower Shales</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape
+System conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on
+very much older rocks. The most remarkable deposits are
+the conglomerates of the Dwyka series. These afford the
+clearest evidences of glaciation on a great scale in early Carboniferous
+times. The deposit strictly resembles a consolidated
+modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks, and in
+different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is
+remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward.
+The upper shales contain the small reptile <i>Mesosaurus
+tenuidens</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among
+others they include <i>Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca</i>.
+The Beaufort series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable
+and often gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and
+species are numerous, <i>Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus</i>
+being the best known. Among plants <i>Glossopteris</i> occurs for the
+last time. The Stormberg series occurs in the mountainous
+regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno beds
+contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable
+feature of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an
+extensive scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed
+by lava streams of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets,
+most of which end at the folded belt, are also numerous. The age
+of the intrusive sheets met with in the Beaufort series is usually
+attributed to the Stormberg period. They form the kopjes, or
+characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great Karroo. The Stormberg
+series contains the remains of numerous reptiles. A true
+crocodile, <i>Notochampsa</i>, has been discovered in the Red Beds
+and Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, <i>Thinnfeldia</i> and
+<i>Taeniopteris</i> are common. Three genera of fossil fishes, <i>Cleithrolepis,
+Semionotus</i> and <i>Ceratodus</i>, ascend from the Beaufort
+series into the Cave Sandstone.</p>
+
+<p>Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the
+Uitenhage beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden.
+The marine fauna of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age.
+The chief genera are <i>Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus</i>
+and certain <i>Trigoniae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are
+widely spread. High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft.
+above the sea. The remains of a gigantic ox, <i>Bubalus Baini</i>,
+have been obtained from the alluvium near the Modder river.
+The recent deposits indicate that the land has risen for a long
+period.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. G.*)</div>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals
+common in the early days of the colony have been exterminated
+(<i>e.g.</i> quagga and blaauwbok), and others (<i>e.g.</i> the lion, rhinoceros,
+giraffe) driven beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game
+have been so reduced in numbers as to require special protection.
+This class includes the elephant (now found only in the Knysna
+and neighbouring forest regions), buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved,
+and confined to much the same regions as the elephant),
+eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other kinds of antelope and
+gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in the mountainous
+districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare woolly
+variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs
+are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other
+carnivora more or less common to the colony are the spotted
+hyena, aard-wolf (or <i>Proteles</i>), silver jackal, the <i>Otocyon</i> or Cape
+wild dog, and various kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a
+few hundreds of rare varieties, there are the springbuck, of
+which great herds still wander on the open veld, the steinbok, a
+small and beautiful animal which is sometimes coursed like a
+hare, the klipspringer or &ldquo;chamois of South Africa,&rdquo; common in
+the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock rabbit.
+There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of jerboa
+and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been
+introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland.
+The ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is
+found on the Karroo, where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps
+which dot the plain. There is also a scaly ant-eater and various
+species of pangolins, of arboreal habit, which live on ants.
+Baboons are found in the mountains and forests, otters in the
+rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile, confined to the
+Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the cobra di
+capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises,
+including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental
+land forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some
+regions. The great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft.
+high. Other game birds include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl,
+sand-grouse, snipe, wild duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal,
+plover and rail. Birds of prey include the bearded vulture,
+aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks, falcons and owls.
+Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in large variety.</p>
+
+<p>Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong
+to the order Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very
+common, the Cape canary, long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and
+wagtails are fairly numerous. The English starling is stated to
+be the only European bird to have thoroughly established itself in
+the colony. The Cape sparrow has completely acclimatized itself
+to town life and prevented the English sparrow obtaining a footing.</p>
+
+<p>Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions,
+tarantula spiders, butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In
+some districts the tsetse fly causes great havoc. The most
+interesting of the endemic insectivora is the <i>Chrysochloris</i> or
+&ldquo;golden mole,&rdquo; so called from the brilliant yellow lustre of its
+fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater fish, the
+commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both
+are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 &#8468;. The
+smallest variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the
+<i>vleis</i> and streams in which the water is intermittent the fish
+preserve life by burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been
+introduced into several rivers and have become acclimatized.
+Of sea fish there are more than forty edible varieties. The snock,
+the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in the estuaries and
+bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters of the
+Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.</p>
+
+<p>Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed
+by the natives when the country was discovered by Europeans.
+The various farm animals introduced by the whites have thriven
+well (see below, <i>Agriculture</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast
+districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less
+variety. In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted
+in the colony, about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape.
+The bush of the coast districts and lower hills consists largely
+of heaths, of which there are over 400 species. The heaths and
+the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a plant 1 to 2 ft. high
+resembling heather, form the characteristic features of the
+flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom is pink
+coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry
+season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the
+flowers are the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group,
+including many varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span>
+the eastern coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-tropical.
+Of pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty
+genera: Cape &ldquo;everlasting&rdquo; flowers (generally species of
+<i>Helichrysum</i>) are in great numbers. Several species of aloe
+are indigenous to the Cape. The so-called American aloe has
+also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant and many other
+plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great abundance.
+Among plants remarkable in their appearance and
+structure may be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge
+plants, the <i>Stapelia</i> or carrion flower, and the elephant&rsquo;s foot
+or Hottentots&rsquo; bread, a plant of the same order as the yam.
+Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic of many South
+African plants.</p>
+
+<p>Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges
+facing south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The
+forests contain a great variety of useful woods, affording excellent
+timber; among the commonest trees are the yellow wood,
+which is also one of the largest, belonging to the yew species;
+black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable stinkhout;
+melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and
+the assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed
+30 ft. in height and scarcely any attain a greater height than
+60 ft. A characteristic Cape tree is <i>Leucadendron argenteum</i>
+or silver tree, so named from the silver-like lustre of stem and
+leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the Cedarberg got its name,
+exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the Dutch or
+British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the Australian
+blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle
+grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands,
+<i>e.g.</i> the Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more
+rapidly and more luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few
+indigenous fruits; the kei apple is the fruit of a small tree or
+shrub found in Kaffraria and the eastern districts, where also
+the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard pears, gourds,
+water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon are also
+native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been
+introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of
+dwarf mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the
+spring rains are gorgeous in blossom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Karroo</a></span>). The grass
+of the interior plains is of a coarse character and yellowish
+colour, very different from the meadow grasses of England. The
+&ldquo;Indian&rdquo; doab grass is also indigenous.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not
+reach beyond about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered
+with small heath, <i>Bruniaceae, Rutaceae</i>, &amp;c. All plants with permanent
+foliage are thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over
+seventy species of plants of Alpine character have been found.</p>
+
+<p><i>Races and Population</i>.&mdash;The first inhabitants of Cape Colony
+of whom there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The last-named were originally called Quaequaes, and
+received the name Hottentots from the Dutch. They dwelt
+chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of the country;
+elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and to
+them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered
+by Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was
+very scanty and it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers
+and a few Huguenot families in the 17th century was followed
+in the 19th century by that of English and German immigrants.
+The Bushmen retreated before the white races and now few are
+to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the districts
+bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the
+Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no <i>pure bred</i>
+representatives of the race survive in the colony.</p>
+
+<p>Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now
+form the bulk of the native population west of the Great Fish
+river. Of Kaffir tribes the most important living north of the
+Orange river are the Bechuanas, whilst in the eastern province
+and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus and Pondos. The
+Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony proper.
+The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot
+half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country.
+During the slavery period many thousands of negroes were
+imported, chiefly from the Guinea coast. The negroes have been
+largely assimilated by the Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the
+native races see their separate articles.) Of the white races
+in the Colony the French element has been completely absorbed
+in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are mainly
+pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased
+form their own language, also engage largely in agriculture
+and viticulture. Of fine physique and hardy constitution,
+they are of strongly independent character; patriarchal in
+their family life; shrewd, <i>slim</i> and courageous; in religion
+Protestants of a somewhat austere type. Education is somewhat
+neglected by them, and the percentage of illiteracy among adults
+is high. They are firm believers in the inferiority of the black
+races and regard servitude as their natural lot. The British
+settlers have developed few characteristics differing from the
+home type. The British element of the community is largely
+resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in
+professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk
+of the farmers are English or German; the German farmers
+being found in the district between King William&rsquo;s Town and
+East London, and on the Cape Peninsula. Numbers of them
+retain their own language. The term &ldquo;Africander&rdquo; is sometimes
+applied to all white residents in Cape Colony and
+throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to
+the Dutch-speaking colonists. &ldquo;Boer,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> farmer, as a synonym
+for &ldquo;Dutch,&rdquo; is not in general use in Cape Colony.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of
+Malays in Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the
+Dutch as slaves. These people are largely leavened with
+foreign elements and, professing Mahommedanism, religion rather
+than race is their bond of union. They add greatly by their
+picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street scenes. They are
+generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There are also
+a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of
+the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the <i>taal</i>
+or vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites,
+as it is of the natives in the western provinces.</p>
+
+<p>The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the
+colony, which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not
+include the comparatively densely-populated Native Territories,
+was 566,158. Of these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or
+about 33% of the whole. Of the coloured races the Hottentots
+and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000, whilst the Kaffirs formed
+about 50% of the population. Since 1865 censuses have been
+taken&mdash;in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland formed
+part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand
+East, Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated,
+and Basutoland had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland
+and British Bechuanaland had been added. The following
+table gives the area and population at each of the three periods.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1875.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1891.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Area.<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area.<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area.<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">201,136</td> <td class="tccm allb">849,160</td> <td class="tccm allb">260,918</td> <td class="tccm allb">1,527,224</td> <td class="tccm allb">276,995</td> <td class="tccm allb">2,409,804</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at
+720,984, and that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is
+officially divided into nine provinces, but is more conveniently
+treated as consisting of three regions, to which may be added the
+detached area of Walfish Bay and the islands along the coast of
+Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows the distribution
+of population in the various areas.</p>
+
+<p>The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865
+and 579,741 in 1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783
+in 1875 and 376,987 in 1891. The proportion of Dutch descended
+whites to those of British origin is about 3 to 2. No exact
+comparison can be made showing the increase in the native
+population owing to the varying areas of the colony, but the
+natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites; the
+increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable
+measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25%
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span>
+of the total population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the
+colony proper. The great bulk of the people inhabit the coast
+region. The population is densest in the south-west corner (which
+includes Cape Town, the capital) where the white outnumbers
+the coloured population. Here in an area of 1711 sq. m. the
+inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The urban
+population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns
+and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the
+total population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants
+at the 1904 census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as
+Indians, 85,892 as Hottentots,<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as
+Griquas. The Kaffir and Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067
+individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes separately classified, while
+279,662 persons were described as of mixed race. Divided by
+sex (including white and black) the males numbered (1904)
+1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion
+of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:&mdash;whites,
+82.16 females to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared
+with 1891); coloured, 103.22 females to every 100 males. Of
+the total population over 14 years old&mdash;1,409,975&mdash;the number
+married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the white population
+this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Population (1904).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">White.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coloured.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per<br />sq. m.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Colony Proper</td> <td class="tcr rb">206,613</td> <td class="tcr rb">553,452</td> <td class="tcr rb">936,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,489,691</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British Bechuanaland</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,424</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,104</td> <td class="tcr rb">84,472</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Native Territories</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,310</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,777</td> <td class="tcr rb">817,867</td> <td class="tcr rb">834,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Walfish Bay and Islands</td> <td class="tcr rb">648</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td> <td class="tcr rb">853</td> <td class="tcr rb">977</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.50</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">276,995</td> <td class="tcr allb">579,741</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,830,063</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,409,804</td> <td class="tcr allb">8.70</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ
+about ¼th of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged
+in such pursuits numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and
+67,278, whereas 99,319 were engaged in domestic employment,
+and 111,175 in agricultural employment, while 214,982 (mostly
+children) were dependants. The natives follow domestic and
+agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.</p>
+
+<p>Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory
+till 1895. Among the European population the birth-rate is
+about 33.00 per thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand.
+The birth-rate among the coloured inhabitants is about the same
+as with the whites, but the death-rate is higher&mdash;about 25.00
+per thousand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Immigration and Emigration</i>.&mdash;From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337
+persons availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants
+from England to the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped.
+The total number of adult immigrants by sea, however, steadily
+increased from 11,559 in 1891 to 38,669 in 1896, while during the
+same period the number of departures by sea only increased from
+8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took place in the last
+year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the political
+position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants, while
+the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900
+there were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163
+departures. Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the
+immigration figures rose in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures
+numbered 29,615. This great increase proved transitory; in
+1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered 32,282 and 33,775
+respectively, while in the same years the emigrants numbered
+33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the European
+population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian
+extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.</p>
+
+<p><i>Provinces</i>.&mdash;The first division of the colony for the purposes
+of administration and election of members for the legislative
+council was into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the
+western being largely Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly
+British. With the growth of the colony these provinces were
+found to be inconveniently large, and by an act of government,
+which became law in 1874, the country was portioned out into
+seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were
+formed within them by the reduction of those already existing.
+The seven provinces are named from their geographical position:
+western, north-western, south-western,
+eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and
+midland. In general usage the distinction
+made is into western and eastern provinces,
+according to the area of the primary division.
+Griqualand West on its incorporation with
+the colony in 1880 became a separate province,
+and when the crown colony of British
+Bechuanaland was taken over by the Cape
+in 1895 it also became a separate province
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bechuanaland</a></span>). For electoral purposes
+the Native Territories (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span>) are included in the eastern
+province.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chief Towns</i>.&mdash;With the exception of Kimberley the principal
+towns (see separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape
+Town, had a population (1904) of 77,668, or including the
+suburbs, 169,641. The most important of these suburbs, which
+form separate municipalities, are Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg
+(18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley, the centre of the
+diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape Town,
+had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of
+Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959
+inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river,
+25,220. Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London.
+Uitenhage (pop. 12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth.
+Of the other towns Somerset West (2613), Somerset West Strand
+(3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl (11,293), Wellington (4881),
+Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon (3508), Worcester
+(7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are named
+in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam
+is distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony
+are Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West
+(5478), Victoria West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of
+Mossel Bay (4206) and George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083),
+Middleburg (6137), Cradock (7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg
+(2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more centrally situated,
+while in the east are Graham&rsquo;s Town (13,887), King William&rsquo;s
+Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp
+(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North
+(5566), the largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset
+East (5216). Simon&rsquo;s Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of
+the British navy. Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the
+colony near the Transvaal frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg
+(2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad (2903) is the capital of
+Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of Tembuland.</p>
+
+<p>Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines,
+whose headquarters are at O&rsquo;okiep (2106). Knysna, Port
+Alfred and Port St Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and
+Barkly West are two widely separated towns, the first being
+E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West in Griqualand West.
+Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the middle course
+of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on the
+north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western
+part of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining
+region in the east of the colony. The general plan of the
+small country towns is that of streets laid out at right angles, and
+a large central market square near which are the chief church,
+town hall and other public buildings. In several of the towns,
+notably those founded by the early Dutch settlers, the streets are
+tree-lined. Those towns for which no population figures are
+given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture and Allied <span class="correction" title="amended from Industires">Industries</span>.</i>&mdash;Owing to the scarcity of
+water over a large part of the country the area of land under
+cultivation is restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are
+pastoralists, whose wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep
+and goats, horses, and, in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of
+adequate irrigation much fertile soil is left untouched.</p>
+
+<p>The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+bushels in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and
+Kaffir corn (a kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing
+districts are in the south-western and eastern provinces. The
+yield per acre is fully up to the average of the world&rsquo;s yield,
+computed at twelve bushels to the acre. The quality of Cape
+wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives its name to the
+Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower hills of
+Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and
+horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and
+Kaffir corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider
+area than any other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest
+crop grown. They are often cut whilst still tender, dried and
+used as forage being known as oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of
+about 5½ &#8468; each were produced in 1904). The principal vegetables
+cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold and beet, beans
+and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small, whilst those
+devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging from 3000
+acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers
+own the farms they occupy.</p>
+
+<p>The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief
+occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000
+woolled and 3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There
+were 2,775,000 angora and 4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000
+cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000 asses. These figures showed
+in most cases a large decrease compared with those obtained in
+1891, the cause being largely the ravages of rinderpest. Lucerne
+and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich farms are
+maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country, young
+birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres
+supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated
+ostriches in 1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over
+200,000 since 1891. There are large mule-breeding establishments
+on the veld.</p>
+
+<p>Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony.
+It is doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to
+the Cape. The first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards,
+while the cuttings of French vines introduced by the Huguenots
+about 1688 have given rise to an extensive culture in the south-western
+districts of the colony. The grapes are among the finest
+in the world, whilst the fruit is produced in almost unrivalled
+abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of wine are
+produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000,
+and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides
+1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those
+known as Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot.
+The high reputation which they had in the first half of the 19th
+century was afterwards lost to a large extent. Owing to greater
+care on the part of growers, and the introduction of French-American
+resistant stocks to replace vines attacked by the
+phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th century again
+acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater part
+of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the
+colony. The chief wine-producing districts are those of the
+Paarl, Worcester, Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and
+the Cape, all in the south-western regions. Beyond the
+colony proper there are promising vine stocks in the Gordonia
+division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata district of
+Tembuland.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit culture has become an important industry with the
+facilities afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in
+Europe. The trees whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection
+and yield the largest harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and
+apple. Large quantities of table grapes are also grown. Many
+millions of each of the fruits named are produced annually. The
+pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees likewise flourish. Cherry
+trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive was begun in the
+western provinces, <i>c.</i> 1900. In the Oudtshoorn, Stockenstroom,
+Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is grown.
+The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to
+that of diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres
+are Port Elizabeth and the Cape district. In 1904 the output
+of the mills was valued at over £2,200,000, more than 7,000,000
+bushels of wheat being ground.</p>
+
+<p>Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown
+property and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries
+were little developed before 1897 when government experiments
+were begun, which proved that large quantities of fish were
+easily procurable by trawling. Large quantities of soles are
+obtained from a trawling ground near Cape Agulhas. The collection
+of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is under government
+control.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mining</i>.&mdash;The mineral wealth of the country is very great.
+The most valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in
+Griqualand West and also at Hopetown, and other districts along
+the Orange river. The diamond-mining industry is almost
+entirely under the control of the De Beers Mining Company.
+From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come larger numbers
+of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the world
+combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years
+1896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and
+a half million carats, of the average annual value of £4,250,000,
+the average price per carat being £1 : 13 : 3. From the other
+districts alluvial diamonds are obtained of the average annual
+value of £250,000-£400,000. They are finer stones than the
+Kimberley diamonds, having an average value of £3 : 2 : 7
+per carat.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance among mineral products are coal and
+copper. The collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of
+considerable extent. The Indwe mines are the most productive.
+The colonial output increased from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000
+tons in 1904. The copper mines are in Namaqualand, an average
+of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined yearly. Copper was
+the first metal worked by white men in the colony, operations
+beginning in 1852.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near
+Mafeking&mdash;the outcrop extending about 30 m.&mdash;-and, in small
+quantities, from mines in the Knysna district. In the Cape
+and Paarl districts are valuable stone and granite quarries.
+Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which neighbourhood
+there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several
+districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown
+and Uitenhage divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near
+Cape Town. Many other minerals exist but are not put to
+industrial purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade</i>.&mdash;The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities,
+but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods
+to and from the Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia.
+The staple exports are diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand
+mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich feathers, mohair, hides and
+skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000 &#8468; in 1860, had
+doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 &#8468; in 1905 when the
+export was valued at £1,887,459. In the same year (1905)
+471,024 &#8468; of ostrich feathers were exported valued at £1,081,187.
+The chief imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky,
+timber, hardware and machinery. The value of the total imports
+rose from £13,612,405 in 1895 to £33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped
+to £20,000,913 in 1905. The exports in 1895 were valued at
+£16,798,137 and rose to £23,247,258 in 1899. The dislocation
+of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics brought
+down the exports in 1900 to £7,646,682 (in which year the
+value of the gold exported was only £336,795). They rose to
+£10,000,000 and £16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and
+in 1905 had reached £33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold
+valued at £20,731,159.) About 75% of the imports come from
+the United Kingdom or British colonies, and nearly the whole of
+the exports go to the United Kingdom. The tonnage of ships
+entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from 10,175,903 in 1895
+to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year <span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">11</span>ths of the tonnage was
+British. It is interesting to compare the figures already given with
+those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the colony
+over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country
+was under £1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over £4,500,000,
+in 1874 it exceeded £10,500,000. It remained at about this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span>
+figure until the development of the Witwatersrand gold mines.
+The consequent great increase in the carrying trade with the
+Transvaal led to some neglect of the internal resources of the
+colony. Trade depression following the war of 1899-1902
+turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory results.
+The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was
+£12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony
+being £15,302,854. A &ldquo;trade balance-sheet&rdquo; for 1906 drawn up
+for the Cape Town chamber of commerce by its president showed,
+however, a debtor account of £18,751,000 compared with a credit
+account of £17,931,000, figures representing with fair accuracy
+the then economic condition of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union.
+The tariff, revised in 1906, is protective with a general <i>ad
+valorem</i> rate of 15% on goods not specifically enumerated. On
+machinery generally there is a 3% <i>ad valorem</i> duty. Books,
+engravings, paintings, sculptures, &amp;c., are on the free list. There
+is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United Kingdom,
+machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications</i>.&mdash;There is regular communication between
+Europe and the colony by several lines of steamships. The
+British mails are carried under contract with the colonial government
+by packets of the Union-Castle Steamship Co., which
+leave Southampton every Saturday and Cape Town every
+Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m.,
+according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the
+distance in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers
+sail once a week, or oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days)
+East London (543 m., three days) and Durban (823 m., four
+or five days); Mossel Bay being called at once a fortnight.
+Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated intervals
+for Port Nolloth.</p>
+
+<p>Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (<i>Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie</i>), starting
+from Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three
+chief Cape ports. The western route is via Dover to Cape Town,
+the eastern route is via the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines
+of steamers ply between Cape Town and Australian ports, and
+others between Cape Colony and India.</p>
+
+<p>There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers
+crossing main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the
+colony is that which spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is
+1480 ft. long and cost £114,000. Of the roads in general it may
+be said that they are merely tracks across the veld made at the
+pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally used as a
+draught animal in country districts remote from railways;
+sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying
+3 to 4 tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted
+the ox-wagon for bringing agricultural produce to
+market. The &ldquo;Scotch cart,&rdquo; a light two-wheeled vehicle is also
+much used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways</i>.&mdash;Railway construction began in 1859 when a private
+company built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line,
+64 m. long, was the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen
+years. In 1871 parliament resolved to build railways at the
+public expense, and in 1873 (the year following the conferment
+of responsible government on the colony) a beginning was made
+with the work, £5,000,000 having been voted for the purpose. In
+the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was bought by
+the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private
+companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving
+subsidies from the government, which owns and works the
+greater part of the railways in the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines
+from the seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines
+then begun determined the development of the whole system.
+The standard gauge in South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways
+mentioned are of that gauge unless otherwise stated.</p>
+
+<p>The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified
+under three great systems:&mdash;the Western, the Midland and
+the Eastern.</p>
+
+<p>The Western system&mdash;the southern section of the Cape to
+Cairo route&mdash;starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley
+(647 m.) to Vryburg (774 m.), whence it is continued by the
+Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking (870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.),
+the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623 m.) and the Belgian
+Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs via
+Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen
+Streams, a station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via
+Klerksdorp to Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most
+direct route between Cape Town and the Transvaal. (Distance
+from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955 m.)</p>
+
+<p>The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main
+line runs by Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval&rsquo;s Pont on the
+Orange river, whence it is continued through the Orange River
+Colony and the Transvaal by Bloemfontein to Johannesburg
+(714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria (741 m.). From
+Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and Johannesburg,
+a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban,
+and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and
+Port Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line
+(186 m.) runs by Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the
+main line at Rosmead, from which a junction line (83 m.) runs
+eastwards, connecting with the Eastern system at Stormberg.
+From Naauwpoort another junction line (69 m.) runs north-west,
+connecting the Midland with the Western system at De Aar,
+and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from
+Cape Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to
+Johannesburg via Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)</p>
+
+<p>The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal
+line runs to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony,
+where it joins the line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal.
+(Distance from East London to Johannesburg, 665 m.) From
+Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a branch, originally
+the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).</p>
+
+<p>The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways
+running for the most part parallel with the coast. Starting
+from Worcester, 109 m. from Cape Town on the western main
+line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via Swellendair and Riversdale.
+From Mossel Bay another line runs by George, Oudtshoorn
+and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from
+Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town
+666 m.) From Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King
+William&rsquo;s Town to Blaney junction on the eastern main line
+and 31 m. from East London. The Somerset East line crosses,
+at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line from Port Elizabeth
+to the north, and by this route the distance between Port Elizabeth
+and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905 of
+the Somerset East-King William&rsquo;s Town line, the nearest railway
+connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and
+Stormberg junction&mdash;a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom
+junction on the eastern main line a branch railway goes through
+the Transkei to connect at Riverside, the frontier station, with
+the Natal railways. It runs via the Indwe coal-mines (66 m.
+from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and Kokstad. From
+Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also
+connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele,
+a station 51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata
+(180 m. distant). Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns
+(307 m. from East London), whence another line 142 m. long
+goes to Kokstad.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all
+the towns within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked
+to it by railway. Longer branches run from the capital S.E.
+to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via Malmesbury (47 m.), and
+Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A line runs N.W.
+across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line via
+Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction,
+a line (111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange
+river. From Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown,
+whence another line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port
+Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie river. Another line (179 m.)
+on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port Elizabeth via Humansdorp
+to Avontuur.</p>
+
+<p>A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+Port Nolloth on the west coast to the O&rsquo;okiep copper mines
+(92 m.). It has a gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.</p>
+
+<p>The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively
+short distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the
+Karroo. The steepest gradient is on the western main line.
+Having entered the hilly district at Tulbagh Road, where the
+railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the Hex River Pass is reached
+soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above the sea. In the
+next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that distance
+being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is the
+most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from
+East London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m.
+from its starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft.,
+at Cathcart (109 m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat,
+where it pierces the Stormberg, 204 m. from East London,
+the rails are 5450 ft. above the sea. From Sterkstroom to
+Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The highest railway
+station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the Zuurberg,
+on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems.
+The capital expended on government railways to the end of
+1905 was £29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of £10,034. The
+gross earnings in 1905 were £4,047,065 (as compared with
+£3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses £3,076,920 (as compared with
+£1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in 1905 numbered
+20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000 &#8468;).</p>
+
+<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs</i>.&mdash;Direct telegraphic communication
+between London and Cape Town was established on Christmas
+day 1879. Cables connect the colony with Europe (1) via
+Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena, Ascension and
+St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar
+and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and
+Cocos.</p>
+
+<p>An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji,
+on Lake Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other
+lines connect Cape Town with all other South African states,
+while within the colony there is a complete system of telegraphic
+communication, over 8000 m. of lines being open in 1906.
+The telephone service is largely developed in the chief towns.
+The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely
+built, at a cost up to 1906 of £865,670, by the government,
+which in 1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.).</p>
+
+<p>The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the
+reach of the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts
+of Gordonia (Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails.
+Since 1890 a yearly average of over 50,000,000 has passed
+through the post. Of these about four-fifths are letters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Government</i>.&mdash;Under the constitution established
+in 1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature
+consisted of two chambers, a Legislative Council and a
+House of Assembly. Members of the Legislative Council or
+Upper House represented the provinces into which the colony
+was divided and were elected for seven years; members of the
+House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for
+five years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces.
+At the head of the executive was a governor appointed by the
+crown. By the South Africa Act 1909 this constitution was
+abolished as from the establishment of the Union of South Africa
+in 1910. Cape Colony entered the Union as an original province,
+being represented in the Union parliament by eight members in
+the Senate and fifty-one in the House of Assembly. The qualifications
+of voters for the election of members of the House of
+Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at the
+establishment of the Union, and are as follows:&mdash;Voters must
+be born or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape
+province at least twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no
+distinction being made as to race or colour), must be in possession
+of property worth £75, or in receipt of salary or wages of not less
+than £50 a year. No one not an elector in 1892 can be registered
+as a voter unless he can sign his name and write his address and
+occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does not qualify for a
+vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified for
+election to parliament (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>). The number
+of registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000
+were non-Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting
+of the same number of members as are elected by the province
+to the House of Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the
+council are the same as for the House of Assembly. All voters,
+European and non-European, are eligible for seats on the
+council, but any councillor who becomes a member of parliament
+thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial council.
+The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation
+within the province for purely local purposes, and generally
+controls all matters of a merely local or private nature in the
+province. The council was also given, for five years following
+the establishment of the Union, control of elementary education.
+All ordinances passed by the council must have the sanction of
+the Union government before coming into force. The council
+is elected for three years and is not subject to dissolution save
+by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an official
+appointed by the Union government and styled administrator
+of the province. The administrator holds his post for a period
+of five years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting
+of four persons elected by the provincial council but not
+necessarily members of that body.</p>
+
+<p>To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the
+divisional and municipal councils of the province, but the powers
+of such subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn
+by the Union parliament acting directly. Divisional councils,
+which are elected triennially, were established in 1855. In
+1908 they numbered eighty-one. The councils are presided
+over by a civil commissioner who is also usually resident
+magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the division;
+can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money
+on the security of the rates for public works; and return
+three members yearly to the district licensing court. Their
+receipts in 1908 were £269,000; their expenditure in the same
+period was £283,000. The electors to the divisional councils are
+the owners or occupiers of immovable property. Members of
+the councils must be registered voters and owners of immovable
+property in the division valued at not less than £500.</p>
+
+<p>Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for
+the most part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal
+Act of 1882. Certain municipalities have, however, obtained
+special acts for their governance. In 1907 there were 110
+municipalities in the province. Under the act of 1882 the
+municipalities were given power to levy annually an owner&rsquo;s
+rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and
+a tenant&rsquo;s rate assessed upon the annual value of such property.
+No rate may exceed 2d. in the £ on the capital value or 8d. in
+the £ on the annual value. The receipts of the municipalities
+in 1907 amounted to £1,430,000. During the same period
+the expenditure amounted to £1,539,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Law and Justice</i>.&mdash;The basis of the judicial system is the
+Roman-Dutch law, which has been, however, modified by
+legislation of the Cape parliament. In each division of the
+province there is a resident magistrate with primary jurisdiction
+in civil and criminal matters. The South Africa Act 1909
+created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the supreme court of
+the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town, becoming a
+provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over by a
+judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony,
+namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham&rsquo;s
+Town, and the high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley,
+became local divisions of the Supreme Court of South Africa.
+Each of these courts consists of a judge-president and two
+puisne judges. The provincial and local courts, besides their
+original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which the
+government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which
+the validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into
+question. From the decisions of these courts appeals may
+be made to the appellate division of the Supreme Court. The
+judges of the divisional courts go on circuit twice a year.
+In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond
+buying (&ldquo;I.D.B.&rdquo;). This court consists of two judges of the
+supreme court and one other member, hitherto the civil commissioner
+or the resident magistrate of Kimberley. The Transkeian
+territories, which fall under the jurisdiction of the eastern
+district court, are subject to a Native Territories Penal Code,
+which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual magistrates
+in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident at Cape
+Town, with two assistants in the territories.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion</i>.&mdash;Up to the year 1876 government provided an
+annual grant for ecclesiastical purposes which was divided
+among the various churches, Congregationalists alone declining
+to receive state aid. From that date, in accordance with the
+provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants were only continued
+to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed
+Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the
+country, is by far the most numerous community. Next in
+number of adherents among the white community come the
+Anglicans&mdash;Cape Colony forming part of the Province of South
+Africa. In 1847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to preside
+over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape
+Colony and Natal, but also over the island of St Helena. Later,
+however, separate bishops were appointed for the eastern
+province (with the seat at Graham&rsquo;s Town) and for Natal.
+Subsequently another bishopric, St John&rsquo;s, Kaffraria, was created
+and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the rank of archbishop.
+Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber the
+Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people.
+The Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham&rsquo;s
+Town, but are comparatively few. There are, besides, several
+foreign missions in the colony, the most important being the
+Moravian, London and Rhenish missionary societies. The
+Moravians have been established since 1732.</p>
+
+<p>The following figures are extracted from the census returns
+of 1904:&mdash;Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118;
+Jews, 19,537; Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; &ldquo;no
+religion,&rdquo; 1,016,255. In this last category are placed the pagan
+natives. The figures for the chief Protestant sects were:&mdash;Dutch
+Reformed Church, 399,487; Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209;
+Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433; Presbyterians, 88,660;
+Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other Methodists,
+290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the
+Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and
+Bechuanas 26% were returned as Christians.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education</i>.&mdash;There is a state system of primary education
+controlled by a superintendent-general of education and the
+education department which administers the parliamentary
+grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of public schools, drawn up
+by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into operation,
+and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive
+scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the
+colony into school districts under the control of popularly elected
+school boards, which were established during 1905-1906. These
+boards levy, through municipal or divisional councils, a rate
+for school purposes and supervise all public and poor schools.
+The schools are divided into public undenominational elementary
+schools; day schools and industrial institutions for the natives;
+mission schools to which government aid for secular instruction
+is granted; private farm schools, district boarding schools,
+training schools for teachers, industrial schools for poor whites,
+&amp;c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were open.
+Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of
+the white population over fourteen years old could read and write.
+In the same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and
+53,000 could read but not write. There are also numbers of
+private schools receiving no government aid. These include
+schools maintained by the German community, in which the
+medium of instruction is German.</p>
+
+<p>The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of
+London, stands at the head of the educational system of the
+colony. It arose out of and superseded the board of public
+examiners (which had been constituted in 1858), was established
+in 1874 and was granted a royal charter in 1877. It is governed
+by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who is chairman of the
+university council) and a council consisting (1909) of 38 members,
+including representatives of Natal. The university is empowered
+to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university in
+Great Britain. Originally only B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B.,
+and M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature,
+science and music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The
+number of students who matriculated rose from 34 in 1875
+to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in 1905. The examinations
+are open to candidates irrespective of where they
+have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants
+are paid to seven colleges that specially devote themselves
+to preparing students for the graduation courses. These
+are the South African College at Cape Town (founded in
+1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the Diocesan
+College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham&rsquo;s
+Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines
+at Kimberley and the Huguenot Ladies&rsquo; College at Wellington.
+Several denominational colleges, receiving no government
+aid, do the same work in a greater or less degree, the
+best known being St Aidan&rsquo;s (Roman Catholic) College and
+Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham&rsquo;s Town.
+Graaff Reinet College, Dale College, King William&rsquo;s Town, and
+the Grey Institute, Port Elizabeth, occupy the place of high
+schools under the education department. The Theological
+Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares theological students for the
+ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town is a Royal Observatory,
+founded in 1829, one of the most important institutions of
+its kind in the world. It is under the control of a royal astronomer
+and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defence</i>.&mdash;The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to
+repelling attacks from the sea. Simon&rsquo;s Town, which is on the
+east side of the peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and
+West Coast naval squadron. It is strongly fortified, as is also
+Table Bay. Port Elizabeth is likewise fortified against naval
+attack. A strong garrison of the British army is stationed in the
+colony, with headquarters at Cape Town. The cost of this
+garrison is borne by the imperial government. For purposes of
+local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted
+Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has
+been maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape
+Mounted Riflemen and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty
+is to preserve order in the Transkeian territories. The Cape
+Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are also available for the
+defence of the colony and are fully armed. There are numerous
+volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the government.
+By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between
+eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as
+within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force.</p>
+
+<p><i>Revenue, Debt, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the total receipts
+(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts)
+of the colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year ending<br />30th June.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Payments.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Loans<br />(included in total).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">£3,556,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3,742,665</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3,814,947</td> <td class="tcr rb">£496,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,211,832</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,571,907</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,141,857</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,327,496</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,416,611</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,388,157</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,565,752</td> <td class="tcr rb">128,376</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,773,230</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13,856,247</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,214,290</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10,914,784</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The colony had a public debt of £42,109,561 on the 31st of
+December 1905, including sums raised for corporate bodies,
+harbour boards, &amp;c., but guaranteed in the general revenue.
+The greater part of the loans were issued at 3½ or 4% interest.
+Nearly the whole of the loans raised have been spent on railways,
+harbours, irrigation and other public works. The value of
+assessed property for divisional council purposes was returned in
+1905 at £87,078,268. The total revenue of the divisional councils
+increased from £160,558 in 1901 to £273,543 in 1905, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span>
+expenditure from £170,892 in 1901 to £243,241 in 1905. The
+receipts from municipal rates and taxes rose from £520,587 in
+1901 to £700,103 in 1905; the total municipal receipts in the
+same period from £978,867 to £1,752,105. At the end of 1905
+the total indebtedness of the municipalities was £5,775,420, and
+the value of assessed property within the municipal bounds
+£53,948,224.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banks</i>.&mdash;-The following table gives statistics of the banks under
+trust laws:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">31st<br />December.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Including Head Offices.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Circulation,<br />Colony only.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Assets and<br />Liabilities<br />Colony only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Capital<br />Subscribed.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital<br />Paid up.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Reserve</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5,780,610</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,558,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">£850,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">£740,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,221,661</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,189,090</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,382,003</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,008,837</td> <td class="tcr rb">612,266</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,864,152</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,166,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,508,308</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,810,621</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,361,637</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,537,343</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,510,900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,456,925</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,948,428</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,065,251</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20,749,988</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures</i>.&mdash;Since 1903 a
+standard time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being
+that of 30° or two hours east of Greenwich. In other words
+noon in South Africa corresponds to 10.0 A.M. in London. The
+actual difference between the meridians of Greenwich and Cape
+Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The monetary system is
+that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation are exclusively
+British. Though all the standard weights and measures are
+British, the following old Dutch measures are still used:&mdash;<i>Liquid
+Measure</i>: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half
+aum = 15½ imperial gallons; anker = 7½ imperial gallons.
+<i>Capacity</i>: Muid = 3 bushels. The general surface measure is the old
+Amsterdam <i>Morgen</i>, reckoned equal to 2.11654 acres; 1000
+Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033 British imperial feet. The Cape
+ton is 2000 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Press</i>.&mdash;The first newspaper of the colony, written in
+Dutch and English, was published in 1824, and its appearance
+marked an era not only in the literary but in the political
+history of the colony, since it drew to a crisis the disputes which
+had arisen between the colonists and the governor, Lord Charles
+Somerset, who had issued a decree prohibiting all persons from
+convening or attending public meetings. Its criticisms on
+public affairs soon led to its suppression by the governor, and a
+memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for a free
+press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in 1828,
+and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by
+public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are
+divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the
+British or the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both
+sides. There are about one hundred newspapers in English or
+Dutch published in the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The chief papers are the <i>Cape Times, Cape Argus, South
+African News</i> (Bond), both daily and weekly; the <i>Diamond
+Fields Advertiser</i> (Kimberley) and the <i>Eastern Province Herald</i>
+(Port Elizabeth). <i>Ons Land</i> and <i>Het Dagblad</i> are Dutch papers
+published at Cape Town.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">History</p>
+
+<p><i>Discovery and Settlement</i>.&mdash;Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese
+navigator, discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and
+Vasco da Gama in 1497 sailed along the whole coast of South
+Africa on his way to India. The Portuguese, attracted by the
+riches of the East, made no permanent settlement at the Cape.
+But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the Portuguese power,
+established themselves in the East, early saw the importance of
+the place as a station where their vessels might take in water and
+provisions. They did not, however, establish any post at the
+Cape until 1652, when a small garrison under Jan van Riebeek
+were sent there by the Dutch East India Company. Riebeek
+landed at Table Bay and founded Cape Town. In 1671 the first
+purchase of land from the Hottentots beyond the limits of the
+fort built by Riebeek marked the beginning of the Colony proper.
+The earliest colonists were for the most part people of low station
+or indifferent character, but as the result of the investigations
+of a commissioner sent out in 1685 a better class of immigrants
+was introduced. About 1686 the European population was
+increased by a number of the French refugees who left their
+country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The influence
+of this small body of immigrants on the character of the Dutch
+settlers was marked. The Huguenots, however, owing to the
+policy of the Company, which in 1701 directed that Dutch only
+should be taught in the schools, ceased by the middle of the 18th
+century to be a distinct body, and the knowledge of French
+disappeared. Advancing north and
+east from their base at Cape Town
+the colonists gradually acquired&mdash;partly
+by so-called contracts, partly
+by force&mdash;all the land of the Hottentots,
+large numbers of whom they
+slew. Besides those who died in
+warfare, whole tribes of Hottentots
+were destroyed by epidemics of
+smallpox in 1713 and in 1755. Straggling remnants still maintained
+their independence, but the mass of the Hottentots took
+service with the colonists as herdsmen, while others became
+hangers-on about the company&rsquo;s posts and grazing-farms or
+roamed about the country. In 1787 the Dutch government passed
+a law subjecting these wanderers to certain restrictions. The
+effect of this law was to place the Hottentots in more immediate
+dependence upon the farmers, or to compel them to migrate
+northward beyond the colonial border. Those who chose the
+latter alternative had to encounter the hostility of their old foes,
+the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the plains from the
+Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg mountains to the Orange river.
+The colonists also, pressing forward to those territories, came in
+contact with these Ishmaelites&mdash;the farmers&rsquo; cattle and sheep,
+guarded only by a Hottentot herdsman, offering the strongest
+temptation to the Bushman. Reprisals followed; and the
+position became so desperate that the extermination of the
+Bushmen appeared to the government the only safe alternative.
+&ldquo;Commandoes&rdquo; or war-bands were sent out against them, and
+they were hunted down like wild beasts. Within a period of six
+years, it is said, upwards of 3000 were either killed or captured.
+Out of the organization of these commandoes, with their field-commandants
+and field-cornets, has grown the common system
+of local government in the Dutch-settled districts of South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>It was not to the hostility of the natives, nor to the hard
+struggle with nature necessary to make agriculture profitable
+on Karroo or veld, that the slow progress made by the colonists
+was due, so much as to the narrow and tyrannical policy adopted
+by the East India Company, which closed the colony against free
+immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands,
+combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in
+one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they
+were to grow, demanded from them a large part of their produce,
+and harassed them with other exactions tending to discourage
+industry and enterprise. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>, where
+the methods and results of Dutch colonial government are
+considered in their broader aspects.) To this mischievous policy
+is ascribed that dislike to orderly government, and that desire
+to escape from its control, which characterized for many generations
+the &ldquo;boer&rdquo; or farmer class of Dutch settlers&mdash;qualities
+utterly at variance with the character of the Dutch in their
+native country. It was largely to escape oppression that the
+farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government.
+The company, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy
+at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786.
+The Gamtoos river had been declared, <i>c.</i> 1740, the eastern
+frontier of the colony, but it was soon passed. In 1780, however,
+the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Kaffir tribes
+advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with
+them to make the Great Fish river the common boundary. In
+1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who
+were afforded no protection against the Kaffirs, expelled the
+officials of the East India Company, and set up independent
+governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. In the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span>
+year, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary government
+of France, a British force under General Sir James Craig was sent
+to Cape Town to secure the colony for the prince of Orange&mdash;a
+refugee in England&mdash;against the French. The governor of Cape
+Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the prince,
+but on the British proceeding to take forcible possession he
+capitulated.<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> His action was hastened by the fact that the
+Hottentots, deserting their former masters, flocked to the British
+standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until
+a force had been sent against them, while in 1799 and again in
+1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the
+peace of Amiens, the colony was handed over to the Batavian
+Republic, which introduced many needful reforms, as had the
+British during their eight years&rsquo; rule. (One of the first acts of
+General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration
+of justice.) War having again broken out, a British force was
+once more sent to the Cape. After an engagement (Jan. 1806)
+on the shores of Table Bay the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle surrendered
+to the British under Sir David Baird, and in 1814 the
+colony was ceded outright by Holland to the British crown.
+At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding
+the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland, and had
+an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000,
+of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Hottentots and the rest
+slaves. These slaves were mostly imported negroes and Malays.
+Their introduction was the chief cause leading the white settlers
+to despise manual labour.</p>
+
+<p><i>The First and Second Kaffir Wars</i>.&mdash;At the time of the
+cession to Great Britain the first of several wars with the Kaffirs
+had been fought. (The numerous minor conflicts which since
+1789 had taken place between the colonists and the Kaffirs&mdash;the
+latter sometimes aided by Hottentot allies&mdash;are not reckoned
+in the usual enumeration of the Kaffir wars.) The Kaffirs, who
+had crossed the colonial frontier, had been expelled from the
+district between the Sunday and Great Fish rivers known as
+the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some
+time previous to 1811 the Kaffirs, however, had taken possession
+of the neutral ground and committed depredations on the
+colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel
+John Graham took the field with a mixed force in December 1811,
+and in the end the Kaffirs were driven beyond the Fish river.
+On the site of Colonel Graham&rsquo;s headquarters arose the town
+which bears his name. In 1817 further trouble arose with the
+Kaffirs, the immediate cause of quarrel being an attempt by the
+colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen
+cattle. Routed in 1818 the Kaffirs rallied, and in the early part
+of 1819 poured into the colony in vast hordes. Led by a prophet-chief
+named Makana, they attacked Graham&rsquo;s Town on the
+22nd of April, then held by a handful of white troops. Help
+arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then
+arranged that the land between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers
+should be neutral territory.</p>
+
+<p><i>The British Settlers of 1820</i>.&mdash;The war of 1817-19 led to the
+first introduction of English settlers on a considerable scale,
+an event fraught with far-reaching consequences. The then
+governor, Lord Charles Somerset, whose treaty arrangements
+with the Kaffir chiefs had proved unfortunate, desired to erect
+a barrier against the Kaffirs by settling white colonists in the
+border district. In 1820, on the advice of Lord Charles, parliament
+voted £50,000 to promote emigration to the Cape, and
+4000 British were sent out. These people formed what was
+known as the Albany settlement, founding Port Elizabeth and
+making Graham&rsquo;s Town their headquarters. Intended primarily
+as a measure to secure the safety of the frontier, and regarded by
+the British government chiefly as a better means of affording a
+livelihood to a few thousands of the surplus population, this
+emigration scheme accomplished a far greater work than its
+authors contemplated. The new settlers, drawn from every part
+of the British Isles and from almost every grade of society,
+retained, and their descendants retain, strong sympathy with
+their native land. In course of time they formed a valuable
+counterpoise to the Dutch colonists, and they now constitute the
+most progressive element in the colony. The advent of these
+immigrants was also the means of introducing the English
+language at the Cape. In 1825, for the first time, ordinances
+were issued in English, and in 1827 its use was extended to
+the conduct of judicial proceedings. Dutch was not, however,
+ousted, the colonists becoming to a large extent bilingual.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dislike of British Rule</i>.&mdash;Although the colony was fairly
+prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied
+with British rule as they had been with that of the Dutch East
+India Company, though their ground of complaint was not the
+same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been established for the
+benefit of the Hottentots,<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and in 1799 the London Missionary
+Society began work among both Hottentots and Kaffirs. The
+championship of Hottentot grievances by the missionaries caused
+much dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose
+views, it may be noted, temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance
+was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Hottentot
+children as apprentices under conditions differing little from that
+of slavery. Meantime, however, the movement for the abolition
+of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries
+at length appealed from the colonists to the mother country.
+An incident which occurred in 1815-1816 did much to make
+permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British.
+A farmer named Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued
+on the complaint of a Hottentot, and firing on the party sent to
+arrest him, was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a
+miniature rebellion, and on its suppression five ringleaders were
+publicly hanged at the spot&mdash;Slachters Nek&mdash;where they had
+sworn to expel &ldquo;the English tyrants.&rdquo; The feeling caused
+by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances
+of the execution&mdash;for the scaffold on which the rebels were
+simultaneously swung, broke down from their united weight and
+the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance
+passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of <i>landroost</i>
+and <i>heemraden</i> (resident magistrates being substituted) and
+decreeing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted
+in English; the granting in 1828, as a result of the
+representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with
+whites to the Hottentots and other free coloured people; the
+imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of
+slaves, and finally the emancipation of the slaves in 1834,<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a>&mdash;all
+these things increased the dislike of the farmers to the government.
+Moreover, the inadequate compensation awarded to slave-owners,
+and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment,
+caused much resentment, and in 1835 the trekking of farmers
+into unknown country in order to escape from an unloved government,
+which had characterized the 18th century, recommenced.
+Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been continuous
+for 150 years, but it now took on larger proportions.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Third Kaffir War</i>.&mdash;On the eastern border further trouble
+arose with the Kaffirs, towards whom the policy of the Cape
+government was marked by much vacillation. On the 11th of
+December 1834 a chief of high rank was killed while resisting
+a commando party. This set the whole of the Kaffir tribes
+in a blaze. A force of 10,000 fighting men, led by Macomo,
+a brother of the chief who was killed, swept across the frontier,
+pillaged and burned the homesteads and murdered all who
+dared to resist. Among the worst sufferers were a colony of
+freed Hottentots who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat
+river valley by the British authorities. The fighting power
+of the colony was scanty, but the governor, Sir Benjamin
+D&rsquo;Urban (<i>q.v.</i>), acted with promptitude, and all available forces
+were mustered under Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) Smith,
+who reached Graham&rsquo;s Town on the 6th of January 1835, six days
+after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+territory was invaded, and after nine months&rsquo; fighting the Kaffirs
+were completely subdued, and a new treaty of peace concluded
+(on the 17th of September). By this treaty all the country
+as far as the river Kei was acknowledged to be British, and its
+inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of
+government was selected and named King Wiliam&rsquo;s Town.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Great Trek</i>.&mdash;The action of Sir Benjamin D&rsquo;Urban was not
+approved by the home government, and on the instruction of
+Lord Glenelg, secretary for the colonies, who declared that
+&ldquo;the great evil of the Cape Colony consists in its magnitude,&rdquo;
+the colonial boundary was moved back to the Great Fish
+river, and eventually (in 1837) Sir Benjamin was dismissed from
+office. &ldquo;The Kaffirs,&rdquo; in the opinion of Lord Glenelg, &ldquo;had
+an ample justification for war; they had to resent, and endeavoured
+justly, though impotently, to avenge a series of encroachments&rdquo;
+(despatch of the 26th of December 1835). This attitude
+towards the Kaffirs was one of the many reasons given by the
+Trek Boers for leaving Cape Colony. The Great Trek, as it is
+called, lasted from 1836 to 1840, the trekkers, who numbered
+about 7000, founding communities with a republican form of
+government beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers, and in Natal,
+where they had been preceded, however, by British emigrants.
+From this time Cape Colony ceased to be the only civilized community
+in South Africa, though for long it maintained its predominance.
+Up to 1856 Natal was, in fact, a dependency of
+the Cape (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>). Considerable trouble was
+caused by the emigrant Boers on either side of the Orange
+river, where the new comers, the Basutos and other Kaffir
+tribes, Bushmen and Griquas contended for mastery. The Cape
+government endeavoured to protect the rights of the natives.
+On the advice of the missionaries, who exercised great influence
+with all the non-Dutch races, a number of native states were
+recognized and subsidized by the Cape government, with the
+object&mdash;not realized&mdash;of obtaining peace on this northern
+frontier. The first of these &ldquo;Treaty States&rdquo; recognized was
+that of the Griquas of Griqualand West. Others were
+recognized in 1843 and 1844&mdash;in the last-named year a treaty
+was made with the Pondoes on the eastern border. During
+this period the condition of affairs on the eastern frontier was
+deplorable, the government being unable or unwilling to afford
+protection to the farmers from the depredations of the Kaffirs.
+Elsewhere, however, the colony was making progress. The
+change from slave to free labour proved to be advantageous to
+the farmers in the western provinces; an efficient educational
+system, which owed its initiation to Sir John Herschel, the
+astronomer (who lived in Cape Colony from 1834 to 1838),
+was adopted; Road Boards were established and did much
+good work; to the staple industries&mdash;the growing of wheat, the
+rearing of cattle and the making of wine&mdash;was added sheep-raising;
+and by 1846 wool became the most valuable export
+from the country. The creation, in 1835, of a legislative council,
+on which unofficial members had seats, was the first step in
+giving the colonists a share in the government.</p>
+
+<p><i>The War of the Axe</i>.&mdash;Another war with the Kaffirs broke out
+in 1846 and was known as the War of the Axe, from the murder
+of a Hottentot, to whom an old Kaffir thief was manacled, while
+being conveyed to Graham&rsquo;s Town for trial for stealing an axe.
+The escort was attacked by a party of Kaffirs and the Hottentot
+killed. The surrender of the murderer was refused, and war was
+declared in March 1846. The Gaikas were the chief tribe engaged
+in the war, assisted during the course of it by the Tambukies.
+After some reverses the Kaffirs were signally defeated on the
+7th of June by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles
+from Fort Peddie. Still the war went on, till at length Sandili,
+the chief of the Gaikas, surrendered, followed gradually by the
+other chiefs; and by the beginning of 1848 the Kaffirs were again
+subdued, after twenty-one months&rsquo; fighting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extension of British Sovereignty</i>.&mdash;In the last month of the
+war (December 1847) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town
+as governor of the colony, and with his arrival the Glenelg
+policy was reversed. By proclamation, on the 17th of December,
+he extended the frontier of the colony northward to the Orange
+river and eastward to the Keiskamma river, and on the 23rd,
+at a meeting of the Kaffir chiefs, announced the annexation of
+the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to the
+British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by
+order of Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with
+the Cape, but made a crown dependency under the name of
+British Kaffraria. For a time the Kaffirs accepted quietly the
+new order of things. The governor had other serious matters
+to contend with, including the assertion of British authority
+over the Boers beyond the Orange river, and the establishment
+of amicable relations with the Transvaal Boers. In the colony
+itself a crisis arose out of the proposal to make it a convict
+station.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Convict Agitation and Granting of a Constitution</i>.&mdash;In 1848
+a circular was sent by the 3rd Earl Grey, then colonial secretary,
+to the governor of the Cape (and to other colonial governors),
+asking him to ascertain the feelings of the colonists regarding the
+reception of a certain class of convicts, the intention being to
+send to South Africa Irish peasants who had been driven into
+crime by the famine of 1845. Owing to some misunderstanding,
+a vessel, the &ldquo;Neptune,&rdquo; was despatched to the Cape before the
+opinion of the colonists had been received, having on board 289
+convicts, among whom were John Mitchell, the Irish rebel, and
+his colleagues. When the news reached the Cape that this
+vessel was on her way, the people of the colony became violently
+excited; and they established an anti-convict association, by
+which they bound themselves to cease from all intercourse of
+every kind with persons in any way connected &ldquo;with the landing,
+supplying or employing convicts.&rdquo; On the 19th of September
+1849 the &ldquo;Neptune&rdquo; arrived in Simon&rsquo;s Bay. Sir Harry Smith,
+confronted by a violent public agitation, agreed not to land the
+convicts, but to keep them on board ship in Simon&rsquo;s Bay till he
+received orders to send them elsewhere. When the home
+government became aware of the state of affairs orders were sent
+directing the &ldquo;Neptune&rdquo; to proceed to Tasmania, and it did so
+after having been in Simon&rsquo;s Bay for five months. The agitation
+did not, however, pass away without other important results,
+since it led to another movement, the object of which was to
+obtain a free representative government for the colony. This
+concession, which had been previously promised by Lord Grey,
+was granted by the British government, and, in 1854, a constitution
+was established of almost unprecedented liberality.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kaffir War of 1850-1853</i>.&mdash;The anti-convict agitation had
+scarcely ceased when the colony was once again involved in war.
+The Kaffirs bitterly resented their loss of independence, and ever
+since the last war had been secretly preparing to renew the
+struggle. Sir Harry Smith, informed of the threatening attitude
+of the natives, proceeded to the frontier, and summoned Sandili
+and the other chiefs to an interview. Sandili refused obedience;
+upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs (October 1850), the
+governor declared him deposed from his chiefship, and appointed
+an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be temporary
+chief of the Gaika tribe. The governor appears to have believed
+that the measures he took would prevent a war and that Sandili
+could be arrested without armed resistance. On the 24th of
+December Col. Geo. Mackinnon, being sent with a small force with
+the object of securing the chief, was attacked in a narrow defile
+by a large body of Kaffirs, and compelled to retreat with some
+loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the Gaika tribe.
+The settlers in the military villages, which had been established
+along the frontier, assembled in fancied security to celebrate
+Christmas Day, were surprised, many of them murdered, and
+their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in
+quick succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man.
+The greater part of the Kaffir police deserted, many of them
+carrying off their arms and accoutrements. Emboldened by
+success, the enemy in immense force surrounded and attacked
+Fort Cox, where the governor was stationed with an inconsiderable
+force. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to
+relieve Sir Harry; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the
+occasion. At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied
+by Colonel Mackinnon, he dashed out of the fort,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+and, through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode to King William&rsquo;s
+Town&mdash;a distance of 12 m. Meantime, a new enemy appeared.
+Some 900 of the Kat river Hottentots, who had in former wars
+been firm allies of the British, threw in their lot with their
+hereditary enemies&mdash;the Kaffirs. They were not without
+excuses. They complained that while doing burgher duty in
+former wars&mdash;the Cape Mounted Rifles consisted largely of
+Hottentot levies&mdash;they had not received the same treatment as
+others serving in defence of the colony, that they got no compensation
+for the losses they had sustained, and that they were
+in various ways made to feel they were a wronged and injured
+race. A secret combination was formed with the Kaffirs to take
+up arms to sweep the Europeans away and establish a Hottentot
+republic. Within a fortnight of the attack on Colonel Mackinnon
+the Kat river Hottentots were also in arms. Their revolt was
+followed by that of the Hottentots at other missionary stations;
+and part of the Hottentots of the Cape Mounted Rifles followed
+their example, including the very men who had escorted the
+governor from Fort Cox. But numbers of Hottentots remained
+loyal and the Fingo Kaffirs likewise sided with the British.</p>
+
+<p>After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided,
+and preparations had been made, Sir Harry Smith and his
+gallant force turned the tide of war against the Kaffirs. The
+Amatola mountains were stormed; and the paramount chief
+Kreli, who all along covertly assisted the Gaikas, was severely
+punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith was recalled by Earl
+Grey, who accused him&mdash;unjustly, in the opinion of the duke of
+Wellington&mdash;of a want of energy and judgment in conducting the
+war, and he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Cathcart.
+Kreli was again attacked and reduced to submission. The
+Amatolas were finally cleared of the Kaffirs, and small forts
+erected among them to prevent their reoccupation. The British
+commanders were hampered throughout by the insufficiency of
+their forces, and it was not till March 1853 that this most
+sanguinary of Kaffir wars was brought to a conclusion, after a
+loss of many hundred British soldiers. Shortly afterwards,
+British Kaffraria was made a crown colony. The Hottentot
+settlement at Kat river remained, but the Hottentot power
+within the colony was now finally crushed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Great Amaxosa Delusion.</i>&mdash;From 1853 the Kaffir tribes
+on the east gave little trouble to the colony. This was due, in
+large measure, to an extraordinary delusion which arose among
+the Amaxosa in 1856, and led in 1857 to the death of some 50,000
+persons. This incident is one of the most remarkable instances
+of misplaced faith recorded in history. The Amaxosa had not
+accepted their defeat in 1853 as decisive and were preparing to
+renew the struggle with the white men. At this juncture, May
+1856, a girl named Nongkwase told her father that on going to
+draw water from a stream she had met strangers of commanding
+aspect. The father, Mhlakza, went to see the men, who told him
+that they were spirits of the dead, who had come, if their behests
+were obeyed, to aid the Kaffirs with their invincible power to
+drive the white man from the land. Mhlakza repeated the
+message to his chief, Sarili, one of the most powerful Kaffir rulers.
+Sarili ordered the commands of the spirits to be obeyed. These
+orders were, at first, that the Amaxosa were to destroy their fat
+cattle. The girl Nongkwase, standing in the river where the
+spirits had first appeared, heard unearthly noises, interpreted
+by her father as orders to kill more and more cattle. At length
+the spirits commanded that not an animal of all their herds was
+to be left alive, and every grain of corn was to be destroyed.
+If that were done, on a given date myriads of cattle more beautiful
+than those destroyed would issue from the earth, while great
+fields of corn, ripe and ready for harvest, would instantly appear.
+The dead would rise, trouble and sickness vanish, and youth and
+beauty come to all alike. Unbelievers and the hated white man
+would on that day utterly perish. The people heard and obeyed.
+Sarili is believed by many persons to have been the instigator
+of the prophecies. Certainly some of the principal chiefs regarded
+all that was done simply as the preparation for a last struggle
+with the whites, their plan being to throw the whole Amaxosa
+nation fully armed and in a famishing condition upon the colony.
+There were those who neither believed the predictions nor looked
+for success in war, but destroyed their last particle of food in
+unquestioning obedience to their chief&rsquo;s command. Either in
+faith that reached the sublime, or in obedience equally great,
+vast numbers of the people acted. Great kraals were also
+prepared for the promised cattle, and huge skin sacks to hold
+the milk that was soon to be more plentiful than water. At
+length the day dawned which, according to the prophecies, was
+to usher in the terrestrial paradise. The sun rose and sank, bat
+the expected miracle did not come to pass. The chiefs who had
+planned to hurl the famished warrior host upon the colony had
+committed an incredible blunder in neglecting to call the nation
+together under pretext of witnessing the resurrection. This
+error they realized too late, and endeavoured by fixing the resurrection
+for another day to gather the clans, but blank despair
+had taken the place of hope and faith, and it was only as starving
+suppliants that the Amaxosa sought the British. The colonists
+did what they could to save life, but thousands perished miserably.
+In their extremity many of the Kaffirs turned cannibals, and one
+instance of parents eating their own child is authenticated.
+Among the survivors was the girl Nongkwase; her father
+perished. A vivid narrative of the whole incident will be found
+in G.M. Theal&rsquo;s <i>History and Geography of South Africa</i> (3rd ed.,
+London, 1878), from which this account is condensed. The
+country depopulated as the result of this delusion was afterwards
+peopled by European settlers, among whom were members of the
+German legion which had served with the British army in the
+Crimea, and some 2000 industrious North German emigrants,
+who proved a valuable acquisition to the colony.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sir George Grey&rsquo;s Governorship.</i>&mdash;In 1854 Sir George Grey
+became governor of the Cape, and the colony owed much to his
+wise administration. The policy, imposed by the home government,
+of abandoning responsibility beyond the Orange river, was,
+he perceived, a mistaken one, and the scheme he prepared in
+1858 for a confederation of all South Africa (<i>q.v.</i>) was rejected by
+Great Britain. By his energetic action, however, in support of
+the missionaries Moffat and Livingstone, Sir George kept open
+for the British the road through Bechuanaland to the far interior.
+To Sir George was also due the first attempt, missionary effort
+apart, to educate the Kaffirs and to establish British authority
+firmly among them, a result which the self-destruction of the
+Amaxosa rendered easy. Beyond the Kei the natives were left to
+their own devices. Sir George Grey left the Cape in 1861.
+During his governorship the resources of the colony had been
+increased by the opening up of the copper mines in Little Namaqualand,
+the mohair wool industry had been established and
+Natal made a separate colony. The opening, in November 1863,
+of the railway from Cape Town to Wellington, begun in 1859, and
+the construction in 1860 of the great breakwater in Table Bay,
+long needed on that perilous coast, marked the beginning in the
+colony of public works on a large scale. They were the more or
+less direct result of the granting to the colony of a large share in
+its own government. In 1865 the province of British Kaffraria
+was incorporated with the colony, under the title of the Electoral
+Divisions of King William&rsquo;s Town and East London. The
+transfer was marked by the removal of the prohibition of the
+sale of alcoholic liquors to the natives, and the free trade in
+intoxicants which followed had most deplorable results among the
+Kaffir tribes. A severe drought, affecting almost the entire
+colony for several years, caused great depression of trade, and
+many farmers suffered severely. It was at this period (1869) that
+ostrich-farming was successfully established as a separate
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>Whether by or against the wish of the home government, the
+limits of British authority continued to extend. The Basutos,
+who dwelt in the upper valleys of the Orange river, had subsisted
+under a semi-protectorate of the British government from 1843
+to 1854; but having been left to their own resources on the
+abandonment of the Orange sovereignty, they fell into a long
+exhaustive warfare with the Boers of the Free State. On the
+urgent petition of their chief Moshesh, they were proclaimed
+British subjects in 1868, and their territory became part of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+colony in 1871 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basutoland</a></span>). In the same year the south-eastern
+part of Bechuanaland was annexed to Great Britain
+under the title of Griqualand West. This annexation was a consequence
+of the discovery there of rich diamond mines, an event
+which was destined to have far-reaching results.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Development of Modern Conditions.</i>&mdash;The year 1870 marks the
+dawn of a new era in South Africa. From that date the development
+of modern South Africa may be said to have fairly started,
+and in spite of political complications, arising from time to time,
+the progress of Cape Colony down to the outbreak of the Transvaal
+War of 1899 was steadily forward. The discovery of diamonds on
+the Orange river in 1867, followed immediately afterwards by the
+discovery of diamonds on the Vaal river, led to the rapid occupation
+and development of a tract of country which had hitherto
+been but sparsely inhabited. In 1870 Dutoitspan and Bultfontein
+diamond mines were discovered, and in 1871 the still
+richer mines of Kimberley and De Beers. These four great
+deposits of mineral wealth are still richly productive, and constitute
+the greatest industrial asset which the colony possesses.
+At the time of the beginning of the diamond industry, not only
+the territory of Cape Colony and the Boer Republics, but all
+South Africa, was in a very depressed condition. Ostrich-farming
+was in its infancy, and agriculture but little developed. The
+Boers, except in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town, were a
+primitive people. Their wants were few, they lacked enterprise,
+and the trade of the colony was restricted. Even the British
+colonists at that time were far from rich. The diamond industry
+therefore offered considerable attractions, especially to colonists
+of British origin. It was also the means at length of demonstrating
+the fact that South Africa, barren and poor on the surface,
+was rich below the surface. It takes ten acres of Karroo to feed a
+sheep, but it was now seen that a few square yards of diamondiferous
+blue ground would feed a dozen families. By the end of
+1871 a large population had already gathered at the diamond
+fields, and immigration continued steadily, bringing new-comers
+to the rich fields. Among the first to seek a fortune at the
+diamond fields was Cecil Rhodes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 the scheme of Sir George Grey for the federation of the
+various colonies and states of South Africa had been rejected, as
+has been stated, by the home authorities. In 1874 the 4th earl of
+Carnarvon, secretary of state for the colonies, who had been
+successful in aiding to bring about the federation of Canada,
+turned his attention to a similar scheme for the confederation of
+South Africa. The representative government in Cape Colony
+had been replaced in 1872 by responsible, <i>i.e.</i> self-government,
+and the new parliament at Cape Town resented the manner
+in which Lord Carnarvon propounded his suggestions. A resolution
+was passed (June 11, 1875) stating that any scheme in favour
+of confederation must in its opinion originate within South
+Africa itself. James Anthony Froude, the distinguished historian,
+was sent out by Lord Carnarvon to further his policy in South
+Africa. As a diplomatist and a representative of the British
+government, the general opinion in South Africa was that Froude
+was not a success, and he entirely failed to induce the colonists to
+adopt Lord Carnarvon&rsquo;s views. In 1876, Fingoland, the Idutywa
+reserve, and Noman&rsquo;s-land, tracts of country on the Kaffir
+frontier, were annexed by Great Britain, on the understanding
+that the Cape government should provide for their government.
+Lord Carnarvon, still bent on confederation, now appointed Sir
+Bartle Frere governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner
+of South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Frere had no sooner taken office as high commissioner
+than he found himself confronted with serious native troubles in
+Zululand and on the Kaffir frontier of Cape Colony. In 1877
+there occurred an outbreak on the part of the Galekas and the
+Gaikas. A considerable force of imperial and colonial troops was
+employed to put down this rising, and the war was subsequently
+known as the Ninth Kaffir war. It was in this war that the
+famous Kaffir chief, Sandili, lost his life. At its conclusion the
+Transkei, the territory of the Galeka tribe, under Kreli, was
+annexed by the British. In the meantime Lord Carnarvon had
+resigned his position in the British cabinet, and the scheme for
+confederation which he had been pushing forward was abandoned.
+As a matter of fact, at that time Cape Colony was too fully
+occupied with native troubles to take into consideration very
+seriously so great a question as confederation. A wave of feeling
+spread amongst the different Kaffir tribes on the colonial frontier,
+and after the Gaika-Galeka War there followed in 1879 a rising in
+Basutoland under Moirosi, whose cattle-raiding had for some
+time past caused considerable trouble. His stronghold was taken
+after very severe fighting by a colonial force, but, their defeat
+notwithstanding, the Basutos remained in a restless and aggressive
+condition for several years. In 1880 the colonial authorities
+endeavoured to extend to Basutoland the Peace Preservation Act
+of 1878, under which a general disarmament of the Basutos was
+attempted. Further fighting followed on this proclamation,
+which was by no means successful, and although peace was
+declared in the country in December 1882, the colonial authorities
+were very glad in 1884 to be relieved of the administration of a
+country which had already cost them £3,000,000. The imperial
+government then took over Basutoland as a crown colony, on the
+understanding that Cape Colony should contribute for administrative
+purposes £18,000 annually. In 1880, Sir Bartle Frere,
+who by his energetic and statesmanlike attitude on the relations
+with the native states, as well as on all other questions, had won
+the esteem and regard of loyal South African colonists, was
+recalled by the 1st earl of Kimberley, the liberal secretary of state
+for the colonies, and was succeeded by Sir Hercules Robinson.
+Griqualand West, which included the diamond fields, was now
+incorporated as a portion of Cape Colony.</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin of the Afrikander Bond.</i>&mdash;The Boer War of 1881, with
+its disastrous termination, naturally reacted throughout South
+Africa; and as one of the most important results, in the year
+1882 the first Afrikander Bond congress was held at Graaff
+Reinet. The organization of the Bond developed into one
+embracing the Transvaal, the Orange Free State and Cape
+Colony. Each country had a provincial committee with district
+committees, and branches were distributed throughout the whole
+of South Africa. At a later date the Bond in the Cape Colony
+dissociated itself from its Republican branches. The general
+lines of policy which this organization endeavoured to promote
+may best be gathered from <i>De Patriot</i>, a paper published in the
+colony, and an avowed supporter of the organization. The
+following extracts from articles published in 1882 will illustrate,
+better than anything else, the ambition entertained by some of
+the promoters of this remarkable organization.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The Afrikander Bond has for its object the establishment of a
+South African nationality by spreading a true love for what is
+really our fatherland. No better time could be found for establishing
+the Bond than the present, when the consciousness of nationality
+has been thoroughly aroused by the Transvaal war.&rdquo; ... &ldquo;The
+British government keep on talking about a confederation under the
+British flag, but that will never be brought about. They can be
+quite certain of that. There is just one obstacle in the way of
+confederation, and that is the British flag. Let them remove that,
+and in less than a year the confederation would be established
+under the Free Afrikander flag.&rdquo; &ldquo;After a time the English will
+realize that the advice given them by Froude was the best&mdash;they
+must just have Simon&rsquo;s Bay as a naval and military station on the
+way to India, and give over all the rest of South Africa to the
+Afrikanders.&rdquo; ... &ldquo;Our principal weapon in the social war must
+be the destruction of English trade by our establishing trading
+companies for ourselves.&rdquo; ... &ldquo;It is the duty of each true
+Afrikander not to spend anything with the English that he can
+avoid.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>De Patriot</i> afterwards became imperialist, but <i>Ons Land</i>,
+another Bond organ, continued in much the same strain.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to having its press organs, the Bond from time to
+time published official utterances less frank in their tone than
+the statements of its press. Some of the Articles of the Bond&rsquo;s
+original manifesto are entirely praiseworthy, <i>e.g.</i> those referring
+to the administration of justice, the honour of the people, &amp;c.;
+such clauses as these, however, were meaningless in view of the
+enlightened government which obtained in Cape Colony, and for
+the true &ldquo;inwardness&rdquo; of this document it is necessary to note
+Article 3, which distinctly speaks of the promotion of South
+Africa&rsquo;s independence (<i>Zelfstandigheid</i>). If the Bond aroused
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span>
+disloyalty and mistaken aspirations in one section of the Cape
+inhabitants, it is equally certain that it caused a great wave of
+loyal and patriotic enthusiasm to pass through another and more
+enlightened section. A pamphlet written in 1885 for an association
+called the Empire League by Mr Charles Leonard, who
+afterwards consistently championed the cause of civil equality
+and impartial justice in South Africa, maintained as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;(1) That the establishment of the English government here
+was beneficial to all classes; and (2) that the withdrawal of that
+government would be disastrous to every one having vested interests
+in the colony.... England never can, never will, give up this
+colony, and we colonists will never give up England.... Let us,
+the inhabitants of the Cape Colony, be swift to recognize that we
+are one people, cast together under a glorious flag of liberty, with
+heads clear enough to appreciate the freedom we enjoy, and hearts
+resolute to maintain our true privileges; let us desist from reproaching
+and insulting one another, and, rejoicing that we have this
+goodly land as a common heritage, remember that by united action
+only can we realize its grand possibilities. We belong both of us to a
+home-loving stock, and the peace and prosperity of every home in
+the land is at stake. On our action now depends the question whether
+our children shall curse or bless us; whether we shall live in their
+memory as promoters of civil strife, with all its miserable consequences,
+or as joint architects of a happy, prosperous and united
+state. Each of us looks back to a noble past. United, we may
+ensure to our descendants a not unworthy future. Disunited, we
+can hope for nothing but stagnation, misery and ruin. Is this a
+light thing?&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is probable that many Englishmen reading Mr Leonard&rsquo;s
+manifesto at the time regarded it as unduly alarming, but subsequent
+events proved the soundness of the views it expressed.
+The fact is that, from 1881 onwards, two great rival ideas came
+into being, each strongly opposed to the other. One was that of
+Imperialism&mdash;full civil rights for every civilized man, whatever
+his race might be, under the supremacy and protection of Great
+Britain. The other was nominally republican, but in fact
+exclusively oligarchical and Dutch. The policy of the extremists
+of this last party was summed up in the appeal which President
+Kruger made to the Free State in February 1881, when he bade
+them &ldquo;Come and help us. God is with us. It is his will to unite
+us as a people&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;to make a united South Africa free from
+British authority.&rdquo; The two actual founders of the Bond party
+were Mr Borckenhagen, a German who was residing in Bloemfontein,
+and Mr Reitz, afterwards state secretary of the Transvaal.
+Two interviews have been recorded which show the true aims of
+these two promoters of the Bond at the outset. One occurred
+between Mr Borckenhagen and Cecil Rhodes, the other between
+Mr Reitz and Mr T. Schreiner, whose brother became, at a later
+date, prime minister of Cape Colony. In the first interview
+Mr Borckenhagen remarked to Rhodes: &ldquo;We want a united
+Africa,&rdquo; and Rhodes replied: &ldquo;So do I.&rdquo; Mr Borckenhagen
+then continued: &ldquo;There is nothing in the way; we will take
+you as our leader. There is only one small thing: we must, of
+caurse, be independent of the rest of the world.&rdquo; Rhodes replied:
+&ldquo;You take me either for a rogue or a fool. I should be
+a rogue to forfeit all my history and my traditions; and I should
+be a fool, because I should be hated by my own countrymen
+and mistrusted by yours.&rdquo; But as Rhodes truly said at Cape
+Town in 1898, &ldquo;The only chance of a true union is the overshadowing
+protection of a supreme power, and any German,
+Frenchman, or Russian would tell you that the best and most
+liberal power is that over which Her Majesty reigns.&rdquo; The other
+interview took place at the beginning of the Bond&rsquo;s existence.
+Being approached by Mr Reitz, Mr T. Schreiner objected that
+the Bond aimed ultimately at the overthrow of British rule and
+the expulsion of the British flag from South Africa. To this
+Mr Reitz replied: &ldquo;Well, what if it is so?&rdquo; Mr Schreiner
+expostulated in the following terms: &ldquo;You do not suppose
+that that flag is going to disappear without a tremendous struggle
+and hard fighting?&rdquo; &ldquo;Well, I suppose not, but even so, what
+of that?&rdquo; rejoined Mr Reitz. In the face of this testimony with
+reference to two of the most prominent of the Bond&rsquo;s promoters,
+it is impossible to deny that from its beginning the great underlying
+idea of the Bond was an independent South Africa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr Hofmeyr&rsquo;s Policy</i>.&mdash;In 1882 an act was passed in the
+Cape legislative assembly, empowering members to speak in
+the Dutch language on the floor of the House, if they so desired.
+The intention of this act was a liberal one, but the moment
+of its introduction was inopportune, and its effect was to give
+an additional stimulus to the policy of the Bond. It was probably
+also the means of bringing into the House a number of
+Dutchmen, by no means well educated, who would not have been
+returned had they been obliged to speak English. By this act
+an increase of influence was given to the Dutch leaders. The
+head of the Afrikander Bond at this time in Cape Colony, and
+the leader of Dutch opinion, was Mr J.H. Hofmeyr, a man of
+undoubted ability and astuteness. Although he was recognized
+leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony, he consistently refused
+to take office, preferring to direct the policy and the action of
+others from an independent position. Mr Hofmeyr sat in the
+house of assembly as member for Stellenbosch, a strong Dutch
+constituency. His influence over the Dutch members was
+supreme, and in addition to directing the policy of the Bond
+within the Cape Colony, he supported and defended the aggressive
+expansion policy of President Kruger and the Transvaal Boers.
+In 1883, during a debate on the Basutoland Dis-annexation
+Bill, Rhodes openly charged Mr Hofmeyr in the House with a
+desire to see a &ldquo;United States of South Africa under its own
+flag.&rdquo; In 1884 Mr Hofmeyr led the Bond in strongly supporting
+the Transvaal Boers who had invaded Bechuanaland (<i>q.v.</i>),
+proclaiming that if the Bechuanaland freebooters were not permitted
+to retain the territories they had seized, in total disregard
+of the terms of the conventions of 1881 and 1884, there would
+be rebellion among the Dutch of Cape Colony. Fortunately,
+however, for the peace of Cape Colony at that time, Sir Charles
+Warren, sent by the imperial government to maintain British
+rights, removed the invading Boers from Stellaland and Goshen&mdash;two
+so-called republics set up by the Boer freebooters&mdash;in
+March 1885 and no rebellion occurred. Nevertheless the Bond
+party was so strong in the House that they compelled the ministry
+under Sir Thomas Scanlen to resign in 1884. The logical and
+constitutional course for Mr Hofmeyr to have followed in these
+circumstances would have been to accept office and himself form
+a government. This he refused to do. He preferred to put in
+a nominee of his own who should be entirely dependent on him.
+Mr Upington, a clever Irish barrister, was the man he selected,
+and under him was formed in 1884 what will always be known
+in Cape history as the &ldquo;Warming-pan&rdquo; ministry. This action
+was denounced by many British colonists, who were sufficiently
+loyal, not only to Great Britain, but also to that constitution
+which had been conferred by Great Britain upon Cape Colony,
+to desire to see the man who really wielded political power also
+acting as the responsible head of the party. It was Mr Hofmeyr&rsquo;s
+refusal to accept this responsibility, as well as the nature of his
+Bond policy, which won for him the political sobriquet of the
+&ldquo;Mole.&rdquo; Open and responsible exercise of a power conferred
+under the constitution of the country, Englishmen and English
+colonists would have accepted and even welcomed. But that
+subterranean method of Dutch policy which found its strongest
+expression in Pretoria, and which operated from Pretoria to Cape
+Town, could not but be resented by loyal colonists. From 1881
+down to 1898, Mr Hofmeyr practically determined how Dutch
+members should vote, and also what policy the Bond should
+adopt at every juncture in its history. In 1895 he resigned his
+seat in parliament&mdash;an action which made his political dictatorship
+still more remarkable. This influence on Cape politics
+was a demoralizing one. Other well-known politicians at the
+Cape subsequently found it convenient to adapt their views
+a good deal too readily to those held by the Bond. In justice
+to Mr Hofmeyr, however, it is only fair to say that after the
+Warren expedition in 1885, which was at least evidence that Great
+Britain did not intend to renounce her supremacy in South
+Africa altogether, he adopted a less hostile or anti-British
+attitude. The views and attitude of Mr Hofmeyr between 1881
+and 1884&mdash;when even loyal British colonists, looking to the
+events which followed Majuba, had almost come to believe that
+Great Britain had little desire to maintain her supremacy&mdash;can
+scarcely be wondered at.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Rhodes and Dutch Sentiment.</i>&mdash;Recognizing the difficulties of
+the position, Cecil Rhodes from the outset of his political career
+showed his desire to conciliate Dutch sentiment by considerate
+treatment and regard for Dutch prejudices. Rhodes was first
+returned as member of the House of Assembly for Barkly West
+in 1880, and in spite of all vicissitudes this constituency remained
+loyal to him. He supported the bill permitting Dutch to be used
+in the House of Assembly in 1882, and early in 1884 he first took
+office, as treasurer-general, under Sir Thomas Scanlen. Rhodes
+had only held this position for six weeks when Sir Thomas Scanlen
+resigned, and in August of the same year he was sent by Sir
+Hercules Robinson to British Bechuanaland as deputy-commissioner
+in succession to the Rev. John Mackenzie, the London
+Missionary Society&rsquo;s representative at Kuruman, who in the
+previous May had proclaimed the queen&rsquo;s authority over the
+district. Rhodes&rsquo;s efforts to conciliate the Boers failed&mdash;hence
+the necessity for the Warren mission. In 1885 the territories
+of Cape Colony were farther extended, and Tembuland, Bomvanaland
+and Galekaland were formally added to the colony. In
+1886 Sir Gordon Sprigg succeeded Sir Thomas Upington as
+prime minister.</p>
+
+<p><i>South Affican Customs Union.</i>&mdash;The period from 1878 to 1885
+in Cape Colony had been one of considerable unrest. In this short
+time, in addition to the chronic troubles with the Basutos&mdash;which
+led the Cape to hand them over to the imperial authorities&mdash;there
+occurred a series of native disturbances which were
+followed by the Boer War of 1881, and the Bechuanaland disturbances
+of 1884. In spite, however, of these drawbacks, the
+development of the country proceeded. The diamond industry
+was flourishing. In 1887 a conference was held in London
+for &ldquo;promoting a closer union between the various parts of the
+British empire by means of an imperial tariff of customs.&rdquo;
+At this conference it is worthy of note that Mr Hofmeyr propounded
+a sort of &ldquo;Zollverein&rdquo; scheme, in which imperial
+customs were to be levied independently of the duties payable
+on all goods entering the empire from abroad. In making the
+proposition he stated that his objects were &ldquo;to promote the
+union of the empire, and at the same time to obtain revenue for
+the purposes of general defence.&rdquo; The scheme was not at the
+time found practicable. But its authorship, as well as the
+sentiments accompanying it, created a favourable view of Mr
+Hofmeyr&rsquo;s attitude. In the year 1888, in spite of the failure of
+statesmen and high commissioners to bring about political
+confederation, the members of the Cape parliament set about
+the establishment of a South African Customs Union. A
+Customs Union Bill was passed, and this in itself constituted
+a considerable development of the idea of federation. Shortly
+after the passing of the bill the Orange Free State entered the
+union. An endeavour was also made then, and for many years
+afterwards, to get the Transvaal to join. But President Kruger,
+consistently pursuing his own policy, hoped through the Delagoa
+Bay railway to make the South African Republic entirely independent
+of Cape Colony. The endeavour to bring about a
+customs union which would embrace the Transvaal was also
+little to the taste of President Kruger&rsquo;s Hollander advisers,
+interested as they were in the schemes of the Netherlands
+Railway Company, who owned the railways of the Transvaal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diamonds and Railways.</i>&mdash;Another event of considerable
+commercial importance to the Cape Colony, and indeed to
+South Africa, was the amalgamation of the diamond-mining
+companies, chiefly brought about by Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit
+and &ldquo;Barney&rdquo; Barnato, in 1889. One of the principal and
+most beneficent results of the discovery and development of
+the diamond mines was the great impetus which it gave to
+railway extension. Lines were opened up to Worcester and
+Beaufort West, to Graham&rsquo;s Town, Graaff Reinet and Queenstown.
+Kimberley was reached in 1885. In 1890 the line was
+extended northwards on the western frontier of the Transvaal as
+far as Vryburg in Bechuanaland. In 1889 the Free State entered
+into an arrangement with the Cape Colony whereby the main
+trunk railway was extended to Bloemfontein, the Free State
+receiving half the profits. Subsequently the Free State bought
+at cost price the portion of the railway in its own territory.
+In 1891 the Free State railway was still farther extended to
+Viljoen&rsquo;s Drift on the Vaal river, and in 1892 it reached Pretoria
+and Johannesburg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhodes as Prime Minister: Native Policy</i>.&mdash;In 1889 Sir Henry
+Loch was appointed high commissioner and governor of Cape
+Colony in succession to Sir Hercules Robinson. In 1890 Sir
+Gordon Sprigg, the premier of the colony, resigned, and a Rhodes
+government was formed. Prior to the formation of this ministry
+(see table at end of article), and while Sir Gordon Sprigg was
+still in office, Mr Hofmeyr approached Rhodes and offered to put
+him in office as a Bond nominee. This offer was declined. When,
+however, Rhodes was invited to take office after the downfall of
+the Sprigg ministry, he asked the Bond leaders to meet him
+and discuss the situation. His policy of customs and railway
+unions between the various states, added to the personal esteem
+in which he was at this time held by many of the Dutchmen,
+enabled him to undertake and to carry on successfully the
+business of government.</p>
+
+<p>The colonies of British Bechuanaland and Basutoland were
+now taken into the customs union existing between the Orange
+Free State and Cape Colony. Pondoland, another native territory,
+was added to the colony in 1894, and the year was marked
+by the Glen Grey Act, a departure in native policy for which
+Rhodes was chiefly responsible. It dealt with the natives residing
+in certain native reserves, and in addition to providing for
+their interests and holdings, and in other ways protecting the
+privileges accorded to them, the principle of the duty of some
+degree of labour devolving upon every able-bodied native enjoying
+these privileges was asserted, and a small labour tax was
+levied.<a name="fa6l" id="fa6l" href="#ft6l"><span class="sp">6</span></a> This is in many respects the most statesmanlike act
+dealing with natives on the statute-book; and in the session of
+1895 Rhodes was able to report to the Cape parliament that the
+act then applied to 160,000 natives. In 1905 the labour clauses
+of this act, which had fallen into desuetude, were repealed. The
+clauses had, however, achieved success, in that they had caused
+many thousands of natives to fulfil the conditions requisite to
+claim exemption.</p>
+
+<p>In other respects Rhodes&rsquo;s native policy was marked by combined
+consideration and firmness. Ever since the granting of
+self-government the natives had enjoyed the franchise. An act
+passed in 1892, at the instance of Rhodes, imposed an educational
+test on applicants for registration, and made other provisions,
+all tending to restrict the acquisition of the franchise
+by &ldquo;tribal&rdquo; natives, the possible danger arising from a large
+native vote being already obvious (see section <i>Constitution</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Rhodes opposed the native liquor traffic, and at the risk of
+offending some of his supporters among the brandy-farmers of
+the western provinces, he suppressed it entirely on the diamond
+mines, and restricted it as far as he was able in the native reserves
+and territories. Nevertheless the continuance of this traffic on
+colonial farms, as well as to some extent in the native territories
+and reserves, is a black spot in the annals of the Cape Colony.
+The Hottentots have been terribly demoralized, and even
+partially destroyed by it in the western province.</p>
+
+<p>Another and little-known instance of Rhodes&rsquo;s keen insight
+in dealing with native affairs&mdash;an action which had lasting results
+on the history of the colony&mdash;may be given. After the native
+territories east of the Kei had been added to Cape Colony, a case
+of claim to inheritance came up for trial, and in accordance with
+the law of the colony, the court held that the eldest son of a
+native was his heir. This decision created the strongest resentment
+among the people of the territory, as it was in distinct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+contradiction to native tribal law, which recognized the great
+son, or son of the chief wife, as heir. The government were
+threatened with a native disturbance, when Rhodes telegraphed
+his assurance that compensation should be granted,
+and that such a decision should never be given again. This assurance
+was accepted and tranquillity restored. At the close of the
+next session (that of 1894), after this incident had occurred,
+Rhodes laid on the table a bill drafted by himself, the shortest
+the House had ever seen. It provided that all civil cases were to
+be tried by magistrates, an appeal to lie only to the chief magistrate
+of the territory with an assessor. Criminal cases were to
+be tried before the judges of supreme court on circuit. The bill
+was passed, and the effect of it was, inasmuch as the magistrates
+administered according to native law, that native marriage
+customs and laws (including polygamy) were legalized in these
+territories. Rhodes had retrieved his promise, and no one who
+has studied and lived amongst the Bantu will question that the
+action taken was both beneficent and wise.</p>
+
+<p>During 1895 Sir Hercules Robinson was reappointed governor
+and high commissioner of South Africa in succession to Sir Henry
+Loch, and in the same year Mr Chamberlain became secretary
+of state for the colonies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Movement for Commercial Federation</i>.&mdash;With the development
+of railways, and the extension of trade between Cape Colony
+and the Transvaal, there had grown up a closer relationship
+on political questions. Whilst premier of Cape Colony, by means
+of the customs union and in every other way, Rhodes endeavoured
+to bring about a friendly measure of at least commercial
+federation among the states and colonies of South Africa.
+He hoped to establish both a commercial and a railway union,
+and a speech which he made in 1894 at Cape Town admirably
+describes this policy:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;With full affection for the flag which I have been born under,
+and the flag I represent, I can understand the sentiment and feeling
+of a republican who has created his independence, and values that
+before all; but I can say fairly that I believe in the future that I
+can assimilate the system, which I have been connected with,
+with the Cape Colony, and it is not an impossible idea that the
+neighbouring republics, retaining their independence, should share
+with us as to certain general principles. If I might put it to you, I
+would say the principles of tariffs, the principle of railway connexion,
+the principle of appeal in law, the principle of coinage, and in fact
+all those principles which exist at the present moment in the United
+States, irrespective of the local assemblies which exist in each separate
+state in that country.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To this policy President Kruger and the Transvaal government
+offered every possible opposition. Their action in what
+is known as the Vaal River Drift question will best illustrate the
+line of action which the Transvaal government believed it expedient
+to adopt. A difficulty arose at the termination of the
+agreement in 1894 between the Cape government railway and
+the Netherlands railway. The Cape government, for the purposes
+of carrying the railway from the Vaal river to Johannesburg,
+had advanced the sum of £600,000 to the Netherlands railway
+and the Transvaal government conjointly; at the same time it
+was stipulated that the Cape government should have the right
+to fix the traffic rate until the end of 1894, or until such time as
+the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line was completed. These rates were
+fixed by the Cape government at 2d. per ton per mile, but at the
+beginning of 1895 the rate for the 52 m. of railway from the Vaal
+river to Johannesburg was raised by the Netherlands railway
+to no less a sum than 8d. per ton per mile. It is quite evident
+from the action which President Kruger subsequently took in
+the matter that this charge was put on with his approval, and
+with the object of compelling traffic to be brought to the Transvaal
+by the Delagoa route, instead of as heretofore by the colonial
+railway. In order to compete against this very high rate, the
+merchants of Johannesburg began removing their goods
+from the Vaal river by waggon. Thereupon President Kruger
+arbitrarily closed the drifts (fords) on the Vaal river, and thus
+prevented through waggon traffic, causing an enormous block
+of waggons on the banks of the Vaal. A protest was then made
+by the Cape government against the action of the Transvaal, on
+the ground that it was a breach of the London Convention.
+President Kruger took no notice of this remonstrance, and an
+appeal was made to the imperial government; whereupon the
+latter entered into an agreement with the Cape government,
+to the effect that if the Cape would bear half the cost of any
+expedition which should be necessary, assist with troops, and
+give full use of the Cape railway for military purposes if required,
+a protest should be sent to President Kruger on the subject.
+These terms were accepted by Rhodes and his colleagues, of
+whom Mr W.P. Schreiner was one, and a protest was then sent
+by Mr Chamberlain stating that the government would regard
+the closing of the drifts as a breach of the London Convention,
+and as an unfriendly action calling for the gravest remonstrance.
+President Kruger at once reopened the drifts, and undertook
+that he would issue no further proclamation on the subject
+except after consultation with the imperial government.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of December 1895 Dr Jameson (<i>q.v.</i>) made his
+famous raid into the Transvaal, and Rhodes&rsquo;s complicity in this
+movement compelled him to resign the premiership of Cape
+Colony in January 1896, the vacant post being taken by Sir
+Gordon Sprigg. As Rhodes&rsquo;s complicity in the raid became
+known, there naturally arose a strong feeling of resentment and
+astonishment among his colleagues in the Cape ministry, who
+had been kept in complete ignorance of his connexion with any
+such scheme. Mr Hofmeyr and the Bond were loud in their
+denunciation of him, nor can it be denied that the circumstances
+of the raid greatly embittered against England the Dutch element
+in Cape Colony, and influenced their subsequent attitude towards
+the Transvaal Boers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1897 a native rising occurred under Galeshwe, a Bantu
+chief, in Griqualand West. Galeshwe was arrested and the
+rebellion repressed. On cross-examination Galeshwe stated
+that Bosnian, a magistrate of the Transvaal, had supplied
+ammunition to him, and urged him to rebel against the government
+of Cape Colony. There is every reason to suppose that
+this charge was true, and it is consistent with the intrigues which
+the Boers from time to time practised among the natives.</p>
+
+<p>In 1897 Sir Alfred Milner was appointed high commissioner
+of South Africa and governor of Cape Colony, in succession to
+Sir Hercules Robinson, who had been created a peer under the
+title of Baron Rosmead in August 1896.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr Schreiner&rsquo;s Policy</i>.&mdash;In 1898 commercial federation in
+South Africa advanced another stage, Natal entering the customs
+union. A fresh convention was drafted at this time, and
+under it &ldquo;a uniform tariff on all imported goods consumed
+within such union, and an equitable distribution of the duties
+collected on such goods amongst the parties to such union, and
+free trade between the colonies and state in respect of all South
+African products,&rdquo; was arranged. In the same year, too, the
+Cape parliamentary election occurred, and the result was the
+return to power of a Bond ministry under Mr W.P. Schreiner.
+From this time, until June 1900, Mr Schreiner remained in office
+as head of the Cape government. During the negotiations
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>) which preceded the war in 1899, feeling at the
+Cape ran very high, and Mr Schreiner&rsquo;s attitude was very freely
+discussed. As head of a party, dependent for its position in
+power on the Bond&rsquo;s support, his position was undoubtedly
+a trying one. At the same time, as prime minister of a British
+colony, it was strongly felt by loyal colonists that he should at
+least have refrained from openly interfering between the Transvaal
+and the imperial government during the course of most
+difficult negotiations. His public expressions of opinion were
+hostile in tone to the policy pursued by Mr Chamberlain and
+Sir Alfred Milner. The effect of them, it was believed, might
+conceivably be to encourage President Kruger in persisting in
+his rejection of the British terms. Mr Schreiner, it is true, used
+directly what influence he possessed to induce President Kruger
+to adopt a reasonable course. But however excellent his intentions,
+his publicly expressed disapproval of the Chamberlain-Milner
+policy probably did more harm than his private influence
+with Mr Kruger could possibly do good. On the 11th of June
+1899, shortly after the Bloemfontein conference, from which
+Sir Alfred Milner had just returned, Mr Schreiner asked the high
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span>
+commissioner to inform Mr Chamberlain that he and his colleagues
+agreed in regarding President Kruger&rsquo;s Bloemfontein
+proposals as &ldquo;practical, reasonable and a considerable step in
+the right direction.&rdquo; Early in June, however, the Cape Dutch
+politicians began to realize that President Kruger&rsquo;s attitude
+was not so reasonable as they had endeavoured to persuade
+themselves, and Mr Hofmeyr, accompanied by Mr Herholdt,
+the Cape minister of agriculture, visited Pretoria. On arrival,
+they found that the Transvaal Volksraad, in a spirit of defiance
+and even levity, had just passed a resolution offering four new
+seats in the Volksraad to the mining districts, and fifteen to
+exclusively burgher districts. Mr Hofmeyr, on meeting the
+executive, freely expressed indignation at these proceedings.
+Unfortunately, Mr Hofmeyr&rsquo;s influence was more than counterbalanced
+by an emissary from the Free State, Mr Abraham
+Fischer, who, while purporting to be a peacemaker, practically
+encouraged the Boer executive to take extreme measures.
+Mr Hofmeyr&rsquo;s established reputation as an astute diplomatist,
+and as the trusted leader for years of the Cape Dutch party,
+made him as powerful a delegate as it was possible to find. If any
+emissary could accomplish anything in the way of persuading
+Mr Kruger, it was assuredly Mr Hofmeyr. Much was looked
+for from his mission by moderate men of all parties, and by none
+more so, it is fair to believe, than by Mr Schreiner. But Mr
+Hofmeyr&rsquo;s mission, like every other mission to Mr Kruger to
+induce him to take a reasonable and equitable course, proved
+entirely fruitless. He returned to Cape Town disappointed, but
+probably not altogether surprised at the failure of his mission.
+Meanwhile a new proposal was drafted by the Boer executive,
+which, before it was received in its entirety, or at least before
+it was clearly understood, elicited from Mr Schreiner a letter
+on the 7th of July to the <i>South African News</i>, in which, referring
+to his government, he said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;While anxious and continually active with good hope in the
+cause of securing reasonable modifications of the existing representative
+system of the South African Republic, this government
+is convinced that no ground whatever exists for active interference
+in the internal affairs of that republic.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This letter was precipitate and unfortunate. On the 11th of
+July, after seeing Mr Hofmeyr on his return, Mr Schreiner made
+a personal appeal to President Kruger to approach the imperial
+government in a friendly spirit. At this time an incident
+occurred which raised the feeling against Mr Schreiner to a very
+high pitch. On the 7th of July 500 rifles and 1,000,000 rounds of
+ammunition were landed at Port Elizabeth, consigned to the
+Free State government, and forwarded to Bloemfontein. Mr
+Schreiner&rsquo;s attention was called to this consignment at the
+time, but he refused to stop it, alleging as his reason that, inasmuch
+as Great Britain was at peace with the Free State, he had
+no right to interdict the passage of arms through the Cape Colony.
+The British colonist is as capable of a grim jest as the Transvaal
+Boer, and this action of Mr Schreiner&rsquo;s won for him the nickname
+&ldquo;Ammunition Bill.&rdquo; At a later date he was accused of delay
+in forwarding artillery and rifles for the defence of Kimberley,
+Mafeking and other towns of the colony. The reason he gave
+for delay was that he did not anticipate war; and that he did
+not wish to excite unwarrantable suspicions in the minds of the
+Free State. His conduct in both instances was perhaps
+technically correct, but it was much resented by loyal colonists.</p>
+
+<p>On the 28th of July Mr Chamberlain sent a conciliatory
+despatch to President Kruger, suggesting a meeting of delegates
+to consider and report on his last franchise proposals, which were
+complex to a degree. Mr Schreiner, on the 3rd of August, telegraphed
+to Mr Fischer begging the Transvaal to welcome Mr
+Chamberlain&rsquo;s proposal. At a later date, on receiving an inquiry
+from the Free State as to the movements of British troops,
+Mr Schreiner curtly refused any information, and referred
+the Free State to the high commissioner. On the 28th of August
+Sir Gordon Sprigg in the House of Assembly moved the adjournment
+of the debate, to discuss the removal of arms to the Free
+State. Mr Schreiner, in reply, used expressions which called
+down upon him the severest censure and indignation, both in
+the colony and in Great Britain. He stated that, should the
+storm burst, he would keep the colony aloof with regard both to
+its forces and its people. In the course of the speech he also
+read a telegram from President Steyn, in which the president
+repudiated all contemplated aggressive action on the part
+of the Free State as absurd. The speech created a great sensation
+in the British press. It was probably forgotten at the time
+(though Lord Kimberley afterwards publicly stated it) that one
+of the chief reasons why the Gladstone government had granted
+the retrocession of the Transvaal after Majuba, was the fear that
+the Cape Colonial Dutch would join their kinsmen if the war
+continued. What was a danger in 1881, Mr Schreiner knew to
+be a still greater danger in 1899. At the same time it is quite
+obvious, from a review of Mr Schreiner&rsquo;s conduct through the
+latter half of 1899, that he took an entirely mistaken view of the
+Transvaal situation. He evinced, as premier of the Cape Colony,
+the same inability to understand the Uitlanders&rsquo; grievances,
+the same futile belief in the eventual fairness of President
+Kruger, as he had shown when giving evidence before the British
+South Africa Select Committee into the causes of the Jameson
+Raid. Actual experience taught him that President Kruger
+was beyond an appeal to reason, and that the protestations of
+President Steyn were insincere. War had no sooner commenced
+with the ultimatum of the Transvaal Republic on the 9th of
+October 1899, than Mr Schreiner found himself called upon to
+deal with the conduct of Cape rebels. The rebels joined the
+invading forces of President Steyn, whose false assurances
+Mr Schreiner had offered to an indignant House of Assembly
+only a few weeks before. The war on the part of the Republics
+was evidently not to be merely one of self-defence. It was one
+of aggression and aggrandisement. Mr Schreiner ultimately
+addressed, as prime minister, a sharp remonstrance to President
+Steyn for allowing his burghers to invade the colony. He also
+co-operated with Sir Alfred Milner, and used his influence to
+restrain the Bond.</p>
+
+<p><i>The War of 1899-1902.</i><a name="fa7l" id="fa7l" href="#ft7l"><span class="sp">7</span></a>&mdash;The first shot actually fired in the
+war was at Kraipan, a small railway station within the colony,
+40 m. south of Mafeking, a train being derailed, and ammunition
+intended for Colonel Baden-Powell seized. The effect
+of this was entirely to cut off Mafeking, the northernmost town
+in Cape Colony, and it remained in a state of siege for over seven
+months. On the 16th of October Kimberley was also isolated.
+Proclamations by the Transvaal and Free State annexing portions
+of Cape Colony were actually issued on the 18th of October, and
+included British Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, with the
+diamond fields. On the 28th of October Mr Schreiner signed
+a proclamation issued by Sir Alfred Milner as high commissioner,
+declaring the Boer annexations of territory within Cape Colony
+to be null and void.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the British reverses at Magersfontein (on the 11th
+of December) and Stormberg (on the 10th of December). The
+effect of these engagements at the very outset of the war, occurring
+as they did within Cape Colony, was to offer every inducement
+to a number of the frontier colonial Boers to join their kinsmen
+of the republics. The Boers were prolific, and their families large.
+Many younger sons from the colony, with nothing to lose, left
+their homes with horse and rifle to join the republican forces.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the loyal Cape colonists were chafing at the tardy
+manner in which they were enrolled by the imperial authorities.
+It was not until after the arrival of Lord Roberts and Lord
+Kitchener at Cape Town on the 10th of January 1900 that these
+invaluable, and many of them experienced, men were freely
+invited to come forward. So strongly did Lord Roberts feel on
+the subject, that he at once made Colonel Brabant, a well-known
+and respected colonial veteran and member of the House of
+Assembly, a brigadier-general, and started recruiting loyal
+colonists in earnest. On the 15th of February Kimberley was
+relieved by General French, and the Boer general, Cronje,
+evacuated Magersfontein, and retreated towards Bloemfontein.
+Cecil Rhodes was shut up in Kimberley during the whole of the
+siege, and his presence there undoubtedly offered an additional
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span>
+incentive to the Boers to endeavour to capture the town, but
+his unique position and influence with the De Beers workmen
+enabled him to render yeoman service, and infused enthusiasm
+and courage into the inhabitants. The manufacture of a big
+gun, which was able to compete with the Boer &ldquo;Long Tom,&rdquo;
+at the De Beers workshops, under Rhodes&rsquo;s orders, and by the
+ingenuity of an American, Mr. Labram, who was killed a few days
+after its completion, forms one of the most striking incidents of
+the period.</p>
+
+<p>With the relief of Mafeking on the 17th of May, the Cape
+rebellion ended, and the colony was, at least for a time, delivered
+of the presence of hostile forces.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th of March Mr (afterwards Sir James) Rose-Innes,
+a prominent member of the House of Assembly, who for several
+years had held aloof from either party, and who also had defended
+Mr Schreiner&rsquo;s action with regard to the passage of arms to the
+Free State, addressed his constituents at Claremont in support
+of the annexation of both republics; and in the course of an
+eloquent speech he stated that in Canada, in spite of rebellions,
+loyalty had been secured from the French Canadians by free
+institutions. In South Africa they might hope that a similar
+policy would attain a similar result with the Boers. In June,
+Mr Schreiner, whose recent support of Sir Alfred Milner had
+incensed many of his Bond followers, resigned in consequence
+of the refusal of some of his colleagues to support the disfranchisement
+bill which he was prepared, in accordance with the views
+of the home government, to introduce for the punishment of
+Cape rebels. The bill certainly did not err on the side of severity,
+but disfranchisement for their supporters in large numbers was
+more distasteful to the Bond extremists than any stringency
+towards individuals. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who after a political
+crisis of considerable delicacy, succeeded Mr Schreiner and for
+the fourth time became prime minister, was able to pass the
+Bill with the co-operation of Mr Schreiner and his section.
+Towards the end of the year 1900 the war entered on a new
+phase, and took the form of guerilla skirmishes with scattered
+forces of marauding Boers. In December some of these bands
+entered the Cape Colony and endeavoured to induce colonial
+Boers to join them. In this endeavour they met at first with
+little or no success; but as the year 1901 progressed and the
+Boers still managed to keep the various districts in a ferment, it
+was deemed necessary by the authorities to proclaim martial
+law over the whole colony, and this was done on the 9th of
+October 1901.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th of January 1901 Sir Alfred Milner was gazetted
+governor of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, being
+shortly afterwards created a peer as Lord Milner, and Sir Walter
+Hely-Hutchinson, governor of Natal, was appointed his successor
+as governor of the Cape Colony. The office of high commissioner
+in South Africa was now separated from the governorship of the
+Cape and associated with that of the Transvaal&mdash;an indication
+of the changed conditions in South Africa. The division of the
+colonists into those who favoured the Boer states and those
+firmly attached to the British connexion was reflected, to the
+detriment of the public weal, in the parties in the Cape parliament.
+Proposals were made to suspend the constitution, but this
+drastic course was not adopted. The Progressive party, the
+name taken by those who sought a permanent settlement under
+the British flag, lost their leader, and South Africa its foremost
+statesman by the death, in May 1902, of Cecil Rhodes, a few
+weeks before the end of the war.</p>
+
+<p><i>After the War</i>.&mdash;The acknowledgment of defeat by the Boers
+in the field, and the surrender of some 10,000 rebels, did not
+weaken the endeavours of the Dutch to obtain political supremacy
+in the colony. Moreover, in the autumn of 1902 Sir Gordon
+Sprigg, the prime minister, nominally the leader of the Progressives,
+sought to maintain his position by securing the support
+of the Bond party in parliament. In the early part of 1903
+Mr Chamberlain included Cape Town in his visit to South Africa,
+and had conferences with the political leaders of all parties.
+Reconciliation between the Bond and British elements in the
+colony was, however, still impossible, and the two parties concentrated
+their efforts in a struggle for victory at the coming
+election. Mr Hofmeyr, who had chosen to spend the greater
+part of the war period in Europe, returned to the Cape to reorganize
+the Bond. On the other side Dr Jameson came forward
+as the leader of the Progressives. Parliament was dissolved in
+September 1903. It had passed, since the war, two measures
+of importance&mdash;one (1902) restricting alien immigration, the
+other (1903) ratifying the first customs convention between all
+the South African colonies. This convention was notable for its
+grant of preferential treatment (in general, a rebate of 25% on
+the customs already levied) to imports from the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The election turned on the issue of British or Bond supremacy.
+It was fought on a register purged of the rebel voters, many of
+whom, besides being disfranchised, were in prison. The issue
+was doubtful, and each side sought to secure the support of the
+native voters, who in several constituencies held the balance of
+power. The Bondsmen were more lavish than their opponents
+in their promises to the natives and even invited a Kaffir journalist
+(who declined) to stand for a seat in the Assembly. In view
+of the agitation then proceeding for the introduction of Chinese
+coolies to work the mines on the Rand, the Progressives declared
+their intention, if returned, to exclude them from the colony,
+and this declaration gained them some native votes. The polling
+(in January and February 1904) resulted in a Progressive majority
+of five in a house of 95 members. The rejected candidates
+included prominent Bond supporters like Mr Merriman and Mr
+Sauer, and also Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr A. Douglass, another
+member of the cabinet. Mr W.P. Schreiner, the ex-premier,
+who stood as an Independent, was also rejected.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Jameson Ministry</i>.&mdash;On the 18th of February Sir Gordon
+Sprigg resigned and was succeeded by Dr L.S. Jameson, who
+formed a ministry wholly British in character. The first task
+of the new government was to introduce (on the 4th of March)
+an Additional Representation Bill, to rectify&mdash;in part&mdash;the
+disparity in electoral power of the rural and urban districts.
+Twelve new seats in the House of Assembly were divided among
+the larger towns, and three members were added to the legislative
+council. The town voter being mainly British, the bill met with
+the bitter opposition of the Bond members, who declared that
+its object was the extinction of their parliamentary power.
+In fact, the bill was called for by the glaring anomalies in the
+distribution of seats by which a minority of voters in the country
+districts returned a majority of members, and it left the towns
+still inadequately represented. The bill was supported by two
+or three Dutch members, who were the object of violent attack
+by the Bondsmen. It became law, and the elections for the
+additional seats were held in July, after the close of the session.
+They resulted in strengthening the Progressive majority both in
+the House of Assembly and in the legislative council&mdash;where
+the Progressives previously had a majority of one only.</p>
+
+<p>At the outset of its career the Jameson ministry had to face
+a serious financial situation. During the war the supplying of the
+army in the field had caused an artificial inflation of trade, and
+the Sprigg ministry had pursued a policy of extravagant expenditure
+not warranted by the finances of the colony. The slow
+recovery of the gold-mining and other industries in the Transvaal
+after the war was reflected in a great decline in trade in Cape
+Colony during the last half of 1903, the distress being aggravated
+by severe drought. When Dr Jameson assumed office he found
+an empty treasury, and considerable temporary loans had to
+be raised. Throughout 1904, moreover, revenue continued to
+shrink&mdash;compared with 1903 receipts dropped from £11,701,000
+to £9,913,000. The government, besides cutting down official
+salaries and exercising strict economy, contracted (July 1904)
+a loan for £3,000,000. It also passed a bill imposing a graduated
+tax (6d. to 1s. in the £) on all incomes over £1000. A substantial
+excise duty was placed on spirits and beer, measures of relief
+for the brandy-farmers being taken at the same time. The
+result was that while there was a deficit on the budget of 1904-1905
+of £731,000, the budget of 1905-1906 showed a surplus
+of £5161. This small surplus was obtained notwithstanding
+a further shrinkage in revenue.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span></p>
+
+<p>Dr Jameson&rsquo;s programme was largely one of material development.
+In the words of the speech opening the 1905 session of
+parliament, &ldquo;without a considerable development of our agricultural
+and pastoral resources our position as a self-sustaining
+colony cannot be assured.&rdquo; This reliance on its own resources
+was the more necessary for the Cape because of the keen rivalry
+of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the Transvaal.
+The opening up of backward districts by railways was
+vigorously pursued, and in other ways great efforts were made
+to assist agriculture. These efforts to help the country
+districts met with cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers,
+and the release, in May 1904, of all rebel prisoners was
+another step towards reconciliation. On the exclusion of
+Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in agreement
+with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established
+school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual
+introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of
+friendly relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one
+of the leading objects of Dr Jameson&rsquo;s policy. The Bond, on its
+side, sought to draw closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization
+in the Transvaal, and similar bodies, and at its 1906 congress,
+held in March that year at Ceres, a resolution with that aim
+was passed, the design being to unify, in accordance with the
+original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and action
+throughout South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In
+January 1905 an inter-colonial native affairs commission reported
+on the native question as it affected South Africa as a
+whole, proposals being made for an alteration of the laws in
+Cape Colony respecting the franchise exercised by natives. In
+the opinion of the commission the possession of the franchise
+by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to create
+in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous
+thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over
+23,000 coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed
+separate voting by natives only for a fixed number of members
+of the legislature&mdash;the plan adopted in New Zealand with the
+Maori voters. The privileged position of the Cape native was
+seen to be an obstacle to the federation of South Africa. The
+discussion which followed, based partly on the reports that the
+ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led, however,
+to no immediate results.</p>
+
+<p>Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs
+was the revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-West
+Africa (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1904 and the following years large
+numbers of refugees, including some of the most important
+chiefs, fled into British territory, and charges were made in
+Germany that sufficient control over these refugees was not
+exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came
+to an end in September 1907. In that month Morenga, a chief
+who had been interned by the colonial authorities, but had
+escaped and recommenced hostilities against the Germans, was
+once more on the British side of the frontier and, refusing to
+surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted Police and killed
+after a smart action. The revolt in the German protectorate
+had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the indirect
+occasion of a &ldquo;Boer raid&rdquo; into Cape Colony. In November
+1906 a small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been employed
+by the Germans against the Hottentots, entered the
+colony under the leadership of a man named Ferreira, and began
+raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits. Within a week
+the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four companions
+were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death
+sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pietermaritzburg
+in the early months of 1906, a new customs convention
+of a strongly protective character came into force on
+the 1st of June of that year. At the same time the rebate on
+goods from Great Britain and reciprocating colonies was increased.
+The session of parliament which sanctioned this
+change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and
+railway schemes. But one important measure of a political
+character was passed in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under
+its provisions over 7000 ex-rebels, who would otherwise have
+had no vote at the ensuing general election, were readmitted to
+the franchise in 1907.</p>
+
+<p>While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral
+resources of the country proved successful, the towns continued
+to suffer from the inflation&mdash;over-buying, over-building and
+over-speculation&mdash;which marked the war period. As a consequence,
+imports further declined during 1906-1907, and receipts
+being largely dependent on customs the result was a considerably
+diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending
+30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of £640,455. The decline in
+revenue, £4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection
+of the economic condition of the country&mdash;yearly becoming
+more self-supporting by the increase in home produce&mdash;caused
+general disquietude and injuriously affected the position of the
+ministry. In the session of 1907 the Opposition in the legislative
+council brought on a crisis by refusing to grant supplies
+voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the constitutional
+right of the council so to act, and on his advice the
+governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolution
+parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on
+diamond- and copper-mining companies earning over £50,000 per
+annum, and another act establishing an agricultural credit bank.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr Merriman, Premier</i>.&mdash;The elections for the legislative
+council were held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond
+victory. Its supporters, who called themselves the South
+African party, the Progressives being renamed Unionists,
+obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson thereupon
+resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with
+Mr J.X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J.W. Sauer
+as minister of public works. Neither of these politicians was a
+member of the Bond, and both had held office under Cecil Rhodes
+and W.P. Schreiner. They had, however, been the leading
+parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a considerable time.
+The elections for the legislative assembly followed in April and,
+partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the ex-rebels,
+resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry.
+There were returned 69 members of the South African party,
+33 Unionists and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers
+Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr Schreiner. The change of ministry
+was not accompanied by any relief in the financial situation.
+While the country districts remained fairly prosperous (agricultural
+and pastoral products increasing), the transit trade
+and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression
+was accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected
+adversely the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the
+diamond trade, leading to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley
+mines. (The &ldquo;slump&rdquo; in the diamond trade is shown by a
+comparison of the value of diamonds exported from the Cape
+in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at
+£8,973,148, in 1908 at £4,796,655.) This seriously diminished
+the revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907-1908
+showed a deficit of £996,000, and a prospective deficit for
+the ensuing year of an almost equal amount. To balance the
+budget, Mr Merriman proposed drastic remedies, including the
+suspension of the sinking fund, the reduction of salaries of all
+civil servants, and taxes on incomes of £50 per annum. Partly
+in consequence of the serious economic situation the renewed
+movement for the closer union of the various South African
+colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received
+the support of the Cape parliament. During 1907-1908 a national
+convention decided upon unification, and in 1910 the Union of
+South Africa was established (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Leading Personalities</i>.&mdash;The public life of Cape Colony has
+produced many men of singular ability and accomplishments.
+The careers of Cecil Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr,
+and of Dr L.S. Jameson have been sufficiently indicated (see
+also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon Sprigg, four times
+premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from 1873 to
+1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In
+and out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span>
+qualities which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great
+leader, he was at least a model of industry. Among other
+prominent politicians were Sir James Rose-Innes, Mr J.X.
+Merriman and Mr W.P. Schreiner. The two last named both
+held the premiership; their attitude and views have been
+indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a
+lawyer whose intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been
+impugned, was not a &ldquo;party man,&rdquo; and this made him, on more
+than one occasion, a somewhat difficult political ally. On the
+native question he held a consistently strong attitude, defending
+their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing the native liquor
+traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief justice of that
+colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative, though
+he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every
+enlightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought
+forward. A man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made
+his influence felt, not only in politics, but in journalism and the
+best social life of the Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he
+held the office of agent-general of the colony in London.</p>
+
+<p>In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors
+whose works have taken their place among those of the best
+English writers of their day. The <i>History of South Africa</i>, by
+Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a classic work of reference.
+The careful industry and the lucidity which characterize Mr
+Theal&rsquo;s work stamp him as a historian of whom South Africa
+may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs Cronwright-Schreiner)
+produced, while still in her teens, the <i>Story of an
+African Farm</i>, a work which gave great promise of original
+literary genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest
+of South Africa, was subsequently swept into the seething
+vortex of contemporary politics and controversy. In music
+and painting there have been artists of talent in the Cape Colony,
+but the country is still too young, and the conditions of life too
+disturbed, to allow such a development as has already occurred
+in Australia.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Governors at the Cape Since Introduction of Responsible Government</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">1870. Sir Henry Barkly.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1877. Sir Bartle Frere.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1880. Sir Hercules Robinson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1889. Sir Henry Loch.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1895. Sir Hercules Robinson (Lord Rosmead).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1897. Sir Alfred Milner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1901. Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt1 sc">Prime Ministers.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">1872. Mr J.C. Molteno.</td> <td class="tcl">1890. Mr C.J. Rhodes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1878. Mr J. Gordon Sprigg.</td> <td class="tcl">1896. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1881. Mr T.C. Scanlen.</td> <td class="tcl">1898. Mr W.P. Schreiner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1884. Mr Upington.</td> <td class="tcl">1900. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1886. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.</td> <td class="tcl">1904. Dr L.S. Jameson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">1908. Mr J.X. Merriman.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="author">(A. P. H.; F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The majority of the books concerning Cape
+Colony deal also with South Africa as a whole (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>:
+<i>Bibliography</i>). The following list gives books specially relating to the
+Cape. For ethnography see the works mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bushmen</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hottentots</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffirs</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bechuana</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:&mdash;The
+best early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille&rsquo;s
+<i>Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Espérance</i> (Paris,
+1763), the <i>Nouvelle Description du Cap de Bonne Espérance</i> (Amsterdam,
+1778); F. le Vaillant&rsquo;s <i>Voyage dans l&rsquo;intérieur de l&rsquo;Afrique</i>
+(Paris, 1790), and <i>Second Voyage</i> (Paris, <i>an</i> III. [1794-1795]); C.P.
+Thunberg&rsquo;s &ldquo;Account of the Cape of Good Hope&rdquo; in vol. xvi. of
+Pinkerton&rsquo;s <i>Travels</i> (London, 1814); A. Sparman&rsquo;s <i>Voyage to the
+Cape of Good Hope ... 1772-1776</i> (translated into English from the
+Swedish, London, 1785)&mdash;an excellent work; and W. Paterson&rsquo;s
+<i>A Narrative of Four Journeys ... 1777-1779</i> (London, 1789).
+P. Kolbe or Kolben&rsquo;s <i>Present State of the Cape of Good Hope</i> (English
+translation from the German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy.
+Sir J. Barrow&rsquo;s <i>Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa
+in 1797-1798</i> (2 vols., London, 1801-1804); H. Lichtenstein&rsquo;s
+<i>Travels in Southern Africa in 1803-1806</i> (translated from the German,
+2 vols., London, 1812-1815), and W.J. Burchell&rsquo;s <i>Travels in the
+Interior of Southern Africa</i> (2 vols., London, 1822-1824) are standard
+works. Burchell&rsquo;s book contains the best map of the Cape published
+up to that time. W.P. Greswell&rsquo;s <i>Geography of Africa south of the
+Zambesi</i> (Oxford, 1892) deals specially with Cape Colony; the
+<i>Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa</i> (Cape Town,
+1893) includes chapters on the zoology, flora, productions and
+resources of the colony. A.R.E. Burton, <i>Cape Colony To-day</i>
+(Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the country and its resources.
+A <i>Statistical Register</i> is issued yearly by the Cape government. The
+<i>Census of the Colony, 1904: General Report</i> (Cape Town, 1905) and
+previous census reports contain much valuable matter.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Special subjects:&mdash;For detailed information on special subjects
+consult <i>The Natives of South Africa</i> (London, 1901); R. Wallace,
+<i>Farming Industries of Cape Colony</i> (London, 1896); A.R.E. Burton,
+<i>Cape Colony for the Settler</i> (London, 1903); <i>The Agricultural Journal
+of the Cape of Good Hope</i>; Gardner F. Williams, <i>The Diamond Mines
+of South Africa</i>, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative work
+by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A.W. Rogers, <i>An
+Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony</i> (London, 1905) and &ldquo;The
+Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Geol. Soc
+S. Africa</i>, vol. ix. (1906); <i>Reports</i>, Geological Commission of the Cape
+of Good Hope (1896 et seq.); <i>Science in South Africa</i> (Cape Town,
+1905); H.A. Bryden, <i>Kloof and Karoo</i>; sport, legend and natural
+history in Cape Colony (London, 1889); <i>South African Education
+Yearbook</i> (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et seq.). For
+books dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) History:&mdash;H.C.V. Leibbrandt, <i>Précis of the Archives of the
+Cape of Good Hope</i> (15 vols., vols. v.-vii. contain van Riebeek&rsquo;s
+<i>Journal</i>, Cape Town, 1896&mdash;1902); <i>The Rebellion of 1815, generally
+known as Slachter&rsquo;s Nek</i> (Cape Town, 1902); G.M. Theal, <i>Chronicles
+of Cape Commanders ... 1651-1691</i> ... (Cape Town, 1882), and
+<i>Records of the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831</i>, from
+MS. in the Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897-1905);
+<i>History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East
+India Company, 1652 to 1795</i> (2 vols., London, 1897); <i>History of
+South Africa from 1795 to 1834</i> (London, 1891); E.B. Watermeyer,
+<i>Three Lectures on the Cape ... under the ... Dutch East India
+Company</i> (Cape Town, 1857); A. Wilmot and J.C. Chase, <i>History of
+the ... Cape ... from its Discovery to ... 1868</i> (Cape Town,
+1869); Lady Anne Barnard, <i>South Africa a Hundred Years Ago:
+Letters-written from the Cape, 1797-1801</i> (London, 1901), a vivid
+picture of social life, &amp;c.; Mrs A.F. Trotter, <i>Old Cape Colony ...
+Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806</i> (London, 1903); C.T.
+Campbell, <i>British South Africa, 1795-1825</i> (London, 1897), the story
+of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau&rsquo;s <i>Life of
+Sir Bartle Frere</i>; the <i>Autobiography</i> of Sir Harry Smith; P.A.
+Molteno&rsquo;s <i>Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno</i> (first premier of
+Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A. Wilmot&rsquo;s <i>Life of Sir
+Richard Southey</i> (London, 1904), and G.C. Henderson&rsquo;s <i>Sir George
+Grey</i> (London, 1907). B. Worsfold&rsquo;s <i>Lord Milner&rsquo;s Work in South
+Africa, 1897-1902</i> (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape
+politics. For Blue-books, &amp;c., relating to the colony published
+by the British parliament, see the <i>Colonial Office List</i> (London,
+yearly)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The distances given after the names of rivers indicate the length
+of the river valleys, including those of the main upper branch. In
+nearly all instances the rivers, owing to their sinuous course, are
+much longer.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is an overstatement. The director of the census estimated
+the true number of Hottentots at about 56,000.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is stated that Colonel R.J. Gordon (the explorer of the Orange
+river), who commanded the Dutch forces at the Cape, chagrined
+by the occupation of the country by the British, committed suicide.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> From 1737 to 1744 George Schmidt, &ldquo;The apostle to the
+Hottentots,&rdquo; had a mission at Genadendal&mdash;&ldquo;The Vale of Grace.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Masters were allowed to keep their ex-slaves as &ldquo;apprentices&rdquo;
+until the 1st of December 1838.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6l" id="ft6l" href="#fa6l"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The act enjoined that &ldquo;every male native residing in the district,
+exclusive of natives in possession of lands under ordinary quit-rent
+titles, or in freehold, who, in the judgment of the resident magistrate,
+is fit for and capable of labour, shall pay to the public revenue a tax
+of ten shillings per annum unless he can show to the satisfaction of
+the magistrate that he has been in service beyond the borders of the
+district for at least three months out of the previous twelve, when
+he will be exempt from the tax for that year, or unless he can show
+that he has been employed for a total period of three years, when he
+will be exempt altogether.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7l" id="ft7l" href="#fa7l"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2
+       "Camorra" to "Cape Colony"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33052]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article CANAAN, CANAANITES: "If (Egyptian) troops come this year,
+      lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops
+      come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my
+      lord." quotes added after 'lord'.
+
+    Article CANTATA: "... though at the same time not excludeing the
+      possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light order of
+      fugue." 'excludeing' amended from 'exclude ing'.
+
+    Article CAPE COLONY: "In the western part of the colony the winter
+      is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in
+      summer." 'in' amended from 'is'.
+
+    Article CAPE COLONY: "Agriculture and Allied Industries."
+      'Industries' amended from 'Industires'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME V, SLICE II
+
+           Camorra to Cape Colony
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CAMORRA                            CANDYTUFT
+  CAMP                               CANE
+  CAMPAGNA DI ROMA                   CANEA
+  CAMPAIGN                           CANE-FENCING
+  CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE    CANEPHORAE
+  CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO                CANES VENATICI
+  CAMPANIA                           CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSE
+  CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO           CANGAS DE ONIS
+  CAMPANILE                          CANGAS DE TINEO
+  CAMPANULA                          CANGUE
+  CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER                CANINA, LUIGI
+  CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA          CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO
+  CAMPBELL, GEORGE                   CANIS MAJOR
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN                     CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL            CANIZARES, JOSE DE
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS             CANNAE
+  CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD              CANNANORE
+  CAMPBELL, LEWIS                    CANNES
+  CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN            CANNIBALISM
+  CAMPBELL, THOMAS                   CANNING, CHARLES JOHN
+  CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY      CANNING, GEORGE
+  CAMPBELTOWN                        CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO
+  CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH            CANNOCK
+  CAMPECHE (state of Mexico)         CANNON
+  CAMPECHE (city of Mexico)          CANNON-BALL TREE
+  CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO                 CANNSTATT
+  CAMPER, PETER                      CANO, ALONZO
+  CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON               CANO, MELCHIOR
+  CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM                CANOE
+  CAMPHORS                           CANON
+  CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ           CANONESS
+  CAMPI, GIULIO                      CANONIZATION
+  CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL                 CANON LAW
+  CAMPINAS                           CANOPUS
+  CAMPING OUT                        CANOPY
+  CAMPION, EDMUND                    CANOSA
+  CAMPION, THOMAS                    CANOSSA
+  CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE        CANOVA, ANTONIO
+  CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE  CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO
+  CAMPOBASSO                         CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN
+  CAMPODEA                           CANT, ANDREW
+  CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ        CANT
+  CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE        CANTABRI
+  CAMPOS                             CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS
+  CAMPULUNG                          CANTACUZINO
+  CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO                CANTAGALLO
+  CAMULODUNUM                        CANTAL
+  CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON               CANTARINI, SIMONE
+  CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS       CANTATA
+  CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES         CANTEEN
+  CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE      CANTEMIR
+  CANA                               CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON
+  CANAAN, CANAANITES                 CANTERBURY
+  CANACHUS                           CANTHARIDES
+  CANADA                             CANTICLES
+  CANAL                              CANTILEVER
+  CANAL DOVER                        CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE
+  CANALE ANTONIO                     CANTILUPE, WALTER DE
+  CANALIS                            CANTO
+  CANANDAIGUA                        CANTON, JOHN
+  CANARD                             CANTON (city of China)
+  CANARY                             CANTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  CANARY ISLANDS                     CANTON (New York, U.S.A.)
+  CANCALE                            CANTON (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+  CANCEL                             CANTON (country division)
+  CANCELLI                           CANTONMENT
+  CANCER, LUIS                       CANTU, CESARE
+  CANCER (astronomy)                 CANUSIUM
+  CANCER (disease)                   CANUTE
+  CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON          CANUTE VI.
+  CANDELABRUM                        CANVAS
+  CANDIA                             CANVASS
+  CANDIDATE                          CANYNGES, WILLIAM
+  CANDLE                             CANYON
+  CANDLEMAS                          CANZONE
+  CANDLESTICK                        CAPE BRETON
+  CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH             CAPE COAST
+  CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE       CAPE COLONY
+  CANDON
+
+
+
+
+CAMORRA, a secret society of Naples associated with robbery, blackmail
+and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful. Probably both the word
+and the association were introduced into Naples by Spaniards. There is a
+Spanish word _camorra_ (a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have
+existed in Spain long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It
+was in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was
+primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan
+prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and oppression,
+its first purpose being the protection of prisoners. In or about 1830
+the Camorra was carried into the city by prisoners who had served their
+terms. The members worked the streets in gangs. They had special methods
+of communicating with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach
+of the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached. A
+long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze meant he
+was not "worth powder and shot," and so on. The society rapidly extended
+its power, and its operations included smuggling and blackmail of all
+kinds in addition to ordinary road-robberies. Its influence grew to be
+considerable. Princes were in league with and shared the profits of the
+smugglers: statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact,
+were involved in the society's misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra drew
+huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The general
+disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly organized that
+merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to superintend the loading and
+unloading of merchandise. Being non-political, the government did not
+interfere with the society; indeed its members were taken into the
+police service and the Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled
+the authorities. After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when
+the constitution was granted by Francis II., the _camorristi_ then in
+gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became
+all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862.
+Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its power.
+In September 1877 there was a determined effort to exterminate it:
+fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi being simultaneously
+arrested in the market-place. Though much of its power has gone, the
+Camorra has remained vigorous. It has grown upwards, and highly-placed
+and well-known camorristi have entered municipal administrations and
+political life. In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra's power were made
+in the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the
+Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner. A
+government inquiry also took place. As the result of this investigation
+the Honest Government League was formed, which succeeded in 1901 in
+entirely defeating the Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.
+
+The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the "swell mobsmen,"
+the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed with and levied fines
+on people of highest rank. Most of these were well connected. There were
+the lower order of blackmailers who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c.;
+and there were political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the
+society were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve
+for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted
+camorrista when he was sometimes called _picciotto d' honore_, and after
+giving proof of courage and zeal became a _picciotto di sgarro_, one,
+that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some localities he was then
+called _tamurro_. The initiatory ceremony for full membership is now a
+mock duel in which the arm alone is wounded. In early times initiation
+was more severe. The camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground,
+and at a signal all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the
+novice had at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that
+his hand was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate
+as _picciotto di sgarro_ lasted three years, during which the lad had to
+work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as master. After
+initiation there was a ceremony of reception. The camorristi stood round
+a table on which were a dagger, a loaded pistol, a glass of water or
+wine supposed to be poisoned and a lancet. The _picciotto_ was brought
+in and one of his veins opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he
+held it out to the camorristi and swore to keep the society's secrets
+and obey orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock
+the pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to die
+for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the dagger, placed
+his right hand on the lad's head while with the left he fired off the
+pistol into the air and smashed the poison-glass. He then drew the
+dagger from the table and presented it to the new comrade and embraced
+him, as did all the others. The Camorra was divided into centres, each
+under a chief. There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one
+time to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was Aniello
+Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested. The chief of
+every centre was elected by the members of it. All the earnings of the
+centre were paid to and then distributed by him. The camorristi employ a
+whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their chief is _masto_ or _si masto_,
+"sir master." When a member meets him he salutes with the phrase _Masto,
+volite niente?_ ("Master, do you want anything?"). The members are
+addressed simply as _si_.
+
+  See Monnier, _La Camorra_ (Florence, 1863); Umilta, _Camorra et Mafia_
+  (Neuchatel, 1878); Alongi, _La Camorra_ (1890); C.W. Heckethorn
+  _Secret Societies of All Ages_ (London, 1897); Blasio, _Usi e costumi
+  dei Camorriste_ (Naples, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+CAMP (from Lat. _campus_, field), a term used more particularly in a
+military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized place of
+food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary housing (see
+CAMPING-OUT). The shelter of troops in the field has always been of the
+greatest importance to their well-being, and from the earliest times
+tents and other temporary shelters have been employed as much as
+possible when it is not feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in
+barracks or in houses. The applied sense of the word "camp" as a
+military post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the
+Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern warfare the word is
+used in two ways. In the wider sense, "camp" is opposed to "billets,"
+"cantonments" or "quarters," in which the troops are scattered amongst
+the houses of towns or villages for food and shelter. In a purely
+military camp the soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground
+allotted for their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of
+concentration and readiness for immediate action, and are under better
+disciplinary control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from
+the weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the restricted
+sense "camp" implies tents for all ranks, and is thus opposed to
+"bivouac," in which the only shelter is that afforded by improvised
+screens, &c., or at most small _tentes d'abri_ carried in sections by
+the men themselves. The weight of large regulation tents and the
+consequent increase in the number of horses and vehicles in the
+transport service are, however, disadvantages so grave that the
+employment of canvas camps in European warfare is almost a thing of the
+past. If the military situation permits, all troops are put into
+quarters, only the outpost troops bivouacking. This course was pursued
+by the German field armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter
+campaign.
+
+Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole army to
+bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are not to be depended
+upon, tents must be provided, for no troops can endure many successive
+nights in bivouac, except in summer, without serious detriment to their
+efficiency. In a war on the Russo-German frontier, for instance,
+especially if operations were carried out in the autumn and winter,
+tents would be absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In
+this connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates many
+of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For training purposes
+in peace time, _standing camps_ are formed. These may be considered
+simply as temporary barracks. An _entrenched camp_ is an area of ground
+occupied by, or suitable for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and
+protected by fortifications.
+
+_Ancient Camps._--English writers use "camp" as a generic term for any
+remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of their special age,
+size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it various dissimilar things.
+We may distinguish (1) Roman "camps" (_castra_) of three kinds, large
+permanent fortresses, small permanent forts (both usually built of
+stone) and temporary earthen encampments (see ROMAN ARMY); (2)
+Pre-Roman; and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English
+hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to their
+special periods. Often we can say no more than that the "camp" is not
+Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified with earthen walls were
+thrown up as early as the Bronze Age and probably earlier still, and
+that they continued to be built down to Norman times. These consisted of
+hilltops or cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified
+with one or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining
+huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have come in
+first with the Normans. Their _mottes_ or earthen mounds crowned with
+wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by an enclosure on the
+flat constituted a new element in fortification and greatly aided the
+conquest of England. (See CASTLE.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, the low country surrounding the city of Rome, bounded
+on the N.W. by the hills surrounding the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E.
+by the Sabine mountains, on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W.
+by the sea. (See LATIUM, and ROME (province).)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPAIGN, a military term for the continuous operations of an army
+during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the time when armies
+went into quarters during the winter and literally "took the field" at
+the opening of summer. The word is also used figuratively, especially in
+politics, of any continuous operations aimed at a definite object, as
+the "Plan of Campaign" in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived
+from the Latin _Campania_, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f.
+Italian, _la Campagna di Roma_, from which came two French forms: (1)
+_Champagne_, the name given to the level province of that name, and
+hence the English "champaign," a level tract of country free from woods
+and hills; and (2) _Campagne_, and the English "campaign" with the
+restricted military meaning.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822), French educator, the
+companion of Marie Antoinette, was born at Paris in 1752. Her father,
+whose name was Genest, was first clerk in the foreign office, and,
+although without fortune, placed her in the most cultivated society. At
+the age of fifteen she could speak English and Italian, and had gained
+so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader
+to the three daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general
+favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the
+Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of 5000
+_livres_ as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first lady of the
+bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued to be her faithful
+attendant till she was forcibly separated from her at the sacking of the
+Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792. Madame Campan survived the dangers
+of the Terror, but after the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost
+penniless, and being thrown on her own resources by the illness of her
+husband, she bravely determined to support herself by establishing a
+school at St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by
+Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment of
+Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded by Napoleon at
+Ecouen for the education of the daughters and sisters of members of the
+Legion of Honour. This post she held till it was abolished at the
+restoration of the Bourbons, when she retired to Mantes, where she spent
+the rest of her life amid the kind attentions of affectionate friends,
+but saddened by the loss of her only son, and by the calumnies
+circulated on account of her connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in
+1822, leaving valuable _Memoires sur la vie privee de Marie Antoinette,
+suivis de souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les regnes de Louis
+XIV.-XV._ (Paris, 1823); a treatise _De l'Education des Femmes_; and one
+or two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style. The
+most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that which
+especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place given to domestic
+economy in the education of girls. At Ecouen the pupils underwent a
+complete training in all branches of housework.
+
+  See Jules Flammermont, _Les Memoires de Madame de Campan_ (Paris,
+  1886), and histories of the time.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance philosopher, was
+born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen years of age he had
+mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth
+year he entered the order of the Dominicans, attracted partly by reading
+the lives of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of
+learning. He took a course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in
+Abruzzo, and in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow
+course of study, he happened to read the _De Rerum Natura_ of Bernardino
+Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its appeal to
+nature rather than to authority. His first work in philosophy (he was
+already the author of numerous poems) was a defence of Telesio,
+_Philosophia sensibus demonstrata_ (1591). His attacks upon established
+authority having brought him into disfavour with the clergy, he left
+Naples, where he had been residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven
+years he led an unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his
+talents and the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox,
+and was an uncompromising advocate of the pope's temporal power. He
+returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was committed to
+prison because he had joined those who desired to free Naples from
+Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudee, however, declares that the
+expressions used by Campanella were wrongly interpreted as
+revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven years in prison. Yet his
+spirit was unbroken; he composed sonnets, and prepared a series of
+works, forming a complete system of philosophy. During the latter years
+of his confinement he was kept in the castle of Sant' Elmo, and allowed
+considerable liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been
+regarded as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was
+thought better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set
+at liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of the
+Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at Rome by the
+pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy headed by his pupil,
+Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go to Paris (1634), where he was
+received with marked favour by Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of
+his life he spent in preparing a complete edition of his works; but only
+the first volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of
+May 1639.
+
+In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (q.v.), a follower of
+Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore, in the uncertain
+half-light which preceded the dawn of modern philosophy. The sterility
+of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he understood it, drove him to the
+study of man and nature, though he was never entirely free from the
+medieval spirit. Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region
+of theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception. The prime
+fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and Descartes, the
+certainty of individual consciousness. To this consciousness he assigned
+a threefold content, power, will and knowledge. It is of the present
+only, of things not as they are, but merely as they seem. The fact that
+it contains the idea of God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the
+divine existence, since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from
+the Infinite. God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect
+degree, those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity
+possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action
+presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its parts
+have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate are in
+everything. The more remote from God, the greater the degree of
+imperfection (i.e. _Not-being_) in things. Of imperfect things, the
+highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue of the possession of
+reason are akin to the Divine and superior to the lower creation. Next
+comes the mathematical world of space, then the corporeal world, and
+finally the empirical world with its limitations of space and time. The
+impulse of self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion;
+above this comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the
+perfection of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and
+love, and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in
+origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is superior to
+the state, and, therefore, all temporal government should be in
+subjection to the pope as the representative of God.
+
+In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio, advocates
+the experimental method and lays down heat and cold as the fundamental
+principles by the strife of which all life is explained. In political
+philosophy (the _Civitas Solis_) he sketches an ideal communism,
+obviously derived from the Platonic, based on community of wives and
+property with state-control of population and universal military
+training. In every detail of life the citizen is to be under authority,
+and the authority of the administrators is to be based on the degree of
+knowledge possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial
+organism for the promotion of individual and collective good. In
+contrast to More's _Utopia_, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking
+in practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity in
+the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to whether this
+system was a philosophic dream, or a serious attempt to sketch a
+constitution for Naples in the event of her becoming a free city. The
+_De Monarchia Hispanica_ contains an able account of contemporary
+politics especially Spanish.
+
+Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic thinker, is
+among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern empirical science, and
+on the other of Descartes and Spinoza. Yet his fondness for the
+antithesis of Being and Not-being (_Ens_ and _Non-ens_) shows that he
+had not shaken off the spirit of scholastic thought.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For his works see Quetif-Echard, appendix to E.S.
+  Cypriano, _Vita Campanellae_ (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722); Al.
+  d'Ancona's edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). The most
+  important are _De sensu rerum_ (1620); _Realis philosophiae
+  epilogisticae partes IV._ (with _Civitas Solis_) (1623); _Atheismus
+  triumphatus_ (1631); _Philos. rationalis_ (1637); _Philos. universalis
+  seu metaph._ (1637); _De Monarchia Hispanica_ (1640). For his life,
+  see Cypriano (above); M. Baldachini, _Vita e filos. di Tommaso
+  Campanella_ (Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, _Lettere
+  inedite di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti_ (1878); and
+  _Nuovi documenti di T.C._ (1881); and especially L. Amabile, _Fra T.
+  Campanella_ (3 vols., Naples, 1882). For his philosophy H. Ritter,
+  _History of Philos._; M. Carriere, _Philos. Weltanschauung d.
+  Reformationszeit_, pp. 542-608; C. Dareste, _Th. Morus et Campanella_
+  (Paris, 1843); Chr. Sigwart, _Kleine Schriften_, i. 125 seq.; and
+  histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda,
+  _Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica di fronte
+  al socialismo moderno_ (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). His poems, first
+  published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered and printed again
+  (1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered into English verse by
+  J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography see _Dict. de theol.
+  cath._, col. 1446 (1904).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANIA, a territorial division of Italy. The modern district (II.
+below) is of much greater extent than that known by the name in ancient
+times.
+
+I. _Campani_ was the name used by the Romans to denote the inhabitants
+first of the town of Capua and the district subject to it, and then
+after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 B.C.), to describe the
+inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally. The name, however, is
+pre-Roman and appears with Oscan terminations on coins of the early 4th
+(or late 5th) century B.C. (R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, p. 143),
+which were certainly struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of
+Campania, whom the name properly denotes, a branch of the great
+Sabelline stock (see SABINI); but in what precise spot the coins were
+minted is uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the
+Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in the last
+quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded appearance being at
+the conquest of their chief town Capua, probably in 438 B.C. (or 445,
+according to the method adopted in interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on
+this see under CUMAE), or 424 according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was
+taken by them in 428 or 421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite
+language they spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all
+Campania except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans
+remained here and there for at least another century (Conway, op. cit.
+p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took over not merely the
+wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their customs; the haughtiness and
+luxury of the men of Capua was proverbial at Rome. This town became the
+ally of Rome in 338 B.C. (Livy viii. 14) and received the _civitas sine
+suffragio_, the highest status that could be granted to a community
+which did not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was
+completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories
+(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent in alliance
+with Rome. These towns were faithful to Rome throughout the Hannibalic
+war. But Capua and the towns dependent on it revolted (Livy
+xxiii.-xxvi.); after its capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and
+the jealousy and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both
+finally appeased (cf. Cicero. _Leg. Agrar._ ii. 88). We have between
+thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating,
+probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway, _Italic
+Dialects_, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to the curious
+cult described under JOVILAE, while two or three are curses written on
+lead; see OSCA LINGUA.
+
+  See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd
+  ed.), c. "Capua"; Th. Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 365.     (R. S. C.)
+
+The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from Campani (see
+above), and did not come into common use until the middle of the 1st
+century A.D. Polybius and Diodorus avoid it entirely. Varro and Livy use
+it sparingly, preferring _Campanus ager_. Polybius (2nd century B.C.)
+uses the phrase [Greek: ta pedia ta kata Kapuen] to express the district
+bounded on the north by the mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the
+Apennines of Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which
+ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by the sea,
+and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy. But the
+geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division of Italy
+Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried the north
+boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and even the river
+Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village of San Pietro in Fine
+preserves the memory of the north-east boundary which ran between
+Venafrum and Casinum. On the east the valley of the Volturnus and the
+foot-hills of the Apennines as far as Abellinum formed the boundary;
+this town is sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to
+Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the time of
+Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended much farther north,
+and included the whole of Latium. This district was governed by a
+_corrector_, who about A.D. 333 received the title of _consularis_. It
+is for this reason that the district round Rome still bears the name of
+Campagna di Roma, being no doubt popularly connected with Ital. _campo_,
+Lat. _campus_. This district (to take its earlier extent), consisting
+mainly of a very fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south,
+and the sea on the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the
+Liris and Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right
+down to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is
+comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is the main
+plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the central Apennines,
+and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus, Sebethus, Savo, belong
+entirely to Campania.
+
+The road system of Campania was extremely well developed and touched all
+the important towns. The main lines are followed (though less
+completely) by the modern railways. The most important road centre of
+Campania was Capua, at the east edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to
+the north-west, was the only bridge over the Volturnus until the
+construction of the Via Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing
+through Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the
+Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum and Cales.
+At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia began to turn east
+and to approach the mountains on its way to Beneventum, while the Via
+Popillia went straight on to Nola (whence a road ran to Abella and
+Abellinum) and thence to Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating
+at Regium. From Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia
+and Telesia, while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up
+ancient warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae,
+Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae, Puteoli and
+Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella and Neapolis. Neapolis
+could also be reached by a branch from the Via Popillia at Suessula,
+which passed through Acerrae. From Suessula, too, there was a short cut
+to the Via Appia before it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian
+further improved the communications of this district with Rome, by the
+construction of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at
+Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river
+Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must have
+been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along the shore,
+past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here it fell into the
+existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana over the hills, at
+the back, and the newer, dating from the time of Agrippa, through the
+tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast. The mileage in both cases was
+reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond Naples a road led along the coast through
+Herculaneum to Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and
+Surrentum, and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From
+Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran to
+Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but outside the
+limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to Abellinum and thence
+to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum was another important centre: it lay
+at the point where the Via Latina was crossed at right angles by a road
+leaving the Via Appia at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca,
+while east of Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road
+from Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched off
+to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and rejoined it
+near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed, probable that the
+original road made the detour by Venafrum, in order to give a direct
+communication between Rome and the interior of Samnium (inasmuch as
+roads ran from Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae),
+and Th. Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies
+the antiquity of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo),
+though it is shown in Kiepert's map at the end of the volume, with a
+milestone numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing
+and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the road to
+Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short cut was
+not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century coins of Telesia,
+Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian type.
+
+Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most important from
+the commercial point of view. Its period of greatest comparative
+importance was the 2nd-1st century B.C. The harbours constructed by
+Augustus by connecting the Lacus Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the
+sea, and that at Misenum (the latter the station of one of the chief
+divisions of the Roman navy, the other fleet being stationed at
+Ravenna), were mainly naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but
+was less important than Puteoli.
+
+The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as in modern
+times;[1] the best portion was the Campi Laborini or Leborini (called
+Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in modern times, though the
+name has now extended to the whole province of Caserta) between the
+roads from Capua to Puteoli and Cumae (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xviii. III).
+The loose black volcanic earth (_terra pulla_) was easier to work than
+the stiffer Roman soil, and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt,
+wheat and millet are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables;
+and the roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the
+Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the east and
+south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other districts
+also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited to the slopes
+than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.
+
+The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania (Pompeii,
+Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but at some date soon
+after that Latin became general, except in Neapolis, where Greek was the
+official language during the whole of the imperial period.
+
+  See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway, _Italic
+  Dialects_, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie_,
+  iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.
+
+II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably larger area
+than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the _compartimento_ of Campania
+belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento, Naples, Avellino and
+Salerno.
+
+It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila (Abruzzi)
+and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of Foggia (Apulia),
+on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the south and west by
+the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289 sq. m. It thus includes the whole
+of the ancient Campania, a considerable portion of Samnium (with a part
+of the main chain of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of _Latium
+adjectum_, consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part
+of which lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the
+extraordinarily fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro,
+with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains and the
+sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc. Liris), which
+rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno (94 m. in length),
+with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which rises near Sarno and
+waters the fertile plain south-east of Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose
+main tributary is the Tanagro, which is in turn largely fed by another
+Calore. The headwaters of the Sele have been tapped for the great
+aqueduct for the Apulian provinces.
+
+The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of Fondi
+with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient _Ager Caecubus_),
+renowned for its wine (see FONDI). The mountains (of the ancient
+Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the east side of the extreme
+promontory to the south-east is the port of Gaeta, a strongly fortified
+naval station. The east side of the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the
+marshes at the mouth of the Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its
+unhealthy lagoons, continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico,
+which reaches the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as
+far as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct
+craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of Naples,
+which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of Naples. Here the
+scenery completely changes: the Bay of Naples, indeed, is one of the
+most beautiful in the world. The island of Procida lies 2-1/2 m.
+south-west of the Capo Miseno, and 3 m. south-west of Procida is that of
+Ischia. In consequence of the volcanic character of the district there
+are several important mineral springs which are used medicinally,
+especially at Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of
+Ischia.
+
+Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy in the 1st
+century B.C., is now mainly noticeable for the large armour-plate and
+gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the volcanic earth (_pozzolana_)
+which forms so important an element in concrete and cement, and is
+largely quarried near Rome also. Naples, on the other hand, is one of
+the most important harbours of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco
+and Torre Annunziata at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports
+for smaller vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is
+manufactured extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare
+di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval shipbuilding
+yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare the promontory of
+Sorrento, ending in the Punta della Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m.
+south-west) forms the south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest
+point of this mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine
+chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east as
+Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the low marshy
+ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno, malaria is very
+prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf of Salerno is formed by
+another mountain group, culminating in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.);
+and on the east side of this is the Gulf of Policastro, where the
+province of Salerno, and with it Campania, borders, on the province of
+Potenza.
+
+The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of the province
+of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes, the chief towns
+being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni
+(20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844); that of the province of Benevento was
+256,504, with 73 communes, the only important town being Benevento
+itself (24,647); that of the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69
+communes, the most important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del
+Greco (33,299), Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata
+(28,143), Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino
+(Principato Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425,
+with 128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and Ariano di
+Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno (Principato Citeriore)
+564,328, with 158 communes, the chief towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava
+dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief
+railway centre: a main line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence
+there is a branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to
+Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on the line
+between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento), Sparanise (branch to
+Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples. From Caserta, indeed, there are
+two independent lines to Naples, while a main line runs to Benevento and
+Foggia across the Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to
+Vinchiaturo (for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From
+Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples,
+branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato, San
+Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to Caserta (and
+thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local lines to Pozzuoli and
+Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the
+other via Pompeii, which together make up the circum-Vesuvian electric
+line, and were in connexion with the railway to the top of Vesuvius
+until its destruction in April 1906. The main line for southern Italy
+passes through Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and
+Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for Mercato San
+Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one line going
+east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro), Potenza and
+Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line along the east coast of
+Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east along the west
+coast of Calabria to Reggio.
+
+Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli and the
+towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia (including the latter)
+on the north-east shores of the Bay of Naples. The native peasant
+industries are (besides agriculture, for which see ITALY) the
+manufacture of pottery and weaving with small hand-looms, both of which
+are being swept away by the introduction of machinery; but a government
+school of textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement
+of the trade.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The name Osci--earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. [Greek:
+    Opikoi])--presumably meant "tillers of the soil."
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO, Italian mechanician and natural philosopher of
+the 17th century, was born at Spoleto. He held a curacy at Rome in 1661,
+but devoted himself principally to scientific pursuits. As an optician
+he is chiefly celebrated for the manufacture of the large object-glasses
+with which G.D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn's satellites, and for
+an attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-glass;
+and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated dial-plate,
+and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt to correct the
+irregularities of the pendulum which arise from variations of
+temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work on horology, and on the
+manufacture of lenses for telescopes. His younger brother Giuseppe was
+also an ingenious optician (indeed the attempt to correct chromatic
+aberration has been ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is,
+besides, noteworthy as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by
+the aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter,
+the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio Divini.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANILE, the bell tower attached to the churches and town-halls in
+Italy (from _campana_, a bell). Bells are supposed to have been first
+used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope Sabinian (604), the
+immediate successor to St Gregory; and their use by the municipalities
+came with the rights granted by kings and emperors to the citizens to
+enclose their towns with fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a
+great bell. It is to the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that
+we are indebted for the introduction and development of the campanile,
+which, when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature
+peculiar to Christian architecture--Christians alone making use of the
+bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The campanile of Italy
+serves the same purpose as the tower or steeple of the churches in the
+north and west of Europe, but differs from it in design and position
+with regard to the body of the church. It is almost always detached from
+the church, or at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a
+rule also there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few
+exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara; S.
+Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the churches in south
+Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely from the northern type; it
+never has buttresses, is very tall and thin in proportion to its height,
+and as a rule rises abruptly from the ground without base or plinth
+mouldings undiminished to the summit; it is usually divided by
+string-courses into storeys of nearly equal height, and in north and
+central Italy the wall surface is decorated with pilaster strips and
+arcaded corbel strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an
+octagonal turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and
+Modena cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and
+dimensions as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a lightness
+to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits only,
+impart solidity to the whole composition.
+
+The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S. Apollinare in
+Classe (see BASILICA, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna, dating
+from the 6th century. They are circular, of considerable height, and
+probably were erected as watch towers or depositories for the treasures
+of the church. The next in order are those in Rome, of which there are a
+very large number in existence, dating from the 8th to the 11th century.
+These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part quite
+plain till well above the church to which they are attached. Above this
+they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried on stone
+corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the lower storeys with
+blind arcades and the upper storeys with open arcades. The earliest on
+record was one connected with St Peter's, to the atrium of which, in the
+middle of the 8th century, a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added.
+One of the finest is that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th
+or 9th century. In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient
+columns of the Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The
+tower is 120 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the
+four upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second
+from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number, are
+recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their length
+equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a mid-wall shaft.
+This type of arcade or window is found in early German work, except
+that, as a rule, there is a capital under the impost block. Rome is
+probably the source from which the Saxon windows were derived, the
+example in Worth church being identically the same as those in the Roman
+campanili. In the campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each
+storey, each divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS.
+Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana, S. Croce in
+Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia, S. Pudenziana,
+S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in Capite, are
+characteristic examples. On some of the towers are encrusted plaques of
+marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed in a tile or moulded brick
+border; sometimes these plaques are in majolica with Byzantine patterns.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
+
+FIG. 1.--Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.]
+
+The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another type, the
+north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being decorated with
+vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and horizontal arcaded
+corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the campanile of S. Satiro at
+Milan is in perfect preservation; it is divided into four storeys by
+arched corbel tables, the upper storey having a similar arcade with
+mid-wall shaft to those in Rome. One of the most notable examples in
+north Italy is the campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense
+height and has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall
+face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally with
+arcaded corbel tables,--this campanile, the two towers of S. Antonio,
+Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal plan, being among
+the few which are thus terminated. In the campanile at Torcello we find
+an entirely different treatment: doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide
+each face into two lofty blind arcades rising from the ground to the
+belfry storey, over 100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the
+upper or belfry storey having an arcade of four arches on each front.
+This is the type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where
+there are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark's was of similar
+design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower portion,
+built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but not completed
+till the middle of the 12th century. In 1510 a belfry storey was added
+with an open arcade of four arches on each face, and slightly set back
+from the face of the tower above was a mass of masonry with pyramidal
+roof, the total height being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole
+structure collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in
+1510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part, would seem
+to have been the principal contributors to this disaster, as the pile
+foundations were found to be in excellent condition.
+
+In central Italy the two early campanili at Lucca return to the Lombard
+type of the north, with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel strings, and
+the same is found in S. Francesco (Assisi), S. Frediano (Lucca), S.
+Pietro-in-Grado and S. Michele-in-Orticaia (Pisa), and S. Maria-Novella
+(Florence). The campanile of S. Niccola, Pisa, is octagonal on plan,
+with a lofty blind arcade on each face like those in Venice, but with a
+single string-course halfway up. The gallery above is an open eaves
+gallery like those in north Italy.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Brogi.
+
+FIG. 2.--Campanile of St Mark's, Venice.]
+
+In southern Italy the design of the campanile varies again. In the two
+more important examples at Bari and Molfetta, there are two towers in
+each case attached to the east end of the cathedrals. The campanili are
+in plain masonry, the storeys being suggested only by blind arches or
+windows, there being neither pilaster strips nor string-courses. The
+same treatment is found at Barletta and Caserta Vecchia; in the latter
+the upper storey has been made octagonal with circular turrets at each
+angle, and this type of design is followed at Amalfi, the centre portion
+being circular instead of octagonal and raised much higher. In Palermo
+the campanile of the Martorana, of which the two lower storeys,
+decorated with three concentric blind pointed arches on each face,
+probably date from the Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the
+two upper storeys. The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral
+have similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group
+well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two towers of
+the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble those of Bari and
+Molfetta as regards their treatment.
+
+The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of Siena and
+Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that they owe their
+decoration to the alternating courses of black and white marble. Of this
+type by far the most remarkable so far as its marble decoration is
+concerned is Giotto's campanile at Florence, built in 1334. It measures
+275 ft. high, 45 ft. square, and is encased in black, white and red
+marble, with occasional sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized
+by octagonal projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled
+that of the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three
+upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side in the
+two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the belfry stage.
+A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure, above which a spire was
+projected by Giotto, but never carried out.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
+
+FIG. 3.--Giotto's Campanile, Florence.]
+
+The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft. high. Though
+built in the second half of the 13th century, and showing therefore
+Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the belfry and two storeys
+below, and the substitution of the pointed for the semicircular arch of
+the arcaded corbel string-courses, it follows the Lombard type in its
+general design, and the same is found in the campanile of S. Andrea,
+Mantua. In the 16th century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned
+with a conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some of
+the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these leaning
+towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at Bologna form
+conspicuous objects in the town; the two more remarkable examples are
+the campanile of S. Martino at Este, of early Lombard type, and the
+leaning tower at Pisa, which was built by the citizens in 1174 to rival
+that of Venice. The Pisa tower is circular on plan, about 51 ft. in
+diameter and 172 ft. high. Not including the belfry storey, which is set
+back on the inner wall, it is divided into seven storeys all surrounded
+with an open gallery or arcade. (See ARCHITECTURE, Plate I. fig. 62.)
+Owing to the sinking of the piles on the south side, the inclination was
+already noticed when the tower was about 30 ft. high, and slight
+additions in the height of the masonry on that side were introduced to
+correct the level, but without result, so that the works were stopped
+for many years and taken up again in 1234 under the direction of William
+of Innsbruck; he also attempted to rectify the levels by increasing the
+height of the masonry on the south side. At a later period the belfry
+storey was added. The inclination now approaches 14 ft. out of the
+perpendicular. The outside is built entirely in white marble and is of
+admirable workmanship, but it is a question whether the equal
+subdivision of the several storeys is not rather monotonous. The
+campanili of the churches of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both
+in Pisa, are also inclined to a slight extent.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
+
+FIG. 4.--Campanile of the Palazzo del Signore, Verona.]
+
+The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches, but there
+are others belonging to civic buildings some of which are of great
+importance. The campanile of the town hall of Siena rises to an enormous
+height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft. wide; it is built in brick and
+crowned with a battlemented parapet carried on machicolation corbels,
+16 ft. high, all in stone, and a belfry storey above set back behind the
+face of the tower. The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is
+similarly crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced
+in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example is the
+fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4, the lower
+portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone and above entirely
+in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft., and pierced with putlog
+holes only. The belfry window on each face is divided into three lights
+with coupled shafts. An octagonal tower of two storeys rises above the
+corbelled eaves.
+
+In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general
+proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself
+easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were adhered
+to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei Greci. In that
+of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio returned to the simple
+brickwork of Verona, crowned with a belfry storey in stone, with angle
+pilasters and columns of the Corinthian order in antis, and central
+turret with spire above. In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins
+are either decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters,
+with or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a belfry
+storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of their greater
+projection present a fine effect.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPANULA (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants containing about
+230 species, found in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere,
+chiefly in the Mediterranean region. The name is taken from the
+bell-shaped flower. The plants are perennial, rarely annual or biennial,
+herbs with spikes or racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several
+are native in Britain; _Campanula rotundifolia_ is the harebell (q.v.)
+or Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,--the delicate
+slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers; _C.
+Rapunculus_, rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a panicle of
+broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and occurs on gravelly
+roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It is cultivated, but not
+extensively, for its fleshy roots, which are used, either boiled or raw,
+as salad. Many of the species are grown in gardens for their elegant
+flowers; the dwarf forms are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or
+fronts of borders. _C. Medium_, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple
+and white flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there
+are numerous varieties. _C. persicifolia_, a perennial with more open
+flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous forms,
+including white and blue-flowered and single and double. _C. glomerata_,
+which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on the stems and branches,
+found native in Britain in chalky and dry pastures, is known in numerous
+varieties as a border plant. _C. pyramidalis_, with numerous flowers
+forming a tall pyramidal inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are
+also a number of alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as _C.
+alpina, caucasica, caespitosa_ and others. The plants are easily
+cultivated. The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by
+young cuttings in spring, or by seeds.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788-1866), American religious leader, was born
+near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the 12th of September 1788, and
+was the son of Thomas Campbell (1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman
+of the Presbyterian "Seceders." Alexander in 1809, after a year at
+Glasgow University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania, where
+the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association of
+Washington, "for the sole purpose of promoting simple evangelical
+Christianity." With his father's desire for Church unity the son agreed.
+He began to preach in 1810, refusing any salary; in 1811 he settled in
+what is now Bethany, West Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run
+Church, as the Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging
+baptism by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his
+father's place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (q.v., popularly
+called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed momentarily to
+approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists, but by his statement,
+"I will be baptized only into the primitive Christian faith," by his
+iconoclastic preaching and his editorial conduct of _The Christian
+Baptist_ (1823-1830), and by the tone of his able debates with
+Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the disfavour of the Redstone
+Association of Baptist churches in western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his
+followers transferred their membership to the Mahoning Association of
+Baptist churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the
+Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to the
+Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery neighbours,
+now established _The Millennial Harbinger_ (1830-1865), in which, on
+Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation, but which he used principally
+to preach the imminent Second Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in
+which year he died, on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia,
+having been for twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He
+travelled, lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in
+England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian champions, with
+Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert Owen; and edited a revision
+of the New Testament.
+
+  See Thomas W. Grafton's _Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great
+  Reformation of the Nineteenth Century_ (St Louis, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865-   ), English
+actress, was born in London, her maiden name being Tanner, and in 1884
+married Captain Patrick Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the
+provincial stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre,
+London, in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero's
+_Second Mrs Tanqueray_ at the St James's, her remarkable impersonation
+at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For some
+years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London, playing
+notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson's _For the Crown_, and in
+_Macbeth_; and her _Magda_ (Royalty, 1900) could hold its own with
+either Bernhardt or Duse. In later years she paid successful visits to
+America, but in England played chiefly on provincial tours.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was born at Aberdeen
+on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, one
+of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of George Campbell of Westhall,
+who claimed to belong to the Argyll branch of the family, died in 1728,
+leaving a widow and six children in somewhat straitened circumstances.
+George, the youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and
+after attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes at
+Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an apprentice to
+a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he attended the theological
+lectures, and when the term of his apprenticeship expired, he was
+enrolled as a regular student in the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a
+distinguished career he was, in 1746, licensed to preach by the
+presbytery of Aberdeen. From 1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory
+Ternan, a parish on the Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then
+transferred to Aberdeen, which was at the time a centre of considerable
+intellectual activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King's
+College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid's predecessor, held the chair of
+medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor of divinity at
+Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie (1735-1803) became
+professor of moral philosophy in the same college. These men, with
+others of less note, formed themselves in 1758 into a society for the
+discussions of questions in philosophy. Reid was its first secretary,
+and Campbell one of its founders. It lasted till about 1773, and during
+this period numerous papers were read, particularly those by Reid and
+Campbell, which were afterwards expanded and published.
+
+In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In 1763 he
+published his celebrated _Dissertation on Miracles_, in which he seeks
+to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are capable of proof by
+testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity are sufficiently
+attested. There is no contradiction, he argues, as Hume said there was,
+between what we know by testimony and the evidence upon which a law of
+nature is based; they are of a different description indeed, but we can
+without inconsistency believe that both are true. The _Dissertation_ is
+not a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was
+and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In 1771
+Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal College, and
+resigned his city charge, although he still preached as minister of
+Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His _Philosophy of
+Rhetoric_, planned at Banchory Ternan years before, appeared in 1776,
+and at once took a high place among books on the subject. In 1778 his
+last and in some respects his greatest work appeared, _A New Translation
+of the Gospels_. The critical and explanatory notes which accompanied it
+gave the book a high value.
+
+In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the offices he
+held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he received a pension
+of L300 from the king. He died on the 31st of March 1796.
+
+  His _Lectures on Ecclesiastical History_ were published after his
+  death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform
+  edition of his works in 6 vols.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at Edinburgh on
+the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the legal profession, he was
+sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an attorney; but his tastes soon led
+him to abandon the study of law and to devote himself entirely to
+literature. In 1736 he published the _Military History of Prince Eugene
+and the Duke of Marlborough_, and soon after contributed several
+important articles to the _Ancient Universal History_. In 1742 and 1744
+appeared the _Lives of the British Admirals_, in 4 vols., a popular work
+which has been continued by other authors. Besides contributing to the
+_Biographia Britannica_ and Dodsley's _Preceptor_, he published a work
+on _The Present State of Europe_, onsisting of a series of papers which
+had appeared in the _Museum_. He also wrote the histories of the
+Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend
+settlements in the East Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal,
+Algarve, Navarre and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the
+_Modern Universal History_. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a
+vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying in it a
+descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar Islands in the West
+Indies. By the king he was appointed agent for the provinces of Georgia
+in 1755. His last and most elaborate work, _Political Survey of
+Britain_, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1744, and greatly increased the
+author's reputation. Campbell died on the 28th of December 1775. He
+received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in
+1745.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861), lord chancellor of England,
+the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, D.D., was born on the 17th
+of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife, where his father was for fifty years
+parish minister. For a few years Campbell studied at the United College,
+St Andrews. In 1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and,
+after a short connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, was called to the
+bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at _nisi prius_
+(i.e. on jury trial). Of these _Reports_ he published altogether four
+volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas 1807 to Hilary
+1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal to criminal business,
+but in spite of his unceasing industry he failed to attract much
+attention behind the bar; he had changed his circuit from the home to
+the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly, and it was not till 1827 that he
+obtained a silk gown and found himself in that "front rank" who are
+permitted to have political aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the
+borough of Stafford in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in
+1831. In the House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive
+zeal for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense,
+but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however, like
+that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by the abolition
+of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of new and striking
+principles.
+
+Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries Abolition Act
+1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act 1833; the Real Property
+Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act 1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts
+1841; and the Judgments Act 1838. All these measures were important and
+were carefully drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a
+biographical notice. The second was called for by the preference which
+the common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the
+half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an indefeasible
+title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term shortened by Lord
+Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth reduced the number of
+witnesses required by law to attest wills, and removed the vexatious
+distinction which existed in this respect between freeholds and
+copyholds; the last freed an innocent debtor from imprisonment only
+before final judgment (or on what was termed _mesne_ process), but the
+principle stated by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be
+imprisoned was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in
+1869.[1] In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land
+Registration (q.v.), which formed the theme of his maiden speech in
+parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His most important
+appearance as member for Stafford was in defence of Lord John Russell's
+first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate and learned speech, based on
+Fox's declaration against constitution-mongering, he supported both the
+enfranchising and the disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the
+cries of "corporation robbery," "nabob representation," "opening for
+young men of talent," &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell
+solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he represented
+till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general and was returned by
+Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.[2]
+
+His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that of a
+moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church and state, and
+opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot. In parliament he continued
+to lend the most effective help to the Liberal party. His speech in 1835
+in support of the motion for inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities
+with a view to their partial appropriation for national purposes (for
+disestablishment was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much
+terse argument, and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the
+formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell had a fierce
+encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which followed the motion of
+T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) on the repair and maintenance
+of parochial churches and chapels. The legal point in the dispute (which
+Campbell afterwards made the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether
+the church-wardens of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any
+means of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or
+ecclesiastical censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but
+on the broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported
+the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh
+annuity-tax.
+
+In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action (thought by
+some to be a political conspiracy[3]) which the Hon. G.C. Norton brought
+against the Whig premier for criminal conversation with his wife. At
+this time also he exerted himself for the reform of justice in the
+ecclesiastical courts, for the uniformity of the law of marriage (which
+he held should be a purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners
+charged with felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of _The Times_
+newspaper, which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the duchess of
+Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly remarkable for the
+Confession--"I despair of any definition of libel which shall exclude no
+publications which ought to be suppressed, and include none which ought
+to be permitted." His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced
+in the prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the
+bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular
+ground that "the vast bulk of the population believe that morality
+depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be raised among
+them that the ten commandments were given by God from Mount Sinai, men
+would think they were at liberty to steal, and women would consider
+themselves absolved from the restraints of chastity." But his most
+distinguished effort at the bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House
+of Commons in the famous case of _Stockdale v. Hansard_, 1837, 7 C. and
+P. 731. The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers, a
+report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated that an
+obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the prisoners to
+read. Stockdale sued the Commons' publisher, and was met by the plea of
+parliamentary privilege, to which, however, the judges did not give
+effect, on the ground that they were entitled to define the privileges
+of the Commons, and that publication of papers was not essential to the
+functions of parliament. The matter was settled by an act of 1840.
+
+In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John Frost, one of
+the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town of Newport, all of whom
+were found guilty of high treason. We may also mention, as matter of
+historical interest, the case before the high steward and the House of
+Lords which arose out of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the
+earl of Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was clear
+that the "punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call honour" was no
+excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment of everybody, Lord
+Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of felony because the full name
+of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett Phipps Tuckett) was not legally
+proved. It is difficult to suppose that such a blunder was not
+preconcerted. Campbell himself made the extraordinary declaration that
+to engage in a duel which could not be declined without infamy (i.e.
+social disgrace) was "an act free from moral turpitude," although the
+law properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne
+administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable chancellor of
+Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to resign, and the Whig
+attorney-general, who had never practised in equity, became chancellor
+of Ireland, and was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
+Campbell of St Andrews, in the county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth
+Campbell, the eldest daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the
+Campbells of Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in
+1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the withdrawal
+of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post of chancellor
+Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then resigned it to his
+successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards). The circumstances of his
+appointment and the erroneous belief that he was receiving a pension of
+L4000 per annum for his few days' court work brought Campbell much
+unmerited obloquy.[4] It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no
+legal duty, except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish
+appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary fame
+troubled Lord Campbell's leisure.[5]
+
+Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her _Lives of the
+Queens of England_, and by Lord Brougham's _Lives of Eminent Statesmen_,
+he at last produced, in 1849, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and
+Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the earliest times till the
+reign of King George IV._, 7 vols. 8vo. The conception of this work is
+magnificent; its execution wretched. Intended to evolve a history of
+jurisprudence from the truthful portraits of England's greatest lawyers,
+it merely exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning,
+without a trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a
+spark of that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and
+spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present
+becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A charming
+style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be expected from
+a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly be held responsible for
+the frequent plagiarisms, the still more frequent inaccuracies of
+detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes on almost every page, the
+hasty insinuations against the memory of the great departed who were to
+him as giants, and the petty sneers which he condescends to print
+against his own contemporaries, with whom he was living from day to day
+on terms of apparently sincere friendship.
+
+These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke, Eldon,
+Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed out by the
+biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.[6] And yet the book is an
+invaluable repertory of facts, and must endure until it is superseded by
+something better. It was followed by the _Lives of the Chief Justices of
+England, from the Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield_,
+8vo, 2 vols., a book of similar construction but inferior merit.
+
+It must not be supposed that during this period the literary lawyer was
+silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently. The 3rd volume of the
+_Protests of the Lords_, edited by Thorold Rogers (1875), contains no
+less than ten protests by Campbell, entered in the years 1842-1845. He
+protests against Peel's Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen
+Act 1843, as conferring undue power on church courts; against the
+perpetuation of diocesan courts for probate and administration; against
+Lord Stanley's absurd bill providing compensation for the destruction of
+fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and against the Parliamentary
+Proceedings Bill, which proposed that all bills, except money bills,
+having reached a certain stage or having passed one House, should be
+continued to next session. The last he opposed because the proper remedy
+lay in resolutions and orders of the House. He protests in favour of
+Lord Monteagle's motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn
+duties; of Lord Normanby's motion on the queen's speech in 1843, for
+inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military
+occupation); of Lord Radnor's bill to define the constitutional powers
+of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened Mazzini's letters.
+In 1844 he records a solitary protest against the judgment of the House
+of Lords in _R._ v. _Millis_, 1844, 10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed
+that a man regularly married according to the rites of the Irish
+Presbyterian Church, and afterwards regularly married to another woman
+by an episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of bigamy,
+because the English law required for the validity of a marriage that it
+should be performed by an ordained priest.
+
+On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was appointed chief
+justice of the queen's bench. For this post he was well fitted by his
+knowledge of common law, his habitual attention to the pleadings in
+court and his power of clear statement. On the other hand, at _nisi
+prius_ and on the criminal circuit, he was accused of frequently
+attempting unduly to influence juries in their estimate of the
+credibility of evidence. It is also certain that he liked to excite
+applause in the galleries by some platitude about the "glorious
+Revolution" or the "Protestant succession." He assisted in the reforms
+of special pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with
+Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of Lords. But
+he had neither the generous temperament nor the breadth of view which is
+required in the composition of even a mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was
+made lord chancellor of Great Britain, probably on the understanding
+that Bethell should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House
+of Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In the
+same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier an
+amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare's legal
+acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural Drocess which runs
+through the book: "If Shakespeare was really articled to a Stratford
+attorney, in all probability, during the five years of his clerkship, he
+visited London several times on his master's business, and he may then
+have been introduced to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his
+countrymen connected with that theatre." The only positive piece of
+evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash's "Epistle to the
+Gentlemen of the Two Universities," prefixed to Greene's _Arcadia_,
+1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to be Shakespeare) with
+having left the "trade of Noverint" and busied himself with "whole
+Hamlets" and "handfuls of tragical speeches." The knowledge of law shown
+in the plays is very much what a universal observer must have picked up.
+Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent
+layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has been well said of
+him in explanation of his success, that he lived eighty years and
+preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had a hard head, a splendid
+constitution, tireless industry, a generally judicious temper. He was a
+learned, though not a scientific lawyer, a faithful political adherent,
+thoroughly honest as a judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there
+was nothing admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did
+his principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the
+magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults of others.
+His life was the triumph of steady determination unaided by a single
+brilliant or attractive quality.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his
+  Autobiography, Diary and Letters_, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881);
+  E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, _Select
+  Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter_ (1867); E.
+  Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian
+  Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for
+    libel to prove _veritas_, and giving a right of action to the
+    representatives of persons killed through negligence, also deserve
+    mention.
+
+  [2] Greville in his _Memoirs_ says that Campbell got this post on
+    condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the
+    bench; a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by
+    claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach.
+    Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both
+    promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell.
+
+  [3] "There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of it
+    all, and persuaded Lord Grantley to urge it on for mere political
+    purposes."--Greville, iii. 351.
+
+  [4] See thereon J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1908), vol.
+    ii. p. 174.
+
+  [5] In 1842 he published the _Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar
+    and in the Home of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as Lord
+    Chancellor of Ireland_ (Edin., Black).
+
+  [6] It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to
+    its author, "and then there is my noble and biographical friend who
+    has added a new terror to death." See _Misrepresentations in
+    Campbell's "Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham" corrected by St
+    Leonards_ (London, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic scholar, was born
+on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the beautiful Isle of Islay, on
+the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this inheritance he never became
+possessed, as the estate had to be sold by his father, and he began life
+under greatly changed conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh
+University, he occupied at various times several minor government posts.
+His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and editing
+the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from the lips of the
+natives. The results of his investigations were published in four
+volumes under the title _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_
+(1860-1862), and form a most important contribution to the subject, the
+necessary precursor to the subsequent Gaelic revival in Great Britain.
+Campbell was also devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and
+he invented the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British
+meteorological stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February
+1885.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD (1800-1872), Scottish divine, son of the Rev.
+Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyllshire, in 1800. Thanks to
+his father he was already a good Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow
+University in 1811. Finishing his course in 1817, he became a student at
+the Divinity Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After
+further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the
+presbytery of Lorne in 1821. In 1825 he was appointed to the parish of
+Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine of Assurance of Faith
+powerfully influenced him. He began to give so much prominence to the
+universality of the Atonement that his parishioners went so far as to
+petition the presbytery in 1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a
+subsequent appeal in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation
+followed by an accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the
+charge was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching
+heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an
+invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic Church, he
+worked for two years as an evangelist in the Highlands. Returning to
+Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for sixteen years in a large chapel
+erected for him, but he never attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he
+published his famous book on _The Nature of the Atonement_, which has
+profoundly influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim
+is to view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine
+mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God and perfect
+brotherhood towards men. By the light of this divine fact the
+Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally and necessarily as an
+atonement; the penal element in the sufferings of Christ is minimized.
+Subsequent critics have pointed out that Campbell's position was not
+self-consistent in the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element
+in the sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the
+principle that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all
+righteousness and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health
+gave way, and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church,
+where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published _Thoughts on
+Revelation_. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D. from Glasgow
+University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and there began his
+_Reminiscences and Reflections_, an unfinished work published after his
+death by his son. Campbell was greatly loved and esteemed by a circle of
+friends, which included Thomas Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander
+Ewing, F.D. Maurice, D.J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and
+honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried great
+weight. In 1871 a testimonial and address were presented to him by
+representatives of most of the religious bodies in Scotland. He died on
+the 27th of February 1872, and was buried in Roseneath churchyard.
+     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908), British classical scholar, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His father, Robert Campbell,
+R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. He was educated
+at Edinburgh Academy, and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow
+and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford,
+Hants (1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the
+university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected an honorary
+fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by his work on
+Sophocles and Plato. His published works include: Sophocles (2nd ed.,
+1879); Plato, _Sophistes_ and _Politicus_ (1867), _Theaetetus_ (2nd ed.,
+1883), _Republic_ (with Jowett, 1894); _Life and Letters of Benjamin
+Jowett_ (with E. Abbott, 1897), _Letters of B. Jowett_ (1899); _Life of
+James Clerk Maxwell_ (with W. Garnett, new ed., 1884); _A Guide to Greek
+Tragedy for English Readers_ (1891); _Religion in Greek Literature_
+(1898); _On the Nationalisation of the Old English Universities_ (1901);
+Verse translations of the plays of Aeschylus (1890); Sophocles (1896);
+_Tragic Drama in Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (1904);
+_Paralipomena Sophoclea_ (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867-   ), British Congregationalist divine,
+son of a United Free Methodist minister of Scottish descent, was born in
+London, and educated at schools in Bolton and Nottingham, where his
+father successively removed, and in Belfast, the home of his
+grandfather. At an early age he taught in the high school at Ashton,
+Cheshire, and was already married when in 1891 he went to Christchurch,
+Oxford, where he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern
+history. He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a
+clergyman in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of
+Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget (afterwards
+bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Nonconformist blood was too
+strong, and he abandoned the idea in order to take up work in the
+Congregational ministry. He accepted a call, on leaving Oxford, to the
+small Congregational church in Union Street, Brighton, and quickly
+became famous there as a preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker's
+death he was chosen as his successor (1903) at the City Temple, London.
+Here he notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one of
+the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end of 1906 he
+attracted widespread attention by his vigorous propagation of what was
+called the "New Theology," a restatement of Christian beliefs to
+harmonize with modern critical views and beliefs, and published a book
+with this title which gave rise to considerable discussion.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son of Alexander
+Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of July 1777. His father, who
+was a cadet of the family of Campbell of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged
+to a Glasgow firm trading in Virginia, and lost his money in consequence
+of the American war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and
+university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for
+verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the western
+Highlands. His poem "Glenara" and the ballad of "Lord Ullin's Daughter"
+owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In May 1797 he went to Edinburgh to
+attend lectures on law. He supported himself by private teaching and by
+writing, towards which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor
+of the _British Poets_. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were Sir
+Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas Brown, John
+Leyden and James Grahame. To these early days in Edinburgh may be
+referred "The Wounded Hussar," "The Dirge of Wallace" and the "Epistle
+to Three Ladies." In 1799, six months after the publication of the
+_Lyrical Ballads_ of Wordsworth and Coleridge, _The Pleasures of Hope_
+was published. It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his
+time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to men's
+hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland and with
+negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but Campbell was deficient
+in energy and perseverance and did not follow it up. He went abroad in
+June 1800 without any very definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg,
+and made his way to Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days
+after his arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his
+best lyrics, "Hohenlinden," "Ye Mariners of England" and "The Soldier's
+Dream," belong to his German tour. He spent the winter in Altona, where
+he met an Irish exile, Anthony McCann, whose history suggested "The
+Exile of Erin."[1] He had at that time the intention of writing an epic
+on Edinburgh to be entitled "The Queen of the North." On the outbreak of
+war between Denmark and England he hurried home, the "Battle of the
+Baltic" being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was introduced to the
+first Lord Minto, who took him in the next year to London as occasional
+secretary. In June 1803 appeared a new edition of the _Pleasures of
+Hope_, which some lyrics were added.
+
+In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair, and
+settled in London. He was well received in Whig society, especially at
+Holland House. His prospects, however, were slight when in 1805 he
+received a government pension of L200. In that year the Campbells
+removed to Sydenham. Campbell was at this time regularly employed on the
+_Star_ newspaper, for which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he
+published a narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, "Gertrude of
+Wyoming," with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow
+and fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from
+over-elaboration. Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: "Your timidity or
+fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will not let you give
+your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful, as they present
+themselves; but you must chasten, and refine, and soften them, forsooth,
+till half their nature and grandeur is chiselled away from them. Believe
+me, the world will never know how truly you are a great and original
+poet till you venture to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your
+fancy." In 1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at
+the Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to become a
+candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh University. In 1814
+he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance of the elder Schlegel,
+of Baron Cuvier and others. His pecuniary anxieties were relieved in
+1815 by a legacy of L4000. He continued to occupy himself with his
+_Specimens of the British Poets_, the design of which had been projected
+years before. The work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole
+an admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed to it
+an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In 1820 he
+accepted the editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_, and in the same
+year made another tour in Germany. Four years later appeared his
+"Theodric", a not very successful poem of domestic life. He took an
+active share in the foundation of the university of London, visiting
+Berlin to inquire into the German system of education, and making
+recommendations which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord
+rector of Glasgow University three times (1826-1829). In the last
+election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell retired from the
+editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_ in 1830, and a year later made
+an unsuccessful venture with the _Metropolitan Magazine_. He had
+championed the cause of the Poles in _The Pleasures of Hope_, and the
+news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if
+it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my
+heart night and day," he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy
+found a practical expression in the foundation in London of the
+Association of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and
+Algiers, where he wrote his _Letters from the South_ (printed 1837).
+
+The small production of Campbell may be partly explained by his domestic
+calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two sons, one died in infancy
+and the other became insane. His own health suffered, and he gradually
+withdrew from public life. He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844,
+and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+  Campbell's other works include a _Life of Mrs Siddons_ (1842), and a
+  narrative poem, "The Pilgrim of Glencoe" (1842). See _The Life and
+  Letters of Thomas Campbell_ (3 vols., 1849), edited by William
+  Beattie, M.D.; _Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell_
+  (1860), by Cyrus Redding; _The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell_
+  (1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev.
+  W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet's life by William Allingham;
+  and the "Oxford Edition" of the _Complete Works of Thomas Campbell_
+  (1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also _Thomas Campbell_ in
+  the Famous Scots Series, by J.C. Hadden, and a selection by Lewis
+  Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned
+    to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell's claim is established in _Literary
+    Remains of the United, Irishmen_, by R.R. Madden (1887).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY (1836-1908), English prime minister, was
+born on the 7th of September 1836, being the second son of Sir James
+Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire, lord provost of Glasgow.
+His elder brother James, who just outlived him, was Conservative M.P.
+for Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father
+and his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an important
+drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable fortunes; and he
+assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in compliance with the provisions
+of the will of his maternal uncle, Henry Bannerman, from whom he
+inherited a large property in Kent. He was educated at Glasgow
+University and at Trinity College, Cambridge (senior optime, and
+classical honours); was returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal
+in 1868 (after an unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became
+financial secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary
+to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland
+(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause of Home Rule
+for Ireland, he "found salvation", to use his own phrase, and followed
+his leader. In Mr Gladstone's 1886 ministry he was secretary for war,
+and filled the same office in the Liberal ministry of 1892-1895. In the
+latter year he was knighted (G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister
+to obtain the duke of Cambridge's resignation of the office of
+commander-in-chief; but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff
+in substitution for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the
+ministry. It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and
+therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of
+small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June 1895 led to
+the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy, popular and possessed of
+a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T. Healy had said that he tried to
+govern Ireland with Scottish jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the
+general respect of all parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel
+retired, his claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but
+his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active politics and
+Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent member of the inner Liberal
+circle and a stanch party man, it was not supposed by the public at this
+time that any ambition for the highest place could be associated with
+Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman; but the divisions among the Liberals, and
+the rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made the
+political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he was
+apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined with his
+honourable record and experience to make him a safe man; and in December
+1898, on Sir W. Harcourt's formal resignation of the leadership of the
+Opposition, he was elected to fill the position in the House of Commons
+with the general assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary
+impotence, and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir Henry
+had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted his duty
+as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the Radical party together
+in the midst of its pronounced differences. In this he was successful,
+although the advent of the Boer War of 1899-1902 created new
+difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists. The leader of the Opposition
+from the first denounced the diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and
+Mr Chamberlain, and objected to all armed intervention or even
+preparation for hostilities. Sir Henry's own tendency to favour the
+anti-war section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and
+his allusion to "methods of barbarism" in connexion with the conduct of
+the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the crisis within the
+party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists, who looked to Lord Rosebery
+(q.v.) and Mr Asquith (q.v.) for their political inspiration, showed
+pronounced signs of restiveness. But a party meeting was called on the
+9th of July, and Sir Henry was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.
+
+The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency
+throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The political
+conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the first time
+since 1892. The blunders of the government were open to a united attack,
+and Mr Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement in 1903 provided a new
+rallying point in defence of the existing fiscal system. In the Liberal
+campaign on behalf of free trade the real leader, however, was Mr
+Asquith. Sir Henry's own principal contribution to the discussion was
+rather unfortunate, for while insisting on the blessings derived by
+England from its free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical
+admission (at Bolton in 1903) that "12,000,000 British citizens were
+underfed and on the verge of hunger." But Lord Salisbury's retirement,
+Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the accumulating
+opposition in the country to the Education Act of 1902 and to the
+continued weight of taxation, together with the growth of the Labour
+movement, and the antagonism to the introduction of Chinese coolies
+(1904) into South Africa under conditions represented by Radical
+spokesmen as those of "slavery," made the political pendulum swing back.
+A Liberal majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at
+by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only a question
+of time (see the articles on BALFOUR, A.J., and CHAMBERLAIN, J.). On the
+4th of December 1905 the Unionist government resigned, and the king sent
+for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who in a few days formed his cabinet.
+Lord Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to
+co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd of
+November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately flouted his
+well-known susceptibilities by once more writing Home Rule in large
+letters on the party programme, and he declared at Bodmin that he would
+"never serve under that banner." Sir Henry's actual words, which
+undoubtedly influenced the Irish vote, were that he "desired to see the
+effective management of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative
+Irish assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered
+to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise the
+Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led up to
+their larger policy." But if Lord Rosebery once more separated himself
+from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen in the Liberal League
+were included in the cabinet, Mr Asquith becoming chancellor of the
+exchequer, Sir Edward Grey foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war
+minister. Other sections of the party were strongly represented by Mr
+John Morley as secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at
+Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord
+Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education minister
+(afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as president of the Board
+of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home secretary, and Mr John Burns--a
+notable rise for a Labour leader--as president of the Local Government
+Board. Lord Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin
+(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen (lord
+lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L.V. Harcourt
+(first commissioner of works), and Captain John Sinclair (secretary for
+Scotland) completed the ministry, a place of prominence outside the
+cabinet being found for Mr Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the
+colonies. In 1907 Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as
+education minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there was a
+decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to keep his seat
+in the Commons.
+
+At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming Liberal majority
+was returned, irrespective of the Labour and Nationalist vote, and Sir
+Henry himself was again elected for Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379,
+the Labour members 51, the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157.
+His premiership was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his
+party; it may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime
+ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather than
+that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or his commanding
+personality, nor any positive programme, that brought the Liberals back
+to power, but the country's weariness of their predecessors and the
+successful employment at the elections of a number of miscellaneous
+issues. But as the man who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the
+gap in the days of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously
+criticized by the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly
+marked out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance;
+and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the
+demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all sections.
+Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved to be a powerful
+unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous party; and though the
+illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his wife (daughter of General Sir
+Charles Bruce), whom he had married in 1860, made his constant
+attendance in the House of Commons impossible, his domestic sorrow
+excited widespread sympathy and appealed afresh to the affection of his
+political followers. This became all the more apparent as his own health
+failed during 1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the
+leadership in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the
+premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November, when it
+became clear that his health was not equal to active work, four or five
+months elapsed before the necessary change became a _fait accompli_.
+Personal affection and political devotion had in these two years made
+him appear indispensable to the party, although nobody ever regarded him
+as in the front line of English statesmen so far as originality of ideas
+or brilliance of debating power were concerned. It is not the fortune of
+many more brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character.
+From the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that
+Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would before long
+succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of April Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman's resignation was formally announced. He died on the
+22nd of the same month. He had spoken in the House of Commons on the
+13th of February, but since then had been prostrated and unable to
+transact business, his illness dating really from a serious heart attack
+in the night of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the
+Colston banquet.
+
+From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman's premiership was chiefly marked by the continued
+controversies remaining from the general election of 1906,--tariff
+reform and free trade, the South African question and the allied
+Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the administration of
+Ireland, and the amendment of the Education Act of 1902 so as to remove
+its supposed denominational character. In his speech at the Albert Hall
+on the 21st of December 1905 it was noticeable that, before the
+elections, the prime minister laid stress on only one subject which
+could be regarded as part of a constructive programme--the necessity of
+doing something for canals, which was soon shelved to a royal
+commission. But in spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill
+(1907), the struggles over education (Mr Birrell's bill of 1906 being
+dropped on account of the Lords' amendments), the rejection by the peers
+of the Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due
+to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation Bill
+(1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be a period of
+bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming measures of some
+moment were carried. A new Small Holdings Act (1907) for England was
+passed; the Trades Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades
+unions from the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr
+Lloyd-George's Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906) were
+welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own policy; a
+long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the Deceased Wife's
+Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a public trustee, a court
+of criminal appeal, a system of probation for juvenile offenders, and a
+census of production, were passed in 1907. Meanwhile, though the
+Colonial Conference (re-named Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a
+wide difference of opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade
+government and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the
+ministry took a decided step--in the establishment of a self-governing
+constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies--which, for
+good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane's new army
+scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain. In foreign affairs,
+the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for delimiting the British and
+Russian spheres of influence in the Middle East laid the foundations of
+entirely new relations between the British and Russian governments. On
+the other hand, so far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal
+party, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership can only be regarded
+as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a conciliator
+of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator, ready to
+sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his following, that
+he kept the party together, while his colleagues went their own ways in
+their own departments. His own special "leads" were few, owing to the
+personal reasons given above; his declaration at the Queen's Hall,
+London, early in 1907, in favour of drastic land reform, served only to
+encourage a number of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the
+House of Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education
+Bill and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when his
+method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons was disclosed
+in 1907. The House passed by an enormous majority a resolution
+(introduced on June 25) "that in order to give effect to the will of the
+people, as expressed by their representatives, it is necessary that the
+power of the other House to alter or reject bills passed by this House
+should be so restricted by law as to secure that within the limits of a
+single parliament the final decision of the Commons shall prevail"; but
+the prime minister's explanation that statutory provision should be made
+for two or three successive private conferences between the two Houses
+as to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that,
+only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by the
+Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form it would
+become law over their heads, was obviously not what was wanted by
+enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The problem still
+remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a "law" to restrict
+their own powers. After the passing of this resolution the cry against
+the House of Lords rapidly weakened, since it became clear at the
+by-elections (culminating at Peckham in March 1908) that the "will of
+the people" was by no means unanimously on the side of the bills which
+had failed to pass.
+
+The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the confidence of
+the Opposition, who found that they had outlived the criticisms of the
+general election, and both on the question of tariff reform and on
+matters of general politics were again holding their own. The failure of
+the government in Ireland (where the only success was Mr Birrell's
+introduction of the Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal
+divisions as regards socialistic legislation, their variance from the
+views of the self-governing colonies on Imperial administration, the
+admission after the general election that the alleged "slavery" of the
+Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill's phrase, a
+"terminological inexactitude," and the introduction of extreme measures
+such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent opportunities of
+electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal promises of economy had
+been largely falsified, the reductions in the navy estimates being
+dangerous in themselves, while the income tax still remained at
+practically the war level. For much of all this the prime minister's
+colleagues were primarily responsible; but he himself had given a lead
+to the anti-militarist section by prominently advocating international
+disarmament, and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague
+conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical ideal and
+the general inadequacy of the prime minister's policy of pacificism. Sir
+Henry's rather petulant intolerance of Unionist opposition, shown at the
+opening of the 1906 session in his dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour
+with the words "Enough of this foolery!" gradually gave way before the
+signs of Unionist reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment
+when the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive under
+their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration
+against an Opposition no longer divided and making marked headway in the
+country, and the ministry had to be reconstituted under a successor, Mr
+Asquith, towards whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal
+devotion as had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
+leadership.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPBELTOWN, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
+Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is situated on a fine bay,
+towards the S.E. extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of
+the Mull and 83 m. S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad
+monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined when the
+capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial of its antiquity has
+survived, but the finely sculptured granite cross standing on a pedestal
+in the market-place belongs to the 12th century, and there are ruins of
+some venerable chapels and churches. Through the interest of the
+Campbells, who are still the overlords and from whom it takes its name,
+it became a royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr
+Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the churches (one
+of which occupies the site of a castle of the Macdonalds), the town
+house, the Academy and the Athenaeum. The staple industry is whisky
+distilling, of which the annual output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than
+half for export. The port is the head of a fishery district and does a
+thriving trade. Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen
+manufacturing are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity.
+There are three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called
+Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth. At its
+entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar. On the Atlantic
+shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish, 5 m. distant.
+Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown by a light railway. Near the
+village of Southend is Machrireoch, the duke of Argyll's shooting-lodge,
+an old structure modernized, commanding superb views of the Firth of
+Clyde and its islands, and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood
+the castle of Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the
+Campbells in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647
+General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the Macdonalds to be
+slain after their surrender. Of the ancient church founded here by
+Columba, only the walls remain. Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray,
+Irvine and Oban in sending one member (for the "Ayr Burghs") to
+parliament.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH (1746-1818), German educationist, was born at
+Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied theology at the university of
+Halle, and after acting for some time as chaplain at Potsdam, he
+accepted a post as director of studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau
+(see BASEDOW). He soon after set up an educational establishment of his
+own at Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one of
+his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble health. In
+1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of education, and purchased
+the _Schulbuchhandlung_, which under his direction became a most
+prosperous business. He died in 1818. His numerous educational works
+were widely used throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the
+_Kleine Kinderbibliothek_ (11th ed., 1815); _Robinson der Jungere_ (59th
+ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every European
+language; and _Sammtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften_, 37 vols.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPECHE (CAMPEACHY), a southern state of Mexico, comprising the western
+part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by
+Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico
+designated on English maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264;
+(1900) 86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m. The name
+of the state is derived from its principal forest product, _palo de
+campeche_ (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan, consists of a
+vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations in the north,
+heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts in the north adapted
+to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently watered, the rains
+filtering quickly through the soil. In the south, however, there are
+some large rivers, and the forest region is very humid. The climate is
+hot and unhealthy. In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de
+Terminos, a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the
+southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood, fustic,
+lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell and _chicle_, the
+last extracted from the _zapote chico_ trees (_Achras sapota_, L.).
+Stock-raising engages some attention. One railway crosses the state from
+the capital, Campeche, to Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means
+of transportation except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen
+(pop. in 1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Terminos
+and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest products,
+and owing to its inland water communications with the forest areas of
+the interior is the principal port of the state and of Tabasco.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPECHE, or CAMPECHE DE BARANDA, a fortified city and port of Mexico,
+and capital of a state of the same name, situated on the Bay of
+Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and 90 m. S.W. of Merida, in
+lat. 20 deg. 5' N., long. 90 deg. 16' W. Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche
+was one of the three open ports of this coast under the Spanish regime,
+and its walls, general plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and
+comfortable stone residences are evidence of the wealth it once
+possessed. It is still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf
+coast of Mexico. It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed
+large profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely
+lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a part of
+Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to Laguna de Terminos is
+now the chief shipping port for logwood and other forest products, and a
+considerable part of the trade of Campeche has been transferred to
+Progreso, the port of Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow
+roadstead defended by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf
+160 ft. long, but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie
+outside and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood,
+cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture. The
+principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old churches, the
+town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and market. The streets are
+traversed by tramways, and a railway runs north-eastward to Merida.
+Campeche stands on the site of an old native town, of which there are
+interesting remains in the vicinity, and which was first visited by
+Hernandez de Cordoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and
+was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678 and 1685.
+During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the scene of many engagements
+between the Mexicans and people of Yucatan.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was born at Milan of a
+noble Bolognese family. At first he followed a legal career at Pavia and
+Bologna, and when in 1499 he took his doctorate he was esteemed the most
+learned canonist in Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de'
+Gualtavillani, by whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro,
+born in 1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista, became
+bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went into the church; on
+account of his services during the rebellion of Bologna, he was made by
+Julius II. auditor of the Rota in 1511, and sent to Maximilian and to
+Vienna as nuncio. Raised to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on
+another embassy to Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest
+of San Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a subsidy
+from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England on the ostensible
+business of arranging a crusade against the Turks. Wolsey, then engaged
+in beginning his reform of the English church, procured that he himself
+should be joined to the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who
+arrived in England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position
+and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio's mission
+failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome, where he was
+received in Consistory on the 28th of November 1519, with the gift from
+the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano Castellesi (q.v.), who had
+been deposed, and large gifts of money and furniture. He was made
+protector of England in the Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave
+him the rich see of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of
+Bologna. After attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity
+of Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to restore
+peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England as co-legate
+with Wolsey in the matter of Henry's divorce. He brought with him a
+secret document, the Decretal, which defined the law and left the
+legates to decide the question of fact; but this important letter was to
+be shown only to Henry and Wolsey. "Owing to recent events," that is,
+the loss of the temporal power, Clement was in no way inclined to offend
+the victorious Charles V., Catherine's nephew, and Campeggio had already
+received (16th of September 1528) distinct instructions "not to proceed
+to sentence under any pretext without express commission, but protract
+the matter as long as possible." After using all means of persuasion to
+restore peace between the king and queen, Campeggio had to resist the
+pressure brought upon him to give sentence. The legatine court opened at
+Blackfriars on the 18th of June 1529, but the final result was certain.
+Campeggio could not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his
+only escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea of
+the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he left England
+on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had been searched at
+Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had been burnt. Returning to
+Bologna, the cardinal assisted at the coronation of Charles V. on the
+24th of February 1530, and went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was
+deprived by Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was
+finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the see of
+Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament (11th of March
+1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish dominions made ample
+amends. In 1537 he became cardinal bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on
+the 25th of July 1539. His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in
+Trastevere.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist, was born at
+Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was educated at the university there,
+and in 1746 graduated in philosophy and medicine. After the death of his
+father in 1748 he spent more than a year in England, and then visited
+Paris, Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he had
+been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine and
+surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in 1755 he was
+called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the Athenaeum in
+Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six years, and retired to his
+country house near Franeker, in order uninterruptedly to carry on his
+studies. In 1763, however, he accepted the professorship of medicine,
+surgery and anatomy at Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten
+years. He then returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in
+1776 spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned as one
+of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland, and the
+latter years of his life were much occupied with political affairs. In
+1787 he was nominated to a seat in the council of state, and took up his
+residence at the Hague, where he died on the 7th of April 1789.
+
+  Camper's works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very numerous;
+  the most important of those bearing on comparative anatomy were
+  published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title _Oeuvres de P.
+  Camper qui ont pour objet l'histoire naturelle, la physiologie, et
+  l'anatomie comparee_. His _Dissertation physique sur les differences
+  reelles que presentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de
+  differents pays et de differents ages; sur le beau qui caracterise les
+  statues antiques et les pieces gravees_, &c., which was published in
+  1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial
+  angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also ANATOMY.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON (1812-1896), Prussian statesman, was born at
+Hunshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of October 1812. Having
+studied jurisprudence and political economy at the universities of Bonn,
+Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne,
+and immediately devoted his attention to financial and commercial
+questions. Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this
+capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor in the
+ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of the second
+chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate Liberal party. In
+1869 he was appointed minister of finance. On taking office, he was
+confronted with a deficit in the revenue, which he successfully cleared
+off by effecting a conversion of a greater part of the state loans. The
+French war indemnity enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the
+state debt and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm
+adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either of the
+Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism to the tobacco
+monopoly and the general economic policy of the latter brought about his
+retirement. Camphausen's great services to Prussia were recognized by
+his sovereign in the bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a
+dignity carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the
+18th of May 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM (1818-1885), German painter, was born at Dusseldorf,
+and studied under A. Rethel and F.W. von Schadow. As an historical and
+battle painter he rapidly became popular, and in 1859 was made professor
+of painting at the Dusseldorf academy, together with other later
+distinctions. His "Flight of Tilly" (1841), "Prince Eugene at the Battle
+of Belgrade" (1843; in the Cologne museum), "Flight of Charles II. after
+the Battle of Worcester" (Berlin National Gallery), "Cromwell's Cavalry"
+(Munich Pinakothek), are his principal earlier pictures; and his
+"Frederick the Great at Potsdam," "Frederick II. and the Bayreuth
+Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg," and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein
+campaign and the war of 1866 (notably "Lines of Duppel after the
+Battle," at the Berlin National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as
+a representative of patriotic historical art. He also painted many
+portraits of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He
+died at Dusseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHORS, organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and ketones of the
+hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring associated with volatile oils
+in many plants. They are extracted together with volatile oils by
+distilling certain plants with steam, the volatile oils being
+subsequently separated by fractional distillation. The term "camphor" is
+generally applied to the solid products so obtained, and hence includes
+the "stearoptenes," or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are
+mostly white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they
+are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol and
+ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two main groups,
+according to the nature of the corresponding hydrocarbon or terpene. In
+this article only the camphors of commercial importance will be treated;
+details as to the chemical structure, syntheses and relations will be
+found in the article TERPENES.
+
+_Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor_, C10H19OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl
+hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs in the volatile oils of
+_Mentha piperita_ and _M. arvensis_ (var. _piperascens_ and _glabrata_),
+from which it is obtained by cooling and subsequently pressing the
+separated crystals; or by fractional distillation. It crystallizes in
+prisms, having the odour and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42 deg.
+and boils at 212 deg.. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily
+dissolves in alcohol and ether. It is optically active, being
+laevo-rotatory. Menthol is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in
+rheumatism, neuralgia, throat affections and toothache. It acts also as
+a local anaesthetic, vascular stimulant and disinfectant.
+
+_Thymol, thyme camphor_, C10H13OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl phenol, an
+oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan, _Carum ajowan_, garden
+thyme, _Thymus vulgaris_, wild thyme, _T. Serpyllum_ and horse mint,
+_Monarda punctata_. Thymol crystallizes in large colourless plates which
+melt at 44 deg. and boil at 230 deg.. It has the odour of thyme, is
+sparingly soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in
+alkaline solutions. In medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more
+active than phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol,
+which has been introduced in surgery under the names _aristol_ and
+_annidalin_, as a substitute for iodoform.
+
+_Borneol, Borneo camphor_ or camphol, also known as Malayan, Barus or
+Dryobalanops camphor, C10H17OH, occurs in fissures in the wood of
+_Dryobalanops aromatica_, a majestic tree flourishing in the East
+Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo and inactive
+modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic camphor. Borneol melts
+at 203 deg. and boils at 212 deg.. It is very similar to common or Japan
+camphor, but has a somewhat peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce
+common camphor to a mixture of d- and l-borneol.
+
+_Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor_, C10H16O, which constitutes
+the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product of the camphor
+laurel, _Cinnamonum camphora_, a tree flourishing in Japan, Formosa and
+central China. It also occurs in various volatile oils, e.g. lavender,
+rosemary, sage and spike. To extract the camphor, chips of the tree are
+steamed, and the mixed vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are
+conducted to a condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates
+out. This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total, which
+is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation and
+cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained is exported from
+Japan in two grades--Samuel A and Samuel B. It is purified by mixing
+with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings or quicklime and subliming,
+by steam distillation or by crystallization. Common camphor forms a
+translucent mass of hexagonal prisms, melting at 175 deg. and boiling at
+204 deg. It sublimes very readily. In alcoholic solution it is
+dextro-rotatory; the laevo form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil
+of _Matricaria parthenium_ and closely resembles the d form. Camphor
+is chiefly used in the celluloid industry. The so-called "artificial
+camphor" is pinene hydrochloride (see TERPENES).
+
+Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant, and, in
+some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite antiseptic.
+It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the relief of myalgia,
+sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform, thymol or carbolic
+acid, it is a valuable local application for neuralgia and for toothache
+due to dental caries. Taken internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a
+diaphoretic and a feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as
+various substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg). In
+large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration being
+followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions, coma and
+death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and in such conditions as
+diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is a popular remedy for "cold in
+the head," but it is not to be relied upon as a prophylactic against
+infection either by an ordinary cold or true influenza.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586-1627), Dutch painter, poet and
+theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. As he manifested great
+artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death
+of his parents, placed him under the painter Govaerts. But at that time
+there was intense interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the
+prevailing enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a
+private tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616). As,
+however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with fervour, he was
+deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). His chief solace was
+poetry; and he has left a translation of the Psalms, and a number of
+short pieces, remarkable for their freshness and depth of poetic
+feeling. He is also the author of several theological works of fair
+merit, among which is a _Compendium Doctrinae Sociniorum_; but his fame
+chiefly rests on his pictures, which, like his poems, are mostly small,
+but of great beauty; the colouring, though thin, is pure; the
+composition and pencilling are exquisite, and the perspective above
+criticism. The best of his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and
+his views of the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent
+at Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered to have
+been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; and his son
+Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul Potter, is similarly
+credited.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572), the founder of a school of Italian painters,
+was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, Galeazzo Campi
+(1475-1536), under whom he took his first lessons in art. He was then
+taught by Giulio Romano; and he made a special study of Titian,
+Correggio and Raphael. His works are remarkable for their correctness,
+vigour and loftiness of style. They are very numerous, and the church of
+St Margaret in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among
+the earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the
+latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as historian of
+Cremona.
+
+Giulio's pupil, BERNARDINO CAMPI (1522-1592), in some respects superior
+to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After an education under
+Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained such skill that when he
+added another to the eleven Caesars of Titian, it was impossible to say
+which was the master's and which the imitator's. He was also much
+influenced by Correggio and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the
+frescoes of the cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was of very obscure
+origin. From his own account of his youth, written to Antonio de Mier in
+1726, we only know that he was born in "a house equally poor and
+honest," that he studied Latin by his own wish, that he entered the
+service of Don Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Cordoba, who wished
+apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take
+orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then eighteen
+years of age. In 1715 he became "page" to D. Francisco de Ocio,
+superintendent general of customs, who doubtless employed him as a
+clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable notice of Patino, the head of
+the newly-organized navy, and was by him transferred to the naval
+department. Under the protection of Patino, who became prime minister in
+1726, Campillo was constantly employed on naval administrative work both
+at home and in America. It was Patino's policy to build up a navy
+quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much attention
+abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo proved an industrious and
+honest subordinate. Part of his experience was to be present at a
+shipwreck in Central America in which he was credited with showing
+spirit and practical ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he
+was denounced to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden
+books. The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the
+incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the Holy
+Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence in damping
+all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, when Spain was
+entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war with England, that
+Campillo was summoned by the king to take the place of prime minister.
+He had to find the means of carrying on a policy out of all proportion
+to the resources of Spain, with an empty treasury. His short tenure of
+power was chiefly notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the
+system of farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of
+contractors and financiers. Campillo's predecessors were constantly
+compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the demands
+of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A whole year's
+revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo persuaded the king to allow
+him to establish a system of direct collection, by which waste and
+pilfering would be avoided. Some progress was made towards putting the
+national finances on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent
+the king from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money
+needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of April
+1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a _New System of
+Government for America_ printed at Madrid 1789. He also left a MS.
+treatise with the curious title, _What is superfluous and is wanting in
+Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be, and not what it is._
+
+  See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, _Patino y Campillo_ (Madrid, 1882).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 65 m. by
+rail N.W. of the city of Sao Paulo and 114 m. from the port of Santos,
+with which it is connected by the Paulista & Sao Paulo railway. Pop.
+(1890) of the city and municipality, 33,921. Campinas is the commercial
+centre of one of the oldest coffee-producing districts of the state and
+the outlet for a rich and extensive agricultural region lying farther
+inland. The Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to
+Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west into
+new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple production, though
+Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced largely for local
+consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like depression of the great
+central plateau, and the drainage from the surrounding hillsides has
+produced a dangerously insanitary condition, from which one or two
+virulent fever epidemics have resulted.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and living in
+tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately developed in
+modern times, and a considerable literature has been devoted to it, to
+which the curious may be referred.
+
+  See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell's _Camping-out_ (1892) and _Voyages on
+  German Rivers_ (1890); G.R. Lowndes, _Gipsy Tents_ (1890).
+
+  For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp
+  Life_ (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the _Big Game Shooting_
+  volume of the "Badminton Library"; the articles on "Camping out" in
+  _The Encyclopaedia of Sport_; F.C. Selous, _A Hunter's Wanderings in
+  Africa_ (1881), and _Travel and Adventure in South Africa_ (1893);
+  A.W. Chanler, _Through Jungle and Desert_ (1896); A.B. Rathbone,
+  _Camping and Tramping in Malaya_ (1898).
+
+  For America, G.O. Shields, _Camping and Camp Outfits_ (1890); W.W.
+  Pascoe, _Canoe and Camp Cookery_ (1893); _Woodcraft_, by "Nessmuk"
+  (1895); W.S. Rainsford, _Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone_ (1896);
+  S.E. White, _The Forest_ (1903), and _The Mountains_ (1904);
+  _Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping_ (1904), published
+  by "The Appalachian Mountain Club," Boston. Valuable information will
+  be found in the sporting periodicals, and in the catalogues of
+  outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPION, EDMUND (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in London,
+received his early education at Christ's Hospital, and, as the best of
+the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make the complimentary
+speech when Queen Mary visited the city on the 3rd of August 1553. He
+went to Oxford and became fellow of St John's College in 1557, taking
+the oath of supremacy on the occasion of his degree in 1564, in which
+year he was orator in the schools. He had already shown his talents as a
+speaker at the funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas
+White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration
+fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen Elizabeth
+to the university, and won a regard, which the queen preserved until
+the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset him; but at the
+persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of Gloucester, although holding
+Catholic doctrines, he took deacon's orders in the English Church.
+Inwardly "he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind."
+Rumours of his opinions began to spread and, giving up the office of
+proctor, he left Oxford in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a
+proposed restoration of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry
+followed him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three
+months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying himself by
+writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed's
+_Chronicles_), a superficial work of no real value. At last he escaped
+to Douai, where he joined William Allen (q.v.) and was reconciled to the
+Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon, he went to Rome and became
+a Jesuit in 1573, spending some years at Brunn, Vienna and Prague. In
+1580 the Jesuit mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert
+Parsons (q.v.) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance
+Campion's fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in the
+characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London on the 24th
+of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His presence became known to
+the authorities and an indiscreet declaration, "Campion Brag," made the
+position more difficult. The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth
+he led a hunted life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in
+Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this
+time he was writing his _Decem Rationes_, a rhetorical display of
+reasons against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private
+press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the benches
+of St Mary's, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th of June 1581. The
+sensation was immense, and the pursuit became keener. On his way to
+Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th
+of July and the following day, yielding to the foolish importunity of
+some pious women. Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London,
+bearing on his hat a paper with the inscription, "Campion, the Seditious
+Jesuit." Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the presence of
+Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to be really queen of
+England, and on his replying straightly in the affirmative, she made him
+offers, not only of life but of wealth and dignities, on conditions
+which his conscience could not allow. He was kept a long time in prison,
+twice racked by order of the council, and every effort was made to shake
+his constancy. Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a
+forged confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four
+public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and although
+still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for preparation, he
+bore himself so easily and readily that he won the admiration of most of
+the audience. Racked again on the 31st of October, he was indicted at
+Westminster that he with others had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise
+a sedition in the realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November
+he was brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply to
+him said: "If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to be
+condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects as ever the
+queen had." He received the sentence of the traitor's death with the _Te
+Deum laudamus_, and, after spending his last days in pious exercises,
+was led with two companions to Tyburn (1st of December 1581) and
+suffered the barbarous penalty. Of all the Jesuit missionaries who
+suffered for their allegiance to the ancient religion, Campion stands
+the highest. His life and his aspirations were pure, his zeal true and
+his loyalty unquestionable. He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.
+
+  An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson's _Edmund
+  Campion_ (1867); and a complete list of his works in De Backer's
+  _Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus_.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620), English poet and musician, was born in
+London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened at St Andrew's,
+Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of the Middle Temple, who was by
+profession one of the cursitors of the chancery court, the clerks "of
+course," whose duties were to draft the various writs and legal
+instruments in correct form. His mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of
+Laurence Searle, one of the queen's serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of
+Campion's father in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died
+herself soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the
+orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his stepson
+by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to Peterhouse,
+Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied at Cambridge for four
+years, and left the university, it would appear, without a degree, but
+strongly imbued with those tastes for classical literature which
+exercised such powerful influence upon his subsequent work. In April
+1587 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, possibly with the intention of
+adopting a legal profession, but he had little sympathy with legal
+studies and does not appear to have been called to the bar. His
+subsequent movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have
+taken part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance
+of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears with the
+degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records does not
+permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The rest of his life was
+probably spent in London, where he practised as a physician until his
+death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving behind him, it would appear,
+neither wife nor issue. He was buried the same day at St
+Dunstan's-in-the-West, Fleet Street.
+
+The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being a group
+of five anonymous poems included in the _Songs of Divers Noblemen and
+Gentlemen_, appended to Newman's surreptitious edition of Sidney's
+_Astrophel and Stella_, which appeared in 1591. In 1595 appeared under
+his own name the _Poemata_, a collection of Latin panegyrics, elegies
+and epigrams, which evince much skill in handling, and won him
+considerable reputation. This was followed in 1601 by _A Booke of
+Ayres_, one of the song-books so fashionable in his day, the music of
+which was contributed in equal proportions by himself and Philip
+Rosseter, while the words were almost certainly all written by him. The
+following year he published his _Observations in the Art of English
+Poesie_, "against the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming," in
+favour of rhymeless verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry.
+Its appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of the
+crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped champions, but
+the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by Daniel, who in his
+_Defence of Ryme_, published the same year, finally demolished the
+movement.
+
+In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of the marriage
+of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of _Songs of Mourning_
+(set to music by Coperario or John Cooper) for the loss of Prince Henry,
+which was sincerely lamented by the whole English nation. The same year
+he wrote and arranged three masques, the _Lords' Masque_ for the
+marriage of Princess Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of
+Queen Anne at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl
+of Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex. If,
+moreover, as appears quite likely, his _Two Bookes of Ayres_ (both words
+and music written by himself) belongs also to this year, it was indeed
+his _annus mirabilis_.
+
+Some time in or after 1617 appeared his _Third and Fourth Booke of
+Ayres_; while to that year probably also belongs his _New Way of making
+Foure Parts in Counter-point_, a technical treatise which was for many
+years the standard text-book on the subject. It was included, with
+annotations by Christopher Sympson, in Playfair's _Brief Introduction to
+the Skill of Musick_, and two editions appear to have been bought up by
+1660. In 1618 appeared _The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham
+Castle_ on the occasion of the king's entertainment there, the music by
+Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost certainly by Campion; and
+in 1619 he published his _Epigrammatum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber
+unus_, a reprint of his 1595 collection with considerable omissions,
+additions (in the form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.
+
+While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in his own day, in
+the years that followed his death his works sank into complete oblivion.
+No doubt this was due to the nature of the media in which he mainly
+worked, the masque and the song-book. The masque was an amusement at
+any time too costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was
+practically extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more
+ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan ascendancy,
+with its distaste for all secular music, effectively put an end to the
+madrigal. Its loss involved that of many hundreds of dainty lyrics,
+including those of Campion, and it is due to the enthusiastic efforts of
+Mr A.H. Bullen, who first published a collection of the poet's works in
+1889, that his genius has been recognized and his place among the
+foremost rank of Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.
+
+Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to him "the
+superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies," but we may thank the fates
+that his precepts of rhymeless versification so little affected his
+practice. His rhymeless experiments are certainly better conceived than
+many others, but they lack the spontaneous grace and freshness of his
+other poetry, while the whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must
+have possessed a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is
+unmusical; moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave
+rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic
+features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they frequently
+shift from line to line. His range was very great both in feeling and
+expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate epithalamium or a
+simple country ditty, the result is always full of unstudied freshness
+and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred pieces he is particularly
+successful, combining real poetry with genuine religious fervour.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works_, &c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding _A New
+  Way_, &c.; _Songs and Masques_, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with an
+  introduction on Campion's music by Janet Dodge; _Poems_, &c. (in
+  English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); _Complete Works_, ed. P. Vivian
+  (Clarendon Press, 1908). The "Observations in the Art of English
+  Poesie" are also published in Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_
+  and Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. ii. (1903).
+       (P. Vn.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656-1723), French dramatist, was born at
+Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the age of seventeen he was wounded
+in a duel and sent to Paris. Here he became an ardent disciple of
+Racine. If he copied his master's methods of construction with some
+success, in the execution of his plans he never advanced beyond
+mediocrity, nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of
+_Athalie_ and _Phedre_. He secured the patronage of the influential
+duchesse de Bouillon by dedicating _Arminius_ to her, and in 1685 he
+scored his first success with _Andronic_, which disguised under other
+names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. The piece
+made a great sensation, but Campistron's treatment is weak, and he
+failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent in his subject.
+Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendome, to write the book of
+an opera to be performed at a fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He
+handed on the commission to Campistron, who produced _Acis et Galathee_
+for Lulli's music. Campistron had another success in _Tiridate_ (1691),
+in which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story of
+Amnon's passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other tragedies and
+two comedies, one of which, _Le Jaloux desabuse_, has been considered by
+some judges to be his best work. In 1686 he had been made intendant to
+the duc de Vendome and followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him
+on all his campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man
+under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. Many honours
+were conferred on him. The king of Spain bestowed on him the order of St
+James of the Sword; the duke of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in
+Montferrat; and in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty
+years of service with Vendome he retired to his native place, where he
+died on the 11th of May 1723.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE (1817-1901), Spanish poet, was born at
+Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of September 1817. Abandoning his first
+intention of entering the Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid,
+found an opening in politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and,
+after occupying several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellon
+de la Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies
+grew more pronounced with time, and his _Polemicas con la
+Democracia_ (1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of his
+political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from 1840, when
+he published his _Ternezas y flores_, a collection of idyllic verses,
+remarkable for their technical excellence. His _Ayes del Alma_ (1842) and
+his _Fabulas morales y politicas_ (1842) sustained his reputation, but
+showed no perceptible increase of power or skill. An epic poem in
+sixteen cantos, _Colon_ (1853), is no more successful than modern epics
+usually are. Campoamor's theatrical pieces, such as _El Palacio de la
+Verdad_ (1871), _Dies Irae_ (1873), _El Honor_ (1874) and _Glorias
+Humanas_ (1885), are interesting experiments; but they are totally
+lacking in dramatic spirit. He always showed a keen interest in
+metaphysical and philosophic questions, and defined his position in _La
+Filosofia de las leyes_ (1846), _El Personalismo_ (1855), _Lo
+Absoluto_ (1865) and _El Ideismo_ (1883). These studies are chiefly
+valuable as embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to
+the composition of those _doloras, humoradas_ and _pequenos poemas_,
+which the poet's admirers consider as a new poetic species. The first
+collection of _Doloras_ was printed in 1846, and from that date onwards
+new specimens were added to each succeeding edition. It is difficult to
+define a _dolora_. One critic has described it as a didactic, symbolic
+stanza which combines the lightness and grace of the epigram, the
+melancholy of the _endecha_, the concise narrative of the ballad, and
+the philosophic intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared
+that a _dolora_ is a dramatic _humorada_, and that a _pequeno poema_ is
+a _dolora_ on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory. The
+humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form to which
+Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes no further. It cannot
+be denied that in the _Doloras_ Campoamor's special gifts of irony,
+grace and pathos find their best expression. Taking a commonplace theme,
+he presents in four, eight or twelve lines a perfect miniature of
+condensed emotion. By his choice of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal
+facility and copiousness which have led many Spanish poets to
+destruction. It pleased him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this
+affectation has been reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the
+impression of insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using
+mysticism as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of
+the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching morality by
+satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism of a genial,
+epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether for good. His
+formula is too easily mastered, and to his example is due a plague of
+_doloras_ and _humoradas_ by poetasters who have caricatured their
+model. Campoamor, as he himself said, did not practise art for art's
+sake; he used art as the medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are
+poor. He died at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a
+deep silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge him
+with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming bulk of
+his work will perish; we may even say that it is already dead. His
+pretensions, or the pretensions put forward in his name, that he
+discovered a new poetic _genre_ will be rejected later, as they are
+rejected now by all competent judges. The title of a philosophic poet
+will be denied to him. But he will certainly survive, at least in
+extract, as a distinguished humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and
+sententious aphorism, an artist of extremely finished execution.
+     (J. F. K.)
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the province of
+Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated 2132 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune 14,491. The town itself
+contains no buildings of antiquarian interest, but it has some fine
+modern edifices. Its chief industry is the manufacture of arms and
+cutlery. Above the town are the picturesque ruins of a castle of the
+15th century. The date of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The
+town, with the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of
+counts until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in
+consideration of a payment of 108,000 ducats.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPODEA, a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible antennae
+and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known species
+(_Campodea staphylinus_) has a wide distribution and is equally at home
+in the warm valleys of south Europe, in the subarctic conditions of
+mountain tops, in caves and in woods and gardens in England. It lives in
+damp places under stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves.
+Although blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into
+the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with its
+antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling that of
+a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or thysanurous
+insects of the order Aptera (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (1723-1802), Spanish statesman and
+writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st
+of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793 he was president of the council of
+Castile; but on the accession of Charles IV. he was removed from his
+office, and retired from public life, regretted by the true friends of
+his country. His first literary work was _Antiquidad maritima de la
+republica de Cartago_, with an appendix containing a translation of the
+_Voyage of Hanno_ the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared in
+a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable essays,
+_Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular_, 1774, and _Discurso
+sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos y su fomento_, 1775. As a
+supplement to the last, he published four appendices, each considerably
+larger than the original essay. The first contains reflections on the
+origin of the decay of arts and manufactures in Spain during the last
+century. The second points out the steps necessary for improving or
+re-establishing the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection
+of royal ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts
+and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials. The
+third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with the results
+of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances of towns. The fourth
+contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez de Mata on national
+commerce, with some observations adapted to present circumstances. These
+were all printed at Madrid in 1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count
+Campomanes died on the 3rd of February 1802.
+
+  Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes
+  as an introduction to the first edition of his _Cartas
+  politico-economicas_, published in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE (1831-1900), Spanish marshal, senator and
+knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at Segovia on the 14th of December
+1831. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was
+attached to the staff college as an assistant professor. He took part in
+the Morocco campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen
+actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a
+professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under Prim. In
+1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to the rank of general
+in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the Federal Republican
+government in 1873 confided to General Campos several high commands, in
+which he again distinguished himself against the Cantonal Republicans
+and the Carlists. About that time he began to conspire with a view to
+restore the son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his
+designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command of a
+division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of May of
+that year, and in the operations around Estella in June. On both
+occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the other commanders to
+proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected to hold aloof, and would have
+been arrested, had not the minister of war, Ceballos, answered for his
+good behaviour, and quartered him in Avila under surveillance. He
+managed to escape, and after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at
+Sagunto on the 29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII.
+king of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great
+influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as a
+sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso, and later
+by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important political crisis,
+and on every international or colonial question, especially when other
+generals or the army itself became troublesome. He took an important
+part in the military operations against the Carlists, and in the
+negotiations with their leaders, which put an end to the civil war in
+1876. In the same way he brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878.
+On his return from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet
+for a few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever afterwards
+treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In 1881, with other
+discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in obtaining office. After
+the death of King Alphonso, Campos steadily supported the regency of
+Queen Christina, and held high commands, though declining to take
+office. In 1893 he was selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla,
+and went to the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of
+peace, which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed a
+serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of Canovas
+to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as well as in
+his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he was not allowed
+to give them local self-government, as he wished. Subsequently he
+remained aloof from politics, and only spoke in the senate to defend his
+Cuban administration and on army questions. After the war with America,
+and the loss of the colonies in 1899, when Senor Silvela formed a new
+Conservative party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency
+of the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this post up
+to the time of his death. This took place in the summer recess of 1900
+at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa, where he was buried.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPOS, an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the
+Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m. N.E. of the city of
+Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city, 22,518; of the municipality,
+78,036. The river is navigable for small steamers above and below the
+city, but is closed to coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at
+its mouth. The shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahe), 60 m.
+south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water
+communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes united by
+canals. Campos has indirect railway communication with Rio de Janeiro by
+way of Macahe, and is the starting point for several small independent
+lines. The elevation of the city is only 69 ft. above sea level, and it
+stands near the western margin of a highly fertile alluvial plain
+devoted to the production of sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and
+many kinds of tropical fruit are produced in abundance.
+
+
+
+
+CAMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung), the capital of the
+department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat of a suffragan bishop;
+situated among the outlying hills of the Carpathian Mountains, at the
+head of a long well-wooded glen traversed by the river Tirgului, a
+tributary of the Argesh. Pop. (1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine
+scenery render Campulung a popular summer resort. In the town are more
+than twenty churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both
+claim to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first
+prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for several
+paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July and the 24th of
+October; and there is a considerable traffic with Transylvania, over the
+Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the south by a branch railway to
+Ploesci. Near Campulung are the remains of a Roman camp; and, just
+beyond the gates, vestiges of a Roman colony, variously identified with
+Romula, Stepenium and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1773-1844), Italian historical painter, was born at
+Rome. He was educated by his brother Pietro, a picture-restorer, and
+Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to the age of thirty, attempted nothing
+higher than copies of the great masters, his especial study being
+Raphael. As an original painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the
+French artist David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness
+and patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was
+essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both personally,
+and as an artist, and received many honours and preferments from the
+papal and other Italian courts. He was appointed director of the Academy
+of San Luca and of the Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of
+the pictures of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all
+the orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief works
+are the classical paintings of the "Assassination of Caesar," the "Death
+of Virginia," the "Devotion of the Roman Women," "Young Romulus and
+Remus," "Horatius Cocles," the "St Thomas," which was copied in mosaic
+for St Peter's, the "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" and a number
+of excellent portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection
+of pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including
+Raphael's "Madonna with the Pink") being bought by the duke of
+Northumberland.
+
+
+
+
+CAMULODUNUM, also written CAMALODUNUM (mod. Colchester, q.v.), a British
+and Roman town. It was the capital of the British chief Cunobelin and is
+named on his coins: after his death and the Roman conquest of south
+Britain, the Romans established (about A.D. 48) a _colonia_ or
+municipality peopled with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve
+both as an informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It
+was stormed and burnt A.D. 61 in the rising of Boadicea (q.v.), but soon
+recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman Britain. Its walls
+and some other buildings still stand and abundant Roman remains enrich
+the local museum. The name denotes "the fortress of Camulos," the Celtic
+Mars.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON (1740-1804), French revolutionist, was a successful
+advocate before the Revolution. In 1789 he was elected by the third
+estate of Paris to the states general, and attracted attention by his
+speeches against social inequalities. Elected to the National Convention
+by the department of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee
+of general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged
+with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered with his
+colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he was exchanged
+for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November 1795. He played an
+inconspicuous role in the council of the Five Hundred. On the 14th of
+August 1789 the Constituent Assembly made Camus its archivist, and in
+that capacity he organized the national archives, classified the papers
+of the different assemblies of the Revolution and drew up analytical
+tables of the _proces-verbaux_. He was restored to the office in 1796
+and became absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican,
+refusing to take part in the Napoleonic regime.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS (1699-1768), French mathematician and
+mechanician, was born at Crecy-en-Brie, near Meaux, on the 25th of
+August 1699. He studied mathematics, civil and military architecture,
+and astronomy, and became associate of the Academie des Sciences,
+professor of geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and
+fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied Pierre
+Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the expedition to Lapland
+for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. He died on the 2nd of
+February 1768. He was the author of a _Cours de mathematiques_ (Paris,
+1766), and a number of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects
+(see Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch_).
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES (1672-1732), French mechanician, was born
+near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September 1672. After studying for the
+church, he devoted himself to mechanical inventions, a number of which
+he described in his _Traite des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des
+arts et metiers_, Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.
+
+
+
+
+CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE (1721-1789), French architect, was born at
+Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died it the same city on the 27th
+of July 1789. He published several works on architectural and related
+subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the home of
+Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's "beginning of miracles" (John ii.
+I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it is evident from the
+biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood of, and higher than,
+Capernaum. Opinion as to identification is fairly divided between Kefr
+Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil. The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth,
+contains a ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter is
+an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no remains but a
+few cisterns.
+
+
+
+
+CANAAN, CANAANITES. These geographical and ethnic terms have a shifting
+reference, which doubtless arises out of the migrations of the tribes to
+which the term "Canaanites" belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems
+to be applied to a population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in
+Josh. xi. 3, Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these,
+but to a people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be
+used of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is
+disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively to the
+population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish
+inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the writer called the
+Yahwist (J); see _e.g. _Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18; Ex. xv. 15; Num.
+xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38, and elsewhere. It
+was also, as Augustine tells us,[1] a usage of the Phoenicians to call
+their land "Canaan." This is confirmed by coins of the city of Laodicea
+by the Lebanon, which bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in
+Canaan"; these coins are dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and
+his successors, Greek writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest,
+viz. that the original name of Phoenicia was [Greek: Chna], i.e. Kena, a
+short, collateral form of Kena'an or Kan'an The form Kan'an is favoured
+by the Egyptian usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or
+Arabian nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Shur?) to "the Ka-n-'-na,"
+and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in "the
+Ka-n-'-na." By this geographical name is probably meant all western
+Syria and Palestine with Raphia--"the (first) city of the
+Ka-n-'-na"--for the south-west boundary towards the desert.[2] In the
+letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their Egyptian
+overlord[3]--commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna tablets--we find the
+two forms Kinahhi and Kinahna, corresponding to Kena' and Kena'an
+respectively, and standing, as Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its
+widest extent.
+
+On the name "Canaan" Winckler remarks,[4] "There is at present no
+prospect of an etymological explanation." From the fact that Egyptian
+(though not Hebrew) scribes constantly prefix the article, we may
+suppose that it originally meant "the country of the Canaanites," just
+as the Hebrew phrase "the Lebanon" may originally have meant "the
+highlands of the Libnites"; and we are thus permitted to group the term
+"Canaan" with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan, Anak (generally
+with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor are scholars more unanimous
+with regard to the region where the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan"
+arose. It may be true that the term Kinahhi in the Amarna letters
+corresponds to Syria and Palestine in their entirety. But this does not
+prove that the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan" arose in that region, for
+they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let us refer at
+this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps hardly estimated at
+its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples in Gen. x. Here we find
+"Canaan" included among the four sons of Ham. If Cush in v. 6 really
+means Ethiopia, and M-s-r-i-m Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is
+really a Hebraized form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t
+(black),[5] the passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has
+recently been suggested,[6] Cush, M-s-r-i-m, and Put are in north
+Arabia, and Ham is the short for Yarham or Yerahme'el (see i Chr. ii.
+25-27, 42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all
+becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an Arabian name.
+Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning from about 4000 B.C.[7] a
+wave of Semitic migration poured out of Arabia, and flooded Babylonia
+certainly, and possibly, more or less, Syria and Palestine also. Also
+that between 2800 and 2600 B.C. a second wave from Arabia took the same
+course, covering not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and
+probably also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet
+with the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213), the
+first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the first part
+of his name is identical with the name of the father of Canaan in
+Genesis (Ham or Kham), indicating his Arabian origin.[8] It was he, too,
+who restored the ancient supremacy of Babylonia over Syria and
+Palestine, and so prevented the Babylonizing of these countries from
+coming to an abrupt end.
+
+We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors arrived in the
+second Semitic migration, came to call their land "Canaan." They had in
+fact the best right to do so. The first of the Canaanite immigrants were
+driven seawards by the masses which followed them. They settled in
+Phoenicia, and in after times became so great in commerce that
+"Canaanite" became a common Hebrew term for "merchant" (e.g. Isa. xxiii.
+8). It is a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their
+inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious
+phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and belonged properly to
+the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.[9] For their own traditions
+as to their origin see PHOENICIA; we cannot venture to reject these
+altogether. The masses of immigrants which followed them may have borne
+the name of Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be
+given. Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.
+
+First, as regards the Old Testament. We find "the Amorite" (a collective
+term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x. 16-18a) among other
+tribal names, the exact original reference of which had probably been
+forgotten. No one in fact would gather from this and parallel passages
+how important a part was played by the Amorites in the early history of
+Palestine. In Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we
+find them located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi.
+13, 21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &c. we hear of two great
+Amorite kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the
+east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in Gen.
+xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &c.,
+where the name of Amorite is synonymous with "Canaanite," except that
+"Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast. Next, as to the
+extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian inscriptions and in the Amarna
+tablets Amar and Amurru have a more limited meaning, being applied to
+the mountain-region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later
+on, Amurru became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as
+north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term "the land of
+Hatti" (conventionally = Hittites) displaced "Amurru" so far as north
+Palestine is concerned (see HITTITES).
+
+Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first stage of the
+second great Arabian migration. In the interval preceding the second
+stage Syria with Palestine became an Egyptian dependency, though the
+links with the sovereign power were not so strong as to prevent frequent
+local rebellions. Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of
+a strong hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the
+Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not quite so
+tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs began to seek their
+opportunities, though as a rule they did not find them because they
+could not obtain the help of a neighbouring king.[10] The boldest of the
+disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta, a prince of Amurru, who even
+before the death, of Amen-hotep III. endeavoured to extend his power
+into the plain of Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or
+Hamath), reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the
+attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused infinite
+trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor of Gubla
+(Gebal).
+
+It was, first, the advance of the Hatti (Hittites) into Syria, which
+began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more threatening in
+that of his successor, and next, the resumption of the second Arabian
+migration, which most seriously undermined the Egyptian power in Asia.
+Of the former we cannot speak here (see HITTITES), except so far as to
+remark the Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the
+Hatti, was afterwards clever enough to make a treaty with their king,
+and, with other external powers, to attack the districts which remained
+loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals for aid to
+the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in his religious
+innovations to attend to such messages. What most interests us is the
+mention of troublesome invaders called some times _sa-gas_ (a Babylonian
+ideogram meaning "robber"), sometimes Habiri. Who are these Habiri? Not,
+as was at first thought by some, specially the Israelites, but all those
+tribes of land-hungry nomads ("Hebrews") who were attracted by the
+wealth and luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it
+for themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites or
+tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites, Ammonites
+and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north Syria. Itakkama writes
+thus to the Pharaoh,[11] "Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the
+cities of the king, my lord, to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in
+Ubi. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will
+bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show
+myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS." Similarly Zimrida,
+king of Sidon, declares, "All my cities which the king has given into my
+hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri."[12] Nor had Palestine any
+immunity from the Arabian invaders. The king of _Jerusalem_, Abd-Hiba,
+the second part of whose name has been thought to represent the Hebrew
+Yahweh,[13] reports thus to the Pharaoh, "If (Egyptian) troops come this
+year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops
+come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my
+lord."[14] Abd-Hiba's chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and
+the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable
+league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death
+at the siege of Gina.[15] All these princes, however, malign each other
+in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest their own innocence of
+traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see
+above) accuses of disloyalty, writes thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, I and
+my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS,
+and my Suti[16] are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go
+whithersoever the king, my lord, commands."[17] This petty prince,
+therefore, sees no harm in having a band of Arabians for his garrison,
+as indeed Hezekiah long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against
+Sennacherib.
+
+From the same period we have recently derived fresh and important
+evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as the material
+gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified and critically
+examined, a true history of early Palestine will be within measurable
+distance. At present, there are five places whence the new evidence has
+been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy, generally identified with the Lachish of
+the Old Testament. Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders
+Petrie and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I
+Kings ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902. 3.
+Tell-es-Safy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from
+Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made some
+discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the site, however,
+was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio).
+Schumacher began working here in 1903 for the German Palestine Society.
+5. Taannek, on the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst
+Sellin of Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may
+be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform tablet
+belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer, a deed of sale;
+at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian stele, three seals, and
+three cylinders with Babylonian mythological representations; at
+Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a Babylonian legend, and at Taannek,
+twelve tablets and fragments of tablets were found near the fragments of
+the terracotta box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact
+that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used
+Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence. But much
+beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive sanctuaries, for
+instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths at Gezer is described in
+detail in _P.E.F. Quart. Statement_, January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903,
+p. 219. There is reason, as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the
+result of a gradual development, beginning with two small pillars, and
+gradually enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at
+Tell-es-Safy. The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved
+to be of great antiquity; Sellin's discoveries at Taannek and those of
+Bliss at Tell-es-Safy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars have also
+been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx. 25, 26, and numerous
+jars with the skeletons of infants. We cannot doubt that the sacrificing
+of children was practised on a large scale among the Canaanites. Their
+chief deity was Ashtart (Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous
+images of her have been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of
+the divine form vary in the different places. The other images which
+have been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however, infer
+that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish Pantheon.
+What the images do prove is the large amount of intercourse between
+Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of Egyptians in the subject country.
+
+  See the _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_, ed. by Winckler, with translation
+  (1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements
+  from 1903 onwards; Sellin's report of excavations at Tell Ta'annek;
+  also H.W. Hogg, "Recent Assyriology," &c., in _Inaugural Lectures_ ed.
+  by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical
+  questions, see Dillmann's commentaries and the Bible dictionaries. See
+  further articles PALESTINE; JEWS.     (T. K. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Enarralio in Psalm civ._
+
+  [2] W.M. Muller, _Asien und Europa, _p. 205.
+
+  [3] The letters are written in the official and diplomatic
+    language--Babylonian, though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are not
+    wanting.
+
+  [4] _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, _p. 181.
+
+  [5] These explanations are endorsed by Driver _ (Genesis, on _Gen. x.).
+
+  [6] See the relevant articles in _Ency. Bib. _and Cheyne's _Genesis
+    and Exodus._
+
+  [7] For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, _Gesch. Isr._ i. 127
+    f.; Paton, _Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine_ (1902), pp. 6-8,
+    25-28.
+
+  [8] It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name
+    differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), _kimta rapashtum_, "wide family." That,
+    however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism
+    or Arabism.
+
+  [9] See Cheyne, _Genesis and Exodus_ (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A.
+    Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscriptions_ (e.g. pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar's
+    inscription).
+
+  [10] See _Amarna Letters_, Winckler's edition, No. 7.
+
+  [11] _Op. cit._ No. 146.
+
+  [12] _Op. cit._ No. 147.
+
+  [13] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. p. 16.
+
+  [14] _Amarna Letters_, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).
+
+  [15] _Ibid._ No. 164 (xi. 15-18).
+
+  [16] Nomads of the Syrian desert.
+
+  [17] _Amarna Letters_, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).
+
+
+
+
+CANACHUS, a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part of the 6th
+century B.C. He was especially noted as the author of two great statues
+of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple at Miletus, and one in
+cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins of Miletus furnish us with copies
+of the former and show the god to have held a stag in, one hand and a
+bow in the other. The rigidity of these works naturally impressed later
+critics.
+
+
+
+
+CANADA. The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern half of the
+continent of North America and its adjacent islands, excepting Alaska,
+which belongs to the United States, and Newfoundland, still a separate
+colony of the British empire. Its boundary on the south is the parallel
+of latitude 49 deg., between the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods,
+then a chain of small lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon
+river on the north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with
+their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From this
+eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial line nearly
+corresponding to lat. 45 deg.; then an irregular line partly determined
+by watersheds and rivers divides Canada from Maine, coming out on the
+Bay of Fundy. The western boundary is the Pacific on the south, an
+irregular line a few miles inland from the coast along the "pan handle"
+of Alaska to Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141 deg. to the Arctic
+Ocean. A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the Atlantic
+on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging to
+Newfoundland.
+
+_Physical Geography._--In spite of these restrictions of its natural
+coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada is admirably
+provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf of St Lawrence with its
+much indented shores and the coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
+supply endless harbours, the northern ones closed by ice in the winter,
+but the southern ones open all the year round; and on the Pacific
+British Columbia is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with
+well-sheltered harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken
+shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of sheltered
+navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of Newfoundland to
+Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British Columbian coast, are of great
+advantage for the coasting trade. The greatly varied Arctic coast line
+of Canada with its large islands, inlets and channels is too much
+clogged with ice to be of much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a
+mediterranean sea 850 m. long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with
+its outlet Hudson Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and
+whalers, and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada,
+though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of the nine
+provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt water,
+Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may soon be extended
+to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only on Hudson Bay's southern
+extension, James Bay, and there is no probability that the shallow
+harbours of the latter bay will ever be of much importance for shipping,
+though Churchill Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an
+important grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation is,
+however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great Lakes.
+
+
+  Geology.
+
+The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple, and drawn on a
+large scale, more than half of its surface sloping gently inwards
+towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with higher margins to the
+south-east and south-west. In the main it is a broad trough, wider
+towards the north than towards the south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay
+occupying much of its north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains
+rise gradually to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern
+member of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America. The
+physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with its geology
+that at least an outline of the geological factors involved in its
+history is necessary to understand the present physiography. The
+mountain structures originated in three great orogenic periods, the
+earliest in the Archean, the second at the end of the Palaeozoic and the
+third at the end of the Mesozoic. The Archean mountain chains, which
+enclosed the present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that they had
+already been worn down almost to a plain before the early Palaeozoic
+sediments were laid down. This ruling geological and physical feature of
+the North American continent has been named by E. Suess the "Canadian
+Shield." Round it the Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from
+its own waste, were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places
+still almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east of
+this "protaxis," or nucleus of the continent, were pushed against its
+edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, which, however,
+extends only a short distance into Canada. The Mesozoic sediments were
+almost entirely laid down to the west and south-west of the protaxis,
+upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic rocks, and in the prairie region they are
+still almost horizontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up
+into the series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast
+region. The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest,
+and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights deserving
+the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric development of North
+America the main structural watershed is towards its western side, on
+the south coinciding with the Rocky Mountains proper, but to the
+northward falling back to ranges situated further west in the same
+mountain region. The great central area of Canada is drained towards
+Hudson Bay, but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the
+Mackenzie flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence
+north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and the other
+to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While these ancient events
+shaped the topography in a broad way, its final development was
+comparatively recent, during the glacial period, when the loose
+materials were scoured from some regions and spread out as boulder clay,
+or piled up as moraines in others; and the original water-ways were
+blocked in many places. The retreat of the ice left Canada much in its
+present condition except for certain post-glacial changes of level which
+seem to be still in progress. For this reason the region has a very
+youthful topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence
+that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving down of
+the older mountain systems, especially that of the Archean pro taxis,
+and the disorderly scattering of glacial material provide most of the
+lake basins so characteristic of Canada.
+
+_Lakes and Rivers._--As a result of the geological causes just mentioned
+many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes of all sizes and
+shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles long and a thousand feet
+deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest. Thousands of these lakes have
+been mapped more or less carefully, and every new survey brings to light
+small lakes hitherto unknown to the white man. For numbers they can be
+compared only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for
+size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of
+lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it will be
+noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes occur within five
+hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay, and belong to the Archean
+protaxis or project beyond its edges into the Palaeozoic sedimentary
+rocks which lean against it. The most famous of the lakes are those of
+the St Lawrence system, which form part of the southern boundary of
+Canada and are shared with the United States; but many others have the
+right to be called "Great Lakes" from their magnitude. There are nine
+others which have a length of more than 100 m., and thirty-five which
+are more than 50 m. long. Within the Archean protaxis they are of the
+most varied shapes, since they represent merely portions of the
+irregular surface inundated by some morainic dam at the lowest point.
+Comparatively few have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water,
+the great majority running into long irregular bays and containing many
+islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian Bay and
+Lake-of-the-Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the other hand the lakes
+are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections of mountain valleys
+occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords of the adjoining coast are
+valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes of the different regions present
+the same features as the nearest sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The
+majority of the lakes have rocky shores and islands and great variety of
+depth, many of the smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and
+are slowly filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat
+bogs, the _muskegs_ of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered
+that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few
+small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, e.g. the Quill and Old Wives
+lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In such cases the
+waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in solution which are
+deposited as a white rim round the basin towards the end of the summer
+when the amount of water has been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is
+interesting to find maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on
+their shores a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet
+above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over at the
+lowest point from one basin into the next below, making chains of lakes
+with no long or well-defined channels between, since in so young a
+country there has not yet been time for the rivers to have carved wide
+valleys. Thus canoe navigation may be carried on for hundreds of miles,
+with here and there a waterfall or a rapid requiring a portage of a few
+hundred yards or at most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore
+in many cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive
+connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The best
+example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which may be
+said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St Mary's, St
+Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing from Lake Ontario to
+the sea under its proper name. As these lakes are great reservoirs and
+settling basins, the rivers which empty them are unusually steady in
+level and contain beautifully clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a
+few feet in the year and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while
+the Mississippi, whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of
+the Great Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and
+is loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important Canadian
+river from the historic and economic points of view, since it provided
+the main artery of exploration in early days, and with its canals past
+rapids and between lakes still serves as a great highway of trade
+between the interior of the continent and the seaports of Montreal and
+Quebec. It is probable that politically Canada would have followed the
+course of the States to the south but for the planting of a French
+colony with widely extended trading posts along the easily ascended
+channel of the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was
+the ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire.
+
+North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and Hudson Bay there
+are many large rivers converging on that inland sea, such as Whale
+river, Big river, East Main, Rupert and Nottaway rivers coming in from
+Ungava and northern Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important
+tributaries from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill
+rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow,
+affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them, Nelson
+river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and
+Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers, and receive the waters of
+Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and many others emptying into Winnipeg
+river from Ontario; of Red river coming in from the United States to the
+south; and of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western
+prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The parallel
+of 49 deg. approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters from the
+streams going south to the Missouri, though a few small tributaries of
+the latter river begin on Canadian territory.
+
+The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of northern
+British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca and Peace rivers,
+first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake, then north through Slave
+river to Great Slave Lake, and finally north-west through Mackenzie
+river to the Arctic Ocean. If measured to the head of Peace river the
+Mackenzie has a length of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than
+1000 m. of navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like
+other northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented
+sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading
+posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in lat. 69
+deg., and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their torrents
+before the thick ice of the lower part with its severer climate has yet
+given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and giving rise to
+widespread floods along the lower reaches. Similar flooding takes place
+in several other important northward-flowing rivers in Canada, the St
+Lawrence at Montreal affording the best-known instance. Second among the
+great north-western rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about
+18 m. from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea
+and just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north, then
+to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into Alaska, and
+then south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward projection of the
+Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of its course 1800 m. are
+continuously navigable for suitable steamers, so that most of the
+traffic connected with the rich Klondike gold-fields passes over its
+waters. The rest of the rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through
+British Columbia and are much shorter, though the two southern ones
+carry a great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow
+and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest, but
+after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m., it passes into
+the United States. With its expansions, the narrow and deep Arrow lakes,
+it is an important waterway in the Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in
+size but farther north, follows a similar course, entering the sea at
+Vancouver; while the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are
+much shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and Liard
+rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory. All of
+these rivers are waterways of some importance in their lower course, and
+are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats supplying the posts and
+mining camps of the interior with their requirements. In most cases they
+reach the coast through deep valleys or profound canyons, and the
+transcontinental railways find their way beside them, the Canadian
+Pacific following at first tributaries of the Columbia near its great
+bend, and afterwards Thompson river and the Fraser; while the Grand
+Trunk Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries.
+The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing east and
+north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains, but there are two
+lakes, the Committee's Punch Bowl and Fortress Lake, right astride of
+it, sending their waters both east and west; and there is a mountain
+somewhat south of Fortress Lake whose melting snows drain in three
+directions into tributaries of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the
+Athabasca, so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the
+Atlantic (Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the St
+Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents one or two lakes
+draining each way, but in a much less striking position, since the
+water-parting is flat and boggy instead of being a lofty range of
+mountains. The rivers of Canada, except the St Lawrence, are losing
+their importance as means of communication from year to year, as
+railways spread over the interior and cross the mountains to the
+Pacific; but from the point of view of the physical geographer there are
+few things more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in
+which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers have
+waterfalls on their course, they must become of more and more importance
+as sources of power. The St Lawrence system, for instance, generates
+many thousand horse-power at Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine
+rapids. All the larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this
+way, and many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern
+Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the Rocky
+Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they will some day
+find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland.
+
+_The Archean Protaxis._--The broad geological and geographical
+relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the more
+important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more detail, and for
+that purpose five areas may be distinguished, much the largest being the
+Archean protaxis, covering about 2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador,
+Ungava and most of Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south;
+and the western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to the
+Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The southern parts of
+the Arctic islands, especially Banksland, belong to it also. This vast
+area, shaped like a broad-limbed V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre,
+is made up chiefly of monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and
+granite; but scattered through it are important stretches of Keewatin
+and Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as
+suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The Keewatin
+and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and more or less
+metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special interest for their ore
+deposits, which include most of the important metals, particularly iron,
+nickel, copper and silver. The southern portion of the protaxis is now
+being opened up by railways, but the far greater northern part is known
+only along the lakes and rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though
+once consisting of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty
+elevations in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador,
+where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach 6000 ft. or
+more. In every other part the surface is hilly or mammilated, the harder
+rocks, such as granite or greenstone, rising as rounded knobs, or in the
+case of schists forming narrow ridges, while the softer parts form
+valleys generally floored with lakes. From the summit of any of the
+higher hills one sees that the region is really a somewhat dissected
+plain, for all the hills rise to about the same level with a uniform
+skyline at the horizon. The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as
+a plateau, but probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part
+includes from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and
+extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake Winnipeg.
+Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an average of about 1500
+ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at a few points near Lake
+Superior and on the eastern coast of Labrador. In most parts the
+Laurentian hills are bare _roches moutonnees_ scoured by the glaciers of
+the Ice Age, but a broad band of clay land extends across northern
+Quebec and Ontario just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis
+are in general its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often
+have a descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great
+Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they have cut
+back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The waterfalls are
+utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp the forests of spruce
+which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and Ontario. Most of the pine that
+formerly grew on the Archean at the northern fringe of the settlements
+has been cut, but the lumberman is still advancing northwards and
+approaching the northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine
+forests, beyond which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the
+prevalent trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and
+includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is reached,
+near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and somewhat farther
+south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to the north are the "barren
+grounds" on which herds of caribou (reindeer) and musk ox pasture,
+migrating from north to south according to the season. There are no
+permanent ice sheets known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but
+some of the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are
+partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless by its
+mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known, the barren
+grounds can never support a white population and have little to tempt
+even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it occasionally in summer to hunt
+the deer in their migrations.
+
+_The Acadian Region._--The "maritime provinces" of eastern Canada,
+including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, may be
+considered together; and to these provinces as politically bounded may
+be added, from a physical point of view, the analogous south-eastern
+part of Quebec--the entire area being designated the Acadian region.
+Taken as a whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and
+extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic, may be
+regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian mountain system
+that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the United States. The rocks
+underlying it have been subjected to successive foldings and crumplings
+by forces acting chiefly from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with
+alternating prolonged periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of
+disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the
+south-eastern part of Quebec, forming the Notre Dame Mountains, and
+terminates in the Gaspe peninsula as the Shickshock Mountains. The
+first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height, but the Shickshocks rise
+above 3000 ft. The province of New Brunswick exhibits approximately
+parallel but subordinate ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly
+flat Silurian and Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia,
+connected by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still
+another and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on
+all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates
+referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important veins of
+auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern side,
+while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and on parts of its
+shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New Brunswick the Carboniferous
+rocks occupy a large area, but the coal seams so far developed are thin
+and unimportant. Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova
+Scotia and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already
+mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important industries.
+Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral products of that part of
+Quebec included in the region now under description, although many
+other minerals are known and already worked to some extent. Extensive
+tracts of good arable land exist in many parts of the Acadian region.
+Its surface was originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of
+the forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward Island, the
+smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating, based on
+Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording a red and very fertile
+soil, much of which is under cultivation.
+
+_The St Lawrence Plain._--As the St Lawrence invited the earliest
+settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication with the Old
+World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest and most populous
+part of the country on its shores and near the Great Lakes which it
+leads up to; and this early development was greatly helped by the flat
+and fertile plain which follows it inland for over 600 m. from the city
+of Quebec to Lake Huron. This affords the largest stretch of arable land
+in eastern Canada, including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec
+with an area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south
+of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal to the
+mountains of the "Eastern Townships," while in Ontario it extends from
+the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence and Lakes Ontario, Erie and
+Huron. The whole region is underlain by nearly horizontal and
+undisturbed rocks of the Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward.
+Superimposed on these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and
+sand deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of St
+Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-west peninsula of
+Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and the real wealth of this
+district lies in its soil and climate, which permit the growth of all
+the products of temperate regions. Georgian Bay and the northern part of
+Lake Huron with the whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the
+foot of the Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes;
+so that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous
+cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an elevated,
+rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean from the newer and
+far more extensive farm lands of the west. For many years this southern
+projection of the northern wilderness was spanned by only one railway,
+and offered a serious hindrance to the development of the regions
+beyond; but settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly
+filling up the gap between east and west.
+
+_The Interior Continental Plain._--Passing westward by rail from the
+forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills, the flat prairie
+of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of flowers comes as a
+very striking contrast, introducing the Interior Continental plain in
+its most typical development. This great plain runs north-westward
+between the border of the Archean protaxis and the line of the Rocky
+Mountains, including most of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan
+and most of Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 49 deg. it is
+800 m. wide, but in lat. 56 deg. it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and
+to the north of lat. 62 deg. it is still narrower and somewhat
+interrupted, but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic
+Ocean about the mouth of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the
+continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was
+occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards the
+north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed limestones and other
+rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon the downward slope of the
+Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains are underlain by Cretaceous and
+early Tertiary shales and sandstones lying nearly unaltered and
+undisturbed where they were deposited, although now raised far above
+sea-level, particularly along the border of the Rocky Mountains where
+they were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised.
+These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing to their
+comparatively soft character this has been, in the main, nearly uniform,
+and has produced no very bold features of relief, Coal and lignitic coal
+are the principal economic minerals met with in this central plain,
+though natural gas occurs and is put to use near Medicine Hat, and "tar
+sands" along the north-eastern edge of the Cretaceous indicate the
+presence of petroleum. Its chief value lies in its vast tracts of
+fertile soil, now rapidly filling up with settlers from all parts of the
+world, and the grassy uplands in the foot-hill region affording
+perennial pasturage for the cattle, horses and sheep of the rancher.
+Though the region is spoken of as a plain there are really great
+differences of level between the highest parts in south-western Alberta,
+4500 ft. above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake Winnipeg,
+where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very flat and
+rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial Lake
+Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently rolling
+character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the plain, the most
+westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri Coteau. The first step
+represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the second to 3000 ft. on an average.
+In so flat a country any elevation of a few hundred feet is remarkable
+and is called a mountain, so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding
+mountains. More important than the hills are the narrow and often rather
+deep river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks
+of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When not too deep
+the river channels may be traced from afar across the prairie by the
+winding band of trees growing beside the water. The treeless part of the
+plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular shape with an area twice as
+large as that of Great Britain. North of the Saskatchewan river groves
+or "bluffs" of trees begin, and somewhat farther north the plains are
+generally wooded, because of the slightly more humid climate. It has
+been proved, however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow
+also on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older
+farm-steads. In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough
+to permit of "alkaline" ponds and lakes, which may completely dry up in
+summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often hard to obtain,
+though the land itself is fertile.
+
+_The Cordilleran Belt._--The Rocky Mountain region as a whole, best
+named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several parallel
+ranges of mountains of different structures and ages, the eastern one
+constituting the Rocky Mountains proper. This band of mountains 400 m.
+wide covers towards the south almost all of British Columbia and a strip
+of Alberta east of the watershed, and towards the north forms the whole
+of the Yukon Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous
+country, very complicated in its orographic features and interlocking
+river systems, two principal mountain axes form its ruling features--the
+Rocky Mountains proper, above referred to, and the Coast Ranges. Between
+them are many other ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as
+the Selkirk Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains. There
+is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau, once probably
+a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected by river valleys,
+which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a width of about 100 m. and
+affords the largest areas of arable and pasture land in British
+Columbia. Similar wide tracts of less broken country occur, after a
+mountainous interruption, in northern British Columbia and to some
+extent in the Yukon Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills
+alternate with short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific
+border of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and
+channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland between
+mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and there is also a
+bordering mountain system partly submerged forming Vancouver Island and
+the Queen Charlotte Islands. The highest mountains of the Cordillera in
+Canada are near the southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from
+the Yukon Territory, the meridian of 141 deg., and they include Mount
+Logan (19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest
+peak in North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far to the
+north-west in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains, with Mount
+Fairweather and some others, all snowy and glacier-clad for almost their
+whole height, are quite isolated from the highest points of the Rocky
+Mountains proper, which are 1000 m. to the south-east. Near the height
+of land between British Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which
+rise from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has
+been carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next range
+to the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach 10,000 ft. or
+over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond 9000 ft. The snow line
+in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being lower on
+the Pacific side where the heaviest snowfall comes in winter than on the
+drier north-eastern side. The snow line gradually sinks as one advances
+north-west, reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The
+Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not very
+large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All the glaciers
+are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines, hundreds or
+thousands of feet lower down the valley. The timber line is at about
+7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and 4000 ft. in the interior of
+the Yukon Territory. On the westward slopes, especially of the Selkirks
+and Coast Ranges, vegetation is almost tropical in its density and
+luxuriance, the giant cedar and the Douglas fir sometimes having
+diameters of 10 ft. or more and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the
+eastern flanks of the ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the
+interior plateau and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open
+grass land. The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different
+types of structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with
+their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming first,
+then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated in Cretaceous
+times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of granite and diorite as
+batholiths along the margin of the continent and sedimentary rocks lying
+as remnants on their flanks; and finally the Rocky Mountains in the
+Laramie or early Eocene, after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest
+and also highest range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific
+side, crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run
+from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along overturned
+folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually the form of tilted
+blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east and a gentler slope,
+corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards the south-west. Near the
+centre of the range there are broader foldings, carved into castle and
+cathedral shapes. The most easterly range has been shown to have been
+actually pushed 7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains
+proper no eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of
+importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous synclines which
+they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a bituminous and also
+semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best mined on the Pacific slope of
+the continent, the coking coals of the Fernie region supplying the fuel
+of the great metal mining districts of the Kootenays in British
+Columbia, and of Montana and other states to the south. The Selkirks and
+Gold Ranges west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive
+rocks, both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines of
+gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its leadership
+among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals. In early days the
+placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser and Caribou attracted miners
+from everywhere, but these have declined, and lode mines supply most of
+the gold as well as the other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also
+include many mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less
+value than those inland. Most of the mining development is in southern
+British Columbia, where a network of railways and waterways gives easy
+access; but as means of communication improve to the north a similar
+development may be looked for there. The Atlin and White Horse regions
+in northern British Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much
+attention, and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished
+many millions of dollars' worth of gold. Summing up the economic
+features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of the best
+coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold, copper, lead and
+zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and iron Ontario takes the
+lead. When its vast area stretching from the international boundary to
+beyond the Arctic circle is opened up, it may be expected to prove the
+counterpart of the great mining region of the Cordillera in the United
+States to the south.
+
+_Climate_.--In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42 deg. to the
+Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must be great variations
+of climate. If placed upon Europe it would extend from Rome to the North
+Cape, but latitude is of course only one of the factors influencing
+climate, the arrangement of the ocean currents and of the areas of high
+and low pressure making a very wide difference between the climates of
+the two sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada,
+rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western Europe,
+the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48 deg. to 50 deg.,
+having a climate very similar to the southern coast of England. In
+Canada the isotherms by no means follow parallels of latitude,
+especially in summer when in the western half of the country they run
+nearly north-west and south-east; so that the average temperature of 55
+deg. is found about on the Arctic circle in the Mackenzie river valley,
+in lat. 50 deg. near the Lake-of-the-Woods, in lat. 55 deg. at the
+northern end of James Bay, and in lat. 49 deg. on Anticosti in the Gulf
+of St Lawrence. The proximity of the sea or of great lakes, the
+elevation and the direction of mountain chains, the usual path of storms
+and of prevalent winds, and the relative length of day and amount of
+sunshine in summer and winter all have their effect on different parts
+of Canada. One cannot even describe the climate of a single province,
+like Ontario or British Columbia, as a unit, as it varies so greatly in
+different parts. Details should therefore be sought in articles on the
+separate provinces. In eastern Canada Ungava and Labrador are very chill
+and inhospitable, owing largely to the iceberg-laden current sweeping
+down the coast from Davis Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters
+and a temperature for the year much below the freezing-point. South of
+the Gulf of St Lawrence, however, the maritime provinces have much more
+genial temperatures, averaging 40 deg. F. for the year and over 60 deg.
+for the summer months. The amount of rain is naturally high so near the
+sea, 40 to 56 in., but the snowfall is not usually excessive. In Quebec
+and northern Ontario the rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40
+in., while the snows of winter are deep and generally cover the ground
+from the beginning of December to the end of March. The winters are
+brilliant but cold, and the summers average from 60 deg. to 65 deg. F.,
+with generally clear skies and a bracing atmosphere which makes these
+regions favourite summer resorts for the people of the cities to the
+south. The winter storms often sweep a little to the north of southern
+Ontario, so that what falls as snow in the north is rain in the south,
+giving a much more variable winter, often with too little snow for
+sleighing. The summers are warm, with an average temperature of 65 deg.
+and an occasional rise to 90 deg.. As one goes westward the
+precipitation diminishes to 17.34 in. in Manitoba and 13.35 for the
+other two prairie provinces, most of this, however, coming opportunely
+from May to August, the months when the growing grain most requires
+moisture. There is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in northern
+Ontario and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow and the
+frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing moisture to
+start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in southern Saskatchewan
+and Alberta is much more variable than farther east and north, so that
+in some seasons crops have been a failure through drought, but large
+areas are now being brought under irrigation to avoid such losses. The
+prairie provinces have in most parts a distinctly continental climate
+with comparatively short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but with
+much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta, however, the winter
+cold is often interrupted by chinooks, westerly winds which have lost
+their moisture by crossing the mountains and become warmed by plunging
+down to the plains, where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and
+raising the temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20 deg. to 40
+deg. F. In this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the
+grass of the ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there may
+be heavy losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent and the
+winter's cold increases, but the coming of spring is not much later, and
+the summer temperatures, with sunshine for twenty hours out of
+twenty-four in June, are almost the same as for hundreds of miles to
+the south, so that most kinds of grain and vegetables ripen far to the
+north in the Peace river valley. Though the climate of the plains is one
+of extremes and often of rather sudden changes, it is brisk and
+invigorating and of particular value for persons affected with lung
+troubles.
+
+The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more variety than
+that of the other provinces because of the ranges of mountains which run
+parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast itself the climate is insular,
+with little frost in winter and mild heat in summer, and with a very
+heavy rainfall amounting to 100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver
+Island and near Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast
+Range the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario,
+comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the south, but
+with keen winters farther north. The interior plateau may be described
+as arid, so that irrigation is required if crops are to be raised. The
+Selkirk Mountains have a heavy rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on
+their western flanks, but very much less precipitation on their eastern
+side. The Rocky Mountains have the same relationships but the whole
+precipitation is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends
+largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from
+perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist
+climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire. In
+the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and Ungava the
+climate has been little studied, as the region is uninhabited by white
+men except at a few fur-trading posts. North-west and north-east of
+Hudson Bay it becomes too severe for the growth of trees as seen on the
+"barren grounds," and there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of
+moss which serves as a non-conducting covering for the "tundras." There
+is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate on
+the surface to form glaciers, the summer's sun having warmth enough to
+thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the maritime provinces,
+southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the Pacific coast region on the
+one hand, and the Arctic north, particularly near Hudson Bay, on the
+other, Canada has snowy and severe winters, a very short spring with a
+sudden rise of temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn
+with its "Indian summer." There is much sunshine, and the atmosphere is
+bracing and exhilarating.
+
+_Flora_.--The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec and
+Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova Scotia a number of
+species are found common also to Newfoundland that are not apparent
+inland. Professor Macoun gives us a few notable species--_Calluna
+vulgaris_, Salisb., _Alchemilla vulgaris_, L., _Rhododendron maximum_,
+L., _Ilex glabia_, Gray, _Hudsonia ericoides_, L., _Gaylussacia dumosa_,
+F. and G., and _Schezaea pusilla_, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western
+flora begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while in
+the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies considerably. In the
+lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf many Arctic and sub-Arctic
+species are found. On the shores of the lower reaches _Thalictrum
+alpinum_, L., _Vesicaria arctica_, Richards, _Arapis alpina_, L.,
+_Saxifraga oppositifolia_, L., _Cerastium alpinum_, L., _Saxifraga
+caespitosa_, L. and S. have been gathered, and on the Shickshock
+Mountains of Eastern Canada _Silene acaulis_, L., _Lychnis alpina_, L.,
+_Cassiope hypnoides_, Don., _Rhododendron laponicum_, Wahl, and many
+others. On the summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected
+_Aspidium aculeatum_, Swartz var., _Scopulinum_, D.C. Eaton, _Pellaea
+densa_, Hook, _Gallium kamtschaticum_, Sletten. From the city of Quebec
+westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of southern forms, and
+when the mountain (so called) at Montreal is reached the representative
+Ontario flora begins. In Ontario the flora of the northern part is much
+the same as that of the Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the
+Ottawa and St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect,
+and trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern parts
+of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions north of the lakes
+the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie requires a high winter
+temperature, while the east and north shores of Lake Superior have a
+boreal vegetation that shows the summer temperature of this enormous
+water-stretch to be quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come
+the prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the ravines
+the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then disappearing
+gives place to that of the prairie, which is found everywhere between
+the Red river and the Rocky Mountains except in wooded and damp
+localities. Northwards, in the Saskatchewan country, the flora of the
+forest and that of the prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the
+foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found,
+several years' collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of the
+best hay and pasture grasses, _Agropyrum Elymus, Stipa, Bromus,
+Agrostis, Calamagrostes_ and _Poa_, there are 59 species. Besides the
+grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for pasture--_Astragalus,
+Vicia_ (wild vetch), _Lathyrus_ (wild pea) of which there are many
+species. The rose family is represented by _Prunus, Potentilla,
+Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus_ and _Amelanchier_.
+
+About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are found
+_Ruppia maritima_, L., _Heliotropium curassavicum_, L., natives of the
+Atlantic coast, and numerous species of _Chenopodium, Atriplex_ and
+allied genera. The flora of the forest belt of the North-West
+Territories differs little from that of northern Ontario. At the
+beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains there is a luxurious
+growth of herbaceous plants, including a number of rare umbellifers. At
+the higher levels the vegetation becomes more Arctic. Northwards the
+valleys of the Peace and other rivers differ little from those of Quebec
+and the northern prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that
+is, the Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or
+Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp instead
+of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the south the flora
+is partly peculiar to the American desert, and such species as _Purshia
+tridentata_, D.C., and _Artemisia tridentata_, Nutt., and species of
+_Gilia, Aster_ and _Erigonum_ are found that are not met with elsewhere.
+Above Yale, in the drier part of the Fraser valley, the absence of rain
+results in the same character of flora, while in the rainy districts of
+the lower Fraser the vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that
+of the tropics. So in various parts of the mountainous country of
+British Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions.
+Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled with
+flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant, including
+_Erythoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritillarias, Siliums,
+Camassias_ and others.
+
+_Fauna_.--The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and the caribou
+of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the far north; the
+caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces except in Prince Edward
+Island; the moose, with an equally wide range in the wooded country; the
+Virginia deer, in one or other of its varietal forms, common to all the
+southern parts; the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on
+the western edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn
+antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful bison
+found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called "wood buffalo." The
+wapiti or American elk at one time abounded from Quebec to the Pacific,
+and as far north as the Peace river, but is now found only in small
+numbers from Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the
+grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear is also
+common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear everywhere along
+the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf is found in the wooded
+districts of all the provinces, and on the plains there is also a
+smaller wolf called the coyote. In British Columbia the puma or cougar,
+sometimes called the panther and the American lion, still frequently
+occurs; and in all parts the common fox and the silver fox, the lynx,
+beaver, otter, marten, fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other
+fur-bearing animals. Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are
+plentiful or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other
+circumstances. In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or
+Rocky Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the saddleback
+and white mountain sheep have recently been discovered in the northern
+Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly migratory, and are those
+common to the northern and central states of the United States. The
+wildfowl are, particularly in the west, in great numbers; their
+breeding-grounds extending from Manitoba and the western prairies up to
+Hudson Bay, the barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of
+geese--including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the
+laughing goose, the brant and others--all breed in the northern regions,
+but are found in great numbers throughout the several provinces, passing
+north in the spring and south in the autumn. There are several varieties
+of grouse, the largest of which is the grouse of British Columbia and
+the pennated grouse and the prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains,
+besides the so-called partridge and willow partridge, both of which are
+grouse. While the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada)
+has always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a more
+recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which it had come from
+Illinois and the south as settlement and accompanying wheatfields
+extended north. In certain parts of Ontario the wild turkey is
+occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but in British Columbia is
+found the California quail, and a larger bird much resembling it called
+the mountain partridge. The golden eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and
+a large variety of hawks are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the
+horned owl and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently
+remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these, with the
+Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting, being the principal
+birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts in that season. The rook
+is not found, but the common crow and one or two other kinds are there
+during the summer. Song-birds are plentiful, especially in wooded
+regions, and include the American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird
+and various sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago,
+has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns. The
+smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is found
+everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains. The sea-birds
+include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cormorants, albatrosses
+(four species), fulmars and petrels, and in the Gulf of St Lawrence the
+gannet is very abundant. Nearly all the sea-birds of Great Britain are
+found in Canadian waters or are represented by closely allied species.
+     (A. P. C.)
+
+_Area and Population._--The following table shows the division of the
+Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital, population and
+estimated area of each.
+
+  +------------------------+-------------+--------------------------+---------------+
+  |                        |             |       Population.        |               |
+  |                        |   Area in   +------------+-------------+   Official    |
+  |                        |   sq. mi.   |    1881.   |    1901.    |    Capital.   |
+  +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+
+  | Provinces--            |             |            |             |               |
+  |   Ontario              |   260,862   |  1,926,922 | 2,182,947   | Toronto       |
+  |   Quebec               |   351,873   |  1,359,027 | 1,648,898   | Quebec        |
+  |   Nova Scotia          |    21,428   |    440,572 |   459,574   | Halifax       |
+  |   New Brunswick        |    27,985   |    321,233 |   331,120   | Fredericton   |
+  |   Manitoba             |    73,732   |     62,260 |   255,211[1]| Winnipeg      |
+  |   British Columbia     |   372,630   |     49,459 |   178,657   | Victoria      |
+  |   Prince Edward Island |     2,184   |    108,891 |   103,259   | Charlottetown |
+  |   Saskatchewan         |   250,650   | \   25,515 |    91,460[1]| Regina        |
+  |   Alberta              |   253,540   | /          |    72,841[1]| Edmonton      |
+  |                        |             |            |             |               |
+  | Districts--            |             |            |             |               |
+  |   Keewatin             |   516,571   | \          |     8,800   |      . .      |
+  |   Yukon                |   196,976   |  |         |    27,219   | Dawson City   |
+  |   Mackenzie            |   562,182   |   > 30,931 |     5,216   |      . .      |
+  |   Ungava               |   354,961   |  |         |     5,113   |      . .      |
+  |   Franklin             |   500,000   | /          |             |      . .      |
+  +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+
+  |   The Dominion         | 3,745,574[2]|  4,324,810 | 5,371,315   | Ottawa        |
+  +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+
+
+In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces of Nova
+Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and Ontario (Upper Canada).
+In 1869 the North-west Territories were purchased from the Hudson's Bay
+Company, from a corner of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In
+1871 British Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the
+Dominion.
+
+The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became a
+portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British possessions in
+North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its dependency, the Labrador
+coast, and the Bermuda islands, were annexed to Canada. West of the
+province of Ontario, then inaccurately defined, the provinces of
+Manitoba and British Columbia were the only organized divisions of the
+western territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia,
+Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving the remainder
+of the north-west as unorganized territories, a certain portion of the
+north-east, called Keewatin, having previously been placed under the
+lieutenant-governor of Manitoba. In 1905 these four districts were
+formed into the two provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin
+was placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing to the
+influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted and granted a
+limited measure of self-government. The unorganized territories are
+sparsely inhabited by Indians, the people of the Hudson's Bay Company's
+posts and a few missionaries.
+
+_Population_.--The growth of population is shown by the following
+figures:--1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891, 4,833,239; 1901,
+5,371,315. Since 1901 the increase has been more rapid, and in 1905
+alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada, of whom about two-fifths were
+from Great Britain and one-third from the United States.
+
+The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island, where it
+is 51.6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22.3; New Brunswick, 11.8;
+Ontario, 9.9; Manitoba, 4.9; Quebec, 4.8; Saskatchewan, 1.01; Alberta,
+0.72; British Columbia, 0.4; the Dominion, 1.8. This is not an
+indication of the density in settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and
+the western provinces there are large unpopulated districts, the area of
+which enters into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of
+English- or French-speaking people, but there are German settlements of
+some extent in Ontario, and of late years there has been a large
+immigration into the western provinces and territories from other parts
+of Europe, including Russians, Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and
+Scandinavians. These foreign elements have been assimilated more slowly
+than in the United States, but the process is being hastened by the
+growth of a national consciousness. English, Irish and Scots and their
+descendants form the bulk of the population of Ontario, French-Canadians
+of Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish of a large proportion of New
+Brunswick. In the other provinces the latter race tends to confine
+itself to the cities. Manitoba is largely peopled from Ontario, together
+with a decreasing number of half-breeds--i.e. children of white fathers
+(chiefly French or Scottish) and Indian mothers--who originally formed
+the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and Saskatchewan, particularly the
+ranching districts, are chiefly peopled by English immigrants, though
+since 1900 there has also been a large influx from the United States.
+British Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the mining
+districts a large proportion is American. Since 1871 a great change has
+taken place throughout the west, i.e. from Lake Superior to the Pacific.
+Then Manitoba was principally inhabited by English and French
+half-breeds (or Metis), descendants of Hudson's Bay Company's employes,
+or adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers,
+descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (q.v.), some English
+army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigration that shortly
+followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba buffalo were still running on the
+plains, and British Columbia having lost its mining population of 1859
+and 1860 was largely inhabited by Indians, its white population which
+centred in the city of Victoria being principally English.
+
+French is the language of the province of Quebec, though English is much
+spoken in the cities; both languages are officially recognized in that
+province, and in the federal courts and parliament. Elsewhere, English
+is exclusively used, save by the newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex
+is slightly the more numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the
+greatest discrepancy existing in British Columbia.
+
+The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families of twelve
+to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in Ontario. In spite of
+the growth of manufactures since 1878, there are few large cities, and
+the proportion of the urban population to the rural is small. Herein it
+differs noticeably from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of
+farmers in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and
+there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a
+manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large tracts
+in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for cultivation and
+are being opened up.
+
+_Religion_.--There is no established church in Canada, but in the
+province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the Roman
+Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that province about
+87% of the population belongs to this church, which is strong in the
+others also, embracing over two-fifths of the population of the
+Dominion. The Protestants have shown a tendency to subdivision, and many
+curious and ephemeral sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the
+various sections of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united,
+and a working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians, Methodists
+and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the strongest, and in Ontario
+form over 30% of the population. Next come the Presbyterians, the
+backbone of the maritime provinces. The Church of England is strong in
+the cities, especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief
+in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them 90% are
+nominally Christian.
+
+_Indians_.--The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and has slightly
+increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia and the unorganized
+territories, nearly all of these are on reservations, where they are
+under government supervision, receiving an annuity in money and a
+certain amount of provisions; and where, by means of industrial schools
+and other methods, civilized habits are slowly superseding their former
+mode of life. British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along
+the coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in the
+interior. An almost equal number are found in the three prairie
+provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000, are more civilized
+than those of the west, many of them being good farmers. In all the
+provinces they are under the control of the federal government which
+acts as their trustee, investing the money which they derive chiefly
+from the sale of lands and timber, and making a large annual
+appropriation for the payment of their annuities, schools and other
+expenses. While unable to alienate their reservations, save to the
+federal government, they are not confined to them, but wander at
+pleasure. As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are
+given the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario.
+A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make incomparable
+guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties, on which they will
+cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships, though tending to shrink from
+regular employment in cities or on farms.
+
+_Orientals_.--The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1906 about 20,000, of
+whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though they were
+spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as laundrymen. They are
+as a rule frugal, industrious and law-abiding, and are feared rather for
+their virtues than for their vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on
+all Chinese entering Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to L100 ($500).
+British Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the
+Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature.
+
+_Finance_.--Since 1871 the decimal system of coinage, corresponding to
+that of the United States, has been the only one employed. One dollar is
+divided into one hundred cents (L1=$4.86-2/3). The money in circulation
+consists of a limited number of notes issued by the federal government,
+and the notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and
+copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England, but in
+that year a branch of the royal mint was established at Ottawa. Though
+the whole financial system rests on the maintenance of the gold
+standard, gold coin plays a much smaller part in daily business than in
+England, France or Germany. United States' notes and silver are usually
+received at par; those of other nations are subject to a varying rate of
+exchange.
+
+The banking system, which retains many features of the Scotch system, on
+which it was originally modelled, combines security for the note-holders
+and depositors with prompt increase and diminution of the circulation in
+accordance with the varying conditions of trade. This is especially
+important in a country where the large wheat crop renders an additional
+quantity of money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and
+winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the "wild cat"
+banking, which had such disastrous effects in the early days of the
+western states. Since federation no chartered bank has been compelled to
+liquidate without paying its note-holders in full. The larger banks are
+chartered by the federal government; in the smaller towns a number of
+private banks remain, but their importance is small, owing to the great
+facilities given to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906
+there were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from 619
+in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has rapidly
+increased. The banks are required by law to furnish to the finance
+minister detailed monthly statements which are published in the official
+gazette. Once in every ten years the banking act is revised and
+weaknesses amended. Clearing-houses have been established in the chief
+commercial centres. In October 1906 the chartered banks had an aggregate
+paid-up capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of
+$83,000,000 and deposits of over $553,000,000.
+
+There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada:--(1) the post-office
+savings banks; (2) the government savings banks of the Maritime
+provinces taken over at federation and being gradually merged with the
+former; (3) two special savings banks in the cities of Montreal and
+Quebec; (4) the savings bank departments of the chartered banks. The
+rate of interest allowed by the government is now 3%, and the chartered
+banks usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in the
+first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546 in October
+1906. The returns from the chartered banks do not specify the deposits
+in these special accounts.
+
+The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain banking
+privileges.
+
+The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and excise duties,
+with subsidiary amounts from mining licences, timber dues, post-office,
+&c. Both the revenue and the expenditure have in recent years increased
+greatly, the revenue rising from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in
+1905 and the expenditure keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion
+in 1873 and in 1905 was:--
+
+  +------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |            |      1873.   |     1905.    |
+  +------------+--------------+--------------+
+  | Gross debt | $129,743,432 | $377,678,580 |
+  | Assets     |   30,894,970 |  111,454,413 |
+  | Net debt   |   98,848,462 |  266,224,413 |
+  +------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+While the debt had thus increased faster than the population, it weighed
+less heavily on the people, not only on account of the great increase
+in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower rate of interest paid,
+and of the increasing revenue derived from assets. Whereas in 1867 the
+rate of interest was over 4%, and interest was being paid on former
+provincial loans of over 6%, Canada could in 1906 borrow at 3%.
+
+The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the debts of
+the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure on canals and
+assistance given to railways. It does not include the debts incurred by
+certain provinces since federation, a matter which concerns themselves
+alone. A strong prejudice against direct taxation exists, and none is
+imposed by the federal government, though it has been tentatively
+introduced in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor
+licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &c. British Columbia has
+a direct tax on property and on income. The cities, towns and
+municipalities resort to it to supply their local needs, and there is a
+tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario on account of the excellence
+of her municipal system, to devolve the burden of educational payments,
+and others more properly provincial, upon the municipal authorities on
+the plea of decentralization.
+
+_Commerce and Manufactures._--Since 1867 the opening up of the fertile
+lands in the north-west, the increase of population, the discovery of
+new mineral fields, the construction of railways and the great
+improvement of the canal system have changed the conditions, methods and
+channels of trade. The great extension during the same period of the use
+of water-power has been of immense importance to Canada, most of the
+provinces possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls,
+capable of generating a practically unlimited supply of power.
+
+In 1878 the introduction of the so-called "National Policy" of
+protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection still
+remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a preference
+accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most of the British
+colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared with that of the
+United States, amounted in 1907 to about 28% on dutiable imports and to
+about 16% on total imports. Tentative attempts at export duties have
+also been made. Inter-provincial commerce is free, and the home market
+is greatly increasing in importance. The power to make commercial
+treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great Britain,
+but in most cases the official consent of Canada is required, and for
+many years no treaty repugnant to her interests has been signed. The
+denunciation by the British government in 1897 of commercial treaties
+with Belgium and Germany, at the request of Canada, was a striking proof
+of her increasing importance, and attempts have at various times been
+made to obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government.
+The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is with the
+United States and Great Britain. From the former come most of the
+manufactured goods imported and large quantities of raw materials; to
+the latter are sent food-stuffs. Farm products are the most important
+export, and with the extension of this industry in the north-west
+provinces and in northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold,
+silver, copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an
+unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The exports of
+lumber are about equally divided between the two. Formerly, the logs
+were shipped as square timber, but now almost always in the form of
+deals, planks or laths; such square timber as is still shipped goes
+almost entirely to Great Britain. Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper
+is exported chiefly to the United States. To that country fresh fish is
+sent in large quantities, and there is an important trade in canned
+salmon between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the
+manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an increasing
+share of the home market. In this they have won increased success, at
+least five-sixths of the manufactured goods used being produced within
+the country, but a desire for further protection is loudly expressed.
+Though the chief foreign commerce is with Great Britain and the United
+States, the Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of
+the world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her total foreign
+trade (import and export) was in 1906 over L100,000,000.
+
+_Shipping_.--The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax, N.S.,
+Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal on the Atlantic; and
+Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C., on the Pacific. Halifax is the
+ocean terminus of the Intercolonial railway; St John, Halifax and
+Vancouver of the Canadian Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western
+terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an
+uninhabited harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing
+city. Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the winter
+trade eastwards is done through American harbours, especially Portland,
+Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey. Esquimalt, Halifax,
+Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-equipped graving-docks. The coast,
+both of the ocean and of the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected.
+The decay of the wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the
+comparative importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a
+great increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon
+inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada and Great
+Britain; direct communication exists with France, and the steamers of
+the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly to Japan and to Australia.
+
+_Internal Communications_.--Her splendid lakes and rivers, the
+development of her canal system, and the growth of railways have made
+the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than her foreign, and
+the portfolio of railways and canals is one of the most important in the
+cabinet. There are, nominally, about 200 railways, but about one-half of
+these, comprising five-sixths of the mileage, have been amalgamated into
+four great systems: the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian
+Northern and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or
+less consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected
+the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across Prince
+Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal government.
+Originally built chiefly as a military road, and often the victim of
+political exigencies, it has not been a commercial success. With the
+completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific (planned for 1911) and the
+Canadian Northern, the country would possess three trans-continental
+railways, and be free from the reproach, so long hurled at it, of
+possessing length without breadth.
+
+At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made with the
+railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given by the federal,
+provincial and municipal governments to the construction of railways,
+amounting often to more than half the cost of the road. The government
+of Ontario has constructed a line to open up the agricultural and mining
+districts of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of
+a commission. Practically all the cities[3] and large towns have
+electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power on
+many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding towns and
+villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government has instituted a railway
+commission of three members with large powers of control over freight
+and passenger rates and other such matters. Telephone and express
+companies are also subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an
+appeal may be made to the governor-general in council, i.e. to the
+federal cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways and
+has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a somewhat similar
+commission, appointed by the local government, exercises extensive
+powers of control over railways solely within the province, especially
+over the electric lines.
+
+Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain
+important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers ply on
+lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far northern
+districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary obstacles are
+surmounted by canals, on which over L22,000,000 have been spent, chiefly
+since federation. The St Lawrence river canal system from Lake Superior
+to tide water overcomes a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large
+quantities of grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer
+navigation on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft.
+on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels on equal
+terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most modern character.
+So great, however, is the desire to shorten the time and distance
+necessary for the transportation of grain from Lake Superior to Montreal
+that an increasing quantity is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron
+and Georgian Bay ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller
+canals bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the Hudson
+river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn lumber of Ontario,
+Quebec and New Brunswick find their destination. It has long been a
+Canadian ideal to shorten the distance from Lake Superior to the sea.
+With this object in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been
+built, connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of Lake
+Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently surveys were made with
+a view to connecting the Georgian Bay through the intervening water
+stretches, with the Ottawa river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903
+all tolls were taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of
+trade.
+
+_Mining_.--The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton to the islands
+in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova Scotia, British Columbia and
+the Yukon are still the most productive, but the northern parts of
+Ontario are proving rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly
+bituminous, occurs in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia
+and in various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the
+anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater part of
+the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus of federal
+bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel, chiefly from imported
+ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on certain minerals and metals are
+also given by some of the provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though
+still valuable, show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the
+centre of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly in
+American hands, and the product exported to the United States. Of the
+less important minerals, Canada is the world's chief producer of
+asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver and all the important metals
+are mined in the Rocky Mountain district. From Quebec westwards, vast
+regions are still partly, or completely, unexplored.
+
+_Lumber_.--In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by fire, the
+forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the world. Measures
+have been taken, both by the provincial and the federal governments, for
+its preservation, and for re-forestation of depleted areas. Certain
+provinces prohibit the exportation of logs to the United States, in
+order to promote the growth of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware
+within the country, and the latter have of late years developed with
+great rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered from
+lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the greater demand
+from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. A great development has
+also taken place in Ontario and the eastern provinces, through the use
+of spruce and other trees, long considered comparatively useless, in the
+manufacture of wood-pulp for paper-making.
+
+_Crown Lands_.--Large areas of unoccupied land remain in all the
+provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
+Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British Columbia and the
+territories, these crown lands are chiefly owned by the federal
+parliament; in the other provinces, by the local legislatures. So great
+is their extent that, in spite of the immigration of recent years, the
+Dominion government gives a freehold of 160 acres to every _bona fide_
+settler, subject to certain conditions of residence and the erection of
+buildings during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold
+or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by the provinces
+must be paid for, save in certain districts of Ontario, where free
+grants are given, but the price charged is low. The Canadian Pacific
+railway controls large land areas in the two new provinces; and large
+tracts in these provinces are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion
+and the provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be
+preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of these the
+most extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff, Alberta, owned by
+the Dominion government, and the "Algonquin National Park," north-east
+of Lake Simcoe, the property of Ontario.
+
+_Fisheries_.--The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic coast,
+carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince
+Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec. Cod, herring, mackerel
+and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught, though halibut, salmon,
+anchovies and so-called sardines are also exported. Bounties to
+encourage deep-sea fishing have been given by the federal government
+since 1882. In British Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in
+addition to which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and
+shellfish. The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish,
+sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find more or
+less permanent employment in the fishing industry, including the
+majority of the Indians of British Columbia.
+
+The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent in the
+North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria, but the
+returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as one causing
+friction with the United States. Indeed, no department of national life
+has caused more continual trouble between the two peoples than the
+fisheries, owing to different laws regarding fish protection, and the
+constant invasion by each of the territorial waters of the other.
+
+_Education_.--The British North America Act imposes on the provincial
+legislatures the duty of legislating on educational matters, the
+privileges of the denominational and separate schools in Ontario and
+Quebec being specially safeguarded. In 1871, the New Brunswick
+legislature abolished the separate school system, and a contest arose
+which was finally settled by the authority of the legislature being
+sustained, though certain concessions were made to the Roman Catholic
+dissentients. Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where
+the legislature in 1890 abolished the system of separate schools which
+had been established in 1871. After years of bitter controversy, in
+which a federal ministry was overthrown, a compromise was arranged in
+1897, in which the Roman Catholic leaders have never fully acquiesced.
+In the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain
+educational privileges, (though not amounting to a separate school
+system) were granted to the Roman Catholics.
+
+All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of
+education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read and write,
+and 86% of those over five years of age. These percentages have
+gradually risen ever since federation, especially in the province of
+Quebec, which was long in a backward state. The school systems of all
+the provinces are, in spite of certain imperfections, efficient and
+well-equipped, that of Ontario being especially celebrated. A fuller
+account of their special features will be found under the articles on
+the different provinces.
+
+Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in number with the
+growth of the country in wealth and culture. In Quebec are a number of
+so-called classical colleges, most of them affiliated with Laval
+University.
+
+Higher education was originally organized by the various religious
+bodies, each of which retains at least one university in more or less
+integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba
+support provincial universities at Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg.
+Those of most importance[4] are:--Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S.
+(1818); the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800);
+McGill University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec, and
+Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen's University, Kingston, Ont. (1841); the
+University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827); Trinity University,
+Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria University, Toronto, Ont. (1836); the
+University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba,
+Winnipeg, Man. (1877).
+
+Of these McGill (see MONTREAL) is especially noted for the excellence of
+its training in practical and applied science. Many of the students,
+especially in the departments of medicine and theology, complete their
+education in the United States, Britain or Europe.
+
+Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries, that of
+Toronto being especially well-equipped.
+
+Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is the Royal
+Society of Canada, founded in 1881.
+
+_Defence_.--The command in chief of all naval and military forces is
+vested in the king, but their control rests with the federal parliament.
+The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries protection service, are
+under the minister of marine and fisheries, the land forces under the
+minister of militia and defence. Prior to 1903, command of the latter
+was vested in a British officer, but since then has been entrusted to a
+militia council, of which the minister is president. The fortified
+harbours of Halifax (N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905
+maintained and garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since
+been taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the
+permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had numbered about
+1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in various schools,
+chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In this all able-bodied
+citizens between the ages of 18 and 60 are nominally enrolled, but the
+active militia consists of about 45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying
+state of efficiency. These cannot be compelled to serve outside the
+Dominion, though special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was
+done during the war in South Africa (1899-1902). At Quebec is a Dominion
+arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps flourish in most of
+the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the Royal Military College, to
+the successful graduates of which a certain number of commissions in the
+British service is annually awarded.
+
+_Justice and Crime_.--Justice is well administered throughout the
+country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has been little of
+the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia and the United
+States. For this great credit is due to the "North-west mounted police,"
+the "Riders of the Plains," a highly efficient body of about seven
+hundred men, under the control of the federal government. Judges are
+appointed for life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed
+save by impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never
+attempted since federation, though more than once threatened. From the
+decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be made to the
+judicial committee of the imperial privy council.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The Canadian Geological Survey has published (Ottawa,
+  since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number of subjects.
+  Several provinces have bureaus or departments of mines, also issuing
+  reports. The various departments of the federal and the provincial
+  governments publish annual reports and frequent special reports, such
+  as the decennial report on the census, from which a vast quantity of
+  information may be obtained. Most of this is summed up in the annual
+  _Statistical Year Book of Canada_ and in the _Official Handbook of the
+  Dominion of Canada_, issued at frequent intervals by the Department of
+  the Interior. See also J.W. White (the Dominion geographer), _Atlas of
+  Canada_ (1906); J. Castell Hopkins, _Canada: an Encyclopaedia_ (6
+  vols., 1898-1900); _The Canadian Annual Review_ (yearly since 1902),
+  replacing H.J. Morgan's _Canadian Annual Register_ (1878-1886); Sir
+  J.W. Dawson, _Handbook of Canadian Geology_ (1889); George Johnson,
+  _Alphabet of First Things in Canada_ (3rd ed., 1898); A.G. Bradley,
+  _Canada in the Twentieth Century_ (1903); _Transactions of the Royal
+  Society of Canada_ (yearly since 1883); R.C. Breckenridge, _The
+  Canadian Banking System_ (1895); A. Shortt, _History of Canadian
+  Banking_ (1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, _The Intercolonial_ (1876); John
+  Davidson, "Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces" (_Economic
+  Journal_, June 1905); _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,
+  passim_, for valuable papers by H.M. Ami, A.P. Coleman, G.M. Dawson,
+  W.F. Ganong, B.J. Harrington and others; also articles in _Canadian
+  Economics_ and in the _Handbook of Canada_, published on the occasion
+  of visits of the British Association.     (W. L. G.)
+
+
+AGRICULTURE
+
+Canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of the total population
+(estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are directly engaged in
+practical agriculture. In addition large numbers are engaged in
+industries arising out of agriculture; among these are manufacturers of
+agricultural implements, millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and
+packers of meat, makers of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in
+the transportation and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats,
+butter, cheese, milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. The
+country is splendidly formed for the production of food. Across the
+continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or wider
+than France, with (over a large part of this area) a climate adapted to
+the production of foods of superior quality. Since the opening of the
+20th century, great progress has been made in the settlement and
+agricultural development of the western territories between the
+provinces of Manitoba and British Columbia. The three "North-West
+Provinces" (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) have a total area of
+369,869,898 acres, of which 12,853,120 acres are water. In 1906 their
+population was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1901. The land in
+this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are very
+rich in the constituents of plant food. Chemical analyses made by Mr
+F.T. Shutt have proved that soils from the North-West Provinces contain
+an average of 18,000 lb of nitrogen, 15,580 lb of potash and 6,700 lb of
+phosphoric acid per acre, these important elements of plant food being
+therefore present in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary
+cultivated European soils of good quality. The prairie lands of Manitoba
+and Saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. Horse and cattle
+ranching is practised in Alberta, where the milder winters allow of the
+outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater degree than is possible in
+the colder parts of Canada. The freezing of the soil in winter, which at
+first sight seems a drawback, retains the soluble nitrates which might
+otherwise be drained out. The copious snowfall protects vegetation,
+supplies moisture, and contributes nitrogen to the soil. The
+geographical position of Canada, its railway systems and steamship
+service for freight across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, are
+favourable to the extension of the export trade in farm products to
+European and oriental countries. Great progress has been made in the
+development of the railway systems of Canada, and the new
+transcontinental line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, passing through
+Saskatchewan via Saskatoon, and Alberta via Edmonton, renders possible
+of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing soil. The canal
+system of Canada, linking together the great natural waterways, is also
+of much present and prospective importance in cheapening the
+transportation of agricultural produce.
+
+
+  Crops
+
+Of _wheat_ many varieties are grown. The methods of cultivation do not
+involve the application of so much hand labour per acre as in Europe.
+The average yield of wheat for the whole of Canada is nearly 20 bushels
+per acre. In 1901 the total production of wheat in Canada was 55-1/2
+million bushels. In 1906 the estimated total production was 136 million
+bushels. The total wheat acreage, which at the census of 1901 was
+4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of nearly two million
+acres in five years.
+
+Up to the close of the 19th century, Ontario was the largest
+wheat-growing province in Canada. In 1900 the wheat acreage in Ontario
+was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an average yield of 19.10
+bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of this production was of fall or
+winter wheat, the average yield of which in Ontario over a series of
+years since 1883 had been about 20 bushels per acre. But the
+predominance in wheat-growing has now shifted to the new prairie regions
+of the west. A census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of
+wheat in the North-West Provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824
+bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21.84 bushels per acre.
+Of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in Manitoba, 2,117,484
+acres in Saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres in Alberta, with average
+yields per acre at the rates of 20.02 bushels in Manitoba, 23.70 in
+Saskatchewan and 26.49 in Alberta. In these provinces spring wheat is
+almost universally sown, except in Alberta where fall or winter wheat is
+also sown to a considerable extent. Summer fallowing for wheat is a
+practice that has gained ground in the North-West Provinces. Land
+ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the summer, is
+sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring. Wheat on summer
+fallow land yielded, according to the North-West census of 1906, from 2
+to 8 bushels per acre more than that sown on other land. Summer
+fallowing is, however, subject to one drawback: the strong growth which
+it induces is apt to retard the ripening of the grain. Canada is clearly
+destined to rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries
+of the world. The northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have not
+been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat were grown in
+1907 at Fort Vermilion on the Peace river, nearly 600 m. north of
+Winnipeg in lat. 58.34 and at Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie river in
+lat. 61.52, more than 800 m. north of Winnipeg and about 1000 m. north
+of the United States boundary. As a rule the weather during the
+harvesting period permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage
+from sprouting. Occasionally in certain localities in the north-west the
+grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as the
+proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate becomes
+modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less. The loss from
+this cause is also less than formerly, because any grain unfit for
+export is now readily purchased for the feeding of animals in Ontario
+and other parts of eastern Canada.
+
+Suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in general use,
+so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat is ground. This gives
+Canadian wheat excellent milling properties, and enables the millers to
+turn out flour uniform in quality and of high grade as to keeping
+properties. Canadian flour has a high reputation in European markets. It
+is known as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread,
+and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albuminoids
+being greater in Canadian flour than in the best brands of European.
+Owing to its possession of this characteristic of what millers term
+"strength," i.e. the relative capacity of flour to make large loaves of
+good quality, Canadian flour is largely in demand for blending with the
+flour of the softer English wheats. For this reason some of the strong
+Canadian wheats have commanded in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter
+more than English-grown wheat. At the general census of 1901 the number
+of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five persons
+and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes being 4251 and the
+value of products $31,835,873. A special census of manufactures in 1906
+shows that these figures had grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619
+employes and $56,703,269 value of the products. There is room for a
+great extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and
+exportation of flour.
+
+In the twelve months of 1907 Canada exported 37,503,057 bushels of wheat
+of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485 barrels of flour of the value
+of $7,626,408. The corresponding figures in 1900 were--wheat, 16,844,650
+bushels, value, $11,995,488, and flour, 768,162 bushels, value,
+$2,791,885.
+
+Oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from Prince Edward Island
+on the Atlantic coast to Vancouver Island on the Pacific coast. Over
+large areas the Canadian soil and climate are admirably adapted for
+producing oats of heavy weight per bushel. In all the provinces of
+eastern Canada the acreage under oats greatly exceeds that under wheat.
+The annual average oat crop in all Canada is estimated at about 248
+million bushels. As the total annual export of oats is now less than
+three million bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an
+advantage in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In 1907 the area
+under oats in Ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301
+bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage under hay
+and larger than the combined total of the other principal cereals grown
+in the province. Canadian oatmeal is equal in quality to the best. It is
+prepared in different forms, and in various degrees of fineness.
+
+Barley was formerly grown for export to the United States for malting
+purposes. After the raising of the duty on barley under the McKinley and
+Dingley tariffs that trade was practically destroyed and Canadian
+farmers were obliged to find other uses for this crop. Owing to the
+development of the trade with the mother-country in dairying and meat
+products, barley as a home feeding material has become more
+indispensable than ever. Before the adoption of the McKinley tariff
+about nine million bushels of barley were exported annually, involving
+the loss of immense stores of plant food. In 1907, with an annual
+production of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage
+was exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of
+produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. The preparation of
+pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry.
+
+Rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human food. Flour
+from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from Indian corn are preferred.
+
+Buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some districts for
+the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple syrup. These two make an
+excellent breakfast dish, characteristic of Canada and some of the New
+England states. There are also numerous forms of preparations from
+cereals, sold as breakfast foods, which, owing to the high quality of
+the grains grown in Canada and the care exercised in their manufacture,
+compare favourably with similar products in other countries.
+
+Peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with insect
+pests. Split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and sweet peas for
+canning are obtained of good quality.
+
+Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of the diet of
+the people. There is a comparatively small export, except in the case of
+turnips and potatoes and of vegetables which have been canned or dried.
+Besides potatoes, which thrive well and yield large quantities of
+excellent quality, there are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. The
+cultivation of sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been
+established in Ontario and in southern Alberta, where in 1906 an acreage
+under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of 8.13 tons per
+acre. Among the common vegetables used in the green state are peas,
+beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus, Indian corn, onions, leeks,
+tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery, parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash
+and rhubarb. Hay, of good quality of timothy (_Phleum pratense_), and
+also of timothy and clover, is grown over extensive areas. For export it
+is put up in bales of about 150 lb each. Since 1899 a new form of
+pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to stow in
+about 70 cub. ft. per ton. This has been a means of reducing the ocean
+freight per ton. The compact condition permits the hay to be kept with
+less deterioration of quality than under the old system of more loose
+baling. Austrian brome grass (_Bromus inermis_) and western rye grass
+(_Agropyrum tenerum_) are both extensively grown for hay in the
+North-West Provinces.
+
+
+  Live stock.
+
+The almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns has not
+led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to the extent that was
+at one time anticipated. Heavy draught horses are reared in Ontario, and
+to a less but increasing extent in the North-West Provinces, the breeds
+being mainly the Clydesdale and the Shire. Percherons are also bred in
+different parts of Canada, and a few Belgian draught horses have been
+introduced. Good horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs,
+omnibuses, and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local
+markets and for export. Thoroughbred and pure bred hackney stallions are
+maintained in private studs and by agricultural associations throughout
+the Dominion, and animals for cavalry and mounted infantry remounts are
+produced in all the provinces including those of the North-West. Useful
+carriage horses and saddle horses are bred in many localities. Horse
+ranching is practised largely in Alberta. There are no government stud
+farms. The total number of horses in the Dominion was estimated on the
+basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the year 1907, an increase of
+609,309 since 1901.
+
+Cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance. The bracing
+weather of Canadian winters is followed by the warmth and humidity of
+genial summers, under which crops grow in almost tropical luxuriance,
+while the cool evenings and nights give the plants a robustness of
+quality which is not to be found in tropical regions, and also make life
+for the various domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. In the
+North-West Provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which
+cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks are shipped
+annually. Throughout other parts bullocks are fed on pasture land, and
+also in stables on nourishing and succulent feed such as hay, Indian
+corn fodder, Indian corn silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats,
+barley, peas, Indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. The breeding
+of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of dairy cows
+for the production of milk, butter and cheese, has received much
+attention. There is government control of the spaces on the steamships
+in which the cattle are carried, and veterinary inspection prevents the
+exportation of diseased animals.
+
+A considerable trade has been established in the exportation of dressed
+beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation of meat and other
+foods in hermetically sealed receptacles. By the Meat and Canned Foods
+Act of 1907 of the Dominion parliament and regulations thereunder, the
+trade is carried on under the strictest government supervision, and no
+canned articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely
+wholesome and officially marked as such by government inspectors. There
+is a considerable trade in "lunch tongues."
+
+The cattle breeds are principally those of British origin. For beef,
+shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are bred
+largely, whilst for dairying purposes, shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys,
+Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians prevail. The French-Canadian cattle are
+highly esteemed in eastern Canada, especially by the farmers of the
+French provinces. They are a distinct breed of Jersey and Brittany type,
+and are stated to be descended from animals imported from France by the
+early settlers. The estimated number of cattle in Canada in 1907 was
+7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures of the census of
+1901.
+
+All parts of the Dominion are well adapted for sheep; but various
+causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity of other branches
+of agriculture, including wheat-growing and dairying, have in several of
+the provinces contributed to prevent that attention to this branch which
+its importance deserves, though there are large areas of rolling, rugged
+yet nutritious pastures well suited to sheep-farming. In the maritime
+provinces and in Prince Edward Island sheep and lambs are reared in
+large numbers. In Ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree of
+perfection, and other parts of the American continent draw their
+supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province. All the leading
+British varieties are reared, the Shropshire, Oxford Down, Leicester and
+Cotswold breeds being most numerous. There are also excellent flocks of
+Lincolns and Southdowns. The number of sheep and lambs in Canada was
+estimated for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565 in
+1901.
+
+Pigs, mostly of the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth breeds, are reared
+and fattened in large numbers, and there is a valuable export trade in
+bacon. Canadian hogs are fed, as a rule, on feeds suited for the
+production of what are known as "fleshy sides." Bacon with an excess of
+fat is not wanted, except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers
+of Canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having plenty of
+lean and firm flesh. The great extension of the dairy business has
+fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of swine. Experimental work
+has shown that swine fattened with a ration partly of skim-milk were
+lustier and of a more healthy appearance than swine fattened wholly on
+grains. Slaughtering and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing
+houses. The use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork
+has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a small
+percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered in
+European markets. Regular supplies are exported during every week of the
+year. Large quantities of lard, brawn and pigs' feet are exported. In
+1907 the number of pigs in Canada was estimated at 3,530,060, an
+increase of 1,237,385 over the census record of 1901. Turkeys thrive
+well, grow to a fine size and have flesh of tender quality. Chickens are
+raised in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly since
+the opening of the 20th century. Canadian eggs are usually packed in
+cases containing thirty dozens each. Cardboard fillers are used which
+provide a separate compartment for each egg. There are cold storage
+warehouses at various points in Canada, at which the eggs are collected,
+sorted and packed before shipment. These permit the eggs to be landed in
+Europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with the shells
+quite full.
+
+
+  Dairy products.
+
+Canada has been called the land of milk and honey. Milk is plentiful,
+and enters largely into the diet of the people. With a climate which
+produces healthy, vigorous animals, notably free from epizootic
+diseases, with a fertile soil for the growth of fodder crops and
+pasture, with abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful
+supply of ice, the conditions in Canada are ideal for the dairying
+industry. Large quantities of condensed milk, put up in hermetically
+sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and on board steamships.
+The cheese is chiefly of the variety known as "Canadian Cheddar." It is
+essentially a food cheese rather than a mere condiment, and 1 lb of it
+will furnish as much nourishing material as 2-1/4 lb of the best beefsteak.
+The industry is largely carried on by co-operative associations of
+farmers. The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864,
+and from that time the production and exportation of cheese grew
+rapidly. Legislation was passed to protect Canadian dairy produce from
+dishonest manipulation, and soon Canadian cheese obtained a deservedly
+high reputation in the British markets. In 1891 cheese factories and
+creameries numbered 1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. In 1908 there
+were 4355 of these factories, of which 1284 were in Ontario, 2806 in
+Quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of Canada. Those in
+Ontario are the largest in size. Amongst the British imports of cheese
+the Canadian product ranks first in quality, whilst in quantity it
+represents about 72% of the total value of the cheese imports, and 84%
+of the total value of the imports of that kind of cheese which is
+classed as Cheddar. In 1906 the total exports of cheese to all countries
+from Canada reached 215,834,543 lb of the value of $24,433,169.
+
+Butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk, cream and
+butter are handled by skilled makers. The creameries are provided with
+special cold storage rooms, into which the butter is placed on the same
+day in which it is made. From them it is carried in refrigerator railway
+cars and in cold storage chambers on steamships to its ultimate
+destination. For the export trade it is packed in square boxes made of
+spruce or some other odourless wood. These are lined with parchment
+paper, and contain each 56 lb net of butter. The total export of butter
+from Canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 lb., of the value of $7,075,539.
+According to a census of manufactures taken in 1906, the total value of
+factory cheese and butter made in Canada during that year was
+$32,402,265.
+
+
+  Fruits.
+
+There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes and westward
+of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine quality can be grown; and
+there are other smaller areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are
+grown in quantities in the open air. The climate is favourable to the
+growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants,
+gooseberries, etc. There are many localities in which cranberries are
+successfully grown, and in which blueberries also grow wild in great
+profusion.
+
+Apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. The high
+flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities of the
+Canadian apples are their chief merits. Apples are exported in barrels
+and also in boxes containing about one bushel each. Large quantities are
+also evaporated and exported. Establishments for evaporating fruit are
+now found in most of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning
+factories and jam factories have been established in many parts of
+Canada, and are conducted with advantage and profit.
+
+The chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern and western
+Ontario and in Nova Scotia; but recently much attention has been devoted
+to fruit-growing in British Columbia, where large areas of suitable land
+are available for the cultivation of apples, pears and other fruits. In
+some parts of the semi-arid districts in the interior of the province
+irrigation is being successfully practised for the purpose of bringing
+land under profitable cultivation for fruit. Collections of fruit grown
+in British Columbia have received premier honours at the competitive
+exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in London, where their
+high quality and fine colour have been greatly appreciated.
+
+Wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal vine-growing
+districts, and in several localities large vineyards have been planted
+for this purpose. An abundance of cider is also made in all the large
+apple-growing districts.
+
+Honey is one of the minor food-products of Canada, and in many
+localities bees have abundance of pasturage. Canadian honey for colour,
+flavour and substance is unsurpassed. Maple sugar and syrup are made in
+those areas of the country where the sugar-maple tree flourishes. The
+syrup is used chiefly as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and
+the sugar is used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes
+and for the making of confectionery. The processes of manufacture have
+been improved by the introduction of specially constructed evaporators,
+and quantities of maple sugar and syrup are annually exported.
+
+Tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in Canada since 1904. Its
+cultivation promises to be successful in parts of Ontario, Quebec and
+British Columbia.
+
+
+  State aid.
+
+The department of agriculture of the Dominion government renders aid to
+agriculture in many ways, maintaining the experimental farms and various
+effective organizations for assisting the live-stock, dairying and
+fruit-growing industries, for testing the germination and purity of
+agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in agricultural
+and dairy produce. The health of animals branch, through which are
+administered the laws relating to the contagious diseases of animals,
+and the control of quarantine and inspection stations for imported
+animals, undertakes also valuable experiments on the diseases of farm
+livestock, including glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &c. The
+policy of slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been
+successfully initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts of
+the country indicating a considerable decrease from the previous year in
+the number of horses destroyed and the amount of compensation paid. A
+disease of cattle in Nova Scotia, known as the Pictou cattle disease,
+long treated as contagious, has now been demonstrated by the veterinary
+officers of the department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the
+ragwort, _Senecio Jacobea_. Hog cholera or swine fever has been almost
+eradicated. A laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and
+pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive vaccines.
+Canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia and
+foot-and-mouth disease.
+
+The work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the improvement of
+the stock-raising industry, and is carried on through the agencies of
+expert teachers and stock judges, the systematic distribution of
+pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly testing of pure-bred dairy herds,
+the supervision of the accuracy of the registration of pure-bred animals
+and the nationalization of live-stock records. The last two objects are
+secured by act of the Dominion parliament passed in 1905. Under this act
+a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud, herd and
+flock book associations of Canada, perform the duties of accepting the
+entries of pure-bred animals for the respective pedigree registers, and
+are provided with an office and with stationery and franking privileges
+by the government. Pedigree certificates are certified as correct by an
+officer of the department of agriculture, so that in Canada there exist
+national registration and government authority for the accuracy of
+pedigree livestock certificates. The government promotes the extension
+of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the United
+Kingdom who make reports from time to time on the condition in which
+Canadian goods are delivered from the steamships, and also on what they
+can learn from importing and distributing merchants regarding the
+preferences of the market for different qualities of farm goods and
+different sorts of packages. Through this branch of the public service a
+complete chain of cold-storage accommodation between various points in
+Canada and markets in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, has been
+arranged. The government offered a bonus to those owners of creameries
+who would provide cold-storage accommodation at them and keep the room
+in use for a period of three years. It also arranged with the various
+railway companies to run refrigerator cars weekly on the main lines
+leading to Montreal and other export points. The food-products from any
+shippers are received into these cars at the various railway stations at
+the usual rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service.
+The government offered subventions to those who would provide
+cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were necessary,
+and also arranged with the owners of ocean steamships to provide
+cold-storage chambers on them by means of mechanical refrigerators. The
+policy of encouraging the provision of ample cold-storage accommodation
+has been developed still further by the Cold Storage Act of the Dominion
+parliament passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part
+payment of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage warehouses in
+Canada for the preservation of perishable food-products.
+
+Besides furnishing technical and general information as to the carrying
+on of dairying operations, the government has established and maintained
+illustration cheese factories and creameries in different places for the
+purpose of introducing the best methods of co-operative dairying in both
+the manufacturing and shipping of butter and cheese. Inspectors are
+employed to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to
+see to the enforcement of the Fruit Marks Acts, which prohibit the
+marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any fraudulent manner.
+
+The seed branch of the department of agriculture was established in 1900
+for the purpose of encouraging the production and use of seeds of
+superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of field and garden crops
+grown in Canada. Seeds are tested in the laboratory for purity and
+germination on behalf of farmers and seed merchants, and scientific
+investigations relating to seeds are conducted and reported upon. In the
+year 1906-1907 6676 samples of seeds were tested. Encouragement to
+seed-growing is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are
+issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against smut and on
+other subjects. Collections of weed seeds are issued to merchants and
+others to enable them readily to identify noxious weed seeds. The Seed
+Control Act of 1905 brings under strict regulations the trade in
+agricultural seeds, prohibiting the sale for seeding of cereals,
+grasses, clovers or forage plants unless free from weeds specified, and
+imposing severe penalties for infringements.
+
+The census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the
+department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census of
+population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the natural
+products of the Dominion every ten years, a census of the population and
+agriculture of the three North-West Provinces every five years, and
+various supplemental statistical inquiries at shorter intervals.
+
+
+  Experimental farms.
+
+Experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts of the
+Dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help to the
+farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the same time to
+cover the varied climatic and other conditions which influence
+agriculture in Canada. The central experimental farm is situated at
+Ottawa, near the boundary line between Quebec and Ontario, where it
+serves as an aid to agriculture in these two important provinces. One of
+the four branch farms then established is at Nappan, Nova Scotia, near
+the boundary between that province and New Brunswick, where it serves
+the farmers of the three maritime provinces. A second branch
+experimental farm is at Brandon in Manitoba, a third is at Indian Head
+in Saskatchewan and the fourth is at Agassiz in the coast climate of
+British Columbia. In 1906-1907 two new branch farms were established.
+One is situated at Lethbridge, southern Alberta, where problems will be
+investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and dry farming
+under conditions of a scanty rainfall. The other is at Lacombe, northern
+Alberta, about 70 m. south of Edmonton, in the centre of a good
+agricultural district on the Canadian Pacific railway. Additional branch
+farms in different parts of the Dominion are in process of
+establishment. At all these farms experiments are conducted to gain
+information as to the best methods of preparing the land for crop and of
+maintaining its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow,
+and how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest
+advantage. To this end experiments are conducted in the feeding of
+cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows for the
+production of milk, and Of poultry both for flesh and eggs. Experiments
+are also conducted to test the merits of new or untried varieties of
+cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage plants, fruits,
+vegetables, plants and trees; and samples, particularly of the most
+promising cereals, are distributed freely among farmers for trial, so
+that those which promise to be most profitable may be rapidly brought
+into general cultivation. Annual reports and occasional bulletins are
+published and widely distributed, giving the results of this work.
+Farmers are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large
+correspondence is conducted with those interested in agriculture in all
+parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and information
+from the officers of the farms.
+
+
+  Agricultural organizations and education.
+
+The governments of the several provinces each have a department of
+agriculture. Among other provincial agencies for imparting information
+there are farmers' institutes, travelling dairies, live-stock
+associations, farmers', dairymen's, seed-growers', and fruit-growers'
+associations, and agricultural and horticultural societies. These are
+all maintained or assisted by the several provinces. Parts of the
+proceedings and many of the addresses and papers presented at the more
+important meetings of these associations are published by the provincial
+governments, and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them.
+There are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important
+character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural and
+horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &c., are shown in
+competition. The Dominion government makes in turn to one of the chief
+local agricultural exhibition societies a grant of $50,000 for the
+purposes of the national representation of agriculture and live-stock.
+The exhibition receiving the grant loses its local character, and thus
+becomes the Dominion exhibition or fair for that year.
+
+There are several important agricultural colleges for the practical
+education of young men in farming, foremost amongst them being the
+Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. Agricultural colleges are also
+maintained at Truro, Nova Scotia, and Winnipeg, Manitoba. In most of the
+provinces are dairy schools where practical instruction and training are
+given. Since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education
+and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by the
+munificence of Sir William C. Macdonald of Montreal. A donation by him
+of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on Canadian farms for prizes
+in a competition for the selection of seed grain, as recommended by
+Professor J.W. Robertson, led to the Macdonald-Robertson Seed Growers'
+Association. This soon assumed national proportions in the Canadian
+Seed Growers' Association, which, with the seed branch of the department
+of agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a uniform
+standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas of the Canadian
+wheat-fields. The Macdonald Institute at Guelph, Ontario, the buildings
+and equipment of which Sir William provided at a cost of $182,500, and
+the Macdonald College at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. west of Montreal,
+have been established to promote the cause of rural education upon the
+lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training domestic
+science, &c., which on both sides of the Atlantic are now being found so
+effective in the hands of properly trained and enthusiastic teachers.
+The property of the Macdonald College at Ste Anne de Bellevue comprises
+561 acres, of which 74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research
+plots, 100 acres to a _petite culture_ farm and 387 acres to a
+live-stock and grain farm. The college includes a school for teachers, a
+school of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of
+household science for the training of young women. The land, buildings
+and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were presented
+by Sir William Macdonald, who in addition has provided for the future
+maintenance of the work by a trust fund of over $2,000,000. In connexion
+with the public elementary schools throughout Canada, where the
+principles of agriculture are taught to some extent, manual training
+centres, provided out of funds supplied by the same public-spirited
+donor, are now maintained by local and provincial public school
+authorities.     (E. H. G.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+  Discovery.
+
+About A.D. 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, led an expedition from
+Greenland to the shores probably of what is now Canada, but the first
+effective contact of Europeans with Canada was not until the end of the
+15th century. John Cabot (q.v.), sailing from Bristol, reached the
+shores of Canada in 1497. Soon after fishermen from Europe began to go
+in considerable numbers to the Newfoundland banks, and in time to the
+coasts of the mainland of America. In 1534 a French expedition under
+Jacques Cartier, a seaman of St Malo, sent out by Francis I., entered
+the Gulf of St Lawrence. In the following year Cartier sailed up the
+river as far as the Lachine Rapids, to the spot where Montreal now
+stands. During the next sixty years the fisheries and the fur trade
+received some attention, but no colonization was undertaken.
+
+
+  French colony.
+
+At the beginning of the 17th century we find the first great name in
+Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (q.v.), who had seen service under
+Henry IV. of France, was employed in the interests of successive
+fur-trading monopolies and sailed up the St Lawrence in 1603. In the
+next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share in founding the
+first permanent French colony in North America--that of Port Royal, now
+Annapolis, Nova Scotia. In 1608 he began the settlement which was named
+Quebec. From 1608 to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to
+develop Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore the
+interior. He passed southward from the St Lawrence to the beautiful lake
+which still bears his name and also westward, up the St Lawrence and the
+Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching the shores of China. He reached Lake
+Huron and Lake Ontario, but not the great lakes stretching still farther
+west.
+
+The era was that of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), and during that
+great upheaval England was sometimes fighting France. Already, in 1613,
+the English from Virginia had almost completely wiped out the French
+settlement at Port Royal, and when in 1629 a small English fleet
+appeared at Quebec, Champlain was forced to surrender. But in 1632
+Canada was restored to France by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye. Just
+at this time was formed under the aegis of Cardinal Richelieu the
+"Company of New France," known popularly as "The Company of One Hundred
+Associates." With 120 members it was granted the whole St Lawrence
+valley; for fifteen years from 1629 it was to have a complete monopoly
+of trade; and products from its territory were to enter France free of
+duty. In return the company was to take to New France 300 colonists a
+year; only French Catholics might go; and for each settlement the
+company was to provide three priests. Until 1663 this company controlled
+New France.
+
+It was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman Catholic church, and
+Canada became the favourite mission. The Society of Jesus was only one
+of several orders--Franciscans (Recollets), Sulpicians, Ursulines,
+&c.--who worked in New France. The Jesuits have attracted chief
+attention, not merely on account of their superior zeal and numbers, but
+also because of the tragic fate of some of their missionaries in Canada.
+In the voluminous _Relations_ of their doings the story has been
+preserved. Among the Huron Indians, whose settlements bordered on the
+lake of that name, they secured a great influence. But there was
+relentless war between the Hurons and the Iroquois occupying the
+southern shore of Lake Ontario, and when in 1649 the Iroquois ruined and
+almost completely destroyed the Hurons, the Jesuit missionaries also
+fell victims to the conquerors' rage. Missionaries to the Iroquois
+themselves met with a similar fate and the missions failed. Commercial
+life also languished. The company planned by Richelieu was not a
+success. It did little to colonize New France, and in 1660, after more
+than thirty years of its monopoly, there were not more than 2000 French
+in the whole country. In 1663 the charter of the company was revoked. No
+longer was a trading company to discharge the duties of a sovereign. New
+France now became a royal province, with governor, intendant, &c., on
+the model of the provinces of France.
+
+In 1664 a new "Company of the West Indies" (_Compagnie des Indes
+Occidentales_) was organized to control French trade and colonization
+not only in Canada but also in West Africa, South America and the West
+Indies. At first it promised well. In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent
+to Canada; the European population was soon doubled, and Louis XIV.
+began to take a personal interest in the colony. But once more, in
+contrast with English experience, the great trading company proved a
+failure in French hands as a colonizing agent, and in 1674 its charter
+was summarily revoked by Louis XIV. Henceforth in name, if not in fact,
+monopoly is ended in Canada.
+
+By this time French explorers were pressing forward to unravel the
+mystery of the interior. By 1659 two Frenchmen, Radisson and
+Groseillers, had penetrated beyond the great lakes to the prairies of
+the far West; they were probably the first Europeans to see the
+Mississippi. By 1666 a French mission was established on the shores of
+Lake Superior, and in 1673 Joliet and Marquette, explorers from Canada,
+reached and for some distance descended the Mississippi. Five years
+later Cavelier de la Salle was making his toilsome way westward from
+Quebec to discover the true character of the great river and to perform
+the feat, perilous in view of the probable hostility of the natives, of
+descending it to the sea. In 1682 he accomplished his task, took
+possession of the valley of the Mississippi in the name of Louis XIV.
+and called it Louisiana. Thus from Canada as her basis was France
+reaching out to grasp a continent.
+
+There was a keen rivalry between church and state for dominance in this
+new empire. In 1659 arrived at Quebec a young prelate of noble birth,
+Francois Xavier de Laval-Montmorency, who had come to rule the church in
+Canada. An ascetic, who practised the whole cycle of medieval
+austerities, he was determined that Canada should be ruled by the
+church, and he desired for New France a Puritanism as strict as that of
+New England. His especial zeal was directed towards the welfare of the
+Indians. These people showed, to their own ruin, a reckless liking for
+the brandy of the white man. Laval insisted that the traders should not
+supply brandy to the natives. He declared excommunicate any one who did
+so and for a time he triumphed. More than once he drove from Canada
+governors who tried to thwart him. In 1663 he was actually invited to
+choose a governor after his own mind and did so, but with no cessation
+of the old disputes. In 1672 Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac (q.v.),
+was named governor of New France, and in him the church found her match.
+Yet not at once; for, after a bitter struggle, he was recalled in 1682.
+But Canada needed him. He knew how to control the ferocious Iroquois,
+who had cut off France from access to Lake Ontario; to check them he had
+built a fort where now stands the city of Kingston. With Frontenac gone,
+these savages almost strangled the colony. On a stormy August night in
+1689 1500 Iroquois burst in on the village of Lachine near Montreal,
+butchered 200 of its people, and carried off more than 100 to be
+tortured to death at their leisure. Then the strong man Frontenac was
+recalled to face the crisis.
+
+
+  Struggles with England.
+
+It was a critical era. James II. had fallen in England, and William III.
+was organizing Europe against French aggression. France's plan for a
+great empire in America was now taking shape and there, as in Europe, a
+deadly struggle with England was inevitable. Frontenac planned attacks
+upon New England and encouraged a ruthless border warfare that involved
+many horrors. Him, in return, the English attacked. Sir William Phips
+sailed from Boston in 1690, conquered Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and then
+hazarded the greater task of leading a fleet up the St Lawrence against
+Quebec. On the 16th of October 1690 thirty-four English ships, some of
+them only fishing craft, appeared in its basin and demanded the
+surrender of the town. When Frontenac answered defiantly, Phips attacked
+the place; but he was repulsed and in the end sailed away unsuccessful.
+
+Each side had now begun to see that the vital point was control of the
+interior, which time was to prove the most extensive fertile area in the
+world. La Salle's expedition had aroused the French to the importance of
+the Mississippi, and they soon had a bold plan to occupy it, to close in
+from the rear on the English on the Atlantic coast, seize their colonies
+and even deport the colonists. The plan was audacious, for the English
+in America outnumbered the French by twenty to one. But their colonies
+were democracies, disunited because each was pursuing its own special
+interests, while the French were united under despotic leadership.
+Frontenac attacked the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these
+proud savages to sue for peace. But in the next year was made the treaty
+of Ryswick, which brought a pause in the conflict, and in 1698 Frontenac
+died.
+
+After Frontenac the Iroquois, though still hostile to France, are
+formidable no more, and the struggle for the continent is frankly
+between the English and the French. The peace of Ryswick proved but a
+truce, and when in 1701, on the death of the exiled James II., Louis
+XIV. flouted the claims of William III. to the throne of England by
+proclaiming as king James's son, renewed war was inevitable. In Europe
+it saw the brilliant victories of Marlborough; in America it was less
+decisive, but France lost heavily. Though the English, led by Sir
+Hovenden Walker, made in 1711 an effort to take Quebec which proved
+abortive, they seized Nova Scotia; and when the treaty of Utrecht was
+made in 1713, France admitted defeat in America by yielding to Britain
+her claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. But she still
+held the shores of the St Lawrence, and she retained, too, the island of
+Cape Breton to command its mouth. There she built speedily the fortress
+of Louisbourg, and prepared once more to challenge British supremacy in
+America. With a sound instinct that looked to future greatness, France
+still aimed, more and more, at the control of the interior of the
+Continent. The danger from the Iroquois on Lake Ontario had long cut her
+off from the most direct access to the West, and from the occupation of
+the Ohio valley leading to the Mississippi, but now free from this
+savage scourge she could go where she would. In 1701 she founded
+Detroit, commanding the route from Lake Erie to Lake Huron. Her
+missionaries and leaders were already at Sault Ste Marie commanding the
+approach to Lake Superior, and at Michilimackinac commanding that to
+Lake Michigan. They had also penetrated to what is now the Canadian
+West, and it was a French Canadian, La Verendrye, who, by the route
+leading past the point where now stands the city of Winnipeg, pressed
+on into the far West until in 1743, first recorded of white men, he came
+in sight of the Rocky Mountains. In the south of the continent France
+also crowned La Salle's work by founding early in the 18th century New
+Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi. It was a far cry from New
+Orleans to Quebec. If France could link them by a chain of settlements
+and shut in the English to their narrow strip of Atlantic seaboard there
+was good promise that North America would be hers.
+
+The project was far-reaching, but France could do little to make it
+effective. Louis XV. allowed her navy to decline and her people showed
+little inclination for emigration to the colonies. In 1744, when the war
+of the Austrian Succession broke out, the New England colonies planned
+and in 1745 effected the capture of Louisbourg, the stronghold of France
+in Cape Breton Island, which menaced their commerce. But to their
+disgust, when the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was made in 1748, this
+conquest was handed back to France. She continued her work of building a
+line of forts on the great lakes--on the river Niagara, on the Ohio, on
+the Mississippi; and the English colonies, with the enemy thus in their
+rear, grew ever more restive. In 1753 Virginia warned the French on the
+Ohio that they were encroaching on British territory. The next year, in
+circumstances curiously like those which were repeated when the French
+expedition under Marchand menaced Britain in Egypt by seeking to
+establish a post on the Upper Nile, George Washington, a young Virginian
+officer, was sent to drive the French from their Fort Duquesne on the
+Ohio river, where now stands Pittsburgh. The result was sharp fighting
+between English and French in a time of nominal peace. In 1755 the
+British took the stern step of deporting the Acadian French from Nova
+Scotia. Though this province had been ceded to Great Britain in 1713
+many of the Acadians had refused to accept British sovereignty. In 1749
+the British founded Halifax, began to colonize Nova Scotia, and, with
+war imminent, deemed it prudent to disperse the Acadians, chiefly along
+the Atlantic seaboard (see NOVA SCOTIA: _History_). In 1756 the Seven
+Years' War definitely began. France had no resources to cope with those
+of Britain in America, and the British command of the sea proved
+decisive. On the 13th of September 1759 Wolfe won his great victory
+before Quebec, which involved the fall of that place, and a year later
+at Montreal the French army in Canada surrendered. By the peace of
+Paris, 1763, the whole of New France was finally ceded to Great Britain.
+
+
+  English possesion.
+
+With only about 60,000 French in Canada at the time of the conquest it
+might have seemed as if this population would soon be absorbed by the
+incoming British. Some thought that, under a Protestant sovereign, the
+Canadian Catholics would be rapidly converted to Protestantism. But the
+French type proved stubbornly persistent and to this day dominates the
+older Canada. The first English settlers in the conquered country were
+chiefly petty traders, not of a character to lead in social or public
+affairs. The result was that the government of the time co-operated
+rather with the leaders among the French.
+
+After peace was concluded in 1763, Canada was governed under the
+authority of a royal proclamation, but sooner or later a constitution
+specially adapted to the needs of the country was inevitable. In 1774
+this was provided by the Quebec Act passed by the Imperial parliament.
+Under this act the western territory which France had claimed, extending
+as far as the Mississippi and south to the Ohio, was included with
+Canada in what was called the Province of Quebec. This vast territory
+was to be governed despotically from Quebec; the Roman Catholic church
+was given its old privileges in Canada; and the French civil law was
+established permanently side by side with the English criminal law. The
+act linked the land-owning class in Canada and the church by ties of
+self-interest to the British cause. The _habitant_, placed again under
+their authority, had less reason to be content.
+
+In 1775 began the American Revolution. Its leaders tried to make the
+revolt continental, and invaded Canada, hoping that the French would
+join them. They took Montreal and besieged Quebec during the winter of
+1775-1776; but the prudent leadership of Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards
+Lord Dorchester, saved Quebec and in 1776 the revolutionary army
+withdrew unsuccessful from Canada. Since that time any prospect of
+Canada's union to the United States has been very remote.
+
+But the American Revolution profoundly influenced the life of Canada.
+The country became the refuge of thousands of American loyalists who
+would not desert Great Britain. To Nova Scotia, to what are now New
+Brunswick (q.v.) and Ontario (q.v.) they fled in numbers not easily
+estimated, but probably reaching about 40,000. Until this time the
+present New Brunswick and Ontario had contained few European settlers;
+now they developed, largely under the influence of the loyalists of the
+Revolution. This meant that the American type of colonial life would be
+reproduced in Canada; but it meant also bitter hostility on the part of
+these colonists to the United States, which refused in any way to
+compensate the loyalists for their confiscated property. Great Britain
+did something; the loyalists received liberal grants of land and cash
+compensation amounting to nearly L4,000,000.
+
+A prevailingly French type of government was now no longer adequate in
+Canada, and in 1791 was passed by the British parliament the
+Constitutional Act, separating Canada at the Ottawa river into two
+parts, each with its own government; Lower Canada, chiefly French,
+retaining the old system of laws, with representative institutions now
+added, and Upper Canada, on the purely British model. (For the history
+of Lower and Upper Canada, now Quebec and Ontario, the separate articles
+must be consulted.) Each province had special problems; the French in
+Lower Canada aimed at securing political power for their own race, while
+in Upper Canada there was no race problem, and the great struggle was
+for independence of official control and in all essential matters for
+government by the people. It may be doubted whether at this time it
+would have been safe to give these small communities complete
+self-government. But this a clamorous radical element demanded
+insistently, and the issue was the chief one in Canada for half a
+century.
+
+But before this issue matured war broke out between Great Britain and
+the United States in 1812 from causes due chiefly to Napoleon's
+continental policy. The war seemed to furnish a renewed opportunity to
+annex Canada to the American Union, and Canada became the chief theatre
+of conflict. The struggle was most vigorous on the Niagara frontier. But
+in the end the American invasion failed and the treaty made at Ghent in
+1814 left the previous status unaltered.
+
+
+  Lord Durham.
+
+In 1837 a few French Canadians in Lower Canada, led by Louis Joseph
+Papineau (q.v.), took up arms with the wild idea of establishing a
+French republic on the St Lawrence. In the same year William Lyon
+Mackenzie (q.v.) led a similar armed revolt in Upper Canada against the
+domination of the ruling officialdom called, with little reason, the
+"Family Compact." Happening, as these revolts did, just at the time of
+Queen Victoria's accession, they attracted wide attention, and in 1838
+the earl of Durham (q.v.) was sent to govern Canada and report on the
+affairs of British North America. Clothed as he was with large powers,
+he undertook in the interests of leniency and reconciliation to banish,
+without trial, some leaders of the rebellion in Lower Canada. For this
+reason he was censured at home and he promptly resigned, after spending
+only five months in the country. But his _Report_, published in the
+following year, is a masterly survey of the situation and included
+recommendations that profoundly influenced the later history of Canada.
+He recommended the union of the two Canadian provinces at once, the
+ultimate union of all British North America and the granting to this
+large state of full self-government. The French element he thought a
+menace to Canada's future, and partly for this reason he desired all the
+provinces to unite so that the British element should be dominant.
+
+To carry out Lord Durham's policy the British government passed in 1840
+an Act of Union joining Upper and Lower Canada, and sent out as governor
+Charles Poulett Thompson, who was made Baron Sydenham and Toronto In the
+single parliament each province was equally represented. By this time
+there was more than a million people in Canada, and the country was
+becoming important. Lord Sydenham died in 1841 before his work was
+completed, and he left Canada still in a troubled condition. The French
+were suspicious of the Union, aimed avowedly at checking their
+influence, and the complete self-government for which the "Reformers" in
+English-speaking Canada had clamoured was not yet conceded by the
+colonial office. But rapidly it became obvious that the provinces united
+had become too important to be held in leading strings. The issue was
+finally settled in 1849 when the earl of Elgin was governor and the
+Canadian legislature, sitting at Montreal, passed by a large majority
+the Rebellion Losses Bill, compensating citizens, some of them French,
+in Lower Canada, for losses incurred at the hands of the loyal party
+during the rebellion a decade earlier. The cry was easily raised by the
+Conservative minority that this was to vote reward for rebellion. They
+appealed to London for intervention. The mob in Montreal burned the
+parliament buildings and stoned Lord Elgin himself because he gave the
+royal assent to the bill. He did so in the face of this fierce
+opposition, on the ground that, in Canadian domestic affairs, the
+Canadian parliament must be supreme.
+
+The union of the two provinces did not work well. Each was jealous of
+the other and deadlocks frequently occurred. Commercially, after 1849,
+Canada was prosperous. In 1854 Lord Elgin negotiated a reciprocity
+treaty with the United States which gave Canadian natural products free
+entrance to the American market. The outbreak of the Civil War in the
+United States in 1861 increased the demand for such products, and Canada
+enjoyed an extensive trade with her neighbour. But, owing largely to the
+unfriendly attitude of Great Britain to the northern side during the
+war, the United States cancelled the treaty, when its first term of ten
+years ended in 1865, and it has never been renewed.
+
+Under the party system in Canada cabinets changed as often as, until
+recently, they did in France, and the union of the two provinces did not
+give political stability. The French and English were sufficiently equal
+in strength to make the task of government well nigh impossible. In 1864
+came the opportunity for change, when New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and
+Prince Edward Island were considering a federal union. Canada suggested
+a wider plan to include herself and, in October 1864, a conference was
+held at Quebec. The conference outlined a plan of federation which
+subsequently, with slight modifications, passed the imperial parliament
+as "The British North America Act," and on the 1st of July 1867, the
+Dominion of Canada came into existence. It was born during the era of
+the American Civil War, and was planned to correct defects which time
+had revealed in the American federation. The provinces in Canada were
+conceded less power than have the states in the American union; the
+federal government retaining the residuum of power not conceded.
+     (G. M. W.)
+
+
+  Canada since federation.
+
+When federation was accomplished in 1867 the Dominion of Canada
+comprised only the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and
+Nova Scotia. Lord Monck was appointed the first governor-general, and at
+his request the Hon. John Alexander Macdonald undertook the formation of
+an administration. A coalition cabinet was formed, including the
+foremost Liberals and Conservatives drawn from the different provinces.
+Under a proclamation issued from Windsor Castle by Queen Victoria on the
+22nd of May the new constitution came into effect on the 1st of July.
+This birthday of the Dominion has been fixed by statute as a public
+holiday, and is annually observed under the name of "Dominion Day."
+Seventy-two senators--half Conservatives and half Liberals--were
+appointed, and lieutenant-governors were named for the four provinces.
+The prime minister was created a K.C.B., and minor honours were
+conferred on other ministers in recognition of their services in
+bringing about the union.
+
+
+  Nova Scotia question.
+
+The first general election for the Dominion House of Commons was held
+during the month of August, and except in the province of Nova Scotia
+was favourable to the administration, which entered upon its
+parliamentary work with a majority of thirty-two. The first session of
+parliament was opened on the 8th of November, but adjourned on the 21st
+of December till the 12th of March 1868, chiefly on account of the fact
+that members of the Dominion parliament were allowed, in Ontario and
+Quebec, to hold seats in the local legislatures, so that it was
+difficult for the different bodies to be in session simultaneously. It
+was not till 1873 that an act was passed making members of the local
+legislatures ineligible for seats in the House of Commons. Immediately
+after the completion of federation a serious agitation for repeal of the
+union arose in Nova Scotia, which had been brought into the federal
+system by a vote of the existing legislature, without any direct
+preliminary appeal to the people. Headed by Joseph Howe (q.v.), the
+advocates of repeal swept the province at the Dominion election. Out of
+19 members then elected 18 were pledged to repeal, Dr Tupper, the
+minister responsible for carrying the Act of Union, alone among the
+supporters of federation securing a seat. The local assembly, in which
+36 out of 38 members were committed to repeal, passed an address to Her
+Majesty praying her not to "reduce this free, happy and hitherto
+self-governed province to the degraded condition of a servile dependency
+of Canada," and sent Howe with a delegation to London to lay the
+petition at the foot of the throne. Howe enlisted the support of John
+Bright and other members of parliament, but the imperial government was
+firm, and the duke of Buckingham, as colonial secretary, soon informed
+the governor-general in a despatch that consent could not be given for
+the withdrawal of Nova Scotia from the Dominion. Meanwhile Howe,
+convinced of the impossibility of effecting separation, and fearing
+disloyal tendencies which had manifested themselves in some of its
+advocates, entered into negotiations with Dr Tupper in London, and later
+with the Dominion government, for better financial terms than those
+originally arranged for Nova Scotia in the federal system. The estimated
+amount of provincial debt assumed by the general government was
+increased by $1,186,756, and a special annual subsidy of $82,698 was
+granted for a period of ten years. These terms having been agreed to,
+Howe, as a pledge of his approval and support, accepted a seat as
+secretary of state in the Dominion cabinet. By taking this course he
+sacrificed much of his remarkable popularity in his native province, but
+confirmed the work of consolidating the Dominion. It was many years
+before the bitterness of feeling aroused by the repeal agitation
+entirely subsided in Nova Scotia.
+
+A gloom was cast over the first parliament of the Dominion by the
+assassination in 1868 of one of the most brilliant figures in the
+politics of the time, D'Arcy McGee (q.v.) His murderer, a Fenian acting
+under the instructions of the secret society to which he belonged, was
+discovered, and executed in 1869.
+
+The reorganization of the various departments of state, in view of the
+wider interests with which they had to deal, occupied much of the
+attention of the first parliament of the Dominion. In 1867 the postal
+rates were reduced and unified. In 1868 a militia system for the whole
+Dominion was organized, the tariff altered and systematized, and a Civil
+Service Act passed. The banking system of the country was put on a sound
+footing by a series of acts culminating in 1871, and in the same year a
+uniform system of decimal currency was established for the whole
+Dominion. While the new machinery of state was thus being put in
+operation other large questions presented themselves.
+
+
+  Inter-Colonial railway.
+
+The construction of the Inter-Colonial railway as a connecting link
+between the provinces on the seaboard and those along the St Lawrence
+and the Great Lakes was a part of the federation compact, a clause of
+the British North America Act providing that it should be begun within
+six months after the date of union. The guarantee of the imperial
+government made easy the provision of the necessary capital, but as
+this was coupled with a voice in the decision of the route, it
+complicated the latter question, about which a keen contest arose. The
+most direct and therefore commercially most promising line of
+construction passed near the boundary of the United States. Recent
+friction with that country made this route objected to by the imperial
+and many Canadian authorities. Ultimately the longer, more expensive,
+but more isolated route along the shores of the Gulf of St Lawrence was
+adopted. The work was taken in hand at once, and pressed steadily
+forward to completion. It has since been supplemented by other lines
+built for more distinctly commercial ends. Though not for many years a
+financial success, the Inter-Colonial railway, which was opened in 1876,
+has in a marked way fulfilled its object by binding together socially
+and industrially widely separated portions of the Dominion.
+
+
+  Hudson's Bay Company territories.
+
+Within a month of the meeting of the first parliament of the Dominion a
+question of vast importance to the future of the country was brought
+forward by the Hon. W. McDougall in a series of resolutions which were
+adopted, and on which was based an address to the queen praying that
+Majesty would unite Rupert's Land and the North-West Territories to
+Canada. A delegation consisting of Sir G.E. Cartier and the Hon. W.
+McDougall was in 1868 sent to England to negotiate with the Hudson's Bay
+Company (q.v.) for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the
+imperial government for the transfer of the territory. After prolonged
+discussions the company agreed to surrender to the crown, in
+consideration of a payment of L300,000, the rights and interests in the
+north-west guaranteed by its charter, with the exception of a
+reservation of one-twentieth part of the fertile belt, and 45,000 acres
+of land adjacent to the trading posts of the company. For the purposes
+of this agreement the "fertile belt" was to be bounded as follows:--"On
+the south by the U.S. boundary, on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on
+the north by the northern branch of the Saskatchewan river, on the east
+by Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connecting
+them." An act authorizing the change of control was passed by the
+imperial parliament in July 1868; the arrangement made with the Hudson's
+Bay Company was accepted by the Canadian parliament in June 1869; and
+the deed of surrender from the Hudson's Bay Company to Her Majesty is
+dated November 19th, 1869. In anticipation of the formal transfer to the
+Dominion an act was passed by the Canadian parliament in the same month
+providing for the temporary government of Rupert's Land and the
+North-West Territories. On the 28th of September the Hon. W. McDougall
+was appointed the first governor, and left at once to assume control on
+the 1st of December, when it had been understood that the formal change
+of possession would take place.
+
+
+  Red river rebellion.
+
+Meanwhile a serious condition of affairs was developing in the Red river
+settlement, the most considerable centre of population in the newly
+acquired territory. The half-breeds regarded with suspicion a transfer
+of control concerning which they had not been consulted. They resented
+the presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads and
+townships, and the tactless way in which some of these did their work
+increased the suspicion that long-established rights to the soil would
+not be respected. A population largely Roman Catholic in creed, and
+partly French in origin and language, feared that an influx of new
+settlers would overthrow cherished traditions. Some were afraid of
+increased taxation. A group of immigrants from the United States
+fomented disturbance in the hope that it would lead to annexation. Louis
+Riel, a fanatical half-breed, placed himself at the head of the
+movement. His followers established what they called a "provisional
+government" of which he was chosen president, and when the newly
+appointed governor reached the boundary line he was prevented from
+entering the territory. Several of the white settlers who resisted this
+rebellious movement were arrested and kept in confinement. One of these,
+a young man named Thomas Scott, having treated Riel with defiance, was
+court-martialled for treason to the provisional government, condemned,
+and on the 4th of March 1870, shot in cold blood under the walls of Fort
+Garry. This crime aroused intense excitement throughout the country,
+and the Orange body, particularly, to which Scott belonged, demanded the
+immediate punishment of his murderer and the suppression of the
+rebellion. An armed force, composed partly of British regulars and
+partly of Canadian volunteers, was made ready and placed under the
+command of Colonel Garnet Wolseley, afterwards Lord Wolseley. As a
+military force could not pass through the United States, the expedition
+was compelled to take the route up Lake Superior, and from the head of
+that lake through 500 m. of unbroken and difficult wilderness. In August
+1870, the force reached Fort Garry, to find the rebels scattered and
+their leader, Riel, a fugitive in the neighbouring states. Meanwhile,
+during the progress of the expedition, an act had been passed creating
+Manitoba a province, with full powers of self-government, and the
+arrival of the military was closely followed by that of the first
+governor, Mr (later Sir) Adams G. Archibald, who succeeded in organizing
+the administration on a satisfactory basis. Fort Garry became Winnipeg,
+and there were soon indications that it was destined to be a great city,
+and the commercial doorway to the vast prairies that lay beyond.
+Meanwhile, till adequate means of transportation were provided, it was
+seen that city and prairie alike must wait for any large inflow of
+population.
+
+
+  New provinces.
+
+Provision was made in the British North America Act to receive new
+provinces into the Dominion. Manitoba was the first to be constituted;
+in 1871 British Columbia, which had hitherto held aloof, determined,
+under the persuasion of a sympathetic governor, Mr (later Sir) Antony
+Musgrave, to throw in its lot with the Dominion. Popular feeling in
+British Columbia itself was not strongly in favour of union, and the
+terms under which the new province was to be received were the subject
+of much negotiation with the provincial authorities, and were keenly
+debated in parliament before the bill in which they were embodied was
+finally carried. The clause on which there was the widest divergence of
+opinion was one providing that a trans-continental railway, connecting
+the Pacific province with the eastern part of the Dominion, should be
+begun within two, and completed within ten years. To a province which at
+the time contained a population of only 36,000, and but half of this
+white, the inducement thus held out was immense. The Opposition in
+parliament claimed that the contract was one impossible for the Dominion
+to fulfil. The government of Sir John Macdonald felt, however, that the
+future of the Dominion depended upon linking together the Atlantic and
+the Pacific, and in view of the vast unoccupied spaces lying between the
+Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, open to immigration from the United
+States, their audacity in undertaking the work was doubtless justified.
+The construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, thus inaugurated,
+became for several years the chief subject of political contention
+between opposing parties.
+
+Anticipating the order of chronology slightly, it may be mentioned here
+that in 1873 Prince Edward Island (q.v.), which had in 1865 decisively
+rejected proposals of the Quebec conference and had in the following
+year repeated its rejection of federation by a resolution of the
+legislature affirming that no terms Canada could offer would be
+acceptable, now decided to throw in its lot with the Dominion. The
+island had become involved in heavy railway expenditure, and financial
+necessities led the electors to take a broader view of the question. In
+the end the federal government assumed the railway debt, arrangements
+were made for extinguishing certain proprietary rights which had long
+been a source of discontent, and on the 1st of July 1873 the Dominion
+was rounded off by the accession of the new province.
+
+Finally in 1878, in order to remove all doubts about unoccupied
+territory, an imperial order in council was passed in response to an
+address of the Canadian parliament, annexing to the Dominion all British
+possessions in North America, except Newfoundland. That small colony,
+which had been represented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the
+proposals of 1865, and, in spite of various efforts to arrange
+satisfactory terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has proved the only
+obstacle to the complete political unification of British North America.
+
+[Illustration: CANADA]
+
+
+  Difficulties with the United States.
+
+A signal proof was soon furnished of the new standing in the empire
+which federation had given to the Canadian provinces. A heritage of
+differences and difficulties had been left to be settled between
+England, Canada and the American Union as the result of the Civil War.
+In retaliation for the supposed sympathy of Canadians with the South in
+this struggle the victorious North took steps to abrogate in 1866 the
+reciprocity treaty of 1854, which had conferred such great advantages on
+both countries. It followed that the citizens of the United States lost
+the right which they had received under the treaty to share in the
+fisheries of Canada. American fishermen, however, showed so little
+inclination to give up what they had enjoyed so long, that it was found
+necessary to take vigorous steps to protect Canadian fishing rights, and
+frequent causes of friction consequently arose. During the progress of
+the Civil War American feeling had been greatly exasperated by the
+losses inflicted on commerce by the cruiser "Alabama," which, it was
+claimed, was allowed to leave a British port in, violation of
+international law. On the other hand, Canadian feeling had been equally
+exasperated by the Fenian raids, organized on American soil, which had
+cost Canada much expenditure of money and some loss of life. In,
+addition to these causes of difference there was an unsettled boundary
+dispute in British Columbia, and questions about the navigation of
+rivers common to the United States and Canada. In 1869 the government of
+Canada sent a deputation to England to press upon the imperial
+government the necessity of asserting Canada's position in regard to the
+fisheries, and the desirability of settling other questions in dispute
+with the republic. The outcome of this application was the appointment
+of a commission to consider and if possible settle outstanding
+differences between the three countries. The prime minister of the
+Dominion, Sir John Macdonald, was asked to act as one of the imperial
+commissioners in carrying on these negotiations. This was the first time
+that a colonist had been called upon to assist in the settlement of
+international disputes. The commission assembled at the American capital
+in February 1871, and after discussions extending over several weeks
+signed what is known as the treaty of Washington. By the terms of this
+treaty the "Alabama" claims and the San Juan boundary were referred to
+arbitration; the free navigation of the St Lawrence was granted to the
+United States in return for the free use of Lake Michigan and certain
+Alaskan rivers; and it was settled that a further commission should
+decide the excess of value of the Canadian fisheries thrown open to the
+United States over and above the reciprocal concessions made to Canada.
+Much to the annoyance of the people of the Dominion the claims for the
+Fenian raids were withdrawn at the request of the British government,
+which undertook, to make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To
+some of these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous
+opposition, and in finally signing the treaty stated that he did so
+chiefly for imperial interests, although in these he believed Canadian
+interests to be involved. The clauses relating to the fisheries and the
+San Juan boundary were reserved for the approval of the Canadian
+parliament, which, in spite of much violent opposition, ratified them by
+a large majority. Under the "Alabama" arbitration Great Britain paid to
+the United States damages to the amount of $15,500,000, while the German
+Emperor decided the San Juan boundary in favour of the United States.
+The Fishery Commission, on the other hand, which sat in Halifax, awarded
+Canada $5,500,000 as the excess value of its fisheries for twelve years,
+and after much hesitation this sum was paid by the United States into
+the Canadian treasury. An imperial guarantee of a loan for the
+construction of railways was the only compensation Canada received for
+the Fenian raids.
+
+
+  Canadian Pacific railway question.
+
+The second general election for the Dominion took place in 1872. It was
+marked by the complete defeat of the Anti-Unionist party in Nova Scotia,
+only one member of which secured his election, thus exactly reversing
+the vote of 1867. While Sir John Macdonald's administration was
+supported in Nova Scotia, it was weakened in Ontario on account of the
+clemency shown to Riel, and in Quebec by the refusal to grant a general
+amnesty to all who had taken part in the rebellion. Two important
+members of the cabinet, Sir G. Cartier and Sir F. Hincks, were defeated.
+Opposition to the Washington treaty and dread of the bold railway policy
+of the government also contributed to weaken its position. But a graver
+blow, ending in the complete overthrow of the administration, was soon
+to fall as the result of the election. In 1872 two companies had been
+formed and received charters to build the Canadian Pacific railway. Sir
+Hugh Allan of Montreal was at the head of the one, and the Hon. David
+Macpherson of Toronto was president of the other. The government
+endeavoured to bring about an amalgamation of these rival companies,
+believing that the united energies and financial ability of the whole
+country were required for so vast an undertaking. While negotiations to
+this end were still proceeding the election of 1872 came on with the
+result already mentioned. Soon after the meeting of parliament, a
+Liberal member of the House, Mr L.S. Huntingdon, formally charged
+certain members of the cabinet with having received large sums of money,
+for use in the election, from Sir Hugh Allan, on condition, as it was
+claimed, that the Canadian Pacific contract should be given to the new
+company, of which he became the head on the failure of the plan for
+amalgamation. These charges were investigated by a royal commission,
+which was appointed after it had been decided that the parliamentary
+committee named for that purpose could not legally take evidence under
+oath. Parliament met in October 1873, to receive the report of the
+commission. While members of the government were exonerated by the
+report from the charge of personal corruption, the payment of large sums
+of money by Sir Hugh Allan was fully established, and public feeling on
+the matter was so strong that Sir J. Macdonald, while asserting his own
+innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the vote, of
+parliament. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord Lisgar as
+governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the leader of the Opposition,
+Mr Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.), who succeeded in forming a Liberal
+administration which, on appealing to the constituencies, was supported
+by an overwhelming majority, and held power for the five following
+years.
+
+On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy was adopted
+for the construction of the trans-continental railway. It was proposed
+to lessen the cost of construction by utilizing the water stretches
+along the route, while, on the ground that the contract made was
+impossible of fulfilment, the period of completion was postponed
+indefinitely. Meanwhile the surveys and construction were carried
+forward not by a company, but as a government work. Under this
+arrangement British Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the
+Dominion to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the
+union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir James) Edgar,
+sent out to conciliate the province by some new agreement, failed to
+accomplish his object, and all the influence of the governor-general,
+Lord Dufferin, who paid a visit at this time to the Pacific coast, was
+required to quiet the public excitement, which had shown itself in a
+resolution passed by the legislature for separation from the Dominion
+unless the terms of union were fulfilled.
+
+
+  Economic "national policy."
+
+Meanwhile a policy destined to affect profoundly the future of the
+Dominion had, along with that of the construction of the Canadian
+Pacific railway, become a subject of burning political discussion and
+party division. During the period of Mr Mackenzie's administration a
+profound business depression affected the whole continent of America.
+The Dominion revenue showed a series of deficits for several years in
+succession. The factories of the United States, unduly developed by an
+extreme system of protection, sought in Canada a slaughter market for
+their surplus products, to the detriment or destruction of Canadian
+industries. Meanwhile the republic, which had for many years drained
+Canada of hundreds of thousands of artisans to work its factories,
+steadily declined to consider any suggestion for improving trade
+relations between the two countries. In these circumstances Sir J.
+Macdonald brought forward a proposal to adopt what was called a
+"national policy," or, in other words, a system of protection for
+Canadian industries. Mr Mackenzie and his chief followers, whose
+inclinations were towards free trade, pinned their political fortunes to
+the maintenance of a tariff for revenue only. After some years of fierce
+discussion in parliament and throughout the country the question was
+brought to an issue in 1878, when, with a large majority of followers
+pledged to carry out protection, Sir John Macdonald was restored to
+power. The new system was laid before parliament in 1879 by the finance
+minister, Sir Leonard Tilley; and the tariff then agreed upon, although
+it received considerable modification from time to time, remained, under
+both Conservative and Liberal administrations, the basis of Canadian
+finance, and, as Canadians generally believed, the bulwark of their
+industry. It had almost immediately the effect of lessening the exodus
+of artisans to the United States, and of improving the revenue and so
+restoring the national credit.
+
+
+  Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
+
+In October 1878 Lord Dufferin's term of office expired, and his place as
+governor-general was taken by the marquess of Lorne, whose welcome to
+the Dominion was accentuated by the fact that he was the son-in-law of
+the queen, and that his viceroyalty was shared by the princess Louise.
+The election of 1878 marked the beginning of a long period of
+Conservative rule--the premiership of Sir J. Macdonald continuing from
+that time without a break until his death in 1891, while his party
+remained in power till 1896. This long-continued Conservative supremacy
+was apparently due to the policy of bold and rapid development which it
+had adopted, and which appealed to a young and ambitious country more
+strongly than the more cautious proposals of the Liberal leaders. As
+soon as the government had redeemed its pledge to establish a system of
+protection a vigorous railway policy was inaugurated. A contract was
+made with a new company to complete the Canadian Pacific railway within
+ten years, on condition of receiving a grant of $25,000,000 and
+25,000,000 acres of land, together with those parts of the line already
+finished under government direction. After fierce debate in parliament
+these terms were ratified in the session of 1881. The financial
+difficulties encountered by the company in carrying out their gigantic
+task were very great, and in 1884 they were compelled to obtain from the
+Dominion government a loan of $20,000,000 secured on the company's
+property. This loan was repaid by 1887. Meanwhile the work was carried
+forward with so much energy that, five years before the stipulated
+period of completion, on the 7th of November 1886, the last spike was
+driven by Mr Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), whose fortune had been
+largely pledged to the undertaking, along with those of other prominent
+Canadian business men, especially Mr George Stephen (Lord Mountstephen),
+Mr Duncan McIntyre, and Mr R.B. Angus. Under the energetic management of
+Mr (later Sir) W.C. Van Home, who was appointed president of the company
+in 1888, the new railway soon became the most prominent feature in the
+development of the country; lines of steamships were established on the
+great lakes and the Pacific; a stream of immigration began to flow into
+the prairie region; and the increasing prosperity of the railway had a
+poverful influence in improving the public credit.
+
+
+  Riel's rebellion.
+
+Even before the Canadian Pacific railway was fully completed, it proved
+of great service in a national emergency which suddenly arose in the
+north-west. With the organization of Manitoba and the opening of
+improved communication immigrants began to move rapidly westward, and
+government surveyors were soon busy laying off lands in the Saskatchewan
+valley. The numbers of the half-breed settlers of this district had been
+increased by the migration of many of those who had taken part in the
+first uprising at Fort Garry. Influenced by somewhat similar motives,
+fearing from the advance of civilization the destruction of the buffalo,
+on which they chiefly depended for food, with some real grievances and
+others imaginary, the discontented population sent for Riel, who had
+been living, since his flight from Fort Garry, in the United States. He
+returned to put himself at the head of a second rebellion. At first he
+seemed inclined to act with moderation and on lines of constitutional
+agitation, but soon, carried away by fanaticism, ambition and vanity, he
+turned to armed organization against the government. To half-breed
+rebellion was added the imminent danger of an Indian uprising, to which
+Riel looked for support. The authorities at Ottawa were at first
+careless or sceptical in regard to the danger, the reality of which was
+only brought home to them when a body of mounted police, advancing to
+regain a small post at Duck Lake, of which the rebels had taken
+possession, was attacked and twelve of their number killed. Volunteers
+and militia were at once called out in all the old provinces of Canada,
+and were quickly conveyed by the newly constructed line of railway to
+the neighbourhood of the point of disturbance. Major-general Middleton,
+of the imperial army, who was then in command of the Canadian militia,
+led the expedition. Several minor engagements with half-breeds or
+Indians preceded the final struggle at Batoche, where Gabriel Dumont,
+Riel's military lieutenant, had skilfully entrenched his forces. After a
+cautious advance the eagerness of the troops finally overcame the
+hesitation of the commander in exposing his men, the rifle pits were
+carried with a rush, and the rebellion crushed at a single stroke.
+Dumont succeeded in escaping across the United States boundary; Riel was
+captured, imprisoned, and in due course tried for treason. This second
+rebellion carried on under his leadership had lasted about three months,
+had cost the country many valuable lives, and in money about five
+millions of dollars. Clear as was his guilt, Riel's trial, condemnation
+and execution on the 16th of November 1885, provoked a violent political
+storm which at one time threatened to overthrow the Conservative
+government. The balance of power between parties in parliament was held
+by the province of Quebec, and there racial and religious feeling evoked
+no slight sympathy for Riel. But while a section of Quebec was eager to
+secure the rebel's pardon, Ontario was equally bent on the execution of
+justice, so that in the final vote on the question in parliament the
+defection of French Conservatives was compensated for by the support of
+Ontario Liberals. In the end 25 out of 53 French members voted in
+justification of Kiel's punishment. With him were executed several
+Indian chiefs who had been concerned in a massacre of whites. Painful as
+were the circumstances connected with this rebellion, it is certain that
+the united action of the different provinces in suppressing it tended to
+consolidate Canadian sentiment, and the short military campaign had the
+effect of fixing public attention upon the immense fertile territory
+then being opened up.
+
+
+  Macdonald's fiscal policy.
+
+The general election of 1882 turned chiefly upon endorsement of the
+national policy of protection; in that of 1887 the electoral test was
+again applied to the same issue, while Sir John Macdonald also asked for
+approval of the government's action in exacting from Riel the full
+penalty of his guilt. On both issues the Conservative policy was upheld
+by the electors, and Macdonald was continued in power with a large
+parliamentary majority. From the election of 1887 the Riel agitation
+ceased to seriously influence politics, but the fiscal controversy
+continued under new forms. Between 1887 and 1891 a vigorous agitation
+was kept up under Liberal auspices in favour of closer trade relations
+with the United States, at first under the name of Commercial Union and
+later under that of Unrestricted Reciprocity. The object in both cases
+was to break down tariff barriers between the United States and Canada,
+even though that should be at the expense of discrimination against
+Great Britain. The Conservative party took the position that commercial
+union, involving as it would a common protective tariff against all
+other countries, including the motherland, would inevitably lead to
+political unification with the United States. The question after long
+and vehement discussion was brought to a final issue in the election of
+1891, and Sir John Macdonald's government was again sustained. From that
+time protection became the settled policy of the country. On their
+accession to power in 1896 it was adopted by the Liberals, who joined to
+it a preference for the products of the mother country. Under the
+protective policy thus repeatedly confirmed, Canada gradually became
+more independent of the American market than in earlier times, and
+enjoyed great commercial prosperity. Soon after the election of 1891 Sir
+John Macdonald (q.v.) died, after an active political career of more
+than forty years. Under his direction the great lines of policy which
+have governed the development of Canada as a confederated state within
+the empire were inaugurated and carried forward with great success, so
+that his name has become indissolubly connected with the history of the
+Dominion at its most critical stage.
+
+
+  Macdonald's successors.
+
+During the years which succeeded the death of Sir John Macdonald a
+succession of losses weakened the position of the Conservative party
+which had held power so long. The Hon. J.C.C. Abbott, leader of the
+party in the Senate, became prime minister on Macdonald's death in 1891,
+but in 1892 was compelled by ill-health to resign, and in 1893 he died.
+His successor, Sir John Thompson, after a successful leadership of about
+two years, died suddenly of heart disease at Windsor Castle, immediately
+after being sworn of the imperial privy council. Charges of corruption
+in the administration of the department of public works, which led to
+the expulsion of one member of parliament, involved also the resignation
+from the cabinet of Sir Hector Langevin, leader of the French
+Conservatives, against whom carelessness at least in administration had
+been established. The brief premiership of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, between
+1894 and 1896, was marked by much dissension in the Conservative ranks,
+ending finally in a reconstruction of the government in 1896 under Sir
+Charles Tupper. Breaks had been made in the Liberal ranks also by the
+death in 1892 of the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie and the withdrawal of the
+Hon. Edward Blake from Canadian politics to accept a seat in the British
+parliament as a member of the Home Rule party. But the appeal made to
+the electors in 1896 resulted in a decisive victory for the Liberal
+party, and marked the beginning of a long period of Liberal rule.
+
+
+  Laurier.
+
+Sir Wilfrid Laurier (q.v.) became prime minister, and strengthened the
+cabinet which he formed by drawing into it from provincial politics the
+premiers of Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The administration
+thus established underwent many changes, but after winning three general
+elections it was still in power in 1909. The period of Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier's rule was one of striking progress in material growth, and a
+marked development of national feeling. While the federation of the
+provinces favoured the growth of a strong sentiment of Canadian
+individuality, the result of unification had been to strengthen
+decidedly the ties that bind the country to the empire. This was as true
+under Liberal as under Conservative auspices--as Canadians understood
+the meaning of these party names. The outbreak of the South African war
+in 1899 furnished an occasion for a practical display of Canadian
+loyalty to imperial interests. Three contingents of troops were
+despatched to the seat of war and took an active part in the events
+which finally secured the triumph of the British arms. These forces were
+supplemented by a regiment of Canadian horse raised and equipped at the
+sole expense of Lord Strathcona, the high commissioner of the Dominion
+in London. The same spirit was illustrated in other ways. In bringing
+about a system of penny postage throughout the empire; in forwarding the
+construction of the Pacific cable to secure close and safe imperial
+telegraphic connexion; in creating rapid and efficient lines of
+steamship communication with the motherland and all the colonies; in
+granting tariff preference to British goods and in striving for
+preferential treatment of inter-imperial trade; in assuming
+responsibility for imperial defence at the two important stations of
+Halifax and Esquimalt,--Canada, under the guidance of Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier and his party, took a leading part and showed a truly national
+spirit.
+
+
+  Canadian expansion.
+
+The opening years of the 20th century were marked by a prolonged period
+of great prosperity. A steady stream of emigrants from Europe and the
+United States, sometimes rising in number to 300,000 in a single year,
+began to occupy the vast western prairies. So considerable was the
+growth of this section of the Dominion that in 1905 it was found
+necessary to form two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, from the
+North-West Territories, the area of each being 275,000 sq. m. Each
+province has a lieutenant-governor and a single legislative chamber,
+with a representation of four members in the Senate and five in the
+House of Commons of the Dominion parliament. The control of the public
+lands is retained by the general government on the ground that it has
+been responsible for the development of the country by railway
+construction and emigration. With the rapid increase of population,
+production in Canada also greatly increased; exports, imports and
+revenue constantly expanded, and capital, finding abundant and
+profitable employment, began to flow freely into the country for further
+industrial development. New and great railway undertakings were a marked
+feature of this period. The Canadian Pacific system was extended until
+it included 12,000 m. of line. The Canadian Northern railway, already
+constructed from the Great Lakes westward to the neighbourhood of the
+Rockies, and with water and rail connexions reaching eastward to Quebec,
+began to transform itself into a complete transcontinental system, with
+an extension to the Hudson Bay. That this line owed its inception and
+construction chiefly to the joint enterprise of two private individuals,
+Messrs Mackenzie and Mann, was a striking proof of the industrial
+capacities of the country. To a still more ambitious line, the Grand
+Trunk Pacific, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, aiming at
+extensive steamship connexion on both oceans, and closely associated
+with the Grand Trunk system of Ontario and Quebec, the government of
+Canada gave liberal support as a national undertaking. The eastern
+section of 1875 m., extending from Winnipeg to Moncton, where connexion
+is secured with the winter ports of Halifax and St John, was, under the
+act of incorporation, to be built by the government, and then leased for
+fifty years, under certain conditions, to the Grand Trunk Pacific
+Company. The western portion, of 1480 m., from Winnipeg to the Pacific,
+was to be built, owned and operated by the company itself, the
+government guaranteeing bonds to the extent of 75% of the whole cost of
+construction. The discovery of large deposits of nickel at Sudbury; of
+extremely rich gold mines on the head-waters of the Yukon, in a region
+previously considered well-nigh worthless for human habitation; of
+extensive areas of gold, copper and silver ores in the mountain regions
+of British Columbia; of immense coal deposits in the Crow's Nest Pass of
+the same province and on the prairies; of veins of silver and cobalt of
+extraordinary richness in northern Ontario--all deeply affected the
+industrial condition of the country and illustrated the vastness of its
+undeveloped resources. The use of wood-pulp in the manufacture of paper
+gave a greatly enhanced value to many millions of acres of northern
+forest country. The application of electricity to purposes of
+manufacture and transportation made the waterfalls and rapids in which
+the country abounds the source of an almost unlimited supply of energy
+capable of easy distribution for industrial purposes over wide areas.
+
+
+  Relations with the United States.
+
+Since confederation a series of attempts has been made with varying
+degrees of success to settle the questions in dispute between the
+Dominion and the United States, naturally arising from the fact that
+they divide between them the control of nearly the whole of a large
+continent and its adjoining waters. Considering the vastness of the
+interests involved, there is much cause for satisfaction in the fact
+that these differences have been settled by peaceful arbitrament rather
+than by that recourse to force which has so often marked the
+delimitation of rights and territory on other continents The Washington
+Treaty of 1871 has already been referred to. Its clauses dealing with
+the fisheries and trade lasted for fourteen years, and were then
+abrogated by the action of the United States. Various proposals on the
+part of Canada for a renewal of the reciprocity were not entertained.
+After 1885 Canada was therefore compelled to fall back upon the treaty
+of 1818 as the guarantee of her fishing rights. It became necessary to
+enforce the terms of that convention, under which the fishermen of the
+United States could not pursue their avocations within the three miles'
+limit, tranship cargoes of fish in Canadian ports, or enter them except
+for shelter, water, wood or repairs. On account of infractions of the
+treaty many vessels were seized and some were condemned. In 1887 a
+special commission was appointed to deal with the question. On this
+commission Mr Joseph Chamberlain, Sir Sackville West and Sir Charles
+Tupper represented British and Canadian interests; Secretary T.F.
+Bayard, Mr W. le B. Putnam and Mr James B. Angell acted for the United
+States. The commission succeeded in agreeing to the terms of a treaty,
+which was recommended to Congress by President Cleveland as supplying "a
+satisfactory, practical and final adjustment, upon a basis honourable
+and just to both parties, of the difficult and vexed questions to which
+it relates." This agreement, known as the Chamberlain-Bayard treaty, was
+rejected by the Senate, and as a consequence it became necessary to
+carry on the fisheries under a _modus vivendi_ renewed annually.
+
+In 1886 a difference about international rights on the high seas arose
+on the Pacific coast in connexion with the seal fisheries of Bering Sea.
+In that year several schooners, fitted out in British Columbia for the
+capture of seals in the North Pacific, were seized by a United States
+cutter at a distance of 60 m. from the nearest land, the officers were
+imprisoned and fined, and the vessels themselves subjected to
+forfeiture. The British government at once protested against this
+infraction of international right, and through long and troublesome
+negotiations firmly upheld Canada's claims in the matter. The dispute
+was finally referred to a court of arbitration, on which Sir John
+Thompson, premier of the Dominion, sat as one of the British
+arbitrators. It was decided that the United States had no jurisdiction
+in the Bering Sea beyond the three miles' limit, but the court also made
+regulations to prevent the wholesale slaughter of fur-bearing seals. The
+sum of $463,454 was finally awarded as compensation to the Canadian
+sealers who had been unlawfully seized and punished. This sum was paid
+by the United States in 1898.
+
+As the result of communications during 1897 between Sir Wilfrid Laurier
+and Secretary Sherman, the governments of Great Britain and the United
+States agreed to the appointment of a joint high commission, with a view
+of settling all outstanding differences between the United States and
+Canada. The commission, which included three members of the Canadian
+cabinet and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord
+Herschell was appointed chairman, met at Quebec on the 23rd of August
+1898. The sessions continued in Quebec at intervals until the 10th of
+October, when the commission adjourned to meet in Washington on the 1st
+of November, where the discussions were renewed for some weeks. Mr
+Nelson Dingley, an American member of the commission, died during the
+month of January, as did the chairman, Lord Herschell, in March, as the
+result of an accident, soon after the close of the sittings of the
+commission. The Alaskan boundary, the Atlantic and inland fisheries, the
+alien labour law, the bonding privilege, the seal fishery in the Bering
+Sea and reciprocity of trade in certain products were among the subjects
+considered by the commission. On several of these points much progress
+was made towards a settlement, but a divergence of opinion as to the
+methods by which the Alaskan boundary should be determined put an end
+for the time to the negotiations.
+
+In 1903 an agreement was reached by which the question of this boundary,
+which depended on the interpretation put upon the treaty of 1825 between
+Russia and England, should be submitted to a commission consisting of
+"six impartial jurists of repute," three British and three American. The
+British commissioners appointed were: Lord Alverstone, lord chief
+justice of England; Sir Louis Jette, K.C., of Quebec; and A.B.
+Aylesworth, K.C., of Toronto. On the American side were appointed: the
+Hon. Henry C. Lodge, senator for Massachusetts; the Hon. Elihu Root,
+secretary of war for the United States government; and Senator George
+Turner. Canadians could not be persuaded that the American members
+fulfilled the condition of being "impartial jurists," and protest was
+made, but, though the imperial government also expressed surprise, no
+change in the appointments was effected. The commission met in London,
+and announced its decision in October. This was distinctly unfavourable
+to Canada's claims, since it excluded Canadians from all ocean inlets as
+far south as the Portland Channel, and in that channel gave to Canada
+only two of the four islands claimed. A statement made by the Canadian
+commissioners, who refused to sign the report, of an unexplained change
+of opinion on the part of Lord Alverstone, produced a widespread
+impression for a time that his decision in favour of American claims was
+diplomatic rather than judicial. Later Canadian opinion, however, came
+to regard the decision of the commission as a reasonable compromise. The
+irritation caused by the decision gradually subsided, but at the moment
+it led to strong expressions on the part of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and
+others in favour of securing for Canada a fuller power of making her own
+treaties. While the power of making treaties must rest ultimately in the
+hands that can enforce them, the tendency to give the colonies chiefly
+interested a larger voice in international arrangements had become
+inevitable. The mission of a Canadian cabinet minister, the Hon. R.
+Lemieux, to Japan in 1907, to settle Canadian difficulties with that
+country, illustrated the change of diplomatic system in progress.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+Under the British North American Act the control of education was
+reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation that all
+rights enjoyed by denominational schools at the time of confederation
+should be respected. Provincial control has caused some diversity of
+management; the interpretation of the denominational agreement has led
+to acute differences of opinion which have invaded the field of
+politics. In all the provinces elementary, and in some cases secondary,
+education is free, the funds for its support being derived from local
+taxation and from government grants. The highly organized school system
+of Ontario is directed by a minister of education, who is a member of
+the provincial cabinet. The other provinces have boards of education,
+and superintendents who act under the direction of the provincial
+legislatures. In Quebec the Roman Catholic schools, which constitute the
+majority, are chiefly controlled by the local clergy of that church. The
+Protestant schools are managed by a separate board. In Ontario as well
+as in Quebec separate schools are allowed to Roman Catholics. In Nova
+Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba and British
+Columbia the public schools are strictly undenominational. This position
+was only established in New Brunswick and Manitoba after violent
+political struggles, and frequent appeals to the highest courts of the
+empire for decisions on questions of federal or provincial jurisdiction.
+The right of having separate schools has been extended to the newly
+constituted provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+
+Secondary education is provided for by high schools and collegiate
+institutes in all towns and cities, and by large residential institutions
+at various centres, conducted on the principle of the English public
+schools. The largest of these is Upper Canada College at Toronto. Each
+province has a number of normal and model schools for the training of
+teachers. For higher education there are also abundant facilities. M'Gill
+University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly endowed by the
+munificence of a few private individuals, Toronto University by the
+provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen's University at Kingston largely
+by the support of its own graduates and friends. University work in the
+maritime provinces, instead of being concentrated, as it might well be,
+in one powerful institution, is distributed among five small, but within
+their range efficient universities. The agricultural college at Guelph
+and the experimental farms maintained by the federal government give
+excellent training and scientific assistance to farmers. Sir William
+Macdonald in 1908 built and endowed, at an expenditure of at least
+L700,000, an agricultural college and normal school at St Anne's, near
+Montreal. While the older universities have increased greatly in
+influence and efficiency, the following new foundations have been made
+since confederation:--University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1877;
+Presbyterian College, Winnipeg, 1870; Methodist College, Winnipeg, 1888;
+Wesleyan College, Montreal, 1873; Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868;
+School of Practical Science, Toronto, 1877; Royal Military College,
+Kingston, 1875; M'Master University, Toronto, 1888. All the larger
+universities have schools of medicine in affiliation, and have the power
+of conferring medical degrees. Since 1877 Canadian degrees have been
+recognized by the Medical Council of Great Britain.
+
+
+  Indian tribes.
+
+In her treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country (numbering
+93,318 in 1901) Canada has met with conspicuous success. Since the
+advance of civilization and indiscriminate slaughter have deprived them
+of the bison, so long their natural means of subsistence, the north-west
+tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of the country. As a
+result of the great care now used in watching over them there has been a
+small but steady increase in their numbers. Industrial and boarding
+schools, established in several of the provinces, by separating the
+children from the degrading influences of their home life, have proved
+more effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and
+ideas of a higher civilization. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.)
+
+
+  Constitution.
+
+The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt made to
+adapt British principles and methods of government to a federal system.
+The chief executive authority is vested in the sovereign, as is the
+supreme command of the military and naval forces. The governor-general
+represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown, which appoints him.
+He holds office for five years, and his powers are strictly limited, as
+in the case of the sovereign, all executive acts being done on the
+advice of his cabinet, the members of which hold office only so long as
+they retain the confidence of the people as expressed by their
+representatives in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the
+independent right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers
+in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-general
+have represented the crown since the federation of the provinces, with
+the year of their appointment: Viscount Monck, 1867; Sir John Young
+(afterwards Baron Lisgar), 1868; the earl of Dufferin, 1872; the
+marquess of Lome (afterwards duke of Argyll), 1878; the marquess of
+Lansdowne, 1883; Lord Stanley of Preston (afterwards earl of Derby),
+1888; the earl of Aberdeen, 1893; the earl of Minto, 1898; Earl Grey,
+1904. The upper house, or Senate, is composed of members who hold office
+for life and are nominated by the governor-general in council. It
+originally consisted of 72 members, 24 from Quebec, 24 from Ontario, and
+24 from the maritime provinces, but this number has been from time to
+time slightly increased as new provinces have been added. The House of
+Commons consists of representatives elected directly by the people. The
+number of members, originally 196, is subject to change after each
+decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North America Act is
+that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives, and each of the other
+provinces such a number as will give the same proportion of members to
+its population as the number 65 bears to the population of Quebec at
+each census. In 1908 the number of members was 218.
+
+Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive an annual
+indemnity of $2500, with a travelling allowance. Legislation brought
+forward in 1906 introduced an innovation in assigning a salary of $7000
+to the recognized leader of the Opposition, and pensions amounting to
+half their official income to ex-cabinet ministers who have occupied
+their posts for five consecutive years. This pension clause has since
+been repealed. One principal object of the framers of the Canadian
+constitution was to establish a strong central government. An opposite
+plan was therefore adopted to that employed in the system of the United
+States, where the federal government enjoys only the powers granted to
+it by the sovereign states. The British North America Act assigns to the
+different provinces, as to the central parliament, their spheres of
+control, but all residuary powers are given to the general government.
+Within these limitations the provincial assemblies have a wide range of
+legislative power. In Nova Scotia and Quebec the bicameral system of an
+upper and lower house is retained; in the other provinces legislation is
+left to a single representative assembly. For purely local matters
+municipal institutions are organized to cover counties and townships,
+cities and towns, all based on an exceedingly democratic franchise.
+
+The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of Sir John
+Macdonald in the early years after federation, but was only finally
+accomplished in 1876, during the premiership of Alexander Mackenzie.
+This court is presided over by a chief justice, with five puisne judges,
+and has appellate civil and criminal jurisdiction for the Dominion. By
+an act passed in 1891 the government has power to refer to the supreme
+court any important question of law affecting the public interest. The
+right of appeal from the supreme court, thus constituted, to the
+judicial committee of the privy council marks, in questions judicial,
+Canada's place as a part of the British empire.
+
+The appointment, first made in 1897, of the chief justice of Canada,
+along with the chief justices of Cape Colony and South Australia, as
+colonial members of the judicial committee still further established the
+position of that body as the final court of appeal for the British
+people. The grave questions of respective jurisdiction which have from
+time to time arisen between the federal and provincial governments have
+for the most part been settled by appeal to one or both of these
+judicial bodies. Some of these questions have played a considerable part
+in Canadian politics, but are of too complicated a nature to be dealt
+with in the present brief sketch. They have generally consisted in the
+assertion of provincial rights against federal authority. The decision
+of the courts has always been accepted as authoritative and final.
+
+  An excellent bibliography of Canadian history will be found in the
+  volume _Literature of American History_, published by the American
+  Library Association. The annual _Review of Historical Publications
+  Relating to Canada_, published by the University of Toronto, gives a
+  critical survey of the works on Canadian topics appearing from year to
+  year.     (G. R. P.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+1. _English-Canadian Literature_ is marked by the weaknesses as well as
+the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence, the conquering
+of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad culture or scholarship,
+and the very fact that Canada is a colony, however free to control her
+own affairs, has stood in the way of the creation of anything like a
+national literature. And yet, while Canada's intellectual product is
+essentially an offshoot of the parent literature of England, it is not
+entirely devoid of originality, either in manner or matter. There is in
+much of it a spirit of freedom and youthful vigour characteristic of the
+country. It is marked by the wholesomeness of Canadian life and Canadian
+ideals, and the optimism of a land of limitless potentialities.
+
+The first few decades of the period of British rule were lean years
+indeed so far as native literature is concerned. This period of unrest
+gave birth to little beyond a flood of political pamphlets, of no
+present value save as material for the historian. We may perhaps except
+the able though thoroughly partisan writings of Sir John Beverley
+Robinson and Bishop Strachan on the one side, and Robert Fleming Gourlay
+and William Lyon Mackenzie on the other. In the far West, however, a
+little group of adventurous fur-traders, of whom Sir Alexander
+Mackenzie, David Thompson, Alexander Henry and Daniel Williams Harmon
+may be taken as conspicuous types, were unfolding the vast expanse of
+the future dominion. They were men of action, not of words, and had no
+thought of literary fame, but their absorbingly interesting journals
+are none the less an essential part of the literature of the country.
+
+Barring the work of Francis Parkman, who was not a Canadian, no history
+of the first rank has yet been written in or of Canada. Canadian
+historians have not merely lacked so far the genius for really great
+historical work, but they have lacked the point of view; they have stood
+too close to their subject to get the true perspective. At the same time
+they have brought together invaluable material for the great historian
+of the future. Robert Christie's _History of Lower Canada_ (1848-1854)
+was the first serious attempt to deal with the period of British rule.
+William Kingsford's (1819-1898) ambitious work, in ten volumes, comes
+down like Christie's to the Union of 1841, but goes back to the very
+beginnings of Canadian history. In the main it is impartial and
+accurate, but the style is heavy and sometimes slovenly. J.C. Dent's
+(1841-1888) _Last Forty Years_ (1880) is practically a continuation of
+Kingsford. Dent also wrote an interesting though one-sided account of
+the rebellion of 1837. Histories of the maritime provinces have been
+written by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Beamish Murdoch and James Hannay.
+Haliburton's is much the best of the three. The brief but stirring
+history of western Canada has been told by Alexander Begg (1840-1898);
+and George Bryce (b. 1844) and Beckles Willson (b. 1869) have written
+the story of the Hudson's Bay Company. Much scholarship and research
+have been devoted to local and special historical subjects, a notable
+example of which is Arthur Doughty's exhaustive work on the siege of
+Quebec. J. McMullen (b. 1820), Charles Roberts (b. 1860) and Sir John
+Bourinot (1837-1902) have written brief and popular histories, covering
+the whole field of Canadian history more or less adequately. Alpheus
+Todd's (1821-1884) _Parliamentary Government in England_ (1867-1869) and
+_Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies_ (1880) are standard
+works, as is also Bourinot's _Parliamentary Procedure and Practice_
+(1884).
+
+Biography has been devoted mainly to political subjects. The best of
+these are Joseph Pope's _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_ (1894), W.D. le
+Sueur's _Frontenac_ (1906), Sir John Bourinot's _Lord Elgin_ (1905),
+Jean McIlwraith's _Sir Frederick Haldimand_ (1904), D.C. Scott's _John
+Graves Simcoe_ (1905), A.D. de Celles' _Papineau and Cartier_ (1904),
+Charles Lindsey's _William Lyon Mackenzie_ (1862), J.W. Longley's
+_Joseph Howe_ (1905) and J.S. Willison's _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_ (1903).
+
+In _belles lettres_ very little has been accomplished, unless we may
+count Goldwin Smith (q.v.) as a Canadian. As a scholar, a thinker, and a
+master of pure English he has exerted a marked influence upon Canadian
+literature and Canadian life.
+
+While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most of what passes
+for poetry in Canada, a few writers have risen to a higher level. The
+conditions of Canadian life have not been favourable to the birth of
+great poets, but within the limits of their song such men as Archibald
+Lampman (1861-1891), William Wilfred Campbell (b. 1861), Charles
+Roberts, Bliss Carman (b. 1861) and George Frederick Cameron have
+written lines that are well worth remembering. Lampman's poetry is the
+most finished and musical. He fell short of being a truly great poet,
+inasmuch as great poetry must, which his does not, touch life at many
+points, but his verses are marked by the qualities that belonged to the
+man--sincerity, purity, seriousness. Campbell's poetry, in spite of a
+certain lack of compression, is full of dramatic vigour: Roberts has put
+some of his best work into sonnets and short lyrics, while Carman has
+been very successful with the ballad, the untrammelled swing and sweep
+of which he has finely caught; the simplicity and severity of Cameron's
+style won the commendation of even so exacting a critic as Matthew
+Arnold. One remarkable drama--Charles Heavysege's (1816-1876) _Saul_
+(1857)--belongs to Canadian literature. Though unequal in execution, it
+contains passages of exceptional beauty and power. The sweetness and
+maturity of Isabella Valency Crawford's (1851-1887) verse are also very
+worthy of remembrance. The _habitant_ poems of Dr W.H. Drummond
+(1854-1907) stand in a class by themselves, between English and French
+Canadian literature, presenting the simple life of the _habitant_ with
+unique humour and picturesqueness.
+
+The first distinctively Canadian novel was John Richardson's (1796-1852)
+_Wacousta_ (1832), a stirring tale of the war of 1812. Richardson
+afterwards wrote half a dozen other romances, dealing chiefly with
+incidents in Canadian history. Susanna Moodie (1803-1885) and Katharine
+Parr Traill (1802-1899), sisters of Agnes Strickland, contributed novels
+and tales to one of the earliest and best of Canadian magazines, the
+_Literary Garland_ (1838-1847). _The Golden Dog_, William Kirby's
+(1817-1906) fascinating romance of old Quebec, appeared in 1877, in a
+pirated edition. Twenty years later the first authorized edition was
+published. James de Mille (1833-1880) was the author of some thirty
+novels, the best of which is _Helena's Household_ (1868), a story of
+Rome in the 1st century. _The Dodge Club_ (1869), a humorous book of
+travel, appeared, curiously enough, a few months before _Innocents
+Abroad_. De Mille's posthumous novel, _A Strange Manuscript found in a
+Copper Cylinder_ (1888), describes a singular race whose cardinal
+doctrine is that poverty is honourable and wealth the reverse. Sir
+Gilbert Parker (b. 1862) stands first among contemporary Canadian
+novelists. He has made admirable use in many of his novels of the
+inexhaustible stores of romantic and dramatic material that lie buried
+in forgotten pages of Canadian history. Of later Canadian novelists
+mention may be made of Sara Jeannette Duncan (Mrs Everard Cotes, b.
+1862), Ralph Connor (Charles W. Gordon, b. 1866), Agnes C. Laut (b.
+1872), W.A. Fraser (b. 1859) and Ernest Thompson Seton (b. 1860). Thomas
+Chandler Haliburton (q.v.) stands in a class by himself. In many
+respects his is the most striking figure in Canadian literature. He is
+best known as a humorist, and as a humorist he ranks with the creators
+of "My Uncle Toby" and "Pickwick." But there is more than humour in
+Haliburton's books. He lacked, in fact, but one thing to make him a
+great novelist: he had no conception of how to construct a plot. But he
+knew human nature, and knew it intimately in all its phases; he could
+construct a character and endow it with life; his people talk naturally
+and to the point; and many of his descriptive passages are admirable.
+Those who read Haliburton's books only for the sake of the humour will
+miss much of their value. His inimitable _Clockmaker_ (1837), as well as
+the later books, _The Old Judge_ (1849), _The Attache_ (1843), _Wise
+Saws and Modern Instances_ (1853) and _Nature and Human Nature_ (1855),
+are mirrors of colonial life and character.
+
+  For general treatment of English-Canadian literature, reference may be
+  made to Sir John Bourinot's _Intellectual Development of the Canadian
+  People_ (1881); G. Mercer Adam's _Outline History of Canadian
+  Literature_ (1887); "Native Thought and Literature," in J.E. Collins's
+  _Life of Sir John A. Macdonald_ (1883); "Canadian Literature," by J.M.
+  Oxley, in the _Encyclopaedia Americana_, vol. ix. (1904); A.
+  MacMurchy's _Handbook of Canadian Literature_ (1906); and articles by
+  J. Castell Hopkins, John Reade, A.B. de Mille and Thomas O'Hagan, in
+  vol. v. of _Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country_ (1898-1900);
+  also to Henry J. Morgan's _Bibliotheca Canadensis_ (1867) and
+  _Canadian Men and Women of the Time_ (1898); W.D. Lighthall, _Songs of
+  the Great Dominion_; Theodore Rand's _Treasury of Canadian Verse_
+  (1900); C.C. James's _Bibliography of Canadian Verse_ (1898); L.E.
+  Horning's and L.J. Burpee's _Bibliography of Canadian Fiction_ (1904);
+  S.E. Dawson's _Prose Writers of Canada_ (1901); "Canadian Poetry," by
+  J.A. Cooper, in _The National_, 29, p. 364; "Recent Canadian Fiction,"
+  by L.J. Burpee, in _The Forum_, August 1899. For individual authors,
+  see Haliburton's _A Centenary Chaplet_ (1897), with a bibliography;
+  "Haliburton," by F. Blake Crofton, in _Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the
+  Country_; C.H. Farnham's _Life of Francis Parkman_ and H.D. Sedgwick's
+  _Francis Parkman_ (1901); and articles on "Parkman," by E.L. Godkin,
+  in _The Nation_, 71, p. 441; by Justin Winsor in _The Atlantic_, 73,
+  p. 660; by W.D. Howells, _The Atlantic_, 34, p. 602; by John Fiske,
+  _The Atlantic_, 73, p. 664; by J.B. Gilder in _The Critic_, 23, p.
+  322; "Goldwin Smith as a Critic," by H. Spencer, _Contemp. Review_,
+  41, p. 519; "Goldwin Smith's Historical Works," by C.E. Norton, _North
+  American Review_, 99, p. 523; "Poetry of Charles Heavysege," by Bayard
+  Taylor, _Atlantic_, 16, p. 412; "Charles Heavysege," by L.J. Burpee,
+  in _Trans. Royal Society of Canada_, 1901; "Archibald Lampman," by
+  W.D. Howells, _Literature_ (N.Y.), 4, p. 217; "Archibald Lampman," by
+  L.J. Burpee, in _North American Notes and Queries_ (Quebec), August
+  and September 1900; "Poetry of Bliss Carman," by J.P. Mowbray,
+  _Critic_, 41, p. 308; "Isabella Valency Crawford," in _Poet-Lore_
+  (Boston), xiii. No. 4; _Roberts and the Influences of his Time_
+  (1906), by James Cappon; "William Wilfred Campbell," _Sewanee Review_,
+  October 1900; "Kingsford's History of Canada," by G.M. Wrong, _N.A.
+  Review_, I p. 550; "Books of Gilbert Parker," by C.A. Pratt, _Critic_,
+  33, p. 271.     (L. J. B.)
+
+2. _French-Canadian Literature_ at the opening of the 20th century might
+be described as entirely the work of two generations, and it was
+separated from the old regime by three more generations whose racial
+sentiment only found expression in the traditional songs and tales which
+their forefathers of the 17th century had brought over from the _mere
+patrie_. Folk-lore has always been the most essentially French of all
+imaginative influences in Canadian life; and the songs are the
+quintessence of the lore. Not that the folk-songs have no local
+variants. Indian words, like _moccasin_ and _toboggan_, are often
+introduced. French forms are freely turned into pure Canadianisms, like
+_cageux_, raftsman, _boucane_, brushwood smoke, _portage_, &c. New
+characters, which appeal more directly to the local audience, sometimes
+supplant old ones, like the _quatre vieux sauvages_ who have ousted the
+time-honoured _quatre-z-officiers_ from the Canadian version of
+_Malbrouk_. There are even a few entire songs of transatlantic origin.
+But all these variants together are mere stray curios among the crowding
+souvenirs of the old home over sea. No other bridge can rival _le Pont
+d'Avignon_. "_Ici_" in _C'est le ban vin qui danse ici_ can be nowhere
+else but in old France--_le ban vin_ alone proves this. And the Canadian
+folk-singer, though in a land of myriad springs, still goes _a la claire
+fontaine_ of his ancestral fancy; while the lullabies his mother sang
+him, like the love-songs with which he serenades his _blonde_, were
+nearly all sung throughout the Normandy of _le Grand Monarque_. The
+_habitant_ was separated from old-world changes two centuries ago by
+difference of place and circumstances, while he has hitherto been
+safeguarded from many new-world changes by the segregative influences of
+race, religion, language and custom; and so his folk-lore still remains
+the intimate _alter et idem_ of what it was in the days of the great
+pioneers. It is no longer a living spirit among the people at large; but
+in secluded villages and "back concessions" one can still hear some
+charming melodies as old and pure as the verses to which they are sung,
+and even a few quaint survivals of Gregorian tunes. The best collection,
+more particularly from the musical point of view, is _Les Chansons
+populaires du Canada_, started by Ernest Gagnon (1st ed. 1865).
+
+Race-patriotism is the distinguishing characteristic of French-Canadian
+literature, which is so deeply rooted in national politics that L.J.
+Papineau, the most insistent demagogue of 1837, must certainly be named
+among the founders, for the sake of speeches which came before written
+works both in point of time and popular esteem. Only 360 volumes had
+been published during 80 years, when, in 1845, the first famous book
+appeared--Francois Xavier Garneau's (1809-1866) _Histoire du Canada_. It
+had immense success in Canada, was favourably noticed in France, and has
+influenced all succeeding men of letters. Unfortunately, the imperfect
+data on which it is based, and the too exclusively patriotic spirit in
+which it is written, prevent it from being an authoritative history: the
+author himself declares "_Vous verrez si la defaite de nos ancetres ne
+vaut pas toutes las victoires_." But it is of far-reaching importance as
+the first great literary stimulus to racial self-respect. "_Le Canada
+francais avait perdu ses Ictlres de noblesse; Garneau les lui a
+rendues_." F.X. Garneau is also remembered for his poems, and he was
+followed by his son Alfred Garneau (1836-1904).
+
+A. Gerin-Lajoie was a mere lad when the exile of some compatriots
+inspired _Le Canadien errant_, which immediately became a universal
+folk-song. Many years later he wrote discriminatingly about those _Dix
+ans au Canada_ (1888) that saw the establishment of responsible
+government. But his fame rests on _Jean Rivard_ (1874), the prose
+bucolic of the _habitant_. The hero, left at the head of a fatherless
+family of twelve when nearly through college, turns from the glut of
+graduates swarming round the prospects of professional city-bred
+careers, steadfastly wrests a home from the wilderness, helps his
+brothers and sisters, marries a _habitante_ fit for the wife of a
+pioneer, brings up a large family, and founds a settlement which grows
+into several parishes and finally becomes the centre of the electoral
+district of "Rivardville," which returns him to parliament. These simple
+and earnest _Scenes de la vie reelle_ are an appealing revelation of
+that eternal secret of the soil which every people wishing to have a
+country of its own must early lay to heart; and _Jean Rivard, le
+defricheur_, will always remain the eponym of the new _colons_ of the
+19th century.
+
+Philippe de Gaspe's historical novel, _Les Anciens Canadiens_ (1863), is
+the complement of Garneau and Gerin-Lajoie. Everything about the
+author's life helped him to write this book. Born in 1784, and brought
+up among reminiscent eye-witnesses of the old regime, he was an eager
+listener, with a wonderful memory and whole-hearted pride in the glories
+of his race and family, a kindly _seigneur_, who loved and was loved by
+all his _censitaires_, a keen observer of many changing systems, down to
+the final Confederation of 1867, and a man who had felt both extremes of
+fortune (_Memoires_, 1866). The story rambles rather far from its
+well-worn plot. But these very digressions give the book its intimate
+and abiding charm; for they keep the reader in close personal touch with
+every side of Canadian life, with songs and tales and homely forms of
+speech, with the best features of seigniorial times and the strong
+guidance of an ardent church, with _voyageurs, coureurs de bois_,
+Indians, soldiers, sailors and all the strenuous adventurers of a wild,
+new, giant world. The poet of this little band of authors was Octave
+Cremazie, a Quebec bookseller, who failed in business and spent his last
+years as a penniless exile in France. He is usually rather too
+derivative, he lacks the saving grace of style, and even his best
+Canadian poems hardly rise above fervent occasional verse. Yet he became
+a national poet, because he was the first to celebrate occasions of
+deeply felt popular emotion in acceptable rhyme, and he will always
+remain one because each occasion touched some lasting aspiration of his
+race. He sings what Garneau recounts--the love of mother country, mother
+church and Canada. The _Guerre de Crimee, Guerre d'ltalie_, even
+_Castel-fidardo_, are duly chronicled. An ode on _Mgr. de
+Montmorency-Laval_, first bishop of Quebec, brings him nearer to his
+proper themes, which are found in full perfection in the _Chant du vieux
+soldat canadien_, composed in 1856 to honour the first French man-of-war
+that visited British Quebec, and _Le Drapeau de Carillon_ (1858), a
+centennial paean for Montcalm's Canadians at Ticonderoga. Much of the
+mature work of this first generation, and of the juvenilia of the
+second, appeared in _Les Soirees canadiennes_ and _Le Foyer canadien_,
+founded in 1862 and 1863 respectively. The abbe Ferland was an
+enthusiastic editor and historian, and Etienne Parent should be
+remembered as the first Canadian philosopher.
+
+At Confederation many eager followers began to take up the work which
+the founders were laying down. The abbe Casgrain devoted a life-time to
+making the French-Canadians appear as the chosen people of new-world
+history; but, though an able advocate, he spoilt a really good case by
+trying to prove too much. His _Pelerinage au pays d'Evangeline_ (1888)
+is a splendid defence of the unfortunate Acadians; and all his books
+attract the reader by their charm of style and personality. But his
+_Montcalm et Levis_ (1891) and other works on the conquest, are all
+warped by a strong bias against both Wolfe and Montcalm, and in favour
+of Vandreuil, the Canadian-born governor; while they show an inadequate
+grasp of military problems, and practically ignore the vast determining
+factor of sea-power altogether. Benjamin Sulte's comprehensive _Histoire
+des Canadiens-francais_ (1882) is a well-written, many-sided work.
+Thomas Chapais' monographs are as firmly grounded as they are finely
+expressed; his _Jean Talon_ (1904) is of prime importance; and his
+_Montcalm_ (1901) is the generous _amende honorable_ paid by
+French-Canadian literature to a much misrepresented, but admirably
+wrought, career. A. Gerin-Lajoie's cry of "back to the land" was
+successfully adapted to modern developments in _Le Saguenay_ (1896) and
+_L'Outaouais superieur_ (1889) by Arthur Buies, who showed what immense
+inland breadths of country lay open to suitable "Jean Rivards" from the
+older settlements along the St Lawrence. In oratory, which most
+French-Canadians admire beyond all other forms of verbal art, Sir
+Wilfrid Laurier has greatly surpassed L.J. Papineau, by dealing with
+more complex questions, taking a higher point of view, and expressing
+himself with a much apter flexibility of style.
+
+Among later poets may be mentioned Pierre Chauveau (1820-1890), Louis
+Fiset, (b. 1827), and Adolphe Poisson (b. 1849). Louis Frechette
+(1830-1908) has, however, long been the only poet with a reputation
+outside of Canada. In 1879 _Les Fleurs boreales_ won the Prix Monthyon
+from the French Academy. In 1887 _La Legende d'un peuple_ became the
+acknowledged epic of a race. He occasionally nods; is rather strident in
+the patriotic vein; and too often answers the untoward call of rhetoric
+when his subject is about to soar into the heights of poetry. But a rich
+vocabulary, a mastery of verse-forms quite beyond the range of Cremazie,
+real originality of conception, individual distinction of style, deep
+insight into the soul of his people, and, still more, the glow of
+warm-blooded life pulsing through the whole poem, all combine to give
+him the greatest place at home and an important one in the world at
+large. _Les Vengeances_ (1875), by Leon Pamphile Le May, and _Les
+Aspirations_ (1904), by W. Chapman, worthily represent the older and
+younger contemporaries. Dr Neree Beauchemin keeps within somewhat narrow
+limits in _Les Floraisons matutinales_ (1897); but within them he shows
+true poetic genius, a fine sense of rhythm, rhyme and verbal melody, a
+_curiosa felicitas_ of epithet and phrase, and so sure an eye for local
+colour that a stranger could choose no better guide to the imaginative
+life of Canada.
+
+A Canadian drama hardly exists; among its best works are the pleasantly
+epigrammatic plays of F.G. Marchand. Novels are not yet much in vogue;
+though Madame Conan's _L'Oublie_ (1902) has been crowned by the Academy;
+while Dr Choquette's _Les Ribaud_ (1898) is a good dramatic story, and
+his _Claude Paysan_ (1899) is an admirably simple idyllic tale of the
+hopeless love of a soil-bound _habitant_, told with intense natural
+feeling and fine artistic reserve. Chief-Justice Routhier, a most
+accomplished occasional writer, is very French-Canadian when arraigning
+_Les Grands Drames_ of the classics (1889) before his ecclesiastical
+court and finding them guilty of Paganism.
+
+  The best bibliographies are Phileas Gagnon's _Essai de bibliographie
+  canadienne_ (1895), and Dr N.E. Dionne's list of publications from the
+  earliest times in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_
+  for 1905.     (W. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The census is taken every ten years, save in these three
+    provinces, where it is taken every five. Their population in 1906
+    was:--Manitoba, 360,000; Saskatchewan, 257,000; Alberta, 184,000.
+
+  [2] The areas assigned to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New
+    Brunswick and British Columbia are exclusive of the territorial seas,
+    that to Quebec is exclusive of the Gulf of St Lawrence (though
+    including the islands lying within it), and that to Ontario is
+    exclusive of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes. About 500,000
+    sq. m. belong to the Arctic region and 125,755 sq. m. are water.
+
+  [3] In Canada a city must have over 10,000 inhabitants, a town over
+    2000.
+
+  [4] The date of foundation is given in brackets.
+
+
+
+
+CANAL (from Lat. _canalis_, "channel" and "kennel" being doublets of the
+word), an artificial water course used for the drainage of low lands,
+for irrigation (q.v.), or more especially for the purpose of navigation
+by boats, barges or ships. Probably the first canals were made for
+irrigation, but in very early times they came also to be used for
+navigation, as in Assyria and Egypt. The Romans constructed various
+works of the kind, and Charlemagne projected a system of waterways
+connecting the Main and the Rhine with the Danube, while in China the
+Grand Canal, joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in
+the 13th century, formed an important artery of commerce, serving also
+for irrigation. But although it appears from Marco Polo that inclines
+were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways suffered in general
+from the defect that no method being known of conveniently transferring
+boats from one level to another they were only practicable between
+points that lay on nearly the same level; and inland navigation could
+not become generally useful and applicable until this defect had been
+remedied by the employment of locks. Great doubts exist as to the
+person, and even the nation, that first introduced locks. Some writers
+attribute their invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a century
+earlier than in Italy locks were used in Holland where canals are very
+numerous, owing to the favourable physical conditions. On the other
+hand, the contrivance has been claimed for engineers of the Italian
+school, and it is said that two brothers Domenico of Viterbo constructed
+a lock-chamber enclosed by a pair of gates in 1481, and that in 1487
+Leonardo da Vinci completed six locks uniting the canals of Milan. Be
+that as it may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th
+century gave a new character to inland navigation and laid the basis of
+its successful extension.
+
+The Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as the pioneer of
+the canals of modern Europe. Joining the Bay of Biscay and the
+Mediterranean it is 148 m. long and rises 620 ft. above sea-level with
+119 locks, its depth being about 6-1/2 ft. It was designed by Baron Paul
+Riquet de Bonrepos (1604-1680) and was finished in 1681. With it and the
+still earlier Briare canal (1605-1642) France began that policy of canal
+construction which has provided her with over 3000 m. of canals, in
+addition to over 4600 m. of navigable rivers. In Russia Peter the Great
+undertook the construction of a system of canals about the beginning of
+the 18th century, and in Sweden a canal with locks, connecting
+Eskilstuna with Lake Malar, was finished in 1606. In England the oldest
+artificial canal is the Foss Dyke, a relic of the Roman occupation. It
+extends from Lincoln to the river Trent near Torksey (11 m.), and formed
+a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin but now filled up,
+which ran from Lincoln to Peterborough (40 m.). Camden in his
+_Britannia_ says that the Foss Dyke was deepened and to some extent
+rendered navigable in 1121. Little, however, was done in making canals
+in Great Britain until the middle of the 18th century, though before
+that date some progress had been made in rendering some of the larger
+rivers navigable. In 1759 the duke of Bridgewater obtained powers to
+construct a canal between Manchester and his collieries at Worsley, and
+this work, of which James Brindley was the engineer, and which was
+opened for traffic in 1761, was followed by a period of great activity
+in canal construction, which, however, came to an end with the
+introduction of railways. According to evidence given before the royal
+commission on canals in 1906 the total mileage of existing canals in the
+United Kingdom was 3901. In the United States the first canal was made
+in 1792-1796 at South Hadley, Massachusetts, and the canal-system,
+though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has attained
+a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New York, Ohio, and
+Pennsylvania. The splendid inland navigation system of Canada mainly
+consists of natural lakes and rivers, and the artificial waterways are
+largely "lateral" canals, cut in order to enable vessels to avoid rapids
+in the rivers. (See the articles on the various countries for accounts
+of the canal-systems they possess.)
+
+The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construction were
+mostly of the class known as _barge_ or _boat canals_, and owing to
+their limited depth and breadth were only available for vessels of small
+size. But with the growth of commerce the advantage was seen of cutting
+canals of such dimensions as to enable them to accommodate sea-going
+ships. Such _ship-canals_, which from an engineering point of view
+chiefly differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they
+involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the voyage
+between two seas by cutting through an intervening isthmus, or to
+convert important inland places into seaports. An early example of the
+first class is afforded by the Caledonian Canal (q.v.), while among
+later ones may be mentioned the Suez Canal (q.v.), the Kaiser Wilhelm,
+Nord-Ostsee or Kiel Canal, connecting Brunsbuttel at the mouth of the
+Elbe with Kiel (q.v.) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have
+been proposed across the isthmus that joins North and South America (see
+PANAMA CANAL). Examples of the second class are the Manchester Ship
+Canal and the canal that runs from Zeebrugge on the North Sea to Bruges
+(q.v.).
+
+_Construction._--In laying out a line of canal the engineer is more
+restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway. Since water
+runs downhill, gradients are inadmissible, and the canal must either be
+made on one uniform level or must be adapted to the general rise or fall
+of the country through which it passes by being constructed in a series
+of level reaches at varying heights above a chosen datum line, each
+closed by a lock or some equivalent device to enable vessels to be
+transferred from one to another. To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the
+reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings of
+valleys, but from time to time it will become necessary to cross a
+sudden depression by the aid of an embankment or aqueduct, while a piece
+of rising ground or a hill may involve a cutting or a tunnel. Brindley
+took the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell at Barton by means of an
+aqueduct of three stone arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft.,
+and T. Telford arranged that the Ellesmere canal should cross the Dee
+valley at Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly by aqueduct.
+The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft. above the ground, when
+it was succeeded by an aqueduct, 1000 ft. long and 127 ft. above the
+river, consisting of a cast iron trough supported on iron arches with
+stone piers. Occasionally when a navigable stream has to be crossed, a
+swing viaduct is necessary to allow shipping to pass. The first was that
+built by Sir E. Leader Williams to replace Brindley's aqueduct at
+Barton, which was only high enough to give room for barges (see
+MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). One of the earliest canal tunnels was made in
+1766-1777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and Mersey canal; it is
+2880 yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide, and has no tow-path, the
+boats being propelled by men lying on their backs and pushing with their
+feet against the tunnel walls ("leggers"). A second tunnel, parallel to
+this but 16 ft. high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by
+Telford in 1827. Standedge tunnel, on the Huddersfield canal, is over 3
+m. long, and is also worked by leggers.
+
+
+  Dimensions.
+
+The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of water-supply,
+are regulated by the size of the vessels which are to be used on it.
+According to J.M. Rankine, the depth of water and sectional area of
+waterway should be such as not to cause any material increase of the
+resistance to the motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered
+in open water, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling these
+conditions:--
+
+  Least breadth of bottom = 2 X greatest breadth of boat.
+  Least depth of water    = 1-1/2 ft. + greatest draught of boat.
+  Least area of waterway  = 6 X greatest midship section of boat.
+
+The ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide at the
+bottom, which is flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water level, with a
+depth of 4 or 5 ft., the angle of slope of the sides varying with the
+nature of the soil. To retain the water in porous ground, and especially
+on embankments, a strong watertight lining of puddle or tempered clay
+must be provided on the bed and sides of the channel. Puddle is made of
+clay which has been finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being
+supplied until it is in a semi-plastic state. It is used in thin layers,
+each of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the lower
+stratum. The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft. To prevent the
+erosion of the sides at the water-line by the wash from the boats, it
+may be necessary to pitch them with stones or face them with brushwood.
+In some of the old canals the slopes have been cut away and vertical
+walls built to retain the towing-paths, with the result of adding
+materially to the sectional area of the waterway.
+
+
+  Water supply.
+
+A canal cannot be properly worked without a supply of water calculated
+to last over the driest season of the year. If there be no natural lake
+available in the district for storage and supply, or if the engineer
+cannot draw upon some stream of sufficient size, he must form artificial
+reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must be
+attended to in selecting the positions of these and in constructing them
+are the same as those for drinking-water supply, except that the purity
+of the water is not a matter of moment. They must be situated at such an
+elevation that the water from them may flow to the summit-level of the
+canal, and if the expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command
+a sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the canal
+by evaporation from the surface, percolation through the bed, and
+lockage. If the supply be inadequate, the draught of the boats plying on
+the canal may have to be reduced in a dry season, and the consequent
+decrease in the size of their cargoes will both lessen the carrying
+capacity of the canal and increase the working expenses in relation to
+the tonnage handled. Again, since the consumption of water in lockage
+increases both with the size of the locks and the frequency with which
+they are used, the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may
+put a limit to the density of traffic possible on a canal or may
+prohibit its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the
+size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under modern
+conditions. It may be pointed out that the up consumes more water than
+the down traffic. An ascending boat on entering a lock displaces a
+volume of water equal to its submerged capacity. The water so displaced
+flows into the lower reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through
+the lock is replaced by water flowing from the upper reach. A descending
+boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its submerged
+capacity, but in this case the water flows back into the higher reach
+where it is retained when the gates are closed.
+
+
+  Waste-weirs and stop-gates.
+
+An essential adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of waste-weirs to
+discharge surplus water accumulating during floods, which, if not
+provided with an exit, may overflow the tow-path, and cause a breach in
+the banks, stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining lands. The
+number and positions of these waste-weirs must depend on the nature of
+the country through which the canal passes. Wherever the canal crosses a
+stream a waste-weir should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently
+of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes of
+water may be apprehended, and must at such places form not only
+waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but also
+artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams. These
+waste-weirs are placed at the top water-level of the canal, so that when
+a flood occurs the water flows over them and thus relieves the banks.
+
+Stop-gates are necessary at short intervals of a few miles for the
+purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches, so that in the
+event of a breach the gates may be shut, and the discharge of water
+confined to the small reach intercepted between two of them, instead of
+extending throughout the whole line of canal. In broad canals these
+stop-gates may be formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates
+being made to shut in opposite directions. In small works they may be
+made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow points of
+the canal under road bridges, or at contractions made at intermediate
+points to receive them. Self-acting stop-gates have been tried, but have
+not proved trustworthy. When repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of
+the water being run off by "off-lets" from a short reach, and afterwards
+restored with but little interruption of the traffic. These off-lets are
+pipes placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided with
+valves which can be opened when required. They are generally formed at
+aqueducts or bridges crossing rivers, where the contents of the canal
+between the stop-gates can be run off into the stream.
+
+
+  Locks.
+
+Locks are chambers, constructed of wood, brickwork, masonry or concrete,
+and provided with gates at each end, by the aid of which vessels are
+transferred from one reach of the canal to another. To enable a boat to
+ascend, the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of water
+from the upper reach are closed. The sluices at the lower end of the
+lock are then opened, and when the level of the water in the lock has
+fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes in to the lock. The
+lower gates and sluices being then closed, the upper sluices are opened,
+and when the water rising in the lock has floated the boat up the level
+of the upper reach the upper gates are opened and it passes out. For a
+descending boat the procedure is reversed. The sluices by which the lock
+is filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks, or
+consist of openings in the gates in small ones. The gates are generally
+of oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when open, and closing
+against sills in the lock bottom when shut. In small narrow locks
+single gates only are necessary; in large locks pairs of gates are
+required, fitting together at the head or "mitre-post" when closed. The
+vertical timber at the end of the gate is known as the "heel-post," and
+at its foot is a casting that admits an iron pivot which is fixed in the
+lock bottom, and on which the gate turns. Iron straps round the head of
+the heel-post are let into the lock-coping to support the gate. The
+gates are opened and closed by balance beams projecting over the lock
+side, by gearing or in cases where they are very large and heavy by the
+direct action of a hydraulic ram. In order to economize water canal
+locks are made only a few inches wider than the vessels they have to
+accommodate. The English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or
+8 ft. in beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft. in
+width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit two of the
+narrower canal boats side by side. In general canal locks are just long
+enough to accommodate the longest vessels using the navigation. In some
+cases, however, provision is made for admitting a train of barges; such
+long locks have sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective
+length is reduced when a single vessel is passing. The lift of canal
+locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining reaches,
+is in general about 8 or 10 ft., but sometimes is as little as 1-1/2 ft.
+On the Canal du Centre (Belgium) there are locks with a lift of 17 ft.,
+and on the St Denis canal near La Villette basins in Paris there is one
+with a lift of 32-1/2 ft. In cases where a considerable difference of
+level has to be surmounted the locks are placed close together in a
+series or "flight," so that the lower gates of one serve also as the
+upper gates of the next below. To save water, expecially where the lift
+is considerable, side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs
+into which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead of
+being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards used for
+partially filling the chamber again. Double locks, that is, two locks
+placed side by side and communicating by a passage which can be opened
+or closed at will, also tend to save water, since each serves as a side
+pond to the other. The same advantage is gained with double flights of
+locks, and time also is saved since vessels can pass up and down
+simultaneously.
+
+
+  Inclines.
+
+A still greater economy of water can be effected by the use of inclined
+planes or vertical lifts in place of locks. In China rude inclines
+appear to have been used at an early date, vessels being carried down a
+sloping plane of stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up
+it by capstans. On the Bude canal (England) this plan was adopted in an
+improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed being fitted with
+wheels to facilitate their course over the inclines. Another variant,
+often adopted as an adjunct to locks where many small pleasure boats
+have to be dealt with, is to fit the incline itself with rollers, upon
+which the boats travel. In some cases the boats are conveyed on a
+wheeled trolley or cradle running on rails; this plan was adopted on the
+Morris canal, built in 1825-1831, in the case of 23 inclines having
+gradients of about 1 in 10, the rise of each varying from 44 to 100 ft.
+Between the Ourcq canal and the Marne, near Meaux, the difference of
+level is about 40 ft., and barges weighing about 70 tons are taken from
+the one to the other on a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a wire rope
+over an incline nearly 500 yards long. But heavy barges are apt to be
+strained by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this
+objection they are sometimes drawn up the inclines floating in a tank or
+caisson filled with water and running on wheels. This arrangement was
+utilized about 1840 on the Chard canal (England), and 10 years later it
+was adapted at Blackhill on the Monkland canal (Scotland) to replace a
+double flight of locks, in consequence of the traffic having been
+interrupted by insufficiency of water. There the height to be overcome
+was 96 ft. Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. gauge, were laid down on a
+gradient of 1 in 10, and on these ran two carriages having wrought iron,
+water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each end, in which the barges
+floated partially but not wholly supported by water. The carriages, with
+the barge and water, weighed about 80 tons each, and were arranged to
+counterbalance each other, one going up as the other was going down. The
+power required was provided by two high pressure steam engines of 25
+h.p., driving two large drums round which was coiled, in opposite
+directions, the 2-inch wire rope that hauled the caissons. An incline
+constructed on the Union canal at Foxton (England) to replace 10 locks
+giving a total rise of 75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two
+canal boats of 33 tons. It is in some respects like the Monkland canal
+incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails on an
+incline of 1 in 14, broadside on, and the boats are entirely waterborne.
+Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic accumulator which enables
+hydraulic power to be used in keeping the caisson in position at the top
+of the incline while the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight
+joint being maintained with the final portion of the canal during the
+operation. The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked by
+hydraulic power. The incline is capable of passing 200 canal boats in 12
+hours, and the whole plant is worked by three men.
+
+
+  Lifts.
+
+Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage at
+places where the difference in level occurs in a short length of canal,
+since otherwise long embankments or aqueducts would be necessary to
+obtain sites for their construction. An early example was built in 1809
+at Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham canal. It consisted of a
+timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when full of water, counterpoised by
+heavy weights carried on timber platforms. The lift of 12 ft. was
+effected in about three minutes by two men working winches. Seven lifts,
+erected on the Grand Western canal between Wellington and Tiverton about
+1835, consisted of two chambers with a masonry pier between them. In
+each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended at either end of a
+chain hung over large pulleys above. As one caisson descended the other
+rose, and the apparatus was worked by putting about a ton more water in
+the descending caisson than in the ascending one. At Anderton a lift was
+erected in 1875 to connect the Weaver navigation with the Trent and
+Mersey canal, which at that point is 50 ft. higher than the river. The
+lift is a double one, and can deal with barges up to 100 tons. The
+change is made while the vessels are floating in 5 ft. of water
+contained in a wrought iron caisson, 75 ft. long and 15-1/2 ft. wide. An
+hydraulic ram 3 ft. in diameter supports each caisson, the bottom of
+which is strengthened so as to transfer the weight to the side girders.
+The descending caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater
+depth of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240 tons)
+being otherwise constant, since the barge displaces its own weight of
+water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to overcome the loss of weight
+in the descending caisson when it begins to be immersed in the lower
+level of the river. The two presses in which the rams work are connected
+by a 5-in. pipe, so that the descent of one caisson effects the raising
+of the other. A similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the
+Neuffosse canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total
+weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example on
+the Canal du Centre at La Louviere in Belgium has a rise of 50 ft., with
+caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons, the total weight lifted
+amounting to over 1000 tons. This lift, with three others of the same
+character, overcomes the rise of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in
+the course of 4-1/3 m.
+
+
+  Animal power.
+
+_Haulage._--The horse or mule walking along a tow-path and drawing or
+"tracking" a boat or barge by means of a towing rope, still remains the
+typical method of conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on
+ship-canals vessels proceed under their own steam or are aided by tugs.
+Horse traction is very slow. The maximum speed on a narrow canal is
+about 3-1/2 m. an hour, and the average speed, which, of course, depends
+largely on the number of locks to be passed through, very much less. It
+has been calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls one
+narrow canal boat about 2 m. an hour loaded or 3 m. empty, or two narrow
+canal boats 1-1/2 m. loaded and 2-1/2 m. empty. Efforts have
+accordingly been made not only to quicken the rate of transit, but also
+to move heavier loads, thus increasing the carrying capacity of the
+waterways. But at speeds exceeding about 3-1/2 m. an hour the "wash" of
+the boat begins to cause erosion of the banks, and thus necessitates the
+employment of special protective measures, such as building side walls
+of masonry or concrete. For a canal of given depth there is a particular
+speed at which a boat can be hauled with a smaller expenditure of energy
+than at a higher or a lower speed, this maximum being the speed of free
+propagation of the primary wave raised by the motion of the boat (see
+WAVE). About 1830 when, in the absence of railways, canals could still
+aspire to act as carriers of passengers, advantage was taken of this
+fact on the Glasgow and Ardrossan canal, and subsequently on some
+others, to run fast passenger boats, made lightly of wrought iron and
+measuring 60 ft. in length by about 6 ft. in breadth. Provided with two
+horses they started at a low speed behind the wave, and then on a given
+signal were jerked on the top of the wave, when their speed was
+maintained at 7 or 8 m. an hour, the depth of the canal being 3 or 4 ft.
+This method, however, is obviously inapplicable to heavy barges, and in
+their case improved conditions of transport had to be sought in other
+directions.
+
+
+  Mechanical power.
+
+Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and Clyde canal in 1802,
+when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by W. Symington drew two
+barges for a distance of 19-1/2 m. in 6 hours in the teeth of a strong
+headwind. As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed to
+employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the project fell through
+owing to the death of the duke of Bridgewater, and the directors of the
+Forth and Clyde canal also decided against this method because they
+feared damage to the banks. Steam tugs are only practicable on
+navigations on which there are either no locks or they are large enough
+to admit the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the
+advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at locks. On the
+Bridgewater canal, which has an average width of 50 ft. with a depth of
+5-1/2 ft., is provided with vertical stone walls in place of sloping
+banks, and has no locks for its entire length of 40 m. except at
+Runcorn, where it joins the Mersey, tugs of 50 i.h.p., with a draught of
+4 ft., tow four barges, each weighing 60 tons, at a rate of nearly 3 m.
+an hour. On the Aire and Calder navigation, where the locks have a
+minimum length of 215 ft., a large coal traffic is carried in trains of
+boat-compartments on a system designed by W.H. Bartholomew. The boats
+are nearly square in shape, except the leading one which has an ordinary
+bow; they are coupled together by knuckle-joints fitted into hollow
+stern-posts, so that they can move both laterally and vertically, and a
+wire rope in tension on each side enables the train to be steered. No
+boat crews are required, the crew of the steamer regulating the train.
+If the number of boats does not exceed 11 they can be pushed, but beyond
+that number they are towed. Each compartment carries 35 tons, and the
+total weight in a train varies from 700 to 900 tons. On the arrival of a
+train at Goole the boats are detached and are taken over submerged
+cradles under hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle
+sufficiently high to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole
+cargo at once into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers. Another
+method of utilizing steam-power, which was also first tried on the Forth
+and Clyde canal by Symington in 1789, is to provide each vessel with a
+separate steam engine, and many barges are now running fitted in this
+way. Experiments have also been made with internal combustion engines in
+place of steam engines. In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a strong
+current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain passed round a drum
+on a tug: this drum is rotated by steam power and thus the tug is hauled
+up against the current. To obviate the inconvenience of passing several
+turns of the chain round the drum in order to get sufficient grip, the
+plan was introduced on the Seine and Oise in 1893 of passing the chain
+round a pulley which could be magnetized at will, the necessary
+adhesion being thus obtained by the magnetic attraction exercised on
+the iron chain; and it was also adopted about the same time in
+combination with electrical haulage on a small portion of the Bourgogne
+canal, electricity being employed to drive the motor that worked the
+pulley. Small locomotives running on rails along the towpath were tried
+on the Shropshire Union canal, where they were abandoned on account of
+practical difficulties in working, and also on certain canals in France
+and Germany, where, however, the financial results were not
+satisfactory. On portions of the Teltow canal, joining the Havel and the
+Spree, electrical tractors run on rails along both banks, taking their
+power from an overhead wire; they attain a speed of 2-1/2 m. an hour
+when hauling two 600-ton barges. The electrical supply is also utilized
+for working the lock gates and for various other purposes along the
+route of the canal. In the Mont-de-Rilly tunnel, at the summit level of
+the Aisne-Marne canal, a system of cable-traction was established in
+1894, the boats being taken through by being attached to an endless
+travelling wire rope supported by pulleys on the towpath.
+
+  When railways were being carried out in England some canal companies
+  were alarmed for their future, and sold their canals to the railway
+  companies, who in 1906 owned 1138 m. of canals out of a total length
+  in the United Kingdom of 3901 m. As some of these canals are links in
+  the chain of internal water communication complaints have frequently
+  arisen on the question of through traffic and tolls. The great
+  improvements carried out in America and on the continent of Europe by
+  state aid enable manufacturers to get the raw material they use and
+  goods they export to and from their ports at much cheaper rates than
+  those charged on British canals. The association of chambers of
+  commerce and other bodies having taken up the matter, a royal
+  commission was appointed in 1906 to report on the canals and
+  water-ways of the kingdom, with a view to considering how they could
+  be more profitably used for national purposes. Its Report was
+  published in December 1909.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L.F. Vernon-Harcourt, _Rivers and Canals_ (2nd ed.,
+  1896); Chapman, _Canal Navigation_; Firisi, _On Canals_; R. Fulton,
+  _Canal Navigation_; Tatham, _Economy of Inland Navigation_; Valancy,
+  _Treatise on Inland Navigation_; D. Stevenson, _Canal and River
+  Engineering_; John Phillips, _History of Inland Navigation_; J.
+  Priestley, _History of Navigable Rivers, Canals, &c. in Great Britain_
+  (1831); T. Telford, _Life_ (1838); John Smeaton, _Reports_ (1837);
+  _Reports of the International Congresses on Interior Navigation_;
+  _Report and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Canals_ (_Great
+  Britain_), 1906-9.     (E. L. W.)
+
+
+
+
+CANAL DOVER, a city of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the
+Tuscarawas river, about 70 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 3470;
+(1900) 5422 (930 foreign-born); (1910) 6621. It is served by the
+Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and by the Ohio canal,
+and is connected with Cleveland by an inter-urban electric line. It lies
+on a plateau about 880 ft. above sea-level and commands pleasant views
+of diversified scenery. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and
+the city manufactures iron, steel, tin plate, electrical and telephone
+supplies, shovels, boilers, leather, flour, brick and tile, salt,
+furniture and several kinds of vehicles. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works. Canal Dover was laid out as a town in 1807,
+and was incorporated as a village in 1842, but its charter was soon
+allowed to lapse and was not revived until 1867. Canal Dover became a
+city under the Ohio municipal code of 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CANALE (or CANALETTO), ANTONIO (1697-1768), Venetian painter, born on
+the 18th of October 1697, was educated under his father Bernard, a
+scene-painter of Venice, and for some time followed his father's line of
+art. In 1719 he went to Rome, where he employed himself chiefly in
+delineating ancient ruins, and particularly studied effects of light and
+shade, in which he became an adept. He was the first painter who made
+practical use of the camera lucida. On returning home he devoted his
+powers to views in his native city, which he painted with a clear and
+firm touch and the most facile mastery of colour in a deep tone,
+introducing groups of figures with much effect. In his latter days he
+resided some time in England. His pictures, in their particular range,
+still remain unrivalled for their magnificent perspective. The National
+Gallery, London, has five pictures by him, notably the "View on the
+Grand Canal, Venice," and the "Regatta on the Grand Canal." He died on
+the 20th of August 1768. Bellotto (commonly named Bernardo), who is also
+sometimes called CANALETTO (1724-1780), was his nephew and pupil, and
+painted with deceptive resemblance to the style of the more celebrated
+master.
+
+
+
+
+CANALIS (also "canal" and "channel"; from the Latin), in architecture,
+the sinking between the fillets of the volute of the Ionic capital: in
+the earliest examples, though sunk below the fillets, it is slightly
+convex in section.
+
+
+
+
+CANANDAIGUA, a village and the county-seat of Ontario county, New York,
+U.S.A., 30 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. (1890) 5868; (1900) 6151; (1910)
+7217. It is served by the New York Central and Hudson River, and the
+Northern Central (Pennsylvania system) railways, and is connected with
+Rochester by an inter-urban electric line. Among the manufactures are
+pressed bricks, tile, beer, ploughs, flour, agate and tin-ware. The
+village, picturesquely situated at the north end of Canandaigua Lake, a
+beautiful sheet of water about 15 m. long with a breadth varying from a
+mile to a mile and a half, is a summer resort. It has a county court
+house; the Canandaigua hospital of physicians and surgeons; the
+Frederick Ferris Thompson memorial hospital, with a bacteriological
+laboratory supported by the county; the Clark Manor House (a county home
+for the aged), given by Mrs Frederick Ferris Thompson in memory of her
+mother and of her father, Myron Holley Clark (1806-1892), president of
+the village of Canandaigua in 1850-1851 and governor of New York in
+1855-1857; the Ontario Orphan Asylum; Canandaigua Academy; Granger Place
+school for girls; Brigham Hall (a private sanatorium for nervous and
+mental diseases); Young Men's Christian Association building (1905); and
+two libraries, the Wood (public) library and the Union School library,
+founded in 1795. There is a public playground in the village with free
+instruction by a physical director; and a swimming school, endowed by
+Mrs F.F. Thompson, gives free lessons in swimming. The village owns its
+water-supply system. A village of the Seneca Indians, near the present
+Canandaigua, bearing the same name, which means "a settlement was
+formerly there" (not, as Lewis Morgan thought, "chosen spot"), was
+destroyed by Gen. John Sullivan in 1779. There are boulder memorials of
+Sullivan's expedition and of the treaty signed here on the 11th of
+November 1794 by Timothy Pickering, on behalf of the United States with
+the Six Nations--a treaty never ratified by the Senate. Canandaigua was
+settled in 1789 and was first incorporated in 1812.
+
+
+
+
+CANARD (the Fr. for "duck"), a sensational or extravagant story, a hoax
+or false report, especially one circulated by newspapers. This use of
+the word in France dates from the 17th century, and is supposed by
+Littre to have originated in the old expression, "_vendre un canard a
+moitie_" (to half-sell a duck); as it is impossible to "half-sell a
+duck," the phrase came to signify to take in, or to cheat.
+
+
+
+
+CANARY (_Serinus canarius_), a well-known species of passerine bird,
+belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ or finches (see FINCH). It is a
+native of the Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs abundantly in
+the wild state, and is of a greyish-brown colour, slightly varied with
+brighter hues, although never attaining the beautiful plumage of the
+domestic bird. It was first domesticated in Italy during the 16th
+century, and soon spread over Europe, where it is now the most common of
+cage-birds. During the years of its domestication, the canary has been
+the subject of careful artificial selection, the result being the
+production of a bird differing widely in the colour of its plumage, and
+in a few of its varieties even in size and form, from the original wild
+species. The prevailing colour of the most admired varieties of the
+canary is yellow, approaching in some cases to orange, and in others to
+white; while the most robust birds are those which, in the dusky green
+of the upper surface of their plumage, show a distinct approach to the
+wild forms. The least prized are those in which the plumage is
+irregularly spotted and speckled. In one of the most esteemed varieties,
+the wing and tail feathers are at first black--a peculiarity, however,
+which disappears after the first moulting. Size and form have also been
+modified by domestication, the wild canary being not more than 5-1/2 in.
+in length, while a well-known Belgian variety usually measures 8 in.
+There are also hooped or bowed canaries, feather-footed forms and
+top-knots, the latter having a distinct crest on the head; but the
+offspring of two such top-knotted canaries, instead of showing an
+increased development of crest, as might be expected, are apt to be bald
+on the crown. Most of the varieties, however, of which no fewer than
+twenty-seven were recognized by French breeders so early as the
+beginning of the 18th century, differ merely in the colour and the
+markings of the plumage. Hybrids are also common, the canary breeding
+freely with the siskin, goldfinch, citril, greenfinch and linnet. The
+hybrids thus produced are almost invariably sterile. It is the female
+canary which is almost invariably employed in crossing, as it is
+difficult to get the females of the allied species to sit on the
+artificial nest used by breeders. In a state of nature canaries pair,
+but under domestication the male bird has been rendered polygamous,
+being often put with four or five females; still he is said to show a
+distinct preference for the female with which he was first mated. It is
+from the others, however, that the best birds are usually obtained. The
+canary is very prolific, producing eggs, not exceeding six in number,
+three or four times a year; and in a state of nature it is said to breed
+still oftener. The work of building the nest, and of incubation, falls
+chiefly on the female, while the duty of feeding the young rests mainly
+with the cock bird. The natural song of the canary is loud and clear;
+and in their native groves the males, especially during the pairing
+season, pour forth their song with such ardour as sometimes to burst the
+delicate vessels of the throat. The males appear to compete with each
+other in the brilliancy of their melody, in order to attract the
+females, which, according to the German naturalist Johann Matthaus
+Bechstein (1757-1822) always select the best singers for their mates.
+The canary readily imitates the notes of other birds, and in Germany and
+especially Tirol, where the breeding of canaries gives employment to a
+large number of people, they are usually placed for this purpose beside
+the nightingale.     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+CANARY ISLANDS (_Canarias_), a Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic
+Ocean; about 60 m. W. of the African coast, between 27 deg. 40' and 29
+deg. 30' N., and between 13 deg. 20' and 18 deg. 10' W. Pop. (1900)
+358,564; area 2807 sq. m. The Canary Islands resemble a roughly-drawn
+semicircle, with its convex side facing south-wards, and with the island
+of Hierro detached on the south-west. More precisely, they may be
+considered as two groups, one of which, including Teneriffe, Grand
+Canary, Palma, Hierro and Gomera, consists of mountain peaks, isolated
+and rising directly from an ocean of great depth; while the other,
+comprising Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and six uninhabited islets, is based
+on a single submarine plateau, of far less depth. Teneriffe and Gomera,
+the only members of the principal group which have a common base, may be
+regarded as the twin peaks of one great volcanic mass. Ever since the
+researches of Leopold von Buch the Canary Islands have been classical
+ground to the student of volcanic action. Buch considered them to be
+representative of his "craters of elevation." In common with the other
+West African islands they are of volcanic origin. The lavas consist
+chiefly of trachytes and basalts.
+
+[Illustration: CANARY ISLANDS MAP]
+
+_Climate_.--From April to October a north or north-east wind blows upon
+the islands, beginning about 10 A.M. and continuing until 5 or 6 P.M. In
+summer this wind produces a dense stratum of sea-cloud (_cumuloni_), 500
+ft. thick, whose lower surface is about 2500 ft. above the sea at
+Teneriffe. This does not reach up to the mountains, which have on every
+side a stratum of their own, about 1000 ft. thick, the lower surface
+being about 3500 ft. above the level of the sea. Between these two
+distinct strata there is a gap, through which persons on a vessel near
+the island may obtain a glimpse of the peak. The sea-cloud conceals from
+view the other islands, except those whose mountains pierce through it.
+On the south-west coasts there is no regular sea or land breeze. In
+winter they are occasionally visited by a hot south-east wind from
+Africa, which is called the _Levante_, and produces various disagreeable
+consequences on the exposed parts of the person, besides injuring the
+vegetation, especially on the higher grounds. Locusts have sometimes
+been brought by this wind. In 1812 it is said that locusts covered some
+fields in Fuerteventura to the depth of 4 ft. Hurricanes, accompanied by
+waterspouts, sometimes cause much devastation; but, on the whole, the
+islands are singularly free from such visitations. The climate generally
+is mild, dry and healthy. On the lower grounds the temperature is
+equable, the daily range seldom exceeding 6 deg. Fahr. At Santa Cruz the
+mean for the year is about 71 deg. The rainy season occurs at the same
+period as in southern Europe. The dry season is at the time of the
+trade-winds, which extend a few degrees farther north than this
+latitude.
+
+_Fauna_.--The indigenous mammals of the Canary Islands are very few in
+number. The dog, swine, goat and sheep were alone found upon the island
+by the Spanish conquerors: The race of large dogs which is supposed to
+have given a name to the islands has been long extinct. A single
+skeleton has been found, which is deposited in one of the museums at
+Paris. The ferret, rabbit, cat, rat, mouse and two kinds of bat have
+become naturalized. The ornithology is more interesting, on account at
+once of the birds native to the islands, and the stragglers from the
+African coast, which are chiefly brought over in winter, when the wind
+has blown for some time from the east. Among the indigenous birds are
+some birds of prey, as the African vulture, the falcon, the buzzard, the
+sparrow-hawk and the kite. There are also two species of owl, three
+species of sea-mew, the stockdove, quail, raven, magpie, chaffinch,
+goldfinch, blackcap, canary, titmouse, blackbird, house-swallow, &c. As
+to the insects, mention may be made of a species of gnat or mosquito
+which is sometimes troublesome, especially to strangers. The list of
+reptiles is limited to three varieties of lizard and one species of
+frog. The only fresh-water fish is the eel. Marine fishes are not
+numerous, the reason perhaps being that the steepness of the coast does
+not allow seaweed to grow in sufficient quantity to support the lower
+forms of marine animal life. Whales and seals are occasionally seen. The
+cuttle-fish is abundant, and is sought for as an article of food.
+
+_Flora_.--The position of mountainous islands like the Canaries, in the
+subtropical division of the temperate zone, is highly favourable to the
+development, within a small space, of plants characteristic of both warm
+and cold climates. Von Buch refers to five regions of vegetation in
+Teneriffe:--(1) From the sea to the height of 1300 ft. This he styles
+the African region. The climate in the hottest parts is similar to that
+of Egypt. Here grow, among the introduced plants, the coffee tree, the
+date-palm, the sugar-cane, the banana, the orange tree, the American
+agave and two species of cactus; and among indigenous plants, the dragon
+tree on the north-west of Teneriffe. A leafless and fantastic euphorbia,
+_E. canariensis_, and a shrubby composite plant, _Cacalia kleinia_, give
+a character to the landscape about Santa Cruz. (2) Between 1300 ft. and
+2800 ft. This is the region of south European vegetation, the climate
+answering to that of southern France and central Italy. Here nourish
+vines and cereals. (3) The region of indigenous trees, including
+various species of laurel, an _Ardisia, Ilex, Rhamnus, Olea, Myrica_,
+and other trees found wild also at Madeira. The clouds rest on this
+region during the day, and by their humidity support a vegetation
+amongst the trees, partly of shrubs, and partly of ferns. It extends to
+the height of 4000 ft. (4) The region of the beautiful _Pinus
+canariensis_, extending to the height of 6400 ft.; here the broad-leaved
+trees have ceased to grow, but arborescent heaths are found throughout
+its whole extent, and specimens of _Juniperus oxycedrus_ may be met
+with. (5) The region of Retama (_Cytisus nubigenus_), a species of
+white-flowering and sweet-scented broom, which is found as high as
+11,000 ft. At the upper edge of this region a lilac-coloured violet
+clings to the soil, and above there is nothing but a little lichen. The
+number of wild flowering plants may be estimated at 900, upwards of 270
+of which are peculiar to the Canaries. The forms of vegetation must in
+the main be considered North African. The character of the vegetation in
+Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, islands composed of extensive plains and
+low hills, with few springs, is different from that of the other
+islands, which are more elevated and have many springs. The wood is less
+abundant, and the vegetation less luxuriant.
+
+_Inhabitants_.--The Guanches (q.v.), who occupied the Canaries at the
+time of the Spanish invasion, no longer exist as a separate race, for
+the majority were exterminated, and the remainder intermarried with
+their conquerors. The present inhabitants are slightly darker than the
+people of Spain, but in other respects are scarcely distinguishable from
+them. The men are of middle height, well-made and strong; the women are
+not striking in respect of beauty, but they have good eyes and hair.
+Spanish is the only language in use. The birth-rate is uniformly high
+and the death-rate low; and, despite the emigration of many families to
+South America and the United States, the census of 1900 showed that the
+population had increased by over 75,000 since 1877. The excess of
+females over males, which in 1900 amounted to upwards of 22,000, is
+partly explained by the fact that few women emigrate. Fully 80% of the
+inhabitants could neither read nor write in 1900; but education
+progresses more rapidly than in many other Spanish provinces. Good
+schools are numerous, and the return of emigrants and their children who
+have been educated in the United States, tends to raise the standard of
+civilization. The sustenance of the poorer classes is chiefly composed
+of fish, potatoes and _gofio_, which is merely Indian corn or wheat
+roasted, ground and kneaded with water or milk. The land is, in great
+part, strictly entailed.
+
+_Government_.--The archipelago forms one Spanish province, of which the
+capital is Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the residence of the civil governor,
+who has under his command one of the two districts into which the
+archipelago is divided, this first district comprising Teneriffe, Palma,
+Gomera and Hierro. The other district includes Grand Canary, Lanzarote,
+Fuerteventura, and has at its head a sub-governor, residing in Las
+Palmas, on Grand Canary, who is independent of the governor except in
+regard to elections and municipal administration. The chief finance
+office is at Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The court of appeal, created in
+1526, is in Las Palmas. The captain-general and second commandant of the
+archipelago reside in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and there is a
+brigadier-governor of Grand Canary, residing in Las Palmas, besides
+eight inferior military commandants. The province furnishes no men for
+the Spanish peninsular army, but its annual conscription provides men
+for the local territorial militia, composed of regiments of infantry,
+squadrons of mounted rifles and companies of garrison artillery--about
+5000 men all told. The archipelago is divided into two naval districts,
+commanded by royal navy captains. Roman Catholicism is the official
+religion, and ecclesiastical law is the same as in other Spanish
+provinces. The convents have been suppressed, and in many cases
+converted to secular uses. Laguna and Las Palmas are episcopal sees, in
+the archbishopric of Seville.
+
+_Industry and Commerce._--Owing to the richness of the volcanic soil,
+agriculture in the Canaries is usually very profitable. Land varies in
+value according to the amount of water available, but as a rule commands
+an extraordinarily high price. In the _Terrenos de secano_, or
+non-irrigable districts, the average price of an acre ranges from L7 to
+L17; in the _Terrenes de riego_, or irrigable land, it ranges from L100
+to L250. Until 1853 wine was the staple product, and although even the
+finest brand (known as _Vidonia_) never equalled the best Madeira
+vintages, it was largely consumed abroad, especially in England. The
+annual value of the wine exported often exceeded L500,000. In 1853,
+however, the grape disease attacked the vineyards; and thenceforward the
+production of cochineal, which had been introduced in 1825, took the
+place of viticulture so completely that, twenty years later, the exports
+of cochineal were worth L556,000. France and England were the chief
+purchasers. This industry declined in the later years of the 19th
+century, and was supplanted by the cultivation of sugar-cane, and
+afterwards of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and onions. Bananas are the
+most important crop. Other fruits grown in smaller quantities include
+oranges, figs, dates, pineapples, guavas, custard-apples and prickly
+pears. Tobacco-planting is encouraged by the Spanish government, and the
+sugar trade is maintained, despite severe competition. The grain harvest
+does not supply the needs of the islanders. Pigs and sheep of a small,
+coarse-woolled breed, are numerous; and large herds of goats wander in
+an almost wild state over the higher hills. Fishing is a very important
+industry, employing over 10,000 hands. The fleet of about 2200 boats
+operates along some 600 m. of the African coast, between Cape Cantin and
+the Arguin Bank. Shipbuilding is carried on at Las Palmas; and the minor
+industries include the manufacture of cloth, drawn-linen (_calado_)
+work, silk, baskets, hats, &c. A group of Indian merchants, who employ
+coolie labour, produce silken, jute and cotton goods, Oriental
+embroideries, wrought silver, brass-ware, porcelain, carved sandal-wood,
+&c. The United Kingdom heads the import trade in coal, textiles,
+hardware, iron, soap, candles and colonial products. Timber comes
+chiefly from North America and Scandinavia, alcohol from Cuba and the
+United States, wheat and flour from various British possessions, maize
+from Morocco and Argentina. Large quantities of miscellaneous imports
+are sent by Germany, Spain, France and Italy. Bananas, tomatoes,
+potatoes, sugar and wine are exported. The total value of the foreign
+trade fluctuates very greatly, and the difficulty of forming an estimate
+is enhanced in many years by the absence of official statistics; but
+imports and exports together probably amount in a normal year to about
+L1,000,000. The chief ports are Las Palmas and Santa Cruz, which
+annually accommodate about 7000 vessels of over 8,000,000 tons. In 1854
+all the ports of the Canaries were practically declared free; but on the
+1st of November 1904 a royal order prohibited foreign vessels from
+trading between one island and another. This decree deprived the
+outlying islands of their usual means of communication, and, in answer
+to a protest by the inhabitants, its operation was postponed.
+
+_History_.--There is ground for supposing that the Phoenicians were not
+ignorant of the Canaries. The Romans learned of their existence through
+Juba, king of Mauretania, whose account of an expedition to the islands,
+made about 40 B.C., was preserved by the elder Pliny. He mentions
+"Canaria, so called from the multitude of dogs of great size," and
+"Nivaria, taking its name from perpetual snow, and covered with clouds,"
+doubtless Teneriffe. Canaria was said to abound in palms and pine trees.
+Both Plutarch and Ptolemy speak of the Fortunate Islands, but from their
+description it is not clear whether the Canaries or one of the other
+island groups in the western Atlantic are meant; see ISLES OF THE BLEST.
+In the 12th century the Canaries were visited by Arab navigators, and in
+1334 they were rediscovered by a French vessel driven among them by a
+gale. A Portuguese expedition, undertaken about the same time, failed to
+find the archipelago, and want of means frustrated the project of
+conquest entertained by a grandson of Alphonso X. of Castile, named Juan
+de la Cerda, who had obtained a grant of the islands and had been
+crowned king of them at Avignon, by Pope Clement VI. Two or possibly
+more Spanish expeditions followed, and a monastic mission was
+established, but at the close of the 14th century the Guanches remained
+unconquered and unconverted. In 1402, however, Gadifer de la Salle and
+Jean de Bethencourt (q.v.) sailed with two vessels from Rochelle, and
+landed early in July on Lanzarote. The relations between these two
+leaders, and their respective shares in the work of conquest and
+exploration, have been the subject of much controversy. Between 1402 and
+1404 La Salle conquered Lanzarote and part of Fuerteventura, besides
+exploring other islands; Bethencourt meanwhile sailed to Cadiz for
+reinforcements. He returned in 1404 with the title of king, which he had
+secured from Henry III. of Castile. La Salle, thus placed in a position
+of inferiority, left the islands and appealed unsuccessfully for redress
+at the court of Castile. In 1405 Bethencourt visited Normandy, and
+returned with fresh colonists who conquered Hierro. In December 1406 he
+left the Canaries, entrusting their government to his nephew Maciot de
+Bethencourt, and reserving for himself a share in any profits obtained,
+and the royal title. Eight years of misrule followed before Queen
+Catherine of Castile intervened. Maciot thereupon sold his office to her
+envoy, Pedro Barba de Campos; sailed to Lisbon and resold it to Prince
+Henry the Navigator; and a few years afterwards resold it once more to
+Enrique de Guzman, count of Niebla. Jean de Bethencourt, who died in
+1422, bequeathed the islands to his brother Reynaud; Guzman sold them to
+another Spaniard named Paraza, who was forced to re-sell to Ferdinand
+and Isabella of Castile in 1476; and Prince Henry twice endeavoured to
+enforce his own claims. Meanwhile the Guanches remained unconquered
+throughout the greater part of the archipelago. In 1479 the sovereignty
+of Ferdinand and Isabella over the Canaries was established by the
+treaty of Alcacova, between Portugal and Castile. After much bloodshed,
+and with reinforcements from the mother country, the Spaniards, under
+Pedro de Vera, became masters of Grand Canary in 1483. Palma was
+conquered in 1491, and Teneriffe in 1495, by Alonzo de Lugo. The
+archipelago was included for administrative purposes in the
+captaincy-general of Andalusia until 1833, when it was made a separate
+province. In 1902 a movement in favour of local autonomy was repressed
+by Spanish troops.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of the islands, see _Les Iles
+  Canaries_, by J. Pitard and L. Proust (Paris, 1909); _Madeira and the
+  Canary Islands_, by A. Samler Brown, a guide for travellers and
+  invalids, with coloured maps and plates (London, 1901); _A Guide to
+  the Canary Islands_, by J.H.T. Ellerbeck (London, 1892); _The Canary
+  Islands as a Winter Resort_, by J. Whitford (London, 1890, with maps
+  and illustrations); _De la Tierra Canaria_, by L. and A. Millares
+  Cubas (Madrid, 1894); and _Physikalische Beschreibung der kanarischen
+  Inseln_, by L. von Buch (Berlin, 1825). Besides the interesting folio
+  atlas of von Buch (Paris, 1836), good modern maps have been published
+  by E. Stanford (London, 1891, 12-1/2 English m. to 1 in.), and M.
+  Perez y Rodriquez (Madrid, 1896-1898, 4 sheets). See also _Histoire
+  naturelle des iles Canaries_, by P. Barker-Webb and S. Berthelot
+  (Paris, 1835-1849); and "Les Iles Canaries et les parages de peche
+  canariens," by Dr. A. Taquin, in the _B.S.R. Beige G. 26_ (1902), and
+  27 (1903); and, for history and antiquities, the _Historia general de
+  las islas Canarias_, by A. Millares Cubas, in 10 vols. (Las Palmas,
+  1893-1895),and _Historia de la Inquisicion en las islas Canarias_, by
+  the same author (Las Palmas, 1874); _Antiquites canariennes_, by S.
+  Berthelot (Paris, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+CANCALE, a fishing port of north-western France in the department of
+Ille-et-Vilaine on the Bay of Cancale, 9 m. E.N.E. of St Malo by road.
+Pop. (1906) town 3827, commune 7061. It exports oysters, which are found
+in its bay in large numbers and of excellent quality, and equips a fleet
+for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The harbour is protected by the
+rocks known as the Rochers de Cancale. In 1758 an English army under the
+duke of Marlborough landed here for the purpose of attacking St Malo and
+pillaged the town. It was again bombarded by the English in 1779.
+
+
+
+
+CANCEL (from the Lat. _cancelli_, a plural diminutive of _cancer_, a
+grating or lattice, from which are also derived "chancel" and
+"chancellor"), a word meaning to cross out, from the crossed latticed
+lines drawn across a legal document to annul it, hence to delete or
+destroy.
+
+
+
+
+CANCELLI (plural of Lat. _cancellus_, dim. of _cancer_, a crossing bar),
+in architecture, the term given to barriers which correspond to the
+modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing the body of
+a church from the part occupied by the ministers; hence "chancel"
+(q.v.). By the Romans _cancelli_ were similarly employed to divide off
+portions of the courts of law (cf. the English "bar").
+
+
+
+
+CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549), Spanish missionary to Central America, was born
+at Barbastro near Saragossa. After working for some time in Dominica and
+Haiti, he crossed to the mainland, where he had great success in
+pacifying the Indians whom more violent methods had failed to subdue. He
+upheld the cause of the natives at an ecclesiastical assembly held in
+Mexico in 1546, and three years later, on the 26th of June, met his
+death at their hands on the west coast of Florida.
+
+
+
+
+CANCER ("THE CRAB"), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the zodiac,
+denoted by the symbol [Crab symbol]. Its name may be possibly derived
+from the fact that when the sun arrives at this part of the ecliptic it
+apparently retraces its path, resembling in some manner the sidelong
+motion of a crab. It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
+century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars
+in it, Tycho Brahe 15 and Hevelius 29. Its most interesting objects are:
+a large loose cluster of stars, known as _Praesepe_ or the Beehive,
+visible as a nebulous patch to the naked eye, and [zeta] _Cancri_, a
+remarkable multiple star, composed of two stars, of magnitudes 5 and
+5.7, revolving about each other in 60 years, and a third star of
+magnitude 5.5 which revolves about these two in an opposite direction in
+a period of 17-1/2 years; from irregularities in the motion of this star,
+it is supposed to be a satellite of an invisible body which itself
+revolves about the two stars previously mentioned, in a period of 600 to
+700 years.
+
+
+
+
+CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. _cancer_, Gr. _[Greek: karkiuoma]_, an
+eating ulcer), the name given to a class of morbid growths or tumours
+which occur in man, and also in most or all vertebrate animals. The term
+"malignant disease" is commonly used as synonymous with "cancer." For
+the general pathology, &c., of tumours see TUMOUR.
+
+Cancer exists in various forms, which, although differing from each
+other in many points, have yet certain common characters to which they
+owe their special significance.
+
+1. In structure such growths are composed of nucleated cells and free
+nuclei together with a milky fluid called cancer juice, all contained
+within a more or less dense fibrous stroma or framework.
+
+2. They have no well-defined limits, and they involve all textures in
+their vicinity, while they also tend to spread by the lymphatics and
+veins, and to cause similar growths in distant parts or organs called
+"secondary cancerous growths."
+
+3. They are undergoing constant increase, and their progress is usually
+rapid.
+
+4. Pain is a frequent symptom. When present it is generally of a severe
+and agonizing character, and together with the local effects of the
+disease and the resulting condition of ill health or "cachexia," hastens
+the fatal termination to which all cancerous growths tend.
+
+5. When such growths are removed by the surgeon they are apt to return
+either at the same or at some other part.
+
+The chief varieties of cancer are _Scirrhus_ or hard cancer,
+_Encephaloid_ or soft cancer and _Epithelial cancer_.
+
+Scirrhus is remarkable for its hardness, which is due to the large
+amount of its fibrous, and relatively small proportion of its cell
+elements. It is of comparatively slow growth, but it tends to spread and
+to ulcerate. Its most common seat by far is the female breast, though it
+sometimes affects internal organs.
+
+Encephaloid is in structure the reverse of the last, its softness
+depending on the preponderance of its cell over its fibrous elements.
+Its appearance and consistence resemble brain substance (hence its
+name), and it is of such rapid growth as to have given rise to its being
+occasionally termed _acute cancer_. Its most frequent seats are
+internal organs or the limbs. Ulceration and haemorrhage are common
+accompaniments of this form of cancer.
+
+Epithelial cancer is largely composed of cells resembling the natural
+epithelium of the body. It occurs most frequently in those parts
+provided with epithelium, such as the skin and mucous membranes, or
+where those adjoin, as in the lips. This form of cancer does not spread
+so rapidly nor produce secondary growths in other organs to the same
+extent as the two other varieties, but it tends equally with them to
+involve the neighbouring lymphatic glands, and to recur after removal.
+
+Cancer affects all parts of the body, but is much more frequent in some
+tissues than in others. According to recent statistics prepared by the
+registrar-general for England and Wales (sixty-seventh annual report)
+the most frequent seats are, in numerical order, as
+follows:--_males_--stomach, liver, rectum, intestines, aesophagus,
+tongue; _females_--uterus, breast, stomach, liver, intestines, rectum.
+Other statistics give similar, though not identical results. It may be
+said, broadly, that the most frequent seats are the female sexual organs
+and after them the digestive tract in both sexes. In children, in whom
+cancer is rare, the most frequent seats appear to be--under five, the
+kidneys and supra-renal bodies; five to ten, the brain; ten to twenty,
+the arm and leg bones.
+
+Cancer tends to advance steadily to a fatal termination, but its
+duration varies in different cases according to the part affected and
+according to the variety of the disease. Soft cancer affecting important
+organs of the body often proves fatal in a few months, while, on the
+other hand, cases of hard or epithelial cancer may sometimes last for
+several years; but no precise limit can be assigned for any form of the
+disease. In some rare instances growths exhibiting all the signs of
+cancer may exist for a great length of time without making any progress,
+and may even dwindle and disappear altogether. This is called
+"spontaneous cure."
+
+
+  Cancer research.
+
+Cancer has been the subject of observation from time immemorial, and of
+the most elaborate investigation by innumerable workers in recent years;
+but the problems of its origin and character have hitherto baffled
+inquiry. Modern scientific study of them may be said to have begun with
+J. Muller's microscopic work in the structure of cancerous tissue early
+in the 19th century. A great impetus to this line of investigation was
+given by the cellular theory of R. Virchow and the pathological
+researches of Sir J. Paget, and general attention was directed to the
+microscopic examination of the cells of which cancer is composed. This
+led to a classification, on which much reliance was once placed, of
+different kinds of cancer, based on the character of the cells, and
+particularly to a distinction between _carcinoma_, in which the cells
+are of the epithelial type, and _sarcoma_, in which they are of the
+connective tissue type. The distinction, though still maintained, has
+proved barren; it never had any real significance, either clinical or
+pathological, and the tendency in recent research is to ignore it. The
+increased knowledge gained in numerous other branches of biological
+science has also been brought to bear on the problem of cancer and has
+led to a number of theories; and at the same time the apparently
+increasing prevalence of the disease recorded by the vital statistics of
+many countries has drawn more and more public attention to it. Two
+results have followed. One is the establishment of special endowed
+institutions devoted to cancer research; the other is the publication
+and discussion of innumerable theories and proposed methods of
+treatment. Popular interest has been constantly fanned by the
+announcement of some pretended discovery or cure, in which the public is
+invited to place its trust. Such announcements have no scientific value
+whatever. In the rare cases in which they are not pure quackery, they
+are always premature and based on inadequate data.
+
+Organized cancer research stands on a different footing. It may be
+regarded as the revival at the end of the 19th century of what was
+unsuccessfully attempted at the beginning. As early as 1792, at the
+suggestion of Mr. John Howard, surgeon, a ward was opened at the
+Middlesex hospital in London for the special benefit of persons
+suffering from cancer. It was fitted up and endowed anonymously by Mr.
+Samuel Whitbread, M.P. for Bedford, and according to the terms of the
+benefaction at least six patients were to be continually maintained in
+it until relieved by art or released by death. The purpose was both
+philanthropic and scientific, as Mr. Howard explained in bringing
+forward the suggestion. Two principal objects, he said, presented
+themselves to his mind, "namely, the relief of persons suffering under
+this disease and the investigation of a complaint which, although
+extremely common, is both with regard to its natural history and cure
+but imperfectly known." This benefaction was the origin of one of the
+most complete institutions for the scientific study of cancer that
+exists to-day.
+
+In 1804 a Society for Investigating the Nature of Cancer was formed by a
+number of medical men in London, Edinburgh and other towns at the
+instigation of John Hunter. The aim was collective investigation, and an
+attempt was made to carry it out by issuing forms of inquiry; but the
+imperfect means of communication then existing caused the scheme to be
+abandoned in a short time. Subsequent attempts at collective
+investigation also failed until recently. About 1900 a movement, which
+had been for some time gathering force, began to take visible shape
+simultaneously in different countries. The cancer ward at the Middlesex
+hospital had then developed into a cancer wing, and to it were added
+special laboratories for the investigation of cancer, which were opened
+on the 1st of March 1900. In this establishment the fully equipped means
+of clinical and laboratory research were united under one roof and
+manned by a staff of investigators under the direction of Dr W.S.
+Lazarus Barlow. In the same year the _Deutsche Comite fur
+Krebsforschung_ was organized in Berlin, receiving an annual subsidy of
+5000 marks (L250) from the imperial exchequer. This body devoted its
+energies to making a census of cancer patients in Germany on a definite
+date. A special ward for cancer was also set apart at the Charite
+hospital in Berlin, with a state endowment of 53,000 marks (L2560) per
+annum, and a laboratory for cancer research was attached to the first
+medical clinique under Professor Ernst von Leyden at the same hospital.
+A third institution in Germany is a special cancer department at the
+Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental Therapeutics at
+Frankfort-on-Main, which has been supported, like the Imperial Cancer
+Research Fund in England, by private contributions on a generous scale.
+The fund just mentioned was initiated in October 1901, and its
+operations took definite shape a year later, when Dr. E.F. Bashford was
+appointed general superintendent of research. The patron of the
+foundation was King Edward VII., and the president was the prince of
+Wales. It had in 1908 a capital endowment of about L120,000, subscribed
+by private munificence and producing an income of about L7000 a year.
+The central laboratory is situated in the examination building of the
+Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons in London, and the work is
+conducted under the superintendence of an executive committee formed by
+representatives of those bodies. In the United States a cancer
+laboratory, which had been established in Buffalo in 1899 under Dr
+Roswell Park, was formally placed under the control of New York state in
+June 1901, and is supported by an annual grant of $15,000 (L3000). There
+are other provisions in the United States connected with Harvard and
+Cornell universities. At the former the "Caroline Brewer Croft Fund for
+Cancer Research" started special investigations in the surgical
+department of the Harvard Medical School in 1900 or the previous year,
+and in connexion with the Cornell University Medical School there is a
+small endowment called the "Huntingdon Cancer Research Fund." There
+appear to be institutions of a similar character in other countries, in
+addition to innumerable investigators at universities and other ordinary
+seats of scientific research.
+
+Some attempt has been made to co-ordinate the work thus carried on in
+different countries. An international cancer congress was held at
+Heidelberg and Frankfort in 1906, and a proposal was put forward by
+German representatives that a permanent international conference on
+cancer should be established, with headquarters in Berlin. The committee
+of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund did not fall in with the proposal,
+being of opinion that more was to be gained in the existing stage of
+knowledge by individual intercourse and exchange of material between
+actual laboratory workers.
+
+
+  Theories of cancer.
+
+In spite of the immense concentration of effort indicated by the
+simultaneous establishment of so many centres of endowed research, and
+in spite of the light thrown upon the problem from many sides by modern
+biological science, our knowledge of the origin of cancer is still in
+such a tentative state that a detailed account of the theories put
+forward is not called for; it will suffice to indicate their general
+drift. The actual pathological process of cancer is extremely simple.
+Certain cells, which are apparently of a normal character and have
+previously performed normal functions, begin to grow and multiply in an
+abnormal way in some part of the body. They continue this process so
+persistently that they first invade and then destroy the surrounding
+tissues; nothing can withstand their march. They are moreover carried to
+other parts of the body, where they establish themselves and grow in the
+same way. Their activity is carried on with relentless determination,
+though at a varying pace, until the patient dies, unless they are bodily
+removed. Hence the word "malignant." The problem is--what are these
+cells, or why do they behave in this way? The principal answers put
+forward may be summarized:--(1) they are epithelial cells which grow
+without ceasing because the connective tissue has lost the capacity to
+hold their proliferative powers in check (H. Freund, following K.
+Thiersch and W. Waldeyer); (2) they are embryonic cells accidentally
+shut off (J.F. Cohnheim); (3) they are epithelial cells with a latent
+power of unlimited proliferation which becomes active on their being
+dislocated from the normal association (M.W.H. Ribbert and Borrmann);
+(4) they are stimulated to unlimited growth by the presence of a
+parasite (Plimmer, Sanfelice, Roncali and others); (5) they are
+fragments of reproductive tissue (G.T. Beatson); (6) they are cells
+which have lost their differentiated character and assumed elementary
+properties (von Hausemann, O. Hertwig). The very number and variety of
+hypotheses show that none is established. Most of them attempt to
+explain the growth but not the origin of the disease. The hypothesis of
+a parasitic origin, suggested by recent discoveries in relation to other
+diseases, has attracted much attention; but the observed phenomena of
+cancerous growths are not in keeping with those of all known parasitic
+diseases, and the theory is now somewhat discredited. A more recent
+theory that cancer is due to failure of the normal secretions of the
+pancreas has not met with much acceptance.
+
+Some generalizations bearing on the problem have been drawn from the
+work done in the laboratories of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. They
+may be summarily stated thus. Cancer has been shown to be an identical
+process in all vertebrates (including fishes), and to develop at a time
+which conforms in a striking manner to the limits imposed by the long or
+short compass of life in different animals. Cancerous tissue can be
+artificially propagated in the short-lived mouse by actual transference
+to another individual, but only to one of the same species. Cancerous
+tissue thus propagated presents all the characteristic features of the
+malignant growth of sporadic tumours; it infiltrates and produces
+extensive secondary growths. Under suitable experimental conditions the
+aggregate growth of a cancer is undefined, of enormous and, so far as we
+can judge, of limitless amount. This extraordinary growth is due to the
+continued proliferation of cancerous cells when transplanted. The
+processes by which growing cancer cells are transferred to a new
+individual are easily distinguishable and fundamentally different from
+all known processes of infection. The artificial propagation of cancer
+causes no specific symptoms of illness in the animal in which it
+proceeds. Under artificial propagation cancer maintains all the
+characters of the original tumours of the primary hosts. _Carcinoma_ and
+_sarcoma_ agree in possessing all the pathological and cellular
+features of malignant new growths.
+
+
+  Statistics of cancer.
+
+Simultaneously with the active pursuit of laboratory research much
+statistical work has been devoted to establishing the broad facts of the
+prevalence and incidence of cancer on a firm basis. The point of most
+general interest is the apparently steady increase of the disease in all
+countries possessing fairly trustworthy records. It will be sufficient
+to give the figures for England and Wales as an example.
+
+  ANNUAL DEATH-RATES FROM CANCER TO A MILLION LIVING. _England and
+  Wales._
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |1871-1875.|1876-1880.|1881-1885.|1886-1890.|1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1904.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |   445    |   493    |   547    |   631    |   711    |   800    |   861    |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+In forty years the recorded rate had risen from 403 to 861. The question
+how far these and similar statistics represent a real increase cannot be
+satisfactorily resolved, because it is impossible to ascertain how much
+of the apparent increase is due to more accurate diagnosis and improved
+registration. Some of it is certainly due to those causes, so that the
+recorded figures cannot be taken to represent the facts as they stand.
+At the same time it is certain that some increase has taken place in
+consequence of the increased average length of life; a larger proportion
+of persons now reach the ages at which cancer is most frequent. Increase
+due to this fact, though it is a real increase, does not indicate that
+the cause of cancer is more rife or more potent; it only means that the
+condition of the population in regard to age is more favourable to its
+activity. On the whole it seems probable that, when allowance has been
+made for this factor and for errors due to improved registration, a real
+increase due to other causes has taken place, though it is not so great
+as the recorded statistics would indicate.
+
+The long-established conclusions concerning the incidence of the disease
+in regard to age and sex have been confirmed and rendered more precise
+by modern statistics. Cancer is a disease of old age; the incidence at
+the ages of sixty-five to seventy-five is ten times greater than at the
+ages thirty-five to forty-five. This fact is the source of frequent
+fallacies when different countries or districts and different periods
+are compared with each other, unless account is taken of the differences
+in age and constitution. With regard to sex females are far more liable
+than males; the respective death-rates per million living for England
+and Wales in 1904 were--males 740; females 1006. But the two rates show
+a tendency to approximate; the increase shown over a series of years has
+been considerably more rapid among males than among females. One result
+of more careful examination of statistics has been to discredit, though
+perhaps somewhat hastily, certain observations regarding the prevalence
+of cancer in special districts and special houses. On the other hand the
+fuller statistics now available concerning the relative frequency of
+cancer in the several organs and parts of the body, of which some
+account is given above, go to confirm the old observation that cancer
+commonly begins at the seat of some local irritation. By far the most
+frequent seats of disease are the uterus and breast in women and the
+digestive tract in both sexes, and these are all particularly subject to
+such irritation. With regard to the influence of heredity the trend of
+modern research is to minimize or deny its importance in cancer, as in
+phthisis, and to explain family histories by other considerations. At
+most heredity is only thought to confer a predisposition.
+
+
+  Treatment.
+
+The only "cure" for cancer remains removal by operation; but improved
+methods of diagnosis enable this to be done in many cases at an earlier
+stage of the disease than formerly; and modern methods of surgery permit
+not only of operation in parts of the body formerly inaccessible, but
+also more complete removal of the affected tissues. Numerous forms of
+treatment by modern therapeutic means, both internal and external, have
+been advocated and tried; but they are all of an experimental nature and
+have failed to meet with general acceptance. One of the most recent is
+treatment by trypsin, a pancreatic ferment. This has been suggested by
+Dr John Beard of Edinburgh in conformity with the theory, mentioned
+above, that failure of the pancreatic secretions is the cause of cancer.
+It has been claimed that the drug exercises a favourable influence in
+conjunction with operation and even without it. The experience of
+different observers with regard to results is contradictory; but
+clinical investigations conducted at Middlesex hospital in a number of
+cases of undoubted cancer in strict accordance with Dr Beard's
+directions, and summarized by Dr Walter Ball and Dr Fairfield Thomas in
+the _Sixth Report from the Cancer Research Laboratories_ (_Archives of
+Middlesex Hospital_, vol. ix.) in May 1907, resulted in the conclusion
+"that the course of cancer, considered both as a disease and as a morbid
+process, is unaltered by the administration of trypsin and amylopsin."
+The same conclusion has been reached after similar trials at the cancer
+hospital. Another experimental method of treatment which has attracted
+much attention is application of the X-rays. The results vary in a
+capricious and inexplicable manner; in some cases marked benefit has
+followed, in others the disease has been as markedly aggravated. Until
+more is known both of cancer and of X-rays, their use must be considered
+not only experimental but risky.     (A. Sl.)
+
+
+
+
+CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON (1738-1812), German mineralogist and
+metallurgist, was born on the 21st of February 1738, at Breitenbach,
+Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1764 he entered the service of the landgrave of
+Hesse-Darmstadt at Hanau, becoming professor of mathematics at the
+military academy, head of the civil engineering department of the state,
+director of the theatre and (1774) of the mint. A work on the copper
+mines of Hesse (1767) earned him a European reputation, and in 1783 he
+accepted from Catherine II. of Russia the directorship of the famous
+Staraya salt-works, living thenceforth in Russia. In 1798 he became a
+councillor of state at St Petersburg. He published many works on
+mineralogy and metallurgy, of which the most important, the _Grundzuge
+der Berg- und Salzwerkskunde_ (13 vols., Frankfort, 1773-1791), has been
+translated into several languages. His son, Count Georg von Cancrin, or
+Kankrin (1774-1845), was the eminent Russian minister of finance.
+
+
+
+
+CANDELABRUM (from Lat. _candela_, a taper or candle), the stand on which
+ancient lamps were placed. The most ancient example is the bronze
+candelabrum made by Callimachus for the Erechtheum at Athens, to carry
+the lamp sacred to Minerva. In this case it is probable the lamp was
+suspended, as in the example from Pompeii, now in the Naples museum;
+this consisted of a stalk or reed, the upper part moulded with
+projecting feature to carry the lamps, and a base resting on three
+lions' or griffins' feet; sometimes there was a disk at the top to carry
+a lamp, and sometimes there was a hollow cup, in which resinous woods
+were burnt. The origin of the term suggests that on the top of the disk
+was a spike to carry a wax or tallow candle (_candela_ or _funalia_).
+Besides these bronze candelabra, of which there are many varieties in
+museums, the Romans used more ponderous supports in stone or marble, of
+which many examples were found in the Thermae. These consisted of a
+base, often triangular, and of similar design to the small sacrificial
+altars, and a shaft either richly moulded or carved with the acanthus
+plant and crowned with a large cup or basin. There is a fine example of
+the latter in the Vatican. The Roman examples seem to have served as
+models for many of the candelabra in the churches in Italy. The word
+"candelabrum" is also now used to describe many different forms of
+lighting with multiple points, and is often applied to hanging lights as
+well as to those which rise from a stand.
+
+
+
+
+CANDIA, formerly the capital and still the most populous city of Crete
+(q.v.), to which it has given its name. It is situated on the northern
+shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western end of the island, in
+35 deg. 20' N. lat. and 25 deg. 9' E. long. It is still surrounded by its
+extensive Venetian fortifications; but they have fallen into disrepair,
+and a good part of the town is in a dilapidated condition, mainly from
+the effects of earthquakes. The principal buildings are the Venetian
+loggia (barbarously mutilated by the new regime), the Konak (now
+Prefecture), the mosques, which are fourteen in number, the new
+cathedral, the two Greek churches, the Armenian church, the Capuchine
+monastery, the bazaars and the baths. There are also some beautiful
+Venetian fountains. The town is the seat of a Greek archbishop. A highly
+interesting museum has been formed here containing the antiquities found
+during the recent excavations. The chief trade is in oil and soap, both
+of which are of excellent quality. The coasting trade, which is of
+considerable importance, is mainly carried on in Turkish vessels. The
+manufacture of leather for home consumption is an extensive industry and
+wine of good quality is produced in the neighbourhood. The harbour,
+which had grown almost inaccessible, was deepened by Mustapha Pasha
+between 1820 and 1840. It is formed for the most part by the ancient
+moles, and was never deep enough to admit the larger vessels even of the
+Venetians, which were accustomed to anchor in the port of the
+neighbouring island of Standia. A short distance from St George's Gate
+there was a small village exclusively inhabited by lepers, who numbered
+about seventy families, but they have now been transported to
+Spinalonga. The population of the town is estimated at from 15,000 to
+18,000, about half being Mahommedan Greeks. The site of Candia, or, as
+it was till lately locally known, Megalo castro (the Great Fortress),
+has been supposed to correspond with that of the ancient _Heracleion_,
+the seaport of Cnossus, and this appellation has now been officially
+revived by its Greek inhabitants. The ruins of Cnossus are situated at
+the distance of about 3 m. to the south-east at the village of
+Makryteichos or Long Wall. Founded by the Saracens in the 9th century,
+Candia was fortified by the Genoese in the 12th, and was greatly
+extended and strengthened by the Venetians in the 13th, 14th and 15th
+centuries. It was besieged by the Turks under the vizier Achmet in 1667;
+and, in spite of a most heroic defence, in which the Venetians lost
+30,000 in killed and wounded, it was forced to surrender in 1669. (See
+also CRETE.)
+
+
+
+
+CANDIDATE, one who offers himself or is selected by others for an office
+or place, particularly one who puts up for election to parliament or to
+any public body. The word is derived from the Latin _candidatus_, clad
+in white (_candidus_). In Rome, candidates for election to the higher
+magistracies appeared in the Campus Martius, the Forum and other public
+places, during their canvass, in togas with the white of the natural
+wool brightened by chalk.
+
+
+
+
+CANDLE (Lat. _candela_, from _candere_, to glow), a cylindrical rod of
+solid fatty or waxy matter, enclosing a central fibrous wick, and
+designed to be burnt for giving light. The oldest materials employed for
+making candles are beeswax and tallow, while among those of more recent
+introduction are spermaceti, stearine and paraffin wax. Waxlights
+(_cereus_, sc. _funis_) were known to the Romans. In the midlde ages wax
+candles were little used, owing to their expense, except for the
+ceremonies of the church and other religious purposes (see LIGHTS,
+CEREMONIAL USE OF), but in the 15th century, with the cheapening of wax,
+they began to find wider employment. The tallow candle, mentioned by
+Apuleius as _sebaceus_, was long an article of domestic manufacture. The
+tallow was melted and strained, and then lengths of cotton or flax
+fibre, or rushes from which most of the external skin had been stripped,
+only sufficient being left to support the pith ("rushlights"), were
+dipped into it, the operation being repeated until the desired thickness
+had been attained. In Paris, in the 13th century, there was a gild of
+candlemakers who went from house to house to make tallow candles, the
+manufacture of wax candles being in the hands of another gild. This
+separation of the two branches of the trade is also exemplified by the
+existence of two distinct livery companies in the city of London--the
+Waxchandlers and the Tallowchandlers; the French _chandelle_ properly
+means tallow candle, candles made of materials less fusible than tallow
+being called _bougies_, a term said to be derived from the town of
+Bougie in Algeria, either because wax was produced there or because the
+Venetians imported wax candles thence into Europe. The old tallow "dips"
+gave a poor light, and tallow itself is now used only to a limited
+extent, except as a source of "stearine." This is the trade name for a
+mixture of solid fatty acids--mainly stearic and palmitic--manufactured
+not only from tallow and other animal fats, but also from such vegetable
+fats as palm-oil. Paraffin wax, a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained
+from crude North American and Rangoon petroleum, and also yielded in
+large quantities by the Scotch shale oil industry, is, at least in Great
+Britain, a still more important material of candle-manufacture, which
+came into use about 1854. Spermaceti, a crystalline fatty substance
+obtained from the sperm whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_), was introduced
+as a material for candles about a century earlier. In practice the
+candlemaker mostly uses mixtures of these materials. For instance, 5-10%
+of stearine, which is used alone for candles that have to be burnt in
+hot climates, is mixed with paraffin wax, to counteract the tendency to
+bend with heat exhibited by the latter substance. Again, the brittleness
+of spermaceti is corrected by the addition of beeswax, stearine,
+paraffin wax or ceresin (obtained from the mineral wax ozocerite). In
+some "composite" candles stearine is mixed with the hard fat ("cocoa-nut
+stearine") expressed from cocoa-nut oil by hydraulic pressure; and this
+cocoa-nut stearine is also used for night-lights, which are short thick
+candles with a thin wick, calculated to burn from six to ten hours.
+
+The stearine or stearic acid industry originated in the discovery made
+by M.E. Chevreul about 1815, that fats are glycerides or compounds of
+glycerin with fatty acids, mostly palmitic, stearic and oleic. The
+object of the candlemaker is to remove this glycerin, not only because
+it is a valuable product in itself, but also because it is an
+objectionable constituent of a candle; the vapours of acrolein formed by
+its decomposition in the flame are the cause of the unpleasant odours
+produced by tallow "dips." He also removes the oleic acid, which is
+liquid at ordinary temperatures, from the palmitic and stearic acids,
+mixtures of which solidify at temperatures varying from about 130 deg.
+to 155 deg. F., according to the percentage of each present. Several
+methods are in use for the decomposition of the fats. In the autoclave
+process the fat, whether tallow, palm-oil or a mixture of the two, mixed
+with 25 or 30% of water and about 3% of lime, is subjected in an
+autoclave to steam at a pressure of about 120 lb per square inch for
+eight or ten hours, when nearly all of it is saponified. On standing the
+product separates into two layers--"sweet water" containing glycerin
+below, and the fatty acids with a certain amount of lime soap above. The
+upper layer is then boiled and treated with enough sulphuric acid to
+decompose the lime soap, the calcium sulphate formed is allowed to
+subside, and the fatty acids are run off into shallow boxes to be
+crystallized or "seeded" prior to the separation of the oleic acid,
+which is effected by pressing the solid blocks from the boxes, first
+cold and then hot, by hydraulic machinery. In another process
+saponification is effected by means of concentrated sulphuric acid. The
+fat is mixed with 4-6% of the acid and treated with steam in boiling
+water till the hydrolysis is complete, when on standing the glycerin and
+sulphuric acid sink to the bottom and the fatty acids rise to the top.
+Owing to the darkness of their colour, when this process is employed,
+the latter usually have to be distilled before being crystallized. The
+autoclave process yields about 45% of stearine, one-third of which is
+recovered from the expressed oleic acid, but with sulphuric acid
+saponification the amount of stearine is higher--over 60%--and that of
+oleic acid less, part of it being converted into solid material by the
+action of the acid. The yield of glycerin is also less. In a combination
+of the two processes the fat may first be treated by the autoclave
+process, so as to obtain a full yield (about 10%) of glycerin, and the
+resulting fatty acids then subjected to acid saponification, so as to
+get the higher amount of stearine. At the best, however, some 30% of
+oleic acid remains, and though often sought, no satisfactory method of
+converting this residue into solid has been discovered. It constitutes
+"red oil," and is used in soap-making and in woollen manufacture. In the
+process patented by Ernst Twitchell in 1898, decomposition is effected
+by boiling the fat with half its bulk of water in presence of a reagent
+obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on oleic acid and an aromatic
+hydrocarbon such as benzene.
+
+The wick is a most important part of a candle, and unless it is of
+proper size and texture either too much or too little fuel will be
+supplied to the flame, and the candle will gutter or be otherwise
+unsatisfactory. The material generally employed is cotton yarn, plaited
+or "braided" by machinery, and treated or "pickled" with a solution of
+boracic acid, ammonium or potassium nitrate, or other salt. The
+tightness of the plaiting varies with the material used for the candle,
+wicks for stearine being looser than for paraffin, but tighter than for
+wax or spermaceti. The plaited wick is flat and curls over as the candle
+burns, and thus the end is kept projecting into the outer part of the
+flame where it is consumed, complete combustion being aided by the
+pickling process it has undergone. In the old tallow dips the strands of
+cotton were merely twisted together, instead of being plaited; wicks
+made in this way had no determinate bias towards the outside of the
+flame, and thus were not wholly consumed, the result being that there
+was apt to be an accumulation of charred matter, which choked the flame
+unless removed by periodical "snuffing."
+
+Four ways of making candles may be distinguished--dipping, pouring,
+drawing and moulding, the last being that most commonly employed.
+_Dipping_ is essentially the same as the domestic process already
+described, but the rate of production is increased by mounting a number
+of wicks in a series of frames, each of which in turn is brought over
+the tallow bath so that its wicks can be dipped. _Pouring_, used in the
+case of wax, which cannot well be moulded because it contracts in
+cooling and also has a tendency to stick to the moulds, consists in
+ladling molten wax upon the wicks suspended from an iron ring. When of
+the desired thickness the candles are rolled under a plate on a marble
+slab. In _drawing_, used for small tapers, the wick, rolled on a drum,
+is passed through the molten wax or paraffin, drawn through a circular
+hole and slowly wound on a second drum; it is then passed again through
+the molten material and through a somewhat larger hole, and reeled back
+on the first drum, this process being repeated with larger and larger
+holes until the coating is of the required thickness. In _moulding_, a
+number of slightly conical moulds are fixed by the larger extremity to a
+kind of trough, with their tapered ends projecting downwards and with
+wicks arranged down their centres. The molten material is poured into
+the trough and fills the moulds, from which the candles are withdrawn
+when solidified. Modern candle-moulding machines are continuous in their
+operation; long lengths of wick are coiled on bobbins, one for each
+mould, and the act of removing one set of candles from their moulds
+draws in a fresh set of wicks. "Self-fitting ends," which were invented
+by J.L. Field in 1864, and being shaped like a truncated cone enable the
+candles to be fixed in candlesticks of any diameter, are formed by means
+of an attachment to the tops of the moulds; spirally twisted candles
+are, as it were, unscrewed from their moulds. It is necessary to be able
+to regulate the temperature of the moulds accurately, else the candles
+will not come out freely and will not be of good appearance. For
+stearine candles the moulds are immersed in tepid water and the cooling
+must be slow, else the material will crystallize, though if it be too
+slow cracking will occur. For paraffin, on the other hand, the moulds
+must be rather hotter than the molten material (about 200 deg. F.), and
+must be quickly cooled to prevent the candles from sticking.
+
+A candle-power, as a unit of light in photometry, was defined by the
+(London) Metropolis Gas Act of 1860 as the light given by a sperm
+candle, of which six weighed 1 lb and each burned 120 grains an hour.
+
+  See W. Lant Carpenter, _Soaps and Candles_ (London, 1895); C.E. Groves
+  and W. Thorp, _Chemical Technology_, vol. ii. "Lighting" (London,
+  1895); L.L. Lamborn, _Soaps, Candles and Glycerine_ (New York, 1906);
+  J. Lewkowitsch, _Oils, Fats, and Waxes_ (London, 1909).
+
+
+
+
+CANDLEMAS (Lat. _festum candelarum sive luminum_), the name for the
+ancient church festival, celebrated annually on the 2nd of February, in
+commemoration of the presentation of Christ in the Temple. In the Greek
+Church it is known as [Greek: Upapante tou Kuriou] ("the meeting of the
+Lord," i.e. with Simeon and Anna), in the West as the Purification of
+the Blessed Virgin. It is the most ancient of all the festivals in
+honour of the Virgin Mary. A description is given of its celebration at
+Jerusalem in the _Peregrinatio_ of Etheria (Silvia), in the second half
+of the 4th century. It was then kept on the 14th of February, forty days
+after Epiphany, the celebration of the Nativity (Christmas) not having
+been as yet introduced; the Armenians still keep it on this day, as "the
+Coming of the Son of God into the Temple." The celebration gradually
+spread to other parts of the church, being moved to the 2nd of February,
+forty days after the newly established feast of Christmas. In 542 it was
+established throughout the entire East Roman empire by Justinian. Its
+introduction in the West is somewhat obscure. The 8th-century _Gelasian
+Sacramentary_, which embodies a much older tradition, mentions it under
+the title of Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which has led some
+to suppose that it was ordained by Pope Gelasius I. in 492[1] as a
+counter-attraction to the heathen Lupercalia; but for this there is no
+warrant. The procession on this day was introduced by Pope Sergius I.
+(687-701). The custom of blessing the candles for the whole year on this
+day, whence the name Candlemas is derived, did not come into common use
+until the 11th century.
+
+In the _Quadragesimae de Epiphania_ as described by Etheria there is, as
+Monsignor Duchesne points out (_Christian Worship_, p. 272), no
+indication of a special association with the Blessed Virgin; and the
+distinction between the festival as celebrated in the East and West is
+that in the former it is a festival of Christ, in the latter a festival
+pre-eminently of the Virgin Mother.
+
+  See L. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., London, 1904); art.
+  s.v. by F.G. Holweck in the _Catholic Encyclopaedia_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] So Baronius, _Ann. ad ann._ 544.
+
+
+
+
+CANDLESTICK, the receptacle for holding a candle, nowadays made in
+various art-forms. The word was formerly used for any form of support on
+which lights, whether candles or lamps, were fixed; thus a candelabrum
+(q.v.) is sometimes spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, e.g. as
+when Moses was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of
+hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting of a base with a shaft
+rising out of it and six arms, and with seven lamps supported on the
+summits of the six arms and central shaft. When Solomon built the
+temple, he placed in it ten golden candlesticks, five on the north and
+five on the south side of the Holy Place; but after the Babylonish
+captivity the golden candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it
+had been before in the tabernacle by Moses. On the destruction of
+Jerusalem by Titus, it was carried with other spoils to Rome.
+Representations of the seven-branched candlestick, as it is called,
+occur on the arch of Titus at Rome, and on antiquities found in the
+Catacombs at Rome. The primitive form of candlestick was a torch made of
+slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped in wax or tallow, tied
+together and held in the hand by the lower end, such as are frequently
+figured on ancient painted vases. The next step was to attach to them a
+cup (_discus_) to catch the dripping wax or tallow.
+
+A candlestick may be either "flat" or "tall." The former has a short
+stem, rising from a dish, and is usually furnished with an extinguisher
+fitting into a socket; the latter has a pillar which may be only a few
+inches in height or may rise to several feet, and rarely has an
+extinguisher. The flat variety is sometimes called a "bedroom
+candlestick." The beginnings of this interesting and often beautiful
+appliance are not exactly known, but it dates certainly as far back as
+the 14th century and is probably older. It is most usually of metal,
+earthenware or china, but originally it was made of some hard wood and
+had no socketed pillar, the candle fitting upon a metal spike, in the
+fashion still familiar in the case of many church candlesticks. It has
+been constantly influenced by mobiliary and architectural fashions, and
+has varied, as it still varies, from the severest simplicity of form and
+material to the most elaborate artistic treatment and the costliest
+materials--gold and silver, crystal, marble and enamel. Previous to the
+17th century, iron, latten, bronze and copper were chiefly used, but
+thenceforward the most elegant examples were chiefly of silver, though
+in more modern periods Sheffield plate, silver plate and china became
+exceedingly popular. Sometimes the base and sconce are of one material
+and the pillar of another, as when the former are of silver and the
+pillar of marble or china. The choice and combination of materials are,
+indeed, infinite. The golden age of the candlestick lasted, roughly
+speaking, from the third quarter of the 17th century to the end of the
+18th. The later Jacobean, Queen Anne and early Georgian forms were often
+extremely elegant, with broad bases, round, oval or square and swelling
+stems. Fine examples of these periods, especially when of silver, are
+much sought after and command constantly augmenting prices. As with most
+domestic appliances the history of the candlestick is an unceasing
+tendency towards simplicity, the most elaborate and fantastic forms,
+animals and reptiles, the monstrous creatures of mythology, lions and
+men-at-arms, angels and cupids, having gradually given place to
+architectural motives such as the baluster stem and to the classic grace
+of the Adam style. The candlestick in its modern form is, indeed,
+artistically among the least unsatisfactory of household plenishings.
+
+
+
+
+CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH (1806-1873), Scottish divine, was born at
+Edinburgh on the 23rd of March 1806, and spent his early years in
+Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. During the years 1823-1826 he went
+through the prescribed course at the divinity hall, then presided over
+by Dr Stevenson MacGill, and on leaving, accompanied a pupil as private
+tutor to Eton, where he stayed two years. In 1829 he entered upon his
+life's work, having been licensed to preach during the summer vacation
+of the previous year. After short assistant pastorates at St Andrew's,
+Glasgow, and Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, he obtained a settled charge as
+minister of the important parish of St George's, Edinburgh. Here he at
+once took the place he so long held as one of the ablest preachers in
+Scotland. Destitute of natural oratorical gifts and somewhat ungainly in
+his manner, he attracted and even riveted the attention of his audience
+by a rare combination of intellectual keenness, emotional fervour,
+spiritual insight and power of dramatic representation of character and
+life. His theology was that of the Scottish Calvinistic school, but his
+sympathetic character combined with strong conviction gathered round him
+one of the largest and most intelligent congregations in the city.
+
+From the very commencement of his ministry in Edinburgh, Candlish took
+the deepest interest in ecclesiastical questions, and he soon became
+involved as one of the chief actors in the struggle which was then
+agitating the Scottish church. His first Assembly speech, delivered in
+1839, placed him at once among the leaders of the party that afterwards
+formed the Free Church, and his influence in bringing about the
+Disruption of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers. Great
+as was his popularity as a preacher, it was in the arena of
+ecclesiastical debate that his ability chiefly showed itself, and
+probably no other single man had from first to last so large a share in
+shaping the constitution and guiding the policy of the Free Church. He
+took his stand on two principles: the right of the people to choose
+their ministers, and the independence of the church in things spiritual.
+On his advice Hugh Miller was appointed editor of the _Witness_, the
+powerful Free Church organ. He was actively engaged at one time or other
+in nearly all the various schemes of the church, but special mention
+should be made of his services on the education committee, of which he
+was convener from 1846 to 1863, and in the unsuccessful negotiations for
+union among the non-established Presbyterian denominations of Scotland,
+which were carried on during the years 1863-1873. In the Assembly of
+1861 he filled the moderator's chair.
+
+As a theologian the position of Candlish was perhaps inferior to that
+which he held as a preacher and ecclesiastic, but it was not
+inconsiderable. So early as 1841 his reputation in this department was
+sufficient to secure for him the government nomination to the newly
+founded chair of Biblical criticism in the university of Edinburgh.
+Owing to the opposition of Lord Aberdeen, however, the presentation was
+cancelled. In 1847 Candlish, who had received the degree of D.D. from
+Princeton, New Jersey, in 1841, was chosen by the Assembly of the Free
+Church to succeed Chalmers in the chair of divinity in the New College,
+Edinburgh. After partially fulfilling the duties of the office for one
+session, he was led to resume the charge of St George's, the clergyman
+who had been chosen by the congregation as his successor having died
+before entering on his work. In 1862 he succeeded William Cunningham as
+principal of New College with the understanding that he should still
+retain his position as minister of St George's. He died on the 19th of
+October 1873.
+
+Though his greatest power was not displayed through the press, Candlish
+made a number of contributions to theological literature. In 1842 he
+published the first volume of his _Contributions towards the Exposition
+of the Book of Genesis_, a work which was completed in three volumes
+several years later. In 1854 he delivered, in Exeter Hall, London, a
+lecture on the _Theological Essays_ of the Rev. F.D. Maurice, which he
+afterwards published, along with a fuller examination of the doctrine of
+the essays. In this he defended the forensic aspect of the gospel. A
+treatise entitled _The Atonement; its Reality, Completeness and Extent_
+(1861) was based upon a smaller work which first appeared in 1845. In
+1864 he delivered the first series of Cunningham lectures, taking for
+his subject _The Fatherhood of God_. Published immediately afterwards,
+the lectures excited considerable discussion on account of the peculiar
+views they represented. Further illustrations of these views were given
+in two works published about the same time as the lectures, one a
+treatise _On the Sonship and Brotherhood of Believers_, and the other an
+exposition of the first epistle of St John.
+
+  See William Wilson, _Memorials of R.S. Candlish, D.D._, with a chapter
+  on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy.
+
+
+
+
+CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE (1778-1841), Swiss botanist, was born at
+Geneva on the 4th of February 1778. He was descended from one of the
+ancient families of Provence, whence his ancestors had been expatriated
+for their religion in the middle of the 16th century. Though a weakly
+boy he showed great aptitude for study, and distinguished himself at
+school by his rapid attainments in classical and general literature, and
+specially by a faculty for writing elegant verse. He began his
+scientific studies at the college of Geneva, where the teaching of
+J.P.E. Vaucher first inspired him with the determination to make
+botanical science the chief pursuit of his life. In 1796 he removed to
+Paris. His first productions, _Historia Plantarum Succulentarum_ (4
+vols., 1799) and _Astragalogia_ (1802), introduced him to the notice of
+Cuvier, for whom he acted as deputy at the College de France in 1802,
+and to J.B. Lamarck, who afterwards confided to him the publication of
+the third edition of the _Flore francaise_ (1803-1815). The _Principes
+elementaires de botanique_, printed as the introduction to this work,
+contained the first exposition of his principle of classification
+according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or artificial method.
+In 1804 he was granted the degree of doctor of medicine by the medical
+faculty of Paris, and published his _Essai sur les proprietes medicales
+des plantes comparees avec leurs formes exterieures et leur
+classification naturelle_, and soon after, in 1806, his _Synopsis
+plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum_. At the desire of the French
+government he spent the summers of the following six years in making a
+botanical and agricultural survey of the whole kingdom, the results of
+which were published in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of
+botany in the medical faculty of the university of Montpellier, and in
+1810 he was transferred to the newly founded chair of botany of the
+faculty of sciences in the same university. From Montpellier, where he
+published his _Theorie elementaire de la botanique_ (1813), he removed
+to Geneva in 1816, and in the following year was invited by the now
+independent republic to fill the newly created chair of natural history.
+The rest of his life was spent in an attempt to elaborate and complete
+his "natural" system of botanical classification. The results of his
+labours in this department are to be found in his _Regni vegetabilis
+systema naturale_, of which two volumes only were completed (1821) when
+he found that it would be impossible for him to execute the whole work
+on so extensive a scale. Accordingly in 1824 he began a less extensive
+work of the same kind--his _Prodromus systematis regni vegetabilis_--but
+even of this he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of
+the whole. He had been for several years in delicate health when he died
+on the 9th of September 1841 at Geneva.
+
+His son, ALPHONSE LOUIS PIERRE PYRAME DE CANDOLLE, born at Paris on the
+28th of October 1806, at first devoted himself to the study of law, but
+gradually drifted to botany and finally succeeded to his father's chair.
+He published a number of botanical works, including continuations of the
+_Prodromus_ in collaboration with his son, Anne Casimir Pyrame de
+Candolle. He died at Geneva on the 4th of April 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CANDON, a town of South Ilocos province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on
+the W. coast, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 18,828. Its
+climate is hot, though healthy. Candon is surrounded by an extensive and
+fertile plain, and is defended by a small fort. Its inhabitants are
+noted for their honesty and industry, as well as for their regard for
+law and order. They carry on an extensive traffic with the wild tribes
+of the neighbouring mountains. Indigo is grown in considerable quantity,
+as are rice and tobacco. The weaving of blankets, handkerchiefs, and
+cotton and silk cloths constitutes quite an important industry. The
+language is Ilocanc.
+
+
+
+
+CANDYTUFT (_Iberis amara_, so called from Iberia, i.e. Spain, where many
+species of the genus are native, and _amara_, bitter, i.e. in taste), a
+small annual herb (natural order Cruciferae) with white or purplish
+flowers, the outer petals of which are longer than the rest. It is a
+native of western Europe and found wild on dry soil in cultivated ground
+in the centre and east of England. This and several other species of the
+genus are known as garden plants, and are of easy culture in ordinary
+garden soil if well exposed to sun and air. The common candytuft of
+gardens is _I. umbellata_, a hardy annual, native of southern Europe,
+and known in a number of varieties differing in colour of flowers. _I.
+coronaria_ (rocket candytuft) has long dense heads of white flowers and
+is also an annual. Some species have a shrubby growth and are evergreen
+perennials; the best-known is _I. sempervirens_, a native of southern
+Europe, a much-branched plant about a foot high with long racemes of
+white flowers. _I. gibraltarica_ is a showy, handsome half hardy
+evergreen.
+
+
+
+
+CANE, a name applied to many plants which have long, slender, reed-like
+stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane, the bamboo-cane or the
+reed-cane. From the use as walking-sticks to which many of these plants
+have been applied, the name "cane" is improperly given to sticks,
+irrespective of the source from which they are derived. Properly it
+should be restricted to a peculiar class of palms, known as rattans,
+included under the two closely allied genera _Calamus_ and
+_Daemonorops_, of which there are a large number of species. The plants
+are found widely extended throughout the islands of the Indian
+Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, China, India and Ceylon; and also in
+Australia and Africa. They were described by Georg Eberhard Rumpf or
+Rumphius (1627-1702), governor of Amboyna, and author of the _Herbarium
+Amboynense_ (6 vols. folio, Amsterdam, 1741-1755), under the name of
+Palmijunci, as inhabitants of dense forests into which the rays of the
+sun scarce can penetrate, where they form spiny bushes, obstructing the
+passage through the jungle. The slender stems rarely exceed an inch in
+diameter and are generally much smaller. They creep or trail to an
+enormous length, often reaching 500 or 600 ft., and support themselves
+on trees or bushes by recurved spines borne on the stalk or back of the
+midrib of the leaf, or by stiff hooks replacing the upper leaflets. In
+some cases the midrib is elongated beyond the leaflets to form a long
+whip-like structure, bearing recurved hooks at intervals. The natives,
+in preparing the canes for the market, strip off the leaves by pulling
+the cut plant through a notch made in a tree. The canes always present
+distinct rings at the junction of the sheathing leaves with the stem.
+They assume a yellow colour as they dry; and those imported from
+Calcutta have a glossy surface, while the produce of the Eastern
+Archipelago presents a dull exterior.
+
+Canes, on account of their lightness, length, strength and flexibility,
+are used for a great variety of purposes by the inhabitants of the
+countries in which they grow. Split into thin strips they are twisted to
+form ropes and ships' cables, an application mentioned by Captain
+Dampier in his _Voyages_. A more important application, however, is for
+basket-work, and for making chairs, couches, pillows, &c., as the great
+strength and durability of thin and easily prepared strips admit of such
+articles being made at once airy, strong and flexible. Much of the
+beautiful and elaborate basket-work of the Chinese and Japanese is made
+from thin strips of cane, which are also used by the Chinese for larger
+works, such as door-mats, houses and sheds.
+
+A very large trade with Western countries and the United States is
+carried on in canes and rattans, the principal centres of the trade
+being Batavia, Sarawak, Singapore, Penang and Calcutta. In addition to
+the varieties used for walking-sticks, whip and umbrella handles, &c.,
+the common rattans are in extensive demand for basket-making, the seats
+and backs of chairs, the ribs of cheap umbrellas, saddles and other
+harness-work; and generally for purposes where their strength and
+flexibility make them efficient substitutes for whalebone. The
+walking-stick "canes" of commerce include a great many varieties, some
+of which, however, are not the produce of trailing palms. The well-known
+Malacca canes are obtained from _Calamus Scipionum_, the stems of which
+are much stouter than is the case with the average species of _Calamus_.
+
+
+
+
+CANEA, or KHANIA, the principal seaport and since 1841 the capital of
+Crete, finely situated on the northern coast of the island, about 25 m.
+from its western extremity, on the isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula,
+which lies between the Bay of Canea and the Bay of Suda (latitude 35
+deg. 31' N., longitude 24 deg. 1' E.). Surrounded by a massive Venetian
+wall, it forms a closely built, irregular and overcrowded town, though
+of late years a few of its streets have been widened. The ordinary
+houses are of wood; but the more important buildings are of more solid
+materials. The Turks have a number of mosques; there are Greek churches
+and a Jewish synagogue; an old Venetian structure serves as a military
+hospital; and the prison is of substantial construction. The town is now
+the principal seat of government; the seat of a Greek bishop, who is
+suffragan to the metropolitan at Candia, and the official residence of
+the European consuls. The harbour, formed by an ancient transverse mole
+nearly 1200 ft. long, and protected by a lighthouse and a fort, would
+admit vessels of considerable tonnage; but it has been allowed to silt
+up until it shoals off from 24 ft. to 10 or even 8, so that large
+vessels have to anchor about 4 or 5 m. out. The principal articles of
+trade are oil and soap, and there is a pretty extensive manufacture of
+leather. The fosse is laid out in vegetable gardens; public gardens have
+been constructed outside the walls; and artesian wells have been bored
+by the government. To the east of the town a large Arab village had
+grown up, inhabited for the most part by natives of Egypt and Cyrenaica,
+who acted as boatmen, porters and servants, but since the fall of the
+Turkish government most of these have quitted the island; while about a
+mile off on the rising ground is the village of Khalepa, where the
+consuls and merchants reside. The population of the town is estimated at
+20,000. Canea probably occupies the site of the ancient Cydonia, a city
+of very early foundation and no small importance. During the Venetian
+rule it was one of the strongest cities in the island, but it fell into
+the hands of the Turks in 1646, several years before the capture of
+Candia. In 1856 it suffered from an earthquake. The neighbouring plain
+is famous for its fruitfulness, and the quince is said to derive its
+name _Cydonia_ from the town. (See also CRETE.)
+
+
+
+
+CANE-FENCING (the Fr. _canne_), the art of defending oneself with a
+walking-stick. It may be considered to be single-stick fencing without a
+guard for the hand, with the important difference that in cane-fencing
+the thrust is as important as the cut, and thus _canne_ approaches
+nearer to sabre-play. The cuts are practically identical with those of
+the single-stick (q.v.), but they are generally given after one or more
+rapid preliminary flourishes (_moulinets_, circles) which the lightness
+of the stick facilitates, and which serve to perplex and disconcert an
+assailant. The thrusts are similar to those in foil-play, but are often
+carried out with both hands grasping the stick, giving greater force and
+enabling it to be used at very close quarters. The canes used in French
+fencing schools are made of several kinds of tough wood and are about 3
+ft. long, tapering towards the point. As very severe blows are
+exchanged, masks, gloves, padded vests and shin-guards, similar to those
+used in football, are worn.
+
+  See Georges d'Amoric, _French Method of the Noble Art of Self-Defence_
+  (London, 1898); J. Charlemont, _L'Art de la Boxe francaise et de la
+  Canne_ (Paris, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CANEPHORAE (Gr. [Greek: kaneon], a basket, and [Greek: ferein], to
+carry), "basket-bearers," the title given of old to Athenian maidens of
+noble family, annually chosen to carry on their heads baskets with
+sacrificial implements and apparatus at the Panathenaic and other
+festivals. The term (also in the form _Canephori_) is applied in
+architecture to figures of either sex carrying on their heads baskets,
+containing edibles or material for sacrifices. The term might well be
+applied to the Caryatide figures of the Erechtheum. Those represented in
+the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon carry vases on their shoulders.
+
+
+
+
+CANES VENATICI ("The HOUNDS," or "the GREYHOUNDS"), in astronomy, a
+constellation of the northern hemisphere named by Hevelius in 1690, who
+compiled it from the stars between the older asterisms Ursa Major,
+Bootes and Coma Berenices. Interesting objects in this portion of the
+heavens are: the famous spiral nebula first described by Lord Rosse;
+_a-Canum Venaticorum_, a double star, of magnitudes 3 and 6; this star
+was named _Cor Caroli_, or The Heart of Charles II., by Edmund Halley,
+on the suggestion of Sir Charles Scarborough (1616-1694), the court
+physician; a cluster of stars of the 11th magnitude and fainter,
+extremely rich in variables, of the 900 stars examined no less than 132
+being regularly variable.
+
+
+
+
+CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSE (1770-1843), Spanish statesman, was born in 1770.
+He took an active part in the Spanish resistance to Napoleon in a civil
+capacity and was an energetic member of the cortes of 1812. On the
+return of the Bourbon line in 1814, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile
+in the province of Valencia. On the restoration in 1820 of the
+constitution of 1812, he was appointed minister of finance. He continued
+at this post till the spring of 1821, distinguishing himself by the zeal
+and ability with which he sought to reform the finances of Spain. It was
+high time; for the annual deficit was greater than the entire revenue
+itself, and landed and other property was, to an unheard-of extent,
+monopolized by the priests. The measures he proposed had been only
+partially enforced, when the action of the king with regard to the
+ministry, of which he was a member, obliged him to resign. Thereafter,
+as a member of the Moderate Liberal party, Canga-Arguelles advocated
+constitutional government and financial reform, till the overthrow of
+the constitution in 1823, when he fled to England. He did not return to
+Spain till 1829, and did not again appear in public life, being
+appointed keeper of the archives at Simancas. He died in 1843.
+Canga-Arguelles is the author of three works: _Elementos de la Ciencia
+de Hacienda_ (Elements of the Science of Finance), London, 1825;
+_Diccionario de Hacienda_ (Dictionary of Finance), London, 1827; and
+_Observaciones sobre la guerra de la Peninsula_ (Observations on the
+Peninsular War), in which he endeavoured to show that his countrymen had
+taken a far more effective part in the national struggle against the
+French than English historians were willing to admit.
+
+
+
+
+CANGAS DE ONIS, or CANGAS, a town of northern Spain, in the province of
+Oviedo; situated on the right bank of the river Sella, in a fertile,
+well-watered, partly wooded, undulating region. Pop. (1900) 8537. The
+trade of Cangas de Onis is chiefly in live-stock and coal from the
+neighbouring mines. A Latin inscription on the town-hall records the
+fact that this place was the residence of the first Spanish kings after
+the spread of the Moors over the Peninsula. Here early in the 8th
+century lived King Pelayo, who started the Christian reconquest of
+Spain. His historic cave of Covadonga is only 8 m. distant (see
+ASTURIAS). The church of the Assumption, rebuilt in the 19th century, is
+on the model and site of an older church of the middle ages. Near Cangas
+are ruins and bridges of the Roman period.
+
+
+
+
+CANGAS DE TINEO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo,
+and on the river Narcea. Pop. (1900) 22,742. There is no railway and the
+river is not navigable, but a good road runs through Tineo, Grado and
+the adjacent coal-fields, to the ports of Cudillero and Aviles. The
+inhabitants have thus an easily accessible market for the farm produce
+of the fertile hills round Cangas de Tineo, and for the cloth, leather,
+pottery, &c., manufactured in the town.
+
+
+
+
+CANGUE, or CANG, the European name for the Chinese _Kia_ or _Kea_, a
+portable pillory, carried by offenders convicted of petty offences. It
+consists of a square wooden collar weighing from 20 to 60 lb., through a
+hole in which the victim's head is thrust. It fits tight to the neck and
+must be worn day and night for the period ordered. The offender is left
+exposed in the street. Over the parts by which it fastens slips of paper
+bearing the mandarin's seal are pasted so that no one can liberate the
+condemned. The length of the punishment is usually from a fortnight to a
+month. As the cangue is 3 to 4 ft. across the convict is unable to feed
+himself or to lie down, and thus, unless fed by friends or passersby,
+often starves to death. As in the English pillory, the name of the man
+and the nature of his offence are inscribed on the cangue.
+
+
+
+
+CANINA, LUIGI (1795-1856), Italian archaeologist and architect, was born
+at Casale in Piedmont. He became professor of architecture at Turin, and
+his most important works were the excavation of Tusculum in 1829 and of
+the Appian Way in 1848, the results of which he embodied in a number of
+works published in a costly form by his patroness, the queen of
+Sardinia.
+
+
+
+
+CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO (1617-1666), Italian designer and engraver, was
+born at Rome. He was a pupil of Domenichino and afterwards of Antonio
+Barbalonga. He painted some altar-pieces at Rome, including two admired
+pictures for the church of San Martino a' Monti, representing the
+martyrdom of St Stephen and of St Bartholomew. Having accompanied
+Cardinal Chigi to France, he was encouraged by the minister Colbert to
+carry into execution his project of designing from medals, antique gems
+and similar sources a series of portraits of the most illustrious
+characters of antiquity, accompanied with memoirs; but shortly after the
+commencement of the undertaking Canini died at Rome. The work, however,
+was prosecuted by his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance of
+Picard and Valet, completed and published it in 1699, under the title of
+_Iconografia di Gio. Ag. Canini_. It contains 150 engravings. A reprint
+in Italian and French appeared at Amsterdam in 1731.
+
+
+
+
+CANIS MAJOR ("Great Dog"), in astronomy, a constellation placed south of
+the Zodiac, just below and behind the heels of Orion. _Canis minor_, the
+"little dog," is another constellation, also following Orion and
+separated from Canis major by the Milky Way. Both these constellations,
+or at least their principal stars, Sirius in the Great Dog and Procyon
+in the Little Dog, were named in very remote times, being referred to as
+the "dogs of Orion" or in equivalent terms. Sirius is the brightest star
+in the heavens; and the name is connected with the adjectives [Greek:
+seirhos] and [Greek: sehirios], scorching. It may possibly be related to
+the Arabic _Siraj_, thus meaning the "glittering one." Hommel has shown
+that Sirius and Procyon were "the two _Si'ray_" or glitterers. It is
+doubtful whether Sirius is referred to in the Old Testament. By some it
+has been identified with the Hebrew _mazzaroth_, the _Lucifer_ of the
+Vulgate; by others with _mazzaloth_, the _duodecim signa_ of the
+Vulgate; while Professor M.A. Stern identifies it with the Hebrew
+_kimah_, which is rendered variously in the Vulgate as Arcturus, Hyades
+and Pleiades.[1] The inhabitants of the Euphrates valley included both
+constellations in their stellar system; but considerable difficulty is
+encountered in the allocation of the Babylonian names to the dominant
+stars. The name _kak-ban_, which occurs on many tablets, has been
+determined by Epping and Strassmaier, and also by Jensen and Hommel, as
+equivalent to Sirius; etymologically this word means "dog-star" (or,
+according to R. Brown, _Primitive Constellations_, "bow-star"). On the
+other hand, _Kaksidi_ or _Kak-si-sa_, meaning the "leader," has been
+identified by Sayce and others with Sirius, while Hommel regards it as
+Procyon. The question is mainly philological, and the arguments seem
+inconclusive. We may notice, however, that connexions were made between
+Kaksidi and the weather, which have strong affinities with the ideas
+expressed at a later date by the Greeks. For example, its appearance in
+the morning with the sun heralded the "north winds," the [Greek: boreai
+etaesiai] or _aquilones etesiae_, the strong and dangerous
+north-westerly winds of Greece which blow for forty days from the rising
+of the star; again, when Sirius appeared misty the "locusts devour."
+Sirius also appears in the cosmogony of Zoroaster, for Plutarch records
+that Ormuzd appointed this star to be a guard and overseer in the
+heavens, and in the _Avesta_ we find that Tistrya (Sirius) is "the
+bright and happy star, that gives happy dwelling." With the Egyptians
+Sirius assumed great importance. Appearing with the sun when the Nile
+was rising, Sirius was regarded as a herald of the waters which would
+overspread the land, renewing its fertility and promising good harvests
+for the coming season. Hephaestion records that from its aspect the rise
+of the water was foretold, and the Roman historian Florus adds that the
+weather was predicted also. Its rising marked the commencement of their
+new year, the _annus canarius_ and _annus cynicus_ of the Romans. It was
+the star of Sept or Sothis, and, according to one myth, was identified
+with the goddess Hathor--the Aphrodite of the Greeks. It was the "second
+sun" of the heavens, and according to Maspero (_Dawn of Civilization_,
+1894) "Sahu and Sopdit, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this
+mysterious world of night and stars."
+
+The Greeks, borrowing most of their astronomical knowledge from the
+Babylonians, held similar myths and ideas as to the constellations and
+stars. Sirius was named [Greek: Seirios, Kuon] (the dog) and [Greek: to
+astron], the star; and its heliacal rising was associated with the
+coming of the dry, hot and sultry season. Hesiod tells us that "Sirius
+parches head and knees"; Homer speaks similarly, calling it [Greek:
+kakon saema], the evil star, and the star of late summer ([Greek:
+opora]), the rainy and stormy season. Procyon ([Greek: Prokuon]) was so
+named because it rose before [Greek: Kuon]. The Euphratean myth of the
+dogs has its parallel in Greece, Sirius being the hound of the hunter
+Orion, and as recorded by Aratus always chasing the Hare; Pindar refers
+to the chase of Pleione, the mother of the Pleiads, by Orion and his
+dogs. Similarly Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius, when Bootes
+became Icarius, and Virgo his daughter Erigone.
+
+The Romans adopted the Greek ideas. They named the constellation
+_Canis_, and Sirius was known as _Canis_ also, and as _Canicula_.
+Procyon became _Antecanem_ and _Antecanis_, but these names did not come
+into general use. They named the hottest part of the year associated
+with the heliacal rising of Sirius the _Dies caniculares_, a phrase
+which has survived in the modern expression "dog-days"; and the
+pestilences which then prevailed occasioned the offering of sacrifices
+to placate this inimical star. Festus narrates, in this connexion, the
+sacrificing of red dogs at the feast of Floralia, and Ovid of a dog on
+the Robigalia. The experience of the ancient Greeks that Sirius rose
+with the sun as the latter entered Leo, i.e. the hottest part of the
+year, was accepted by the Romans with an entire disregard of the
+intervening time and a different latitude. To quote Sir Edward Sherburne
+(_Sphere of Manilius_, 1675), "The greater part of the Antients assign
+the Dog Star rising to the time of the Sun's first entering into Leo,
+or, as Pliny writes, 23 days after the summer solstice, as Varro 29, as
+Columella 30.[2] ...At this day with us, according to Vulgar
+computation, the rising and setting of the said Star is in a manner
+coincident with the Feasts of St Margaret (which is about the 13th of
+our July) and St Lawrence (which falls on the 10th of our August)."
+
+Sirius is the most conspicuous star in the sky; it sends to the earth
+eleven times as much light as Aldebaran, the unit standard adopted in
+the revised Harvard Photometry; numerically its magnitude is -1.6. At
+the present time its colour is white with a tinge of blue, but
+historical records show that this colour has not always prevailed.
+Aratus designated it [Greek: poikilos], many coloured; the Alexandrian
+Ptolemy classified it with Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse as [Greek:
+upokirros], fiery red; Seneca describes it as "redder than Mars"; while,
+in the 10th century, the Arabian Biruni termed it "shining red." On the
+other hand Sufi, who also flourished in the 10th century, pointedly
+omits it from his list of coloured stars. The question has been
+thoroughly discussed by T.J.J. See, who shows that Sirius has shone
+white for the last 1000 to 1200 years.[3] The parallax has been
+determined by Sir David Gill and W.L. Elkin to be 0.37"; it is therefore
+distant from the earth over 5 X 10^13 miles, and its light takes 8.6
+years to traverse the intervening space. If the sun were at the same
+distance Sirius would outshine it 30 times, the sun appearing as a star
+of the second magnitude. It has a large proper motion, which shows
+recurrent undulations having a 50-year period. From this Bessel surmised
+the existence of a satellite or companion, for which C.A.F. Peters and
+A. Auwers computed the elements. T.H. Safford determined its position
+for September 1861; and on the 31st of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark, of
+Cambridgeport, Mass., telescopically observed it as a barely visible,
+dull yellow star of the 9th to 10th magnitude. The mean distance apart
+is about 20 astronomical units; the total mass of the pair is 3.7 times
+the mass of the sun, Sirius itself being twice as massive as its
+companion, and, marvellously enough, forty thousand times as bright. The
+spectrum of Sirius is characterized by prominent absorption lines due to
+hydrogen, the metallic lines being weak; other stars having the same
+spectra are said to be of the "Sirian type." Such stars are the most
+highly heated (see STAR).
+
+_Procyon_, or a Canis minoris, is a star of the 2nd magnitude, one-fifth
+as bright as Sirius, or numerically 0.47 when compared with Aldebaran.
+It is more distant than Sirius, its parallax being 0.33"; and its light
+is about six times that of the sun. Its proper motion is large, 1.25",
+and its velocity at right angles to the line of sight is about 11 m. per
+second. Its proper motion shows large irregularities, pointing to a
+relatively massive companion; this satellite was discovered on the 13th
+of November 1896 by J.M. Schaeberle, with the great Lick telescope, as a
+star of the 13th magnitude. Its mass is equal to about that of the sun,
+but its light is only one twenty-thousandth.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See G. Schiaparelli, _Astronomy in the Old Testament_ (1905).
+
+  [2] For other values of the interval between the summer solstice and
+    the rising of Sirius, see Smith's _Dict. of Greek and Roman
+    Antiquities_.
+
+  [3] See Thomas Barker, _Phil. Trans._, 1760, 51, p. 498, for
+    quotations from classical authors; also T.J.J. See, _Astronomy and
+    Astrophysics_. vol. xi. p. 269.
+
+
+
+
+CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1654-1699), German poet
+and diplomatist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of November 1654. He
+attended the universities of Leiden and Leipzig, travelled in England,
+France, Italy and Holland, and on his return was appointed groom of the
+bedchamber (Kammerjunker) to the elector Frederick William of
+Brandenburg, whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Pomerania and
+Sweden. In 1680 he became councillor of legation, and he was employed on
+various embassies. In 1697 the elector Frederick III. made him a privy
+councillor, and the emperor Leopold I. created him a baron of the
+Empire. Having fallen ill on an embassy to the Hague, he obtained his
+discharge and died at Berlin in 1699. Canitz's poems (_Nebenstunden
+unterschiedener Gedichte_), which did not appear until after his death
+(1700), are for the most part dry and stilted imitations of French and
+Latin models, but they formed a healthy contrast to the coarseness and
+bombast of the later Silesian poets.
+
+  A complete edition of Canitz's poems was published by U. Konig in
+  1727; see also L. Fulda, _Die Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule_,
+  ii. (1883).
+
+
+
+
+CANIZARES, JOSE DE (1676-1750), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on
+the 4th of July 1676, entered the army, and retired with the rank of
+captain in 1702 to act as censor of the Madrid theatres and steward to
+the duke of Osuna. In his fourteenth year Canizares recast a play by
+Lope de Vega under the title of _Las Cuentas del Gran Capitan_, and he
+speedily became a fashionable playwright. His originality, however, is
+slight, and _El Domine Lucas_, the only one of his pieces that is still
+read, is an adaptation from Lope de Vega. Canizares produced a version
+of Racine's _Iphigenie_ shortly before 1716, and is to some extent
+responsible for the destruction of the old Spanish drama. He died on the
+4th of September 1750, at Madrid.
+
+
+
+
+CANNAE (mod. _Canne_), an ancient village of Apulia, near the river
+Aufidus, situated on a hill on the right bank, 6 m. S.W. from its mouth.
+It is celebrated for the disastrous defeat which the Romans received
+there from Hannibal in 216 B.C. (see PUNIC WARS). There is a
+considerable controversy as to whether the battle took place on the
+right or the left bank of the river. In later times the place became a
+_municipium_, and unimportant Roman remains still exist upon the hill
+known as Monte di Canne. In the middle ages it became a bishopric, but
+was destroyed in 1276.
+
+  See O. Schwab, _Das Schlachtfeld von Canna_ (Munich, 1898), and
+  authorities under PUNIC WARS.
+
+
+
+
+CANNANORE, or KANANORE, a town of British India, in the Malabar district
+of Madras, on the coast, 58 m. N. from Calicut and 470 m. by rail from
+Madras. Pop. (1901) 27,811. Cannanore belonged to the Kalahasti or
+Cherakal rajas till the invasion of Malabar by Hyder Ali. In 1498 it was
+visited by Vasco da Gama; in 1501 a Portuguese factory was planted here
+by Cabral; in 1502 da Gama made a treaty with the raja, and in 1505 a
+fort was built. In 1656 the Dutch effected a settlement and built the
+present fort, which they sold to Ali Raja in 1771. In 1783 Cannanore was
+captured by the British, and the reigning princess became tributary to
+the East India Company. Here is the residence of the Moplah chief, known
+as the Ali Raja, who owns most of the Laccadive Islands. Cannanore was
+the military headquarters of the British on the west coast until 1887.
+
+
+
+
+CANNES, a seaport of France, in the department of the Alpes Maritimes,
+on the Mediterranean, 19 m. S.W. of Nice and 120 m. E. of Marseilles by
+rail. Pop.(1906) 24,531. It enjoys a southern exposure on a seaward
+slope, and is defended from the northern winds by ranges of hills.
+Previous to 1831, when it first attracted the attention of Lord
+Brougham, it mainly consisted of the old quarter (named Sucquet), and
+had little to show except an ancient castle, and a church on the top of
+Mont Chevalier, dedicated in 1603 to Notre Dame du Mont Esperance; but
+since that period it has become a large and important town, and is now
+one of the most fashionable winter resorts in the south of France, much
+frequented by English visitors, the Americans preferring Nice. The
+neighbourhood is thickly studded with magnificent villas, which are
+solidly built of a stone so soft that it is sawn and not hewn. There is
+an excellent quay, and a beautiful promenade runs along the beach; and
+numerous sheltered roads stretch up the valleys amidst groves of olive
+trees. On the north the modern town climbs up to Le Cannet (2 m.), while
+on the east it practically extends along the coast to Golfe Jouan (3-1/2
+m.), where Napoleon landed on the 1st of March 1815, on his return from
+Elba. From Cannes a railway runs north in 12-1/2 m. to Grasse. On the top
+of the hill behind the town are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
+cemetery. In the most prominent part of the latter is the grave of Lord
+Brougham, distinguished by a massive stone cross standing on a double
+basement, with the simple inscription--"Henricus Brougham, Natus
+MDCCLXXVIII., Decessit MDCCCLXVIII."; and in the immediate vicinity lies
+James, fourth duke of Montrose, who died December 1874. The country
+around is very beautiful and highly fertile; orange and lemon trees are
+cultivated like peach trees in England, while olives, almonds, figs,
+peaches, grapes and other fruits are grown in abundance, and, along with
+the produce of the fisheries, form the chief exports of the town.
+Essences of various kinds are manufactured, and flowers are extensively
+cultivated for the perfumers. The climate of Cannes has been the subject
+of a considerable variety of opinion,--the preponderance being, however,
+in its favour. According to Dr de Valcourt, it is remarkable by reason
+of the elevation and regularity of the temperature during the height of
+the day, the clearness of the atmosphere and abundance of light, the
+rarity of rain and the absence of fogs.
+
+Cannes is a place of great antiquity, but its earlier history is very
+obscure. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the 8th and the 10th
+centuries; but it was afterwards repeopled by a colony from Genoa.
+Opposite the town is the island of Ste Marguerite (one of the Lerins),
+in the citadel of which the Man with the Iron Mask was confined from
+1686 to 1698, and which acquired notoriety as the prison whence Marshal
+Bazaine escaped in August 1874. On the other chief island (St Honorat)
+of the Lerins is the famous monastery (5th century to 1788), in
+connexion with which grew up the school of Lerins, which had a wide
+influence upon piety and literature in the 5th and 6th centuries.
+
+  See L. Alliez, _Histoire du monastere de Lerins_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1862); and _Les Iles de Lerins, Cannes, et les rivages environnants_
+  (Paris, 1860); _Cartulaire du monastere de Lerins_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1883 and 1905); de Valcourt, _Cannes and its Climate_ (London, 1873);
+  Joanne, special _Guide to Cannes_; J.R. Green, essay on Cannes and St
+  Honorat, in the first series of his _Stray Studies_ (1st ed., 1876);
+  A. Cooper-Marsdin, _The School of Lerins_ (Rochester, 1905).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CANNIBALISM, the eating of human flesh by men (from a Latinized form of
+Carib, the name of a tribe of South America, formerly found also in the
+West Indies), also called "anthropophagy" (Gr. [Greek: authrpspos], man,
+and [Greek: phaneiu], to eat). Evidence has been adduced from some of
+the palaeolithic cave-dwellings in France to show that the inhabitants
+practised cannibalism, at least occasionally. From Herodotus, Strabo and
+others we hear of peoples like the Scythian Massagetae, a nomad race
+north-east of the Caspian Sea, who killed old people and ate them. In
+the middle ages reports, some of them probably untrustworthy, by Marco
+Polo and others, attributed cannibalism to the wild tribes of China, the
+Tibetans, &c. In our own days cannibalism prevails, or prevailed until
+recently, over a great part of West and Central Africa, New Guinea,
+Melanesia (especially Fiji) and Australia. New Zealand and the
+Polynesian Islands were great centres of the practice. It is extensively
+practised by the Battas of Sumatra and in other East Indian islands and
+in South America; in earlier days it was a common feature of Indian wars
+in North America. Sporadic cannibalism occurs among more civilized
+peoples as a result of necessity or as a manifestation of disease (see
+LYCANTHROPY).
+
+_Classification._--Cannibalistic practices may be classified from two
+points of view: (1) the motives of the act; (2) the ceremonial
+regulations. A third division of subordinate importance is also
+possible, if we consider whether the victims are actually killed for
+food or whether only such are eaten as have met their death in battle or
+other ways.
+
+1. From a psychological point of view the term cannibalism groups
+together a number of customs, whose only bond of union is that they all
+involve eating of human flesh. (a) Food cannibalism, where the object is
+the satisfaction of hunger, may occur sporadically as a result of real
+necessity or may be kept up for the simple gratification of a taste for
+human flesh in the absence of any lack of food in general or even of
+animal food, (i.) Cannibalism from necessity is found not only among the
+lower races, such as the Fuegians or Red Indian tribes, but also among
+civilized races, as the records of sieges and shipwrecks show. (ii.)
+Simple food cannibalism is common in Africa; the Niam-Niam and Monbuttu
+carry on wars for the sake of obtaining human flesh; in West Africa
+human flesh could formerly be seen exposed for sale in the market like
+any other article of commerce; and among some tribes it is the practice
+to sell the corpses of dead relatives for consumption as food. (b) In
+curious contrast to this latter custom is the practice of devouring
+dead kinsfolk as the most respectful method of disposing of their
+remains. In a small number of cases this practice is combined with the
+custom of killing the old and sick, but in the great majority of peoples
+it is simply a form of burial; it seems to prevail in most parts of
+Australia, many parts of Melanesia, Africa and South America, and less
+frequently in other parts of the world. To this group belong the customs
+described by Herodotus; we may perhaps regard as a variant form the
+custom of using the skull of a dead man as a drinking-cup. This practice
+is widely found, and the statement of Herodotus that the skull was set
+in gold and preserved by the Issedones may point in this direction; from
+the account given of the Tibetans some seven hundred years ago by
+William of Ruysbruck (Rubruquis) it appears that they had given up
+cannibalism but still preserved the use of the skull as a drinking
+vessel. Another modification of an original ritual cannibalism is the
+custom of drinking the ashes of the dead, which is practised by some
+African and South American tribes. The custom of holding burial feasts
+has also been traced to the same origin. More incomprehensible to the
+European than any other form of cannibalism is the custom of partaking
+of the products of putrefaction as they run down from the body. The
+Australians smoke-dry the bodies of tribesmen; here, too, it is the
+custom to consume the portions of the body which are rendered liquid by
+the heat. (c) The ritual cannibalism just mentioned shades over into and
+may have been originally derived from magical cannibalism, of which
+three sub-species may be distinguished. (i.) Savages are accustomed, on
+the one hand, to abstain from certain foods in order that they may not
+acquire certain qualities; on the other hand other foods are eagerly
+desired in order that they may by partaking of the flesh also come to
+partake of the mental or bodily peculiarities of the man or animal from
+which the meat is derived; thus, after the birth of a child, especially
+the first-born, the parents are frequently forbidden the flesh of
+slow-moving animals, because that would prevent the child from learning
+to walk; conversely, eating the heart of a lion is recommended for a
+warrior to make him brave; from this point of view therefore we readily
+understand the motives which lead to the eating of those slain in
+battle, both friends and foes. (ii.) We may term protective an entirely
+different kind of magical cannibalism, which consists in the consumption
+of a small portion of the body of a murdered man, in order that his
+ghost may not trouble the murderer; according to Hans Egede, the Eskimo,
+when they kill a witch, eat a portion of her heart, that she may not
+haunt them. (iii.) The practice is also said to have the effect of
+causing the relatives of the murdered man to lose heart or to prevent
+them from exercising the right of revenge; in this case it may be
+brought into relation with the ceremony of the blood covenant in one of
+the forms of which the parties drink each other's blood; or, it may
+point to a reminiscence of a ritual eating of the dead kinsman. The late
+survival of this idea in Europe is attested by its mention by Dante in
+the _Purgatorio_. (d) The custom of eating food offered to the gods is
+widespread, and we may trace to this origin Mexican cannibalism,
+perhaps, too, that of Fiji. The Aztec worship of the god of war,
+Huitzilopochtli, led to the sacrifice of prisoners, and the custom of
+sacrifice to their frequent wars. The priest took out the heart, offered
+it to the sun, and then went through the ceremonies of feeding the idol
+with the heart and blood; finally the bodies of the victims were
+consumed by the worshippers. (e) We reach an entirely different set of
+motives in penal and revenge cannibalism. For the origin of these ideas
+we may perhaps look to that of protective magic, dealt with above; but
+it seems possible that there is also some idea of influencing the lot of
+the criminal in a future life; it may be noted that the whole of the
+body is seldom eaten in protective cannibalism; among the Battas,
+however, the criminal, and in parts of Africa the debtor, are entirely
+consumed. Other cases, especially where the victim is an enemy, may be
+due to mere fury and bravado. (f) In the west of North America a
+peculiar kind of cannibalism is found, which is confined to a certain
+body of magicians termed "Hametzen" and a necessary condition of
+admission to their order. Another kind of initiatory cannibalism
+prevailed in the south of Australia, where a magician had to eat a
+portion of a child's body before he was admitted. The meaning of these
+ceremonials is not clear.
+
+2. Most kinds of cannibalism are hedged round with ceremonial
+regulations. Certain tribes, as we have seen above, go to war to provide
+human flesh; in other cases it is only the nearest relatives who may not
+partake of a body; in other cases again it is precisely the nearest
+relatives on whom the duty falls. A curious regulation in south-east New
+Guinea prescribes that the killer of the victim shall not partake in the
+feast; in some cases the whole of the clan to which belonged the man for
+whom revenge is taken abstains also; in other cases this clan, together
+with any others of the same intermarrying group, takes part in the feast
+to the exclusion of (a) the clan or group with which they intermarry and
+(b) all outside clans. Some peoples forbid women to eat human flesh; in
+others certain classes, as the Muri of the Bambala, a tribe in the
+Kassai, may be forbidden to eat it. In Mindanao the only person who
+might eat of a slain enemy was the priest who led the warriors, and he
+was not permitted to escape this duty. In Grand Bassam all who had taken
+part in a festival at the foundation of a new village were compelled to
+eat of the human victim. But the variations are too numerous for any
+general account to be given of ceremonial limitations. S.R. Steinmetz
+has proposed a division into endo-and exo-cannibalism; but these
+divisions are frequently of minor importance, and he has failed to
+define satisfactorily the limits of the groups on which his
+classification is based.
+
+_Origin._--It will probably never be possible to say how cannibalism
+originated; in fact the multiplicity of forms and the diversity of
+ceremonial rules--some prescribing that tribesmen shall on no account be
+eaten, others that the bodies of none but tribesmen shall provide the
+meal of human flesh--point to a multiple origin. It has been maintained
+that the various forms of endo-cannibalism (eating of tribesmen) spring
+from an original practice of food cannibalism which the human race has
+in common with many animals; but this leaves unexplained _inter alia_
+the limitation of the right of participation in the funeral meal to the
+relatives of the dead man; at the same time it is possible to argue that
+the magical ideas now associated with cannibalism are of later growth.
+Against the view put forward by Steinmetz it may be urged that we have
+other instances of magical foods, such as the eating of a lion's heart,
+which do not point to an original custom of eating the animal as food.
+We shall probably be justified in referring all forms of
+endo-cannibalism to a ritual origin; otherwise the limitation is
+inexplicable; on the other hand exo-cannibalism, in some of its forms,
+and much of the extension of endo-cannibalism must be referred to a
+desire for human flesh, grown into a passion.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Steinmetz, in _Mitt. Anthrop. Ges. Wien_, N.F. xvi.;
+  Andree, _Die Anthropophagie_; Bergmann, _Die Verbreitung der
+  Anthropophagie_; Schneider, _Die Naturvolker_, i. 121-200;
+  Schaffhausen, _Anthropologische Studien, Internat. Archiv_ iii. 69-73;
+  xii. 78; E.S. Hartland, _Legend of Perseus_, vol. ii.; _Dictionnaire
+  des sci. med., s.v._ "Anthropophagie"; Dr Seligmann in _Reports of the
+  Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea._     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862), English statesman,
+governor-general of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was the youngest
+child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton, near London, on the
+14th of December 1812. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where
+he graduated B.A. in 1833, as first class in classics and second class
+in mathematics. In 1836 he entered parliament, being returned as member
+for the town of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not,
+however, sit long in the House of Commons; for, on the death of his
+mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage which had been conferred on
+her with remainder to her only surviving son, and as Viscount Canning
+took his seat in the House of Lords. His first official appointment was
+that of under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, in the
+administration formed by Sir Robert Peel in 1841--his chief being the
+earl of Aberdeen. This post he held till January 1846; and from January
+to July of that year, when the Peel administration was broken up, Lord
+Canning filled the post of commissioner of woods and forests. He
+declined to accept office under the earl of Derby; but on the formation
+of the coalition ministry under the earl of Aberdeen in January 1853, he
+received the appointment of postmaster-general. In this office he showed
+not only a large capacity for hard work, but also general administrative
+ability and much zeal for the improvement of the service. He retained
+his post under Lord Palmerston's ministry until July 1855, when, in
+consequence of the death of Lord Dalhousie and a vacancy in the
+governor-generalship of India, he was selected by Lord Palmerston to
+succeed to that great position. This appointment appears to have been
+made rather on the ground of his father's great services than from any
+proof as yet given of special personal fitness on the part of Lord
+Canning. The new governor sailed from England in December 1855, and
+entered upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February
+1856. His strong common sense and sound practical judgment led him to
+adopt a policy of conciliation towards the native princes, and to
+promote measures tending to the betterment of the condition of the
+people.
+
+In the year following his accession to office the deep-seated discontent
+of the people broke out in the Indian Mutiny (q.v.). Fears were
+entertained, and even the friends of the viceroy to some extent shared
+them, that he was not equal to the crisis. But the fears proved
+groundless. He had a clear eye for the gravity of the situation, a calm
+judgment, and a prompt, swift hand to do what was really necessary. By
+the union of great moral qualities with high, though not the highest,
+intellectual faculties, he carried the Indian empire safely through the
+stress of the storm, and, what was perhaps a harder task still, he dealt
+wisely with the enormous difficulties arising at the close of such a
+war, established a more liberal policy and a sounder financial system,
+and left the people more contented than they were before. The name of
+"Clemency Canning," which was applied to him during the heated
+animosities of the moment, has since become a title of honour.
+
+While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation declaring
+the lands of the province forfeited; and this step gave rise to much
+angry controversy. A "secret despatch," couched in arrogant and
+offensive terms, was addressed to the viceroy by Lord Ellenborough, then
+a member of the Derby administration, which would have justified the
+viceroy in immediately resigning. But from a strong sense of duty he
+continued at his post; and ere long the general condemnation of the
+despatch was so strong that the writer felt it necessary to retire from
+office. Lord Canning replied to the despatch, calmly and in a
+statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating his censured policy. In
+April 1859 he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for his
+great services during the mutiny. He was also made an extra civil grand
+cross of the order of the Bath, and in May of the same year he was
+raised to the dignity of an earl. By the strain of anxiety and hard work
+his health and strength were seriously impaired, while the death of his
+wife was also a great shock to him; in the hope that rest in his native
+land might restore him, he left India, reaching England in April 1862.
+But it was too late. He died in London on the 17th of June following.
+About a month before his death he was created K.G. As he died without
+issue the title became extinct.
+
+  See Sir H.S. Cunningham, _Earl Canning_ ("Rulers of India" series),
+  1891; and A.J.C. Hare, _The Story of Two Noble Lilies_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827), British statesman, was born in London on
+the 11th of April 1770. The family was of English origin and had been
+settled at Bishop's Canynge in Wiltshire. In 1618 a George Canning, son
+of Richard Canning of Foxcote in Warwickshire, received a grant of the
+manor of Garvagh in Londonderry, Ireland, from King James I. The father
+of the statesman, also named George, was the eldest son of Mr Stratford
+Canning, of Garvagh. He quarrelled with and was disowned by his family.
+He came to London and led a struggling life, partly in trade and partly
+in literature. In May 1768 he married Mary Annie Costello, and he died
+on the 11th of April 1771, exactly one year after the birth of his son.
+Mrs Canning, who was left destitute, received no help from her husband's
+family, and went on the stage, where she was not successful. She married
+a dissolute and brutal actor of the name of Reddish. Her son owed his
+escape from the miseries of her household to another member of the
+company, Moody, who wrote to Mr Stratford Canning, a merchant in London
+and younger brother of the elder George Canning. Moody represented to Mr
+Stratford Canning that the boy, although full of promise, was on the
+high road to the gallows under the evil influence of Reddish. Mr
+Stratford Canning exerted himself on behalf of his nephew. An estate of
+the value of L200 a year was settled on the boy, and he was sent in
+succession to a private school at Hyde Abbey near Winchester, to Eton in
+1781, and to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1787. After leaving Eton and
+before going to Oxford, he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn. At
+Eton he edited the school magazine, _The Microcosm_, and at Oxford he
+took the leading part in the formation of a debating society. He made
+many friends, and his reputation was already so high that Sheridan
+referred to him in the House of Commons as a rising hope of the Whigs.
+According to Lord Holland, he had been noted at Oxford as a furious
+Jacobin and hater of the aristocracy. In 1792 he came to London to read
+for the bar. He had taken his B.A. in 1791 and proceeded M.A. on the 6th
+of July 1794.
+
+Soon after coming to London he became acquainted with Pitt in some
+uncertain way. The hatred of the aristocracy, for which Lord Holland
+says he was noted at Oxford, would naturally deter an ambitious young
+man with his way to make in the world, and with no fixed principles,
+from attaching his fortune to the Whigs. Canning had the glaring
+examples of Burke and Sheridan himself to show him that the great
+"revolution families"--Cavendishes, Russells, Bentincks--who controlled
+the Whig party, would never allow any man, however able, who did not
+belong to their connexion, to rise to the first rank. He therefore took
+his place among the followers of Pitt. It is, however, only fair to note
+that he always regarded Pitt with strong personal affection, and that he
+may very naturally have been influenced, as multitudes of other
+Englishmen were, by the rapid development of the French Revolution from
+a reforming to an aggressive and conquering force. In a letter to his
+friend Lord Boringdon (John Parker, afterwards earl of Morley), dated
+the 13th of December 1792, he explicitly states that this was the case.
+Enlightened self-interest was doubtless combined with honest conviction
+in ranking him among the followers of Pitt. By the help of the prime
+minister he entered parliament for the borough of Newtown in the Isle of
+Wight in July 1793. His maiden speech, on the subvention to the king of
+Sardinia, was made on the 31st of January 1794. It is by some said to
+have been a failure, but he satisfied himself, and he soon established
+his place as the most brilliant speaker on the ministerial side. It may
+be most conveniently noted here, that his political patrons exerted
+themselves to provide for his private as well as his official
+prosperity. Their favour helped him to make a lucrative marriage with
+Miss Joan Scott, who had a fortune of L100,000, on the 8th of July 1800.
+The marriage was a very happy one, though the bulk of the fortune was
+worn away in the expenses of public and social life. Mrs Canning, who
+survived her husband for ten years, was created a viscountess in 1828.
+Four children were born of the marriage--a son who died in his father's
+lifetime, and was lamented by him in very touching verse; another a
+captain in the navy, drowned at Madeira in 1827; a third son, Charles
+(q.v.), afterwards created Earl Canning; and a daughter Harriet, who
+married the marquess of Clanricarde in 1825.
+
+The public life of Canning may be divided into four stages. From 1793 to
+1801 he was the devoted follower of Pitt, was in minor though important
+office, and was the wittiest of the defenders of the ministry in
+parliament and in the press. From 1801 to 1809 he was partly in
+opposition, partly in office, fighting for the foremost place. Between
+1809 and 1822 there was a period of comparative eclipse, during which he
+was indeed at times in office, but in lesser places than he would have
+been prepared to accept between 1804 and 1809, and was regarded with
+general distrust. From 1822 till his death in 1827 he was the most
+powerful influence in English, and one of the most powerful in European,
+politics.
+
+In the spring of 1796 he was appointed under-secretary for the foreign
+office, and in the election of that year he was returned for Wendover.
+He was also appointed receiver-general of the alienation office, a
+sinecure post which brought him L700 a year. His position as
+under-secretary brought him into close relations with Pitt and the
+foreign secretary, Lord Grenville (q.v.). During the negotiations for
+peace at Lille (1797), Canning was actively concerned in the devices
+which were employed by Pitt and Grenville to keep the real character of
+the discussion secret from other members of the cabinet. Canning had a
+taste for mystery and disguises, which he had shown at Oxford, and which
+did much to gain him his unfortunate reputation for trickery. From the
+20th of November 1797, till the 9th of July 1798, he was one of the most
+active, and was certainly the most witty of the contributors to the
+_Anti-Jacobin_, a weekly paper started to ridicule the frothy
+philanthropic and eleutheromaniac rant of the French republicans, and to
+denounce their brutal rapacity and cruelty. But Canning's position as
+under-secretary was not wholly pleasant to him. He disliked his
+immediate chief Grenville, one of the Whigs who joined Pitt, and a man
+of thoroughly Whiggish aristocratic insolence. In 1799 he left the
+foreign office and was named one of the twelve commissioners for India,
+and in 1800 joint paymaster of the forces, a post which he held till the
+retirement of Pitt in 1801.
+
+During these years of subordinate activity Canning had established his
+position as an orator and a wit. His oratory cannot be estimated with
+absolute confidence. Speeches were then badly reported. The text of his
+own, published by Therry (6 volumes, London, 1828), were revised by
+himself, and not for the better. Though his favourite author was Dryden,
+whose prose is uniformly manly and simple, and though he had a keen eye
+for faults of taste in the style of others, Canning had himself a
+leaning to preciosity and tinsel. His wit was, and remains, above all
+question. In public life it did him some harm in the opinion of serious
+people, who could not believe that so jocose a politician had solid
+capacity. It exasperated opponents, some of whom, notably Peter Pindar
+(see WOLCOT, JOHN), retaliated by brutal personalities. Canning was
+constantly reminded that his mother was a strolling actress, and was
+accused of foisting his pauper family on the public funds. The
+accusation was perfectly untrue, but this style of political controversy
+was common, and was adopted by Canning. He put himself on a level with
+Peter Pindar when he assailed Pitt's successor Addington (see SIDMOUTH,
+VISCOUNT) on the ground that he was the son of a doctor.
+
+While out of office with Pitt, Canning proved a somewhat insubordinate
+follower. The snobbery and malignity of his attacks on Addington roused
+considerable feeling against him, and his attempts to act as a political
+go-between in ministerial arrangements were unfortunate. On the
+formation of Pitt's second ministry he took the post of treasurer of the
+navy on the 12th of May 1804. In office he continued to be
+insubordinate, and committed mistakes which got him into bad odour as
+untrustworthy. He endeavoured to persuade Lord Hawkesbury (see
+LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF) to join in a scheme for turning an old friend out
+of the India Office. Though his relations with Pitt began to be somewhat
+strained towards the end, he left office on the minister's death on the
+21st of January 1806.
+
+Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of Commons on the
+3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox's ministry of "all the
+talents." Attempts were made to secure him, and he was offered the
+leadership of the House of Commons, under the supervision of Fox, an
+absurd proposal which he had the good sense to decline. After the death
+of Fox, and the dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville's ministry, he
+joined the administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state
+for foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807 till
+the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a large share
+in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret articles of the treaty
+of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet. As foreign secretary it
+fell to him to defend the ministry when it was attacked in parliament.
+He refused to tell how he became aware of the secret articles, and the
+mystery has never been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the
+prosecution of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in
+resignation in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He
+became entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In view of
+the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his colleague,
+Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a new prime minister
+must be found, that he must be in the House of Commons, that the choice
+lay between them, adding that he might not be prepared to serve as
+subordinate. In April of 1809 he had told the duke of Portland that Lord
+Castlereagh, secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion
+unfit for his post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a
+sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and took no
+steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague. When he found that
+no measures were being taken to make a change of office, Canning
+resigned on the 7th of September. Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and
+after resigning sent Canning a challenge on the 19th of September. In
+the duel on Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the
+thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against the charge
+of double dealing, but there can be no question that Castlereagh had
+just ground to be angry. Public opinion was strong against Canning, and
+in the House of Commons he was looked upon with distrust. For twelve
+years he remained out of office or in inferior places. His ability made
+it impossible that he should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the
+Bullion Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery of
+the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic knowledge which
+chiefly recommended him to the electors of Liverpool in 1812. He had
+been elected for Tralee in 1803, for Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for
+Harwich in 1807. But in parliament he had lost all influence, and is
+described as wandering about neglected and avoided. In 1812 he committed
+the serious mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to
+Lisbon, which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He
+remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to enter
+office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liverpool's cabinet,
+in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now become reconciled, was
+secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1820 he resigned his post in
+order to avoid taking any part in the proceedings against Queen
+Caroline, the wife of George IV.
+
+Canning's return to great office and influence dates from the suicide of
+Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-generalship of India,
+which would have implied his retirement from public life at home, and
+refused to remain unless he was promised "the whole inheritance" of
+Castlereagh,--the foreign office and the leadership of the House of
+Commons. His terms were accepted, and he took office in September 1822.
+He held the office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime
+minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had broken down.
+Even before this he was the real director of the policy of the
+cabinet--as Castlereagh had been from 1812 to 1822. It may be noted that
+he resigned his seat for Liverpool in 1823, and was elected for Harwich,
+which he left for Newport in 1826. Few English public men have
+represented so many constituencies.
+
+His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy which he
+pursued in those years--the policy of non-intervention, and of the
+patronage, if not the actual support, of national and liberal movements
+in Europe (see the historical articles under EUROPE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL,
+TURKEY, GREECE). To this policy he may be said to have given his name,
+and he has enjoyed the reputation of having introduced a generous spirit
+into British politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor
+at the foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of
+despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning followed
+his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without the
+possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of proof, that
+he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the fact remains that
+when Canning came into office in September 1822, he found the
+instructions to be given to the representative of the British government
+at the congress of Verona already drawn up by his predecessor, who had
+meant to attend the congress himself (see LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART,
+2ND MARQUESS OF). These instructions were handed on without change by
+Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as representative, and they
+contain all the principles which have been said to have been peculiarly
+Canning's. Indeed this policy was dictated by the character and position
+of the British government, and had been followed in the main since the
+conference of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and
+minister rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated
+with his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No
+speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he claimed the
+initiative in recognizing the independence of the revolted Spanish
+colonies in South America in 1823--"I resolved that, if France had
+Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World
+into existence to redress the balance of the Old" (December 12, 1826).
+
+When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of February
+1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only possible successor.
+He was not indeed accepted by all the party which had followed
+Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir Robert Peel and several other
+members of the ministry, moved perhaps by personal animosity, and
+certainly by dislike of his known and consistent advocacy of the claims
+of the Roman Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in
+constructing a ministry in April--but the hopes and the fears of friends
+and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His health had already begun
+to give way, and broke down altogether under the strain of the effort
+required to form his ministry. He had caught cold in January at the
+funeral of the duke of York, and never recovered. He died on the 8th of
+August 1827, at Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where
+Fox had died, and in the same room.
+
+  See _Speeches_, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.G.
+  Stapleton, _Political Life of Canning_, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London,
+  1831); _Canning and His Times_ (London, 1859); Lord Dalling and
+  Bulwer, _Historical Characters_ (London, 1868); F.H. Hill, _George
+  Canning_ (London, 1887); _Some Political Correspondence of George
+  Canning_, ed. E.J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); J.A.R. Marriott, _George
+  Canning and His Times, a Political Study_ (London, 1903); W. Alison
+  Phillips, _George Canning_ (London, 1903), with reproductions of
+  contemporary portraits and caricatures; H.W.V. Temperley, _George
+  Canning_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO (1826-1910), Italian chemist, was born at Palermo
+on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he entered the university of his
+native place with the intention of making medicine his profession, but
+he soon turned to the study of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as
+assistant to Rafaelle Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin,
+who was then professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied
+the same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served as
+an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for
+Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of Messina in
+September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina. On the collapse of the
+insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in May 1849, and after visiting
+various French towns reached Paris in October. There he gained an
+introduction to M.E. Chevreul's laboratory, and in conjunction with F.S.
+Cloez (1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research in
+1851, when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia on cyanogen
+chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year he was appointed
+professor of physical chemistry at the National College of Alexandria,
+where he discovered that aromatic aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic
+potash into a mixture of the corresponding acid and alcohol, e.g.
+benzaldehyde into benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol ("Cannizzaro's
+reaction"). In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at
+Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professorships
+at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and organic
+chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying the aromatic
+compounds and continuing to work on the amines, until in 1871 he was
+appointed to the chair of chemistry at Rome university. Apart from his
+work on organic chemistry, which includes also an investigation of
+santonin, he rendered great service to the philosophy of chemistry when
+in his memoir _Sunto di un corso di Filosofia chemica_ (1858) he
+insisted on the distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between
+molecular and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of
+elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from the
+molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic weights of
+elements of whose compounds the vapour densities are unknown can be
+ascertained from a knowledge of their specific heats. For this
+achievement, of fundamental importance for the atomic theory in
+chemistry, he was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1891.
+Cannizzaro's scientific eminence in 1871 secured him admission to the
+Italian senate, of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the
+Council of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important
+services to the cause of scientific education in Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CANNOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary division of
+Staffordshire, England, in the district known as Cannock Chase, 130 m.
+N.W. from London by the London and North Western railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1891) 20,613; (1901) 23,974. The church of St Luke is
+Perpendicular, enlarged in modern times. The famous political preacher,
+Henry Sacheverell, held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock
+has tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract generally
+exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis from north-west to
+south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was a royal preserve, and remains
+for the most part an uncultivated waste, but it is also a rich
+coalfield, and there are mines in every direction. Brownhills, Burntwood
+and Chase Town, Great Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are
+townships or villages of the mining population.
+
+
+
+
+CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. _canna_, a
+reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination _-on,
+-one_), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word, first found about 1400
+(there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407 referring to _"canones, seu
+instrumenta Anglice gunnes vocata"_), is commonly applied to any form of
+firearm which is fired from a carriage or fixed mounting, in
+contradistinction to "small-arms," which are fired without a rest or
+support of any kind.[1] An exception must be made, however, in the case
+of _machine guns_ (q.v.), and the word as used in modern times may be
+defined as follows: "a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or movable
+carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than 1-1/2 in." In
+French, however, _canon_ is the term applied to the barrel of small
+arms, and also, as an alternative to _mitrailleuse_ or _mitrailleur_, to
+machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly so-called. The Hotchkiss
+machine gun used in several navies is officially called "revolving
+cannon." For details see ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, MACHINE GUNS, &c. Amongst
+the many derived senses of the word may be mentioned "cannon curls," in
+which the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the
+other. For "cannon" in billiards see BILLIARDS.
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries the "cannon" in England was distinctively
+a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance being called by various
+special names such as culverin, saker, falcon, demi-cannon, &c. We hear
+of Cromwell taking with him to Ireland (1649) "two cannon of eight
+inches, two cannon of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders,"
+&c.
+
+Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier contemporary with
+Cromwell, says: "The cannon or battering ordnance is divided by the
+English into Cannon Royal, Whole Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is
+likewise called the Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and
+shoots a bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs
+7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound. The
+Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet of 28 or 30
+pound. ... These three several guns are called cannons of eight, cannons
+of seven and cannons of six." The generic sense of "cannon," in which
+the word is now exclusively used, is found along with the special sense
+above mentioned as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by
+Edward IV. of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide
+"_bumbardos, canones, culverynes ... et alias canones quoscumque, ac
+pulveres, sulfer ... pro eisdem canonibus necessarias_." "Artillery" and
+"ordnance," however, were the more usual terms up to the time of Louis
+XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance began to be classified
+according to the weight of its shot, and the special sense of "cannon"
+disappears.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand
+    cannon.
+
+
+
+
+CANNON-BALL TREE (_Couroupita guianensis_), a native of tropical South
+America (French Guiana), which bears large spherical woody fruits,
+containing numerous seeds, as in the allied genus _Bertholletia_ (Brazil
+nut).
+
+
+
+
+CANNSTATT, or KANNSTATT, a town of Germany in the kingdom of
+Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley on both banks of
+the Neckar, 2-1/2 m. from Stuttgart, with which it has been incorporated
+since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is a railway centre, has two
+Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, two bridges across the Neckar,
+handsome streets in the modern quarter of the town and fine promenades
+and gardens. There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway
+plant, automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and weaving
+are carried on; and there are chemical works and a brewery here. Fruit
+and vines are largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. A large
+population is temporarily attracted to Cannstatt by the fame of its
+mineral springs, which are valuable for diseases of the throat and
+weaknesses of the nervous system. These springs were known to the
+Romans. Besides the usual bathing establishments there are several
+medical institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the
+palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851) for
+King William of Wurttemberg in the Moorish style, is surrounded by
+beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also are immense caves in the
+limestone where numerous bones of mammoths and other extinct animals
+have been found. On the Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral
+castle of the house of Wurttemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and
+his wife.
+
+Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as the place
+where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the trial of the
+rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians. From the emperor
+Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights and privileges as were
+enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and until the middle of the 14th
+century it was the capital of the county of Wurttemberg. Cannstatt was
+the scene of a victory gained by the French over the Austrians on the
+21st of July 1796.
+
+  See Veiel, _Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen_ (Cannstatt,
+  1875).
+
+
+
+
+CANO, ALONZO (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and sculptor, was
+born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very great number of specimens
+of his genius, which display the boldness of his design, the facility of
+his pencil, the purity of his flesh-tints and his knowledge of
+chiaroscuro. He learned architecture from his father, Miguel Cano,
+painting from Pacheco and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montanes. As a
+statuary, his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church
+of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo. As an
+architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and gave way too
+much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made him royal architect and
+king's painter, and gave him the church preferment of a canon. His more
+important pictures are at Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable
+temper; and it is said that once he risked his life by committing the
+then capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when in
+a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded. His known
+passionateness also (according to another story) caused him to be
+suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of his wife, though all
+other circumstances pointed to his servant as the culprit.
+
+
+
+
+CANO, MELCHIOR (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at Tarancon, in New
+Castile, joined the Dominican order at an early age at Salamanca, where
+in 1546 he succeeded to the theological chair in that university. A man
+of deep learning and originality, proud and a victim to the _odium
+theologicum_, he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time
+could compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a
+Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university the
+schools were divided between the partisans of the two professors; but
+Cano pursued his rival with relentless virulence, and took part in the
+condemnation for heresy of his brother-friar. The new society of the
+Jesuits, as being the forerunners of Antichrist, also met with his
+violent opposition; and he was not grateful to them when, after
+attending the council of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence,
+in 1552, as bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal
+influence with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made
+provincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous
+_Consultatio theologica_, in which he advised the king to resist the
+temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, to defend
+his rights by bringing about a radical change in the administration of
+ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain less dependent on Rome. With
+this in his mind Paul IV. styled him "a son of perdition." The
+reputation of Cano, however, rests on a posthumous work, _De Locis
+theologicis_ (Salamanca, 1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its
+own line. In this, a genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to
+free dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and, by
+clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, to
+bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, method,
+co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific treatment of
+theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of September 1560.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOE (from Carib. _canaoa_, the West Indian name found in use by
+Columbus; the Fr. _canot_, boat, and Ger. _Kahn_, are derived from the
+Lat. _canna_, reed, vessel), a sort of general term for a boat sharp at
+both ends, originally designed for propulsion by one or more paddles
+(not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, the paddler facing the bow. As
+the historical native name for certain types of boat used by savages, it
+is applied in such cases to those which, like other boats, are open
+within from end to end, and the modern "Canadian canoe" preserves this
+sense; but a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ
+essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck, except for
+a "well" where the paddler sits. Modern developments are the cruising
+canoe, combining the use of paddle and sails, and the racing canoe,
+equipped with sails only.
+
+The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which skins (as in
+the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the North American
+lndians' birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched. The modern painted
+canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was a natural development of this
+idea. The Indian also used, and the African still uses, the "dug-out,"
+made from a tree hollowed by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe.
+Many of these are of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the
+New York Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte's Island is 63 ft.
+long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The "war
+canoe" of paddling races is its modern successor. In the islands of the
+Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by the natives, who
+make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening them by attaching
+another hull (see CATAMARAN).
+
+In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a "canoe" in
+England was the short covered-in craft, with a "well" for the paddler to
+sit in, which was popularly used for short river practice; and this type
+still survives. But the sport of canoeing in any real sense dates from
+1865, when John MacGregor (q.v.) designed the canoe "Rob Roy" for long
+journeys by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light
+enough (about 70 lb) to be carried over land. The general type of this
+canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from 12 ft. to
+15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in. to 16 in. The
+paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade, the canoeist sits low
+in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades first on one side and then
+the other. The rig is generally yawl.
+
+In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the prince of
+Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore. Its headquarters are at
+Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the leading organization. There is
+also the British Canoe Association, devoted to cruising. After the
+English canoes were seen in Paris at the Exhibition of 1867, others like
+them were built in France. Branches and clubs were formed also at the
+English universities, and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The
+New York Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal Canoe
+Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the Irish Channel
+from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were explored in inaccessible
+parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and the Abana and the Pharpar at
+Damascus, as well as the Lake Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the
+Lake of Galilee and Waters of Merom in Syria.
+
+W. Baden Powell modified the type of the "Rob Roy" in the "Nautilus,"
+intended only for sailing. From this time the two kinds of pleasure
+canoe--paddling and sailing--parted company, and developed each on its
+own lines; the sailing canoe soon (1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a
+smaller and smaller cockpit, and a larger and larger sail area, with the
+consequent necessary air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul
+Butler of Lowell, Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat,
+allowing the canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the
+racing machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the
+annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the St Lawrence
+river, or at the more frequent race days of its constituent divisions,
+associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic (32 clubs), Central (26
+clubs) and Western.
+
+The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also
+represented in single, tandem and crew ("war canoe") races, and this
+form of the sport remains more of the amateur type. The "Canadian," a
+clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or bass-wood canoe, or the
+painted canvas, bark or compressed paper canoe, all on the general lines
+of the Indian birch bark, are as common on American rivers as the punt
+is on the Thames, and are similarly used.
+
+  See MacGregor, _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_ (1866), _The
+  Rob Roy on the Baltic_, &c.; W. Baden Powell, _Canoe Travelling_
+  (1871); W.L. Alden, _Canoe and the Flying Proa_ (New York, 1878); J.D.
+  Hayward, _Camping out with the British Canoe Association_; C.B. Vaux,
+  _Canoe Handling_ (New York, 1888); Stephens, _Canoe and Boat Building_
+  (New York, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+CANON. The Greek word [Greek: kanon] means originally a straight rod or
+pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing upright or
+straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in Gal. vi. 16, and 2
+Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former passage a measure, in the
+latter what is measured, a district. The general applications of the
+word fall mainly into two groups, in one of which the underlying meaning
+is that of rule, in the other that of a list or catalogue, i.e. of books
+containing the rule. Of the first, such uses as that of a standard or
+rule of conduct or taste, or of a particular form of musical composition
+(see below) may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of
+the laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see CANON LAW). In the
+second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below),
+that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints by
+the Church (see CANONIZATION), and that of the authoritative body of
+Scriptures (see below) are examples.
+
+_Music._--A canon in part-music is the form taken by the earliest
+compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts having the same
+melody, but each beginning at a stated period after its precursor or
+antecedent. In many early polyphonic compositions, one or more voices
+were imitated note for note by the others, so that the other parts did
+not need to be written out at all, but were deduced from the leaders by
+a rule or canon. Sir Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way
+the term "canon" came to supersede the old name of the art-form, _Fuga
+ligata_. (See also under FUGUE, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS and Music.) When the
+first part completes its rhythmical sentence before the second enters,
+and then continues the melody as an accompaniment to the second, and so
+on for the third or fourth, this form of canon in England was styled a
+"round" or "catch"; the stricter canon being one in which the succession
+of parts did not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England
+catches and canons were undifferentiated. The "round" derived its name
+from the fact that the first part returned to the beginning while the
+others continued the melody; the "catch" meant that each later part
+caught up the tune. The problem of the canon, as an artistic
+composition, is to find one or more points in a melody at which one or
+more successive parts may start the same tune harmoniously. Catches were
+familiar in English folk music until after the Restoration; different
+trades having characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of
+Charles II they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental.
+Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now survives
+mainly in its historical interest.     (H. Ch.)
+
+_The Church Dignitary_.--A canon is a person who possesses a prebend, or
+revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or
+collegiate church. Though the institute of canons as it at present
+exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it has a long history
+behind it. The name is derived from the list (_matricula_) of the clergy
+belonging to a church, [Greek: kanon] being thus used in the council of
+Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea the adjective [Greek:
+kanonikos] is found in this sense (c. 15); and during the 6th century
+the word _canonicus_ occurs commonly in western Europe in relation to
+the clergy belonging to a cathedral or other church. Eusebius of
+Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to introduce the system whereby the
+cathedral clergy dwelt together, leading a semi-monastic life in common
+and according to rule; and St Augustine established a similar manner of
+life for the clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely
+over Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory's
+injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his clergy
+should live a common life together, similar to the monastic life in
+which he had been trained; that these "clerics" at Canterbury were not
+monks is shown by the fact that those of them in the lower clerical
+grades were free to marry and live at home, without forfeiting their
+position or emoluments as members of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede,
+_Hist. Eccl._ i. 27). This mode of life for the secular clergy, which
+became common in the west, seems never to have taken root in the east.
+It came to be called _vita canonica_, canonical life, and it was the
+object of various enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th
+centuries. The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it
+to rule was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (c. 750), who composed
+a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure an
+adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular clergy living
+in common. Chrodegang's Rule was adopted in many churches, both
+cathedral and collegiate (i.e. those served by a body of clergy). In 816
+the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see _Mon. Germ. Concil._ ii. 307) made
+further regulations for the canonical life, which became the law in the
+Frankish empire for cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of
+Chrodegang was taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some
+points mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a common
+dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon was allowed a
+dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh meat was permitted,
+and the clothing was of better quality than that of monks. Each canon
+retained the use of his private property and money, but the revenues of
+the cathedral or church were treated as a common fund for the
+maintenance of the whole establishment. The chief duty of the canons was
+the performance of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks,
+but secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic vows
+or resigning their private means--a form of life somewhat resembling
+that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham Oratory in our day. The
+bishop was expected to lead the common life along with his clergy.
+
+The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted in the
+9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this intermediate form
+of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a constant tendency to
+relax the bonds of the common life, and attempts in various directions
+to restore it. In England, by the middle of the 10th century, the
+prescriptions of the canonical life seem to have fallen into desuetude,
+and in nine cathedrals the canons were replaced by communities of
+Benedictines. In the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced
+into certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation
+of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The turning point
+came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the Lateran, exhorted the
+clergy of all cathedral and collegiate churches to live in community, to
+hold all property and money in common, and to "lead the life of the
+Apostles" (cf. Acts ii. 44, 45). The clergy of numerous churches
+throughout Western Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set
+themselves to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement
+grew the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons (q.v.).
+The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced the institute of
+secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral were divided into two
+parts, that of the bishop and that of the clergy; this latter was again
+divided among the clergy themselves, so that each member received his
+own separate income, and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical
+grade, were the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at
+leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In England the
+final establishment of this order of things was due to St Osmund (1090).
+The nature and functions of the institute of secular canons are
+described in the article CATHEDRAL.
+
+  See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, under "Canonicus"; Amort, _Vetus
+  Disciplina Canonicorum_ (1747), to be used with caution for the
+  earlier period; C. du Molinet, _Reflexions historiques et curieuses
+  sur les antiquites des chanoines tant seculiers que reguliers_ (1674);
+  Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Kapitel"; Wetzer und
+  Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonica vita" and
+  "Canonikat." The history of the canonical institute is succinctly
+  told, and the best literature named, by Max Heimbucher, _Orden und
+  Kongregationen_, 1896, i. S 55; also by Otto Zockler, _Askese und
+  Monchtum_, 1897, pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard
+  work is Chr. Wordsworth's _Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral_ (1892-1897);
+  see also an article thereon by Edm. Bishop in _Dublin Review_, July
+  1898.     (E. C. B.)
+
+In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate churches
+retain their traditional character and functions, though they are now,
+of course, permitted to marry. Their duties were defined by the Canons
+of 1603, and included that of residence at the cathedrals according to
+"their local customs and statutes," and preaching in the cathedral and
+in the churches of the diocese, "especially those whence they or their
+church receive any yearly rent or profit." A canonry not being legally a
+"cure of souls," a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his prebend,
+in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons of 1603 he was
+subject to discipline if he made his canonry an excuse for neglecting
+his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming cathedral chapters the number of
+canonries was greatly reduced, while some were made applicable to the
+endowment of archdeaconries and professorships. At the same time it was
+enacted that a canon must have been six years in priest's orders, except
+in the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or other
+office in any university. The obligatory period of residence, hitherto
+varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform period of
+three months. The right of presentation to canonries is now vested in
+some cases in the crown, in others in the lord chancellor, the
+archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese.
+
+Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or other
+emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the case of old
+cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving clergymen by the bishop
+as a mark of distinction. In new cathedrals, e.g. Manchester or
+Birmingham, where no endowment exists for a chapter, the bishop is
+empowered to appoint honorary canons, who carry out the ordinary
+functions of a cathedral body (see CATHEDRAL).
+
+Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed by the
+dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to sing the service, and they
+are selected therefore mainly for their voices and musical
+qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if it lies within 6 m. of the
+cathedral.
+
+In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical
+officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony, however, certain
+chapters, secularized at the Reformation, still exist. The canons
+(_Domherren_) are, however, laymen with no ecclesiastical character
+whatever, and their rich prebends are merely sources of endowment for
+the cadets of noble families.
+
+  See Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, 2 vols. (London, 1895).     (W. A. P.)
+
+_The Scriptures._--There are three opinions as to the origin of the
+application of the term "canon" to the writings used by the Christian
+Church. According to Semler, Baur and others, the word had originally
+the sense of list or catalogue--the books publicly read in Christian
+assemblies. Others, as Steiner, suppose that since the Alexandrian
+grammarians applied it to collections of old Greek authors as models of
+excellence or classics, it meant classical (canonical) writings.
+According to a third opinion, the term included from the first the idea
+of a regulating principle. This is the more probable, because the same
+idea lies in the New Testament use of the noun, and pervades its
+applications in the language of the early Fathers down to the time of
+Constantine, as Credner has shown.[1] The "[Greek: kanon] of the church"
+in the Clementine homilies,[2] the "ecclesiastical [Greek: kanon]"[3]
+and the "[Greek: kanon] of the truth" in Clement and Irenaeus,[4] the
+[Greek: kanon] of the faith in Polycrates,[5] the _regula fidei_ of
+Tertullian,[6] and the _libri regulares_ of Origen[7] imply a _normative
+principle_. Credner's view of [Greek: kanon] as an abbreviation of
+[Greek: grachai kanonos], equivalent to _Scripturae legis_ in
+Diocletian's Act,[8] is too artificial, and is unsanctioned by usage.
+
+The earliest example of its application to a catalogue of the Old or New
+Testament books occurs in the Latin translation of Origen's homily on
+Joshua, where the original seems to have been [Greek: kanon]. The word
+itself is certainly in Amphilochius,[9] as well as in Jerome[10] and
+Rufinus.[11] As the Latin translation of Origen has _canonicus_ and
+_canonizatus_, we infer that he used [Greek: kanonikos], opposed as it
+is to _apocryphus_ or _secretus_. The first occurrence of [Greek:
+kanonikos] is in the 59th canon of the council of Laodicea, where it is
+contrasted with [Greek: idiotikos] and [Greek: akanonistos]. [Greek:
+Kanonixomena], "_canonized_ books," is first used in Athanasius's festal
+epistle.[12] The kind of rule which the earliest Fathers thought the
+Scriptures to be can only be conjectured; it is certain that they
+believed the Old Testament books to be a divine and infallible guide.
+But the New Testament was not so considered till towards the close of
+the 2nd century, when the conception of a Catholic Church was realized.
+The collection of writings was not called _Scripture_, or put on a par
+with the Old Testament as sacred and inspired, till the time of
+Theophilus of Antioch (about 180 A.D.). Hence Irenaeus applies the
+epithets divine and perfect to the Scriptures; and Clement of Alexandria
+calls them inspired.
+
+When distinctions were made among the Biblical writings other words were
+employed, synonymous with [Greek: kanonixomena] or [Greek:
+kekanonismena], such as [Greek: endiathaeka], [Greek: orismena]. The
+canon was thus a catalogue of writings, forming a rule of truth, sacred,
+divine, revealed by God for the instruction of men. The rule was perfect
+for its purpose. (See BIBLE: section _Canon_.)
+
+The term "canonical," i.e. that which is approved or ordered by the
+"canon" or rule, is applied to ecclesiastical vestments, "canonicals,"
+and to those hours set apart by the Church for prayer and devotion, the
+"Canonical Hours" (see BREVIARY).     (S. D.)
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Zur Geschichte des Kanons_, pp. 3-68.
+
+  [2] _Clement Hom._, ap. Coteler. vol. i. p. 608.
+
+  [3] _Stromata_, vi. 15, p. 803, ed. Potter.
+
+  [4] _Adv. Haeres._ i. 95.
+
+  [5] Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24.
+
+  [6] _De praescript. Haereticorum_, chs. 12, 13.
+
+  [7] _Comment. in Mat._ iii. p. 916, ed. Delarue.
+
+  [8] _Monumenta vetera ad Donatistarum historiam pertinentia_, ed.
+    Dupin, p. 168.
+
+  [9] At the end of the _Iambi ad Seleucum_, on the books of the New
+    Testament, he adds, [Greek: outos acheudestatos kanon an ein ton
+    theopneuston grachon].
+
+  [10] _Prologus galeatus in ii. Reg._
+
+  [11] _Expos. in Symb. Apost._ 37, p. 374, ed. Migne.
+
+  [12] After the word is added [Greek: kai paradothenta, pioteuthenta
+    te theia einai]. _Opp._ vol. i. p. 961, ed. Benedict.
+
+
+
+
+CANONESS (Fr. _chanoinesse_, Ger. _Kanonissin_, Lat. _canonica_ or
+_canonica virgo_), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In the
+8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish empire,
+and in imitation of these certain women took common vows of obedience
+and chastity, though not of poverty. Like nuns they had common table and
+dormitory, and recited the breviary, but generally the rule was not so
+strict as in the case of nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and
+were also employed in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and
+transcribing liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular
+and secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not
+practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable feudal
+princesses. In Germany several foundations of this kind (e.g.
+Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were practically secular
+institutions before the Reformation, adopted the Protestant faith, and
+still exist, requiring of their members the simple conditions of
+celibacy and obedience to their superior during membership. These
+institutions (_Stifter_) are now practically almshouses for the
+unmarried daughters of noble families. In some cases the right of
+presentation belongs to the head of the family, sometimes admission is
+gained by purchase; but in modern times a certain number of prebends
+have been created for the daughters of deserving officials. The
+organization of the _Stift_ is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient
+titles of abbess, prioress or provostess (_Probstin_), and the
+canonesses (_Stiftsdamen_) meet periodically in _Konvent_ for the
+discussion of the affairs of the community. The ladies are not bound to
+residence. In many of these _Stifter_ quaint pre-Reformation customs and
+ceremonies still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at
+Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the
+_Konvent_ is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax head
+of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table round which
+the canonesses sit.
+
+
+
+
+CANONIZATION, in its widest sense, an act by which in the Christian
+Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased believer the
+honour of public _cultus_. In the early Church there was no formal
+canonization. The _cultus_ applied at first to local martyrs, and it was
+only in exceptional circumstances that a kind of judiciary inquiry and
+express decision became necessary to legitimate this _cultus_. The
+peculiar situation of the Church of Africa explains the _Vindicatio
+martyrum_, which was early practised there (_Optatus Milevit._, i. 16).
+In the _cultus_ rendered to confessors, the authorization of the Church
+had long been merely implicit. But when an express decision was given,
+it was the bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came
+to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the pope
+the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest
+acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of Ulric of
+Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in A.D. 993. From that
+time the pontifical intervention became more and more frequent, and, in
+practice, the right of the bishops in the matter of canonization
+continued to grow more restricted. In 1170 the new right was
+sufficiently established for Pope Alexander III. to affirm that the
+bishops could not institute the _cultus_ of a new saint without the
+authority of the Roman Church (Cap. _Audivimus_, Decret. _De Rell. et
+venerat. Sanctorum_, iii. 115). The 12th and, especially, the 13th
+centuries furnish many examples of canonizations pronounced by the
+popes, and the procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much
+more summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of those
+who had known the holy personages was collected on the spot. The inquiry
+was as rapid as the judgment, and both often took place a short time
+after the death of the saint, as in the cases of St Thomas of Canterbury
+(died 1170, canonized 1173), St Peter of Castelnau (died on the 15th of
+January 1208, canonized on the 12th of March of the same year), St
+Francis of Assisi (died on the 4th of October 1226, canonized on the
+19th of July 1228), and St Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June
+1231, canonized on the 3rd of June 1232).
+
+At this period there was no marked difference between canonization and
+beatification. In modern practice, as definitively settled by the
+decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the two acts are totally
+distinct. Canonization is the solemn and definitive act by which the
+pope decrees the plenitude of public honours. Beatification consists in
+permitting a _cultus_, the manifestations of which are restricted, and
+is merely a step towards canonization.
+
+The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either
+_exceptional_ or _common_. The approval of immemorial _cultus_ comes
+within the category of exceptional procedure. Urban VIII., while
+forbidding the rendering of a public _cultus_ without authorization from
+the Holy See, made an exception in favour of the blessed who were at
+that time (1625) in possession of an immemorial _cultus_, i.e. dating
+back at least a century (1525). The procedure _per viam casus excepti_
+consists in the legitimation of a _cultus_ which has been rendered to a
+saint for a very long time. The causes of the martyrs (_declarationis
+martyrii_) also are exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the
+_fact_ of the martyrdom and of its _cause_, i.e. it must be established
+that the servant of God was put to death through hatred of the faith.
+These are the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure.
+
+The _common_ procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted _per
+viam non cultus_. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded before the
+tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent commission
+of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of subordinate officers and
+presided over by a cardinal. The supreme judge in the matter is the pope
+himself. The _postulator_, who is the mandatory of a diocese or
+ecclesiastical commonalty, is the solicitor. He must furnish the proofs,
+which are collected according to very stringent rules. The _promoter of
+the faith_, popularly called the "devil's advocate" (_advocatus
+diaboli_), is the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the
+tribunal the weak points of the case.
+
+The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the historical
+explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system, and which
+considerably delay the progress of the causes. The first decisive step
+is the _introduction of the cause_. If, by the advice of the cardinals
+who have examined the documents, the pope pronounce his approval, the
+servant of God receives the title of "Venerable," but is not entitled to
+any manifestation of _cultus_. Only in the event of the claimant passing
+this test successfully can the essential part of the procedure be begun,
+which will result in conferring on the Venerable the title of "Blessed."
+This part consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a
+reputation for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the
+virtues, (3) to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on
+all three of these tests is called the decree _de tuto_, by which the
+pope decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification of
+the servant of God (_Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V.S.D.N.
+beatificationem_). In the ceremony of beatification the essential part
+consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the Venerable
+in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a solemn mass,
+celebrated with special rites in the great hall above the vestibule of
+the basilica of St Peter.
+
+The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification, is
+usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of the
+miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession of the
+Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great number of
+formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the sentence, and indicates
+eventually the day on which he will proceed to the ceremony of
+canonization, which takes place with great solemnity in the basilica of
+St Peter.
+
+The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for the conduct
+of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for exercising rigour
+and discretion, considerably retards the progress of the causes, and
+necessitates a numerous staff. This circumstance, together with the
+custom of ornamenting the basilica of St Peter very richly on the day of
+the ceremony, accounts for the considerable cost which a canonization
+entails. To prevent abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up
+during the pontificate of Leo XIII.
+
+The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constantinople, and
+the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod, also canonize their
+saints after a preliminary examination of their titles to public
+_cultus_. Their procedure is less rigorous than that of the Roman
+Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly studied.
+
+  See J. Fontanini, _Codex Constitutionum quas summi pontifices
+  ediderunt in solemni canonizatione sanctorum_ (Rome, 1729, a
+  collection of original documents); Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict
+  XIV.), _De servorum Dei beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione_
+  (Bologna, 1734-1738), several times reprinted, and more remarkable for
+  erudition and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism;
+  Al. Lauri, _Codex pro postulatoribus causarum beatificationis et
+  canonizationis, recognovit Joseph Fornari_ (Romae, 1899); F.W. Faber,
+  _Essay on Beatification, Canonization, &c._ (London, 1848); A.
+  Boudinhon, _Les Proces de beatification et de canonisation_ (Paris,
+  1905); E. Golubinskij, _Istorija Kanonizacii sviatich v russko j
+  cerkvi_ (Moscow, 1903).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+CANON LAW. Canon law, _jus canonicum_, is the sum of the laws which
+regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is also called
+ecclesiastical law, _jus ecclesiasticum_. It is also referred to under
+the name of _canones, sacri canones_, a title of great antiquity, for
+the [Greek: kanones], _regulae_, were very early distinguished from the
+secular laws, the [Greek: nomoi], _leges_.
+
+
+  Word "canon." Different meanings.
+
+The word [Greek: kanon], canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical
+literature in several different senses (see CANON above). The
+disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for example (can. 1, 2,
+&c.), employ it in the sense of an established rule, ecclesiastical in
+its origin and in its object. But the expression is most frequently used
+to designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished
+from dogmatic definitions. With regard to form, the decisions of
+councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the definitions of
+the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which generally begin with the
+words "_Si quis dixerit_," and end with the anathema, are canons; while
+the long chapters, even when dealing with matters of discipline, retain
+the name of chapters or decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to
+give the name of canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical
+compilations such as the _Decretum_ of Gratian, while the name of
+chapters is given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the
+Decretals. It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the
+expression _jus canonicum_, it implies the systematic codification of
+ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the labours
+which resulted in the _Corpus juris canonici_.
+
+
+  Divisions.
+
+Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the former is
+concerned with the constitution of the Church, and, consequently, with
+the relations between her and other bodies, religious and civil; the
+latter has as its object the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical
+body and its members. This division, which has been found convenient for
+the study of canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts.
+With regard to the texts now in force, the name of _jus antiquum_,
+ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the _Corpus juris
+canonici_; the legislation of this _Corpus_ has been called _jus novum_,
+new law; and finally, the name of recent law, _jus novissimum_, has been
+given to the law established by the council of Trent and subsequent
+papal constitutions. There is a further distinction between the written
+law, _jus scriptum_, laws made by the councils or popes, which are to be
+found in the collections, and the unwritten law, _jus non scriptum_, a
+body of practical rules arising rather from natural equity and from
+custom than from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law.
+In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the unwritten
+customary law has undergone a gradual diminution in importance, as a
+consequence of centralization and the accumulation of written laws;
+nowadays it need not be reckoned with, save in cases where local customs
+are involved. The common law is that which is intended to regulate the
+whole body; special or local law is that which is concerned with certain
+districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation from or
+addition to the common law.
+
+
+  Sources.
+
+By the _sources_ or authors of the canon law are meant the authorities
+from which it is derived; they must obviously be of such a nature as to
+be binding upon the whole religious body, or at least upon a specified
+portion of it. In the highest rank must be placed Christ and the
+Apostles, whose dispositions for the constitution and government of the
+Church are contained in the New Testament, completed by tradition; for
+the Church did not accept the disciplinary and ritual provisions of the
+Old Testament as binding upon her (see Acts xi., xv.). To the apostles
+succeeded the episcopal body, with its chief the bishop of Rome, the
+successor of St. Peter, whose legislative and disciplinary power, by a
+process of centralization, underwent a slow but uninterrupted
+development. It is then to the episcopate, assembled in ecumenical
+council, and to its chief, that the function of legislating for the
+whole Church belongs; the inferior authorities, local councils or
+isolated bishops and prelates, can only make special laws or statutes,
+valid only for that part of the Church under their jurisdiction. Most of
+the canons, however, which constitute the ancient law, and notably those
+which appear in the _Decretum_ of Gratian, emanate from local councils,
+or even from individual bishops; they have found a place in the common
+law because the collections of canons, of which they formed the most,
+notable part, have been everywhere adopted.
+
+Having made these general observations, we must now consider the history
+of those texts and collections of canons which to-day form the
+ecclesiastical law of the Western Church: (1) up to the _Decretum_ of
+Gratian, (2) up to the council of Trent, (3 and 4) up to the present
+day, including the codification ordered by Pius X.
+
+1. _From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian._--At no time, and
+least of all during the earliest centuries, was there any attempt to
+draw up a uniform system of legislation for the whole of the Christian
+Church. The various communities ruled themselves principally according
+to their customs and traditions, which, however, possessed a certain
+uniformity resulting from their close connexion with natural and divine
+law. Strangely enough, those documents which bear the greatest
+resemblance to a small collection of canonical regulations, such as the
+Didache, the Didascalia and the Canons of Hippolytus, have not been
+retained, and find no place in the collections of canons, doubtless for
+the reason that they were not official documents. Even the Apostolical
+Constitutions (q.v.), an expansion of the Didache and the Didascalia,
+after exercising a certain amount of influence, were rejected by the
+council in Trullo (692). Thus the only pseudo-epigraphic document
+preserved in the law of the Greek Church is the small collection of the
+eighty-five so-called "Apostolic Canons" (q.v.). The compilers, in their
+several collections, gathered only occasional decisions, the outcome of
+no pre-determined plan, given by councils or by certain great bishops.
+
+
+  Greek collection.
+
+These compilations began in the East. It appears that in several
+different districts canons made by the local assemblies[1] were added to
+those of the council of Nicaea which were everywhere accepted and
+observed. The first example seems to be that of the province of Pontus,
+where after the twenty canons of Nicaea were placed the twenty-five
+canons of the council of Ancyra (314), and the fifteen of that of
+Neocaesarea (315-320). These texts were adopted at Antioch, where there
+were further added the twenty-five canons of the so-called council _in
+encaeniis_ of that city (341). Soon afterwards, Paphlagonia contributed
+twenty canons passed at the council of Gangra (held, according to the
+_Synodicon orientale_, in 343),[2] and Phrygia fifty-nine canons of the
+assembly of Laodicea (345-381?), or rather of the compilation known as
+the work of this council.[3] The collection was so well and so widely
+known that all these canons were numbered in sequence, and thus at the
+council of Chalcedon (451) several of the canons of Antioch were read
+out under the number assigned to them in the collection of the whole. It
+was further increased by the twenty-eight (thirty) canons of Chalcedon;
+about the same time were added the four canons of the council of
+Constantinople of 381, under the name of which also appeared three (or
+seven) other canons of a later date. Towards the same date, also, the
+so-called "Apostolic Canons" were placed at the head of the group. Such
+was the condition of the Greek collection when it was translated and
+introduced into the West.
+
+
+  Its final form.
+
+In the course of the 6th century the collection was completed by the
+addition of documents already in existence, but which had hitherto
+remained isolated, notably the canonical letters of several great
+bishops, Dionysius of Alexandria, St Basil and others. It was at this
+time that the Latin collection of Dionysius Exiguus became known; and
+just as he had given the Greek councils a place in his collection, so
+from him were borrowed the canons of councils which did not appear in
+the Greek collection--the twenty canons of Sardica (343), in the Greek
+text, which differs considerably from the Latin; and the council of
+Carthage of 410, which itself included, more or less completely, in 105
+canons, the decisions of the African councils. Soon after came the
+council _in Trullo_ (692), also called the _Quinisextum_, because it was
+considered as complementary to the two councils (5th and 6th ecumenical)
+of Constantinople (553 and 680), which had not made any disciplinary
+canons. This assembly elaborated 102 canons, which did not become part
+of the Western law till much later, on the initiative of Pope John VIII.
+(872-881). Now, in the second of its canons, the council in Trullo
+recognized and sanctioned the Greek collection above mentioned; it
+enumerates all its articles, insists on the recognition of these canons,
+and at the same time prohibits the addition of others. As thus defined,
+the collection contains the following documents: firstly, the
+eighty-five Apostolic Canons, the Constitutions having been put aside as
+having suffered heretical alterations; secondly, the canons of the
+councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Laodicea,
+Constantinople (381), Ephesus (the disciplinary canons of this council
+deal with the reception of the Nestorians, and were not communicated to
+the West), Chalcedon, Sardica, Carthage (that of 419, according to
+Dionysius), Constantinople (394); thirdly, the series of canonical
+letters of the following great bishops--Dionysius of Alexandria, Peter
+of Alexandria (the Martyr), Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil,
+Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Amphilochus of Iconium,
+Timotheus of Alexandria, Theophilus of Alexandria, Cyril of Alexandria,
+Gennadius of Constantinople; the canon of Cyprian of Carthage (the
+Martyr) is also mentioned, but with the note that it is only valid for
+Africa. With the addition of the twenty-two canons of the ecumenical
+council of Nicaea (787), this will give us the whole contents of the
+official collection of the Greek Church; since then it has remained
+unchanged. The law of the Greek Church was in reality rather the work of
+the Byzantine emperors.[4]
+
+
+  Nomocanon.
+
+The collection has had several commentators; we need only mention the
+commentaries of Photius (883), Zonaras (1120) and Balsamon (1170). A
+collection in which the texts are simply reproduced in their
+chronological order is obviously inconvenient; towards 550, Johannes
+Scholasticus, patriarch of Constantinople, drew up a methodical
+classification of them under fifty heads. Finally should be mentioned
+yet another kind of compilation still in use in the Greek Church,
+bearing the name of _nomocanon_, because in them are inserted, side by
+side with the ecclesiastical canons, the imperial laws on each subject:
+the chief of them are the one bearing the name of Johannes Scholasticus,
+which belongs, however, to a later date, and that of Photius (883).
+
+
+  In the West.
+
+The canon law of the other Eastern Churches had no marked influence on
+the collections of the Western Church, so we need not speak of it here.
+While, from the 5th century onwards a certain unification in the
+ecclesiastical law began to take place within the sphere of the see of
+Constantinople, it was not till later that a similar result was arrived
+at in the West. For several centuries there is no mention of any but
+local collections of canons, and even these are not found till the 5th
+century; we have to come down to the 8th or even the 9th century before
+we find any trace of unification. This process was uniformly the result
+of the passing on of the various collections from one region to another.
+
+
+  Africa.
+
+The most remarkable, and the most homogeneous, as well as without doubt
+the most ancient of these local collections is that of the Church of
+Africa. It was formed, so to speak, automatically, owing to the plenary
+assemblies of the African episcopate held practically every year, at
+which it was customary first of all to read out the canons of the
+previous councils. This gave to the collection an official character. At
+the time of the Vandal invasion this collection comprised the canons of
+the council of Carthage under Gratus (about 348) and under Genethlius
+(390), the whole series of the twenty or twenty-two plenary councils
+held during the episcopate of Aurelius, and finally, those of the
+councils held at Byzacene. Of the last-named we have only fragments, and
+the series of the councils under Aurelius is very incomplete. The
+African collection has not come to us directly: we have two incomplete
+and confused arrangements of it, in two collections, that of the
+_Hispana_ and that of Dionysius Exiguus. Dionysius knows only the
+council of 419, in connexion with the affair of Apiarius; but in this
+single text are reproduced, more or less fully, almost all the synods of
+the collection; this was the celebrated _Concilium Africanum_, so often
+quoted in the middle ages, which was also recognized by the Greeks. The
+Spanish collection divides the African canons among seven councils of
+Carthage and one of Mileve; but in many cases it ascribes them to the
+wrong source; for example, it gives under the title of the fourth
+council of Carthage, the _Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua_, an Arlesian
+compilation of Saint Caesarius, which has led to a number of incorrect
+references. Towards the middle of the 6th century a Carthaginian deacon,
+Fulgentius Ferrandus, drew up a _Breviatio canonum_,[5] a methodical
+arrangement of the African collection, in the order of the subjects.
+From it we learn that the canons of Nicaea and the other Greek councils,
+up to that of Chalcedon, were also known in Africa.
+
+
+  Rome.
+
+  Dionysius Exiguus and his collection.
+
+  Dionysio-Hadriana.
+
+The Roman Church, even more than the rest, governed itself according to
+its own customs and traditions. Up to the end of the 5th century the
+only canonical document of non-Roman origin which it officially
+recognized was the group of canons of Nicaea, under which name were also
+included those of Sardica. A Latin version of the other Greek councils
+(the one referred to by Dionysius as _prisca_) was known, but no
+canonical use was made of it. The local law was founded on usage and on
+the papal letters called decretals. The latter were of two kinds: some
+were addressed to the bishops of the ecclesiastical province immediately
+subject to the pope; the others were issued in answer to questions
+submitted from various quarters; but in both cases the doctrine is the
+same. At the beginning of the 6th century the Roman Church adopted the
+double collection, though of private origin, which was drawn up at that
+time by the monk Dionysius, known by the name of Dionysius Exiguus,
+which he himself had assumed as a sign of humility. He was a Scythian by
+birth, and did not come to Rome till after 496, his learning was
+considerable for his times, and to him we owe the employment of the
+Christian era and a new way of reckoning Easter. At the desire of
+Stephen, bishop of Salona, he undertook the task of making a new
+translation, from the original Greek text, of the canons of the Greek
+collection. The manuscript which he used contained only the first fifty
+of the Apostolic Canons; these he translated, and they thus became part
+of the law of the West. This part of the work of Dionysius was not added
+to later; it was otherwise with the second part. This embodied the
+documents containing the local law, namely 39 decretals of the popes
+from Siricius (384-398) to Anastasius II. (496-498). As was natural this
+collection received successive additions as further decretals appeared.
+The collection formed by combining these two parts remained the only
+official code of the Roman Church until the labours undertaken in
+consequence of the reforming movement in the 11th century. In 774 Pope
+Adrian I. gave the twofold collection of the Scythian monk to the future
+emperor Charlemagne as the canonical book of the Roman Church; this is
+what is called the _Dionysio-Hadriana_. This was an important stage in
+the history of the centralization of canon law; the collection was
+officially received by the Frankish Church, imposed by the council of
+Aix-la-Chapelle of 802, and from that time on was recognized and quoted
+as the _liber canonum_. If we consider that the Church of Africa, which
+had already suffered considerably from the Vandal invasion, was at this
+period almost entirely destroyed by the Arabs, while the fate of Spain
+was but little better, it is easy to see why the collection of Dionysius
+became the code of almost the whole of the Western Church, with the
+exception of the Anglo-Saxon countries; though here too it was known.
+
+The other collections of canons, of Italian origin, compiled before the
+10th century, are of importance on account of the documents which they
+have preserved for us, but as they have not exercised any great
+influence on the development of canon law, we may pass them over.
+
+
+  In Gaul.
+
+  Quesnel collection.
+
+The Dionysio-Hadriana did not, when introduced into Gaul, take the place
+of any other generally received collection of canons. In this country
+the Church had not been centralized round a principal see which would
+have produced unity in canon law as in other things; even the political
+territorial divisions had been very unstable. The only canonical centre
+of much activity was the Church of Arles, which exercised considerable
+influence over the surrounding region in the 5th and 6th centuries. The
+chief collection known throughout Gaul before the Dionysio-Hadriana was
+the so-called collection of Quesnel, named after its first editor.[6] It
+is a rich collection, though badly arranged, and contains 98
+documents--Eastern and African canons and papal letters, but no Gallic
+councils; so that it is not a collection of local law. We might expect
+to find such a collection, in view of the numerous and important
+councils held in Gaul, but their decisions remained scattered among a
+great number of collections none of which had ever a wide circulation or
+an official character.
+
+
+  Councils.
+
+It would be impossible to enumerate here all the Gallic councils which
+contributed towards the canon law of that country; we will mention only
+the following:--Arles (314), of great importance; a number of councils
+in the district of Arles, completed by the _Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua_
+of St Caesarius;[7] the councils of the province of Tours; the
+assemblies of the episcopate of the three kingdoms of the Visigoths at
+Agde (506), of the Franks at Orleans (511), and of the Burgundians at
+Epaone (517); several councils of the kingdoms of the Franks, chiefly at
+Orleans; and finally, the synods of the middle of the 8th century, under
+the influence of St Boniface. Evidently the impulse towards unity had to
+come from without; it began with the alliance between the Carolingians
+and the Papacy, and was accentuated by the recognition of the _liber
+canonum_.
+
+
+  In Spain.
+
+  The Hispana.
+
+In Spain the case, on the contrary, is that of a strong centralization
+round the see of Toledo. Thus we find Spanish canon law embodied in a
+collection which, though perhaps not official, was circulated and
+received everywhere; this was the Spanish collection, the _Hispana_.[8]
+The collection is well put together and includes almost all the
+important canonical documents. In the first part are contained the
+councils, arranged according to the regions in which they were held:
+Greek councils, following a translation of Italian origin, but known by
+the name of _Hispana_; African councils, Gallican councils and Spanish
+councils. The latter, which form the local section, are further divided
+into several classes: firstly, the synods held under the Roman empire,
+the chief being that of Elvira[9] (c. 300); next the texts belonging to
+the kingdom of the Suevi, after the conversion of these barbarians by St
+Martin of Braga: these are, the two councils of Braga (563 and 572), and
+a sort of free translation or adaptation of the canons of the Greek
+councils, made by Martin of Braga; this is the document frequently
+quoted in later days under the name of _Capitula Martini papae_;
+thirdly, the decisions of the councils of the Visigothic Church, after
+its conversion to Catholicism. Nearly all these councils were held at
+Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589. The series continued up
+to 694 and was only interrupted by the Mussulman invasion. Finally, the
+second part of the _Hispana_ contains the papal decretals, as in the
+collection of Dionysius.
+
+From the middle of the 9th century this collection was to become even
+more celebrated; for, as we know, it served as the basis for the famous
+collection of the False Decretals.
+
+
+  Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+The Churches of Great Britain and Ireland remained still longer outside
+the centralizing movement. Their contribution towards the later system
+of canon law consisted in two things: the Penitentials and the influence
+of the Irish collection, the other sources of local law not having been
+known to the predecessors of Gratian nor to Gratian himself.
+
+
+  Penitentials.
+
+The Penitentials[10] are collections intended for the guidance of
+confessors in estimating the penances to be imposed for various sins,
+according to the discipline in force in the Anglo-Saxon countries. They
+are all of Anglo-Saxon or Irish origin, and although certain of them
+were compiled on the continent, under the influence of the island
+missionaries, it seems quite certain that a Roman Penitential has never
+existed.[11] They are, however, of difficult and uncertain ascription,
+since the collections have been largely amended and remodelled as
+practice required. Among the most important we may mention those bearing
+the names of Vinnianus (d. 589), Gildas (d. 583), Theodore of Canterbury
+(d. 690), the Venerable Bede (d. 735) and Egbert of York (732-767); the
+Penitentials which are ascribed to St Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil
+and Bobbio (d. 615), and Cumean (Cumine Ailbha, abbot of Iona); in the
+Prankish kingdom the most interesting work is the Penitential of
+Halitgar, bishop of Cambrai[12] from 817 to 831. As penances had for a
+long time been lightened, and the books used by confessors began to
+consist more and more of instructions in the style of the later moral
+theology (and this is already the case of the books of Halitgar and
+Rhabanus Maurus), the canonical collections began to include a greater
+or smaller number of the penitential canons.
+
+
+  Irish collection.
+
+The Irish collection,[13] though it introduced no important documents
+into the law of the Western Church, at least set canonists the example
+of quoting passages from the Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers.
+This collection seems to date from the 8th century; besides the usual
+sources, the author has included several documents of local origin,
+beginning with the pretended synod of St Patrick.
+
+
+  The false decretals.
+
+  Systematic collections.
+
+In the very middle of the 9th century a much enlarged edition of the
+_Hispana_ began to be circulated in France. To this rich collection the
+author, who assumes the name of Isidore, the saintly bishop of Seville,
+added a good number of apocryphal documents already existing, as well as
+a series of letters ascribed to the popes of the earliest centuries,
+from Clement to Silvester and Damasus inclusive, thus filling up the gap
+before the decretal of Siricius, which is the first genuine one in the
+collection. The other papal letters only rarely show signs of alteration
+or falsification, and the text of the councils is entirely
+respected.[14] From the same source and at the same date came two other
+forged documents--firstly, a collection of Capitularies, in three books,
+ascribed to a certain Benedict (Benedictus Levita),[15] a deacon of the
+church of Mainz; this collection, in which authentic documents find very
+little place, stands with regard to civil legislation exactly in the
+position of the False Decretals with regard to canon law. The other
+document, of more limited scope, is a group of _Capitula_ given under
+the name of Angilram, bishop of Metz. It is nowadays admitted by all
+that these three collections come from the same source. For a study of
+the historical questions connected with the famous False Decretals, see
+the article DECRETALS (FALSE); here we have only to consider them with
+reference to the place they occupy in the formation of ecclesiastical
+law. In spite of some hesitation, with regard rather to the official
+character than to the historical authenticity of the letters attributed
+to the popes of the earlier centuries, the False Decretals were accepted
+with confidence, together with the authentic texts which served as a
+passport for them. All later collections availed themselves
+indiscriminately of the contents of this vast collection, whether
+authentic or forged, without the least suspicion. The False Decretals
+did not greatly modify nor corrupt the Canon Law, but they contributed
+much to accelerate its progress towards unity. For they were the last of
+the chronological collections, i.e. those which give the texts in the
+order in which they appeared. From this time on, canonists began to
+exercise their individual judgment in arranging their collections
+according to some systematic order, grouping their materials under
+divisions more or less happy, according to the object they had in view.
+This was the beginning of a codification of a common canon law, in which
+the sources drawn upon lose, as it were, their local character. This is
+made even more noticeable by the fact that, in a good number of the
+works extant, the author is not content merely to set forth and classify
+the texts; but he proceeds to discuss the point, drawing conclusions and
+sometimes outlining some controversy on the subject, just as Gratian was
+to do more fully later on.
+
+
+  Regino.
+
+  Burchard.
+
+  Anselm Deusdedit.
+
+  Ivo of Chartres.
+
+During this period, which extended from the end of the 9th century to
+the middle of the 12th, we can enumerate about forty systematic
+collections, of varying value and circulation, which all played a
+greater or lesser part in preparing the juridical renaissance of the
+12th century, and most of which were utilized by Gratian. We need
+mention only the chief of them--the _Collectio Anselmo dedicata_, by an
+unknown author of the end of the 9th century; the _Libri duo de
+synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis_,[16] compiled about
+906 by Regino, abbot of Prum, and dedicated to Hatto of Mainz,
+relatively a very original treatise; the enormous compilation in twenty
+books of Burchard, bishop of Worms (1112-1122), the _Decretum_ or
+_Collectarium_,[17] very widely spread and known under the name of
+_Brocardum_, of which the 19th book, dealing with the process of
+confession, is specially noteworthy. Towards the end of the 11th
+century, under the influence of Hildebrand, the reforming movement
+makes itself felt in several collections of canons, intended to support
+the rights of the Holy See and the Church against the pretensions of the
+emperor. To this group belong an anonymous collection, described by M.P.
+Fournier as the first manual of the Reform;[18] the collection of
+Anselm, bishop of Lucca,[19] in 13 books (1080-1086); that of Cardinal
+Deusdedit,[20] in 4 books, dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-1087);
+and lastly that of Bonizo,[21] bishop of Sutri, in 10 books (1089). In
+the 12th century, the canonical works of Ivo of Chartres[22] are of
+great importance. His _Panormia_, compiled about 1095 or 1096, is a
+handy and well-arranged collection in 8 books; as to the _Decretum_, a
+weighty compilation in 17 books, there seems sufficient proof that it is
+a collection of material made by Ivo in view of his _Panormia_. To the
+12th century belong the collection in the MS. of Saragossa
+(_Caesaraugustana_) to which attention was drawn by Antonio Agustin;
+that of Cardinal Gregory, called by him the _Polycarpus_, in 8 books
+(about 1115); and finally the _Liber de misericordia et justitia_ of
+Algerus,[23] scholasticus of Liege, in 3 books, compiled at latest in
+1123.
+
+But all these works were to be superseded by the _Decretum_ of Gratian.
+
+
+  The Decretum of Gratian.
+
+2. _The Decretum of Gratian and the Corpus Juris Canonici._--The work of
+Gratian, though prepared and made possible by those of his predecessors,
+greatly surpasses them in scientific value and in magnitude. It is
+certainly the work which had the greatest influence on the formation of
+canon law; it soon became the sole manual, both for teaching and for
+practice, and even after the publication of the Decretals was the chief
+authority in the universities. The work is not without its faults;
+Gratian is lacking in historical and critical faculty; his theories are
+often hesitating; but on the whole, his treatise is as complete and as
+perfect as it could be; so much so that no other work of the same kind
+has been compiled; just as there has never been made another Book of the
+Sentences. These two works, which were almost contemporary (Gratian is
+only about two years earlier),[24] were destined to have the same fate;
+they were the manuals, one for theology, the other for canon law, in use
+in all the universities, taught, glossed and commented on by the most
+illustrious masters. From this period dates the more marked and
+definitive separation between theology and ecclesiastical law.
+
+
+  Dicta Gratiani.
+
+  Contents.
+
+  Mode of citation.
+
+Of Gratian we know practically nothing. He was a Camaldulensian monk of
+the convent of St Felix at Bologna, where he taught canon law, and
+published, probably in 1148, his treatise called at first _Concordantia
+discordantium canonum_, but soon known under the name of the _Decretum_.
+Nowadays, and for some time past, the only part of the _Decretum_
+considered is the collection of texts; but it is actually a treatise, in
+which the author endeavours to piece together a coherent juridical
+system from the vast body of texts, of widely differing periods and
+origin, which are furnished by the collections. These texts he inserts
+bodily in the course of his dissertation; where they do not agree, he
+divides them into opposite groups and endeavours to reconcile them; but
+the really original part of his work are the _Dicta Gratiani_, inserted
+between the texts, which are still read. Gratian drew his materials from
+the existing collections, and especially from the richer of them; when
+necessary, he has recourse to the Roman laws, and he made an extensive
+use of the works of the Fathers and the ecclesiastical writers; he
+further made use of the canons of the recent councils, and the recently
+published decretals, up to and including the Lateran council of 1139.
+His immense work consists of three parts (_partes_). The first, treating
+of the sources of canon law and of ecclesiastical persons and offices,
+is divided according to the method of Paucapalea, Gratian's pupil, into
+101 _distinctiones_, which are subdivided into _canones_. The second
+part consists of 36 _causae_ (cases proposed for solution), subdivided
+into _quaestiones_ (the several questions raised by the case), under
+each of which are arranged the various _canones_ (canons, decretals,
+&c.) bearing on the question. But _causa_ xxxiii. _quaestio_ 3, headed
+_Tractatus de Poenitentia_, is divided like the main part into seven
+_distinctiones_, containing each several _canones_. The third part,
+which is entitled _De Consecratione_, gives, in five _distinctiones_,
+the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The following is
+the method of citation. A reference to the first part indicates the
+initial words or number of the _canon_ and the number of the
+_distinctio_, e.g. can. Propter ecclesiasticas, dist. xviii. or c. 15,
+d. xviii. The second part is cited by the _canon, causa_ and _quaestio_,
+e.g. can. Si quis suadente, C. 17, qu. 4, or c. 29, C. xvii., qu. 4. The
+treatise _De Poenitentia_, forming the 3rd _quaestio_ of the 33rd
+_causa_ of the second part, is referred to as if it were a separate
+work, e.g. c. Principium, D. ii. de poenit. or c. 45, D. ii. de poenit.
+In quoting a passage from the third part the _canon_ and _distinctio_
+are given, e.g. c. Missar. solenn. D.I. de consecrat., or c. 12, D.I.
+de consecr.
+
+
+  Authority.
+
+Considered from the point of view of official authority, the _Decretum_
+occupies an intermediate position very difficult to define. It is not
+and cannot be a really official code, in which every text has the force
+of a law. It has never been recognized as such, and the pretended
+endorsement of it by Pope Eugenius III. is entirely apocryphal.
+Moreover, it could not have become an official code; it would be
+impossible to transform into so many laws either the discordant texts
+which Gratian endeavoured to reconcile or his own _Dicta_; a treatise on
+canon Law is not a code. Further, there was as yet no idea of demanding
+an official compilation. The _Decretum_ has thus remained a work of
+private authority, and the texts embodied in it have only that legal
+value which they possess in themselves. On the other hand, the
+_Decretum_ actually enjoys a certain public authority which is unique;
+for centuries it has been the text on which has been founded the
+instruction in canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed
+and commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it has become,
+without being a body of laws, the first part of the _Corpus juris
+canonici_, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited by the
+popes. It has thus, by usage, obtained an authority perfectly recognized
+and accepted by the Church.[25]
+
+
+  After Gratian.
+
+Gratian's collection, for the very reason that it had for its aim the
+creation of a systematic canon law, was a work of a transitional
+character. Henceforth a significant differentiation began to appear; the
+collections of texts, the number of which continued to increase, were
+clearly separated from the commentaries in which the canonists continued
+the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the way was prepared
+for official collections. The disciples of Gratian, in glossing or
+commenting on the _Decretum_, turned to the papal decretals, as they
+appeared, for information and the determination of doubtful points.
+Their idea, then, was to make collections of these points, to support
+their teaching; this is the origin of those _Compilationes_ which were
+soon to be embodied in the collection of Gregory IX. But we must not
+forget that these compilations were intended by their authors to
+complete the _Decretum_ of Gratian; in them were included the decretals
+called _extravagantes_, i.e. _quae vagabantur extra Decretum_. This is
+why we find in them hardly any documents earlier than the time of
+Gratian, and also why canonists have continued to refer to the
+decretals of Gregory IX. by the abbreviation X (_Extra_, i.e. _extra
+Decretum_).
+
+
+  "Quinque compilationes."
+
+  Bernard of Pavia, "Breviarium."
+
+  "Compilatio tertia."
+
+  "Secunda."
+
+  "Quarta."
+
+  "Quinta."
+
+There were numerous collections of this kind towards the end of the 12th
+and at the beginning of the 13th century. Passing over the first
+_Additiones_ to the _Decretum_ and the _Appendix concilii Lateranensis_
+(council of 1179), we will speak only of the _Quinque compilationes_,[26]
+which served as a basis for the works of Raymond of Pennaforte. The first
+and most important is the work of Bernard, provost and afterwards bishop
+of Pavia, namely, the _Breviarium extravagantium_, compiled about 1190;
+it included the decretals from Alexander III. to Clement III., together
+with certain "useful chapters" omitted by Gratian. The important feature
+of the book is the arrangement of the decretals or sections of decretals
+in five books, divided into titles (_tituli_) logically arranged. The
+five books treat of (1) ecclesiastical persons and dignitaries or judges;
+(2) procedure; (3) rights, duties and property of the clergy, i.e.
+benefices, dues, sacraments, &c., with the exception of marriage, which
+is the subject of book (4); (5) of penalties. There is a well-known
+hexameter summing up this division:
+
+  _Judex, judicium, clerus, connubia, crimen._
+
+This is the division adopted in all the official collections of the
+_Corpus juris_. By a bull of the 28th of December 1210 Innocent III.
+sent to the university of Bologna an authentic collection of the
+decretals issued during the first twelve years of his pontificate; this
+collection he had caused to be drawn up by his notary, Petrus
+Collivacinus of Benevento, his object being to supersede the collections
+in circulation, which were incomplete and to a certain extent spurious.
+This was the _Compilatio tertia_; for soon after, Joannes Galensis (John
+of Wales) collected the decretals published between the collection of
+Bernard of Pavia and the pontificate of Innocent III.; and this, though
+of later date, became known as the _Compilatio secunda_. The _quarta_,
+the author of which is unknown, contained the decretals of the last six
+years of Innocent III., and the important decrees of the Lateran council
+of 1215. Finally, in 1226, Honorius III. made an official presentation
+to Bologna of his own decretals, this forming the _Compilatio quinta_.
+
+
+  Decretals of Gregory IX.
+
+The result of all these supplements to Gratian's work, apart from the
+inconvenience caused by their being so scattered, was the accumulation
+of a mass of material almost as considerable as the _Decretum_ itself,
+from which they tended to split off and form an independent whole,
+embodying as they did the latest state of the law. From 1230 Gregory IX.
+wished to remedy this condition of affairs, and gave to his
+penitentionary, the Dominican Raymond of Pennaforte, the task of
+condensing the five compilations in use into a single collection, freed
+from useless and redundant documents. The work was finished in 1234, and
+was at once sent by the pope to Bologna with the bull _Rex pacificus_,
+declaring it to be official. Raymond adopts Bernard of Pavia's division
+into five books and into titles; in each title he arranges the decretals
+in chronological order, cutting out those which merely repeat one
+another and the less germane parts of those which he preserves; but
+these _partes decisae_, indicated by the words "_et infra_" or "_et j,_"
+are none the less very useful and have been printed in recent editions.
+Raymond does not attempt any original work; to the texts already
+included in the _Quinque compilationes_, he adds only nine decretals of
+Innocent III. and 196 chapters of Gregory IX. This first official code
+was the basis of the second part of the _Corpus juris canonici_. The
+collection of Gregory IX. is cited as follows: the opening words of the
+chapter are given, or else its order or number, then the title to which
+it belongs; earlier scholars added X (_extra_); nowadays, this
+indication is omitted, and the order or number of the title in the book
+is given instead, e.g. _Quum olim, de Consuetudine_, X.; or cap. 6, _de
+consuet._ (I. iv.); that is to say, book I., title iv., _de
+consuetudine_, chapter 6, beginning with the words _Quum olim_.
+
+
+  Their relation to the general law.
+
+  The "Liber Sextus."
+
+Though Gregory IX. wished to supersede the _compilationes_, he had no
+idea of superseding the _Decretum_ of Gratian, still less of codifying
+the whole of the canon law. Though his collection is still in theory the
+chief monument of ecclesiastical law, it only marked a certain stage and
+was before long to receive further additions. The reason for this is
+that in most cases the decretals did not formulate any law, but were
+merely solutions of particular cases, given as models; to arrive at the
+abstract law it was necessary to examine the solution in each case with
+regard to the circumstances and thus formulate a rule; this was the work
+of the canonists. The "decretalists" commented on the new collection, as
+the "decretists" had done for that of Gratian; but the canonists were
+not legislators: even the summaries which they placed at the head of the
+chapters could not be adduced as legislative texts. The abstract law was
+to be found rather in the _Summae_ of the canonists than in the
+decretals. Two important results, however, were achieved: on the one
+hand, supplementary collections on private authority ceased to be made,
+for this Gregory IX. had forbidden; on the other hand, the collections
+were no longer indefinitely swelled by the addition of new decisions in
+particular cases, those already existing being enough to form a basis
+for the codification of the abstract law; and for this reason subsequent
+collections contain as a rule only the "constitutions" of popes or
+councils, i.e. rules laid down as of general application. Hence arose a
+separation, which became more and more marked, between legislation and
+jurisprudence. This change was not produced suddenly, the old method
+being at first adhered to. In 1245 Innocent IV. sent to the universities
+a collection of 45 decretals, with the order that they should be
+inserted under their proper titles in the collection of Gregory IX. In
+1253 he sent a further list of the first words (_principia_) of the
+complementary constitutions and decretals; but the result was
+practically _nil_ and the popes gave up this system of successive
+additions. It was, however, found expedient to publish a new official
+collection. At the instance of the university of Bologna, Boniface
+VIII., himself an eminent canonist, had this prepared by a committee of
+canonists and published it in 1298. As it came as an addition to the
+five books of Gregory IX., it was called the sixth book, the _Liber
+Sextus_. It includes the constitutions subsequent to 1234, and notably
+the decrees of the two ecumenical councils of Lyons, and is arranged in
+books and titles, as above described; the last title, _de regulis
+juris_, contains no less than eighty-eight legal axioms, mostly borrowed
+from Roman law. The _Liber Sextus_ is cited like the decretals of
+Gregory IX., only with the addition of: _in sexto_ (in VI^o.).
+
+
+  The "Clementinae."
+
+The same observations apply to the next collection, the _Clementinae_.
+It was prepared under the care of Clement V., and even promulgated by
+him in consistory in March 1314; but in consequence of the death of the
+pope, which took place almost immediately after, the publication and
+despatch of the collection to the universities was postponed till 1317,
+under John XXII. It includes the constitutions of Clement V., and above
+all, the decrees of the council of Vienne of 1311, and is divided, like
+preceding collections, into books and titles; it is cited in the same
+way, with the additional indication _Clem-(entina)_.
+
+
+  "Extravagantes" of John XXII.
+
+  And "communes."
+
+At this point the official collections stop. The two last, which have
+found a place in the editions of the _Corpus_, are collections of
+private authority, but in which all the documents are authentic.
+Evidently the strict prohibition of the publishing of collections not
+approved by the Holy See had been forgotten. The _Extravagantes_ (i.e.
+_extra collectiones publicas_) of John XXII. number 20, and are
+classified under fourteen titles. The _Extravagantes communes (i.e._
+coming from several popes) number 73, from Boniface VIII. to Sixtus IV.
+(1484), and are classified in books and titles. These two collections
+were included in the edition of Jean Chappuis in 1500; they passed into
+the later editions, and are considered as forming part of the _Corpus
+juris canonici_. As such, and without receiving any complementary
+authority, they have been corrected and re-edited, like the others, by
+the _Correctores romani_. They are cited, like the decretals, with a
+further indication of the collection to which they belong: _Extrav. Jo.
+XXII._, or _inter-comm-(unes)._
+
+
+  The "Corpus juris canonici."
+
+Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the _Corpus juris canonici_; but
+this expression, which is familiar to us nowadays, is only a
+bibliographical term. Though we find in the 15th century, for example,
+at the council of Basel the expression _corpus juris_, obviously
+suggested by the _Corpus juris civilis_, not even the official edition
+of Gregory XIII. has as its title the words _Corpus juris canonici_. and
+we do not meet with this title till the Lyons edition of 1671.
+
+
+  The study of canon law.
+
+  The glosses.
+
+  The "Summae."
+
+The history of the canonical collections forming the _Corpus juris_
+would not be complete without an account of the labours of which they
+were the object. We know that the universities of the middle ages
+contained a Faculty of Decrees, with or without a Faculty of Laws, i.e.
+civil law. The former made _doctores decretorum_, the latter _doctores
+legum_. The teaching of the _magistri_ consisted in oral lessons
+(_lecturae_) directly based on the text. The short remarks explanatory
+of words in the text, originally written in the margin, became the gloss
+which, formed thus by successive additions, took a permanent form and
+was reproduced in the manuscripts of the _Corpus_, and later in the
+various editions, especially in the official Roman edition of 1582; it
+thus acquired by usage a kind of semi-official authority. The chief of
+the _glossatores_ of the _Decretum_ of Gratian were Paucapalea, the
+first disciple of the master, Rufinus (1160-1170), John of Faenza (about
+1170), Joannes Teutonicus (about 1210), whose glossary, revised and
+completed by Bartholomeus Brixensis (of Brescia) became the _glossa
+ordinaria decreti_. For the decretals we may mention Vincent the
+Spaniard and Bernard of Botone (Bernardus Parmensis, d. 1263), author of
+the _Glossa ordinaria_. That on the _Liber Sextus_ is due to the famous
+Joannes Andreae (c. 1340); and the one which he began for the
+Clementines was finished later by Cardinal Zabarella (d. 1417). The
+commentaries not so entirely concerned with the text were called
+_Apparatus_; and _Summae_ was the name given to general treatises. The
+first of these works are of capital importance in the formation of a
+systematic canon law. Such were the _Summae_ of the first disciples of
+Gratian: Paucapalea (1150),[27] Rolando Bandinelli[28] (afterwards
+Alexander III., c. 1150), Rufinus[29] (c. 1165), Etienne of Tournai[30]
+(Stephanus Tornacensis, c. 1168), John of Faenza (c. 1170), Sicard,
+bishop of Cremona (c. 1180), and above all Huguccio (c. 1180). For the
+Decretals we should mention: Bernard of Pavia[31] (c. 1195), Sinibaldo
+Fieschi (Innocent IV., c. 1240), Henry of Susa (d. 1271), commonly
+called (cardinalis) Hostiensis, whose _Summa Hostiensis_ or _Summa
+aurea_ is a work of the very highest order; Wilhelmus Durantis or
+Durandus, Joannes Andreae, Nicolas de Tudeschis (_abbas siculus_), &c.
+The 15th century produced few original treatises; but after the council
+of Trent the _Corpus juris_ was again commented on by distinguished
+canonists, e.g. the Jesuit Paul Laymann (1575-1635), the Portuguese
+Agostinho Barbosa (1590-1649), Manuel Gonzalez Tellez (d. 1649) and
+Prospero Fagnani (1598-1687), who, although blind, was secretary to the
+Congregation of the Council. But as time goes on, the works gradually
+lose the character of commentaries on the text, and develop into
+expositions of the law as a whole.
+
+
+  Editions.
+
+  The "Correctores romani."
+
+  "Institutiones Lancelotti."
+
+We can mention here only the chief editions of the _Corpus_. The council
+of Trent, as we know, ordered that the official books of the Roman
+Church--sacred books, liturgical books, &c.--should be issued in
+official and more correct editions; the compilations of ecclesiastical
+law were also revised. The commission of the _Correctores romani_,[32]
+established about 1563 by Pius IV., ended its work under Gregory XIII
+and the official edition, containing the text and the glosses, appeared
+at Rome in 1582. Richter's edition (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839) remains
+valuable, but has been greatly surpassed by that of E. Friedberg
+(Leipzig, 1879-1881). Many editions contain also the _Institutiones_
+composed at the command of Paul IV. (1555-1559) by Giovanni Paolo
+Lancelotti, a professor of Bologna, on the model of the Institutes of
+Justinian. The work has merits, but has never been officially approved.
+
+Though the collections of canon law were to receive no more additions,
+the source of the laws was not dried up; decisions of councils and popes
+continued to appear; but there was no attempt made to collect them.
+Canonists obtained the recent texts as they could. Moreover, it was an
+epoch of trouble: the great Schism of the West, the profound divisions
+which were its result, the abuses which were to issue in the
+Reformation, were conditions little favourable for a reorganization of
+the ecclesiastical laws. Thus we are brought to the third period.
+
+3. _After the Council of Trent._--The numerous important decrees made by
+the council of Trent, in the second part of its sessions, called _de
+reformatione_, are the starting-point of the canon law in its latest
+stage, _jus novissimum_; it is this which is still in force in the Roman
+Church. It has in no way undermined the official status of the _Corpus
+juris_; but it has completed the legislation of the latter in many
+important respects, and in some cases reformed it.
+
+
+  Final state of the law.
+
+The law during this period, as abstracted from the texts and
+compilations, suggests the following remarks. The laws are formulated in
+general terms, and the decisions in particular cases relegated to the
+sphere of jurisprudence; and the canonists have definitely lost the
+function which fell to them in the 12th and 13th centuries: they receive
+the law on authority and no longer have to deduce it from the texts. The
+legislative power is powerfully centralized in the hands of the pope:
+since the reforming decrees of the council of Trent it is the pontifical
+constitutions alone which have made the common law; the ecumenical
+council, doubtless, has not lost its power, but none were held until
+that of the Vatican (1870), and this latter was unable to occupy itself
+with matters of discipline. Hence the separation, increasingly marked,
+between the common law and the local laws, which cannot derogate from
+the common law except by concession of the Holy See, or by right of a
+lawfully authorized custom. This centralization, in its turn, has
+greatly increased the tendency towards unity and uniformity, which have
+reached in the present practice of the Roman Church a degree never known
+before, and considered by some to be excessive.
+
+
+  Dispersion of the texts.
+
+If we now consider the laws in themselves, we shall find that the
+dispersed condition of the legislative documents has not been modified
+since the closure of the _Corpus juris_; on the contrary the enormous
+number of pontifical constitutions, and of decrees emanating from the
+Roman Congregations, has greatly aggravated the situation; moreover, the
+attempts which have been made to resume the interrupted process of
+codification have entirely failed. As regards the texts, the canon law
+of to-day is in a very similar position to that of English law, which
+gave rise to J.S. Mill's saying: "All ages of English history have given
+one another rendezvous in English law; their several products may be
+seen all together, not interfused, but heaped one upon another, as many
+different ages of the earth may be read in some perpendicular section of
+its surface."[33] Nothing has been abrogated, except in so far as this
+has been implicitly demanded by subsequent laws. From this result
+insoluble controversies and serious uncertainties, both in the study and
+practice of the law; and, finally, it has become impossible for most
+people to have a first-hand knowledge of the actual laws.
+
+
+  Decrees of the Council of Trent.
+
+  Pontifical constitutions.
+
+  Decrees of the Curia.
+
+For this third period, the most important and most considerable of the
+canonical texts is the body of disciplinary decrees of the council of
+Trent (1545-1563). In consequence of the prohibition issued by Pius IV.,
+they have not been published separately from the dogmatic texts and
+other acts, and have not been glossed;[34] but their official
+interpretation has been reserved by the popes to the "Congregation of
+the cardinal interpreters of the Council of Trent," whose decisions form
+a vast collection of jurisprudence. Next in importance come the
+pontifical constitutions, which are collected together in the
+_Bullarium_; but this is a collection of private authority, if we except
+the _Bullarium_ of Benedict XIV., officially published by him in 1747;
+further, the _Bullarium_ is a compilation arranged in chronological
+order, and its dimensions make it rather unwieldy. In the third place
+come the decrees of the Roman Congregations, which have the force of
+law. Several of these organs of the papal authority have published
+official collections, in which more place is devoted to jurisprudence
+than to laws; several others have only private compilations, or even
+none at all, among others the most important, viz. the Holy Office (see
+CURIA ROMANA). The resulting confusion and uncertainty may be imagined.
+
+
+  "Liber septimus" of P. Mathieu.
+
+  of Clement VIII.
+
+These drawbacks were felt a long time back, and to this feeling we owe
+two attempts at a supplementary codification which were made in the 16th
+century, both of which are known under the name of _Liber Septimus_. The
+first was of private origin, and had as its author Pierre Mathieu, the
+Lyons jurist (1563-1621); it appeared in 1590 at Lyons. It is a
+continuation of the _Extravagantes communes_, and includes a selection
+of papal constitutions, from Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to Sixtus V.
+(1585-1590) inclusive, with the addition of a few earlier documents. It
+follows the order of the decretals. This collection has been of some
+service, and appears as an appendix in many editions of the _Corpus
+juris_; the chief reason for its failure is that it has no official
+sanction. The second attempt was official, but it came to nothing. It
+was connected with the movement of reform and revision which followed
+the council of Trent. Immediately after the publication of the official
+edition of the _Corpus juris_, Gregory XIII. appointed a committee of
+cardinals charged with the task of drawing up a _Liber septimus_. Sixtus
+V. hurried on its execution, which was rapidly proceeded with, mainly
+owing to Cardinal Pinelli, who submitted the draft of it to Clement
+VIII. The pope had this Liber VII. printed as a basis for further
+researches; but after long deliberations the volume was suppressed, and
+the idea of a fresh codification was abandoned. The collection included
+the decrees of the council of Trent, and a number of pontifical
+constitutions, arranged in the order of the titles of the decretals.[35]
+But even had it been promulgated, it is doubtful whether it would have
+improved the situation. It would merely have added another collection to
+the previous ones, which were already too voluminous, without resulting
+in any useful abrogations.
+
+
+  Demand for codification.
+
+  Decision of Pius X.
+
+  Method.
+
+4. _The Future Codification._--Neither Clement VIII. nor, at a later
+date, Benedict XIV., could have dreamt of the radical reform at present
+in course of execution. Instead of accumulating the texts of the laws in
+successive collections, it is proposed entirely to recast the system of
+editing them. This codification in a series of short articles was
+suggested by the example of the French codes, the history of which
+during the 19th century is well known. From all quarters the Catholic
+episcopate had submitted to the Vatican council petitions in this sense.
+"It is absolutely clear," said some French bishops, "and has for a long
+time past been universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision
+and reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As matters now
+stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes in human affairs and
+in society, many laws have become useless, others difficult or
+impossible to obey. With regard to a great number of canons, it is a
+matter of dispute whether they are still in force or are abrogated.
+Finally, in the course of so many centuries, the number of
+ecclesiastical laws has increased to such an extent, and these laws have
+accumulated in such immense collections, that in a certain sense we can
+well say: We are crushed beneath the laws, _obruimur legibus_. Hence
+arise infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study of
+canon law; an immense field for controversy and litigation; a thousand
+perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for the laws."[36] We
+know how the Vatican council had to separate without approaching the
+question of canonical reform; but this general desire for a recasting of
+the ecclesiastical code was taken up again on the initiative of Rome. On
+the 19th of March 1904, Pius X. published a _Motu proprio, "de ecclesiae
+legibus in unum redigendis_." After briefly reviewing the present
+condition of the canonical texts and collections, he pointed out its
+inconvenience, referred to the many requests from the episcopate, and
+decreed the preparation of a general code of canon law. This immense
+undertaking involved the codification of the entire canon law, drawing
+it up in a clear, short and precise form, and introducing any expedient
+modifications and reforms. For this purpose the pope appointed a
+commission of cardinals, of which he himself became president; also a
+commission of "consultors" resident at Rome, which asked for a certain
+amount of assistance from canonists at various universities and
+seminaries. Further, the assembled bishops of each province were invited
+to give their opinion as to the points in which they considered the
+canon law might profitably be modified or abrogated. Two consultors had
+the duty of separately drawing up a preliminary plan for each title,
+these projects being twice submitted for the deliberation of the
+commission (or sub-commission) of consultors, the version adopted by
+them being next submitted to the commission of cardinals, and the whole
+finally sent up for the papal sanction. These commissions started work
+at the end of 1904.
+
+
+  Local law.
+
+_Local Law._--The common law of the Roman Church cannot by itself
+uniformly regulate all the churches of the different nations; each of
+them has its own local law, which we must briefly mention here. In
+theory, this law has as its author the local ecclesiastical authorities,
+councils or bishops; but this is true only for laws and regulations
+which are in harmony with the common law, merely completing or defining
+it. But if it is a question of derogating from the common law, the
+authority of the Holy See must intervene to legalize these derogations.
+This intervention takes the form either of "indults," i.e. graceful
+concessions granted at the request of the episcopate, or of special
+approbation of conciliary resolutions. It would, however, be impossible
+to mention any compilations containing only local law. Whether in the
+case of national or provincial councils, or of diocesan synods, the
+chief object of the decrees is to reinforce, define or apply the law;
+the measures which constitute a derogation have only a small place in
+them. It is, then, only in a limited sense that we can see a local canon
+law in the councils of the various regional churches. Having made this
+remark, we must distinguish between the countries which are still
+subject to the system of concordats and other countries.
+
+
+  Countries subject to concordats.
+
+In the case of the former, the local law is chiefly founded on the
+concordat (q.v.), including the derogations and privileges resulting
+from it. The chief thing to note is the existence, for these countries,
+of a civil-ecclesiastical law, that is to say, a body of regulations
+made by the civil authority, with the consent, more or less explicit, of
+the Church, about ecclesiastical matters, other than spiritual; these
+dispositions are chiefly concerned with the nomination or confirmation
+by the state of ecclesiastics to the most important benefices, and with
+the administration of the property of the Church; sometimes also with
+questions of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, concerning the
+persons or property of the Church. It is plain that the agreements under
+the concordats have a certain action upon a number of points in the
+canonical laws; and all these points go to constitute the local
+concordatory law. This is the case for Austria, Spain, Portugal,
+Bavaria, the Prussian Rhine provinces, Alsace, Belgium, and, in America,
+Peru. Up to 1905 it was also the case in France, where the ancient local
+customs now continue, pending the reorganization of the Church without
+the concordat.
+
+We do not imply that in other countries the Church can always find
+exemption from legislative measures imposed upon her by the civil
+authorities, for example, in Italy, Prussia and Russia; but here it is a
+situation _de facto_ rather than _de jure_, which the Church tolerates
+for the sake of convenience; and these regulations only form part of the
+local canon law in a very irregular sense.
+
+
+  Other Countries.
+
+In other countries the episcopal assemblies lay down the local law.
+England has its council of Westminster (1852), the United States their
+plenary councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866, 1884), without mentioning the
+diocesan synods; and the whole of Latin America is ruled by the special
+law of its plenary council, held at Rome in 1899. The same is the case
+with the Eastern Churches united to the Holy See; following the example
+of the famous council of Lebanon for the Maronites, held in 1730, and
+that of Zamosc for the Ruthenians, in 1720, these churches, at the
+suggestion of Leo XIII., have drawn up in plenary assembly their own
+local law: the Syrians at Sciarfa in 1888; the Ruthenians at Leopol in
+1891; and a little later, the Copts. The framing of local law will
+certainly be more clear and more easy when the general code of canon law
+has been published.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the texts and collections: the dissertations of Dom
+  Coustant, _De antiquis canonum collectionibus, deque variis
+  epistolarum Rom. Pont, editionibus_ (Paris, 1721); P. de Marca, _De
+  veteribus collectionibus canonum_ (Paris, 1681); the brothers Peter
+  and Jerome Ballerini, _De antiquis tum editis tum ineditis
+  collectionibus et collectoribus canonum ad Gratianum usque_ (Venice,
+  1757). This is the best of all these works; it is reproduced in Migne,
+  _P.L._, vol. 56; C. Seb. Berardi, _De variis sacrorum canonum
+  collectionibus ante Gratianum_ (Turin, 1752); P. Quesnel, _De codice
+  canonum Ecclesiae Romanae; de variis fidei libellis in antiquo Rom.
+  Eccl. codice contentis; de primo usu codicis canonum Dionysii Exigui
+  in Gallicanis regionibus_ (Paris, 1675; with the critical notes of the
+  brothers Ballerini, also in Migne, _loc. cit._); and finally, Florent,
+  _De methodo atque auctoritate collectionis Gratiani_ (Paris, 1679),
+  and Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tarragona, _De emendatione
+  Gratiani_ (Tarragona, 1586); these have all been brought together in
+  Gallandi, _De vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge_
+  (Venice, 1778). The most complete work on the texts up to the 9th
+  century is F. Maassen, _Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des
+  canonischen Rechts im Abendlande_, vol. i. (all that has yet appeared,
+  Gratz, 1870). For the period between the False Decretals and Gratian,
+  there is no work of this sort, but the materials have been put
+  together and published in part by M.P. Fournier. After Gratian, the
+  classic work is Schulte, _Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des
+  canonischen Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart_ (3 vols.,
+  Stuttgart, 1875 et. seq.). Manuals for the study of the sources: Ph.
+  Schneider, _Die Lehre von den Kirchenrechtsquellen_ (Regensburg,
+  1892); F. Laurin, _Introductio in Corpus juris canonici_ (Freiburg,
+  1889); Tardif, _Histoire des sources du droit canonique_ (Paris,
+  1887). Most of the German manuals on canon law devote considerable
+  space to the history of the sources: see Phillips, vol. ii (3rd ed.,
+  1857; French translation by the abbe Crouzet); Vering, 3rd ed.
+  (Freiburg, 1893); Schulte, _Das katholische Kirchenrecht_, pt. i.
+  (Giessen, 1860), &c. For the Greek Church: Pitra, _Juris ecclesiae
+  graecorum historia et monumenta_ (Rome, 1864); the later history of
+  the Greek law: Zachariae, _Historiae juris graecorum delineatio_
+  (Heidelberg, 1839); Mortreuil, _Histoire du droit byzantin_ (Paris,
+  1843-1846); the recent texts in the _Conciliorum Collectio lacensis_,
+  vol. ii.; _Acta et decreta s. conciliorum, quae ab episcopis rituum
+  orientalium ab a. 1682 usque ad a. 1789 indeque ad a. 1869 sunt
+  celebrata_ (Freiburg, 1876). Short manual of Institutions: Jos.
+  Papp-Szilagyi, _Enchiridion juris eccl. orientalis catholicae_
+  (Magno-Varadini, 1862). For recent canonical texts: Richter's edition
+  of the council of Trent (Leipzig, 1863); the _Collectanea S.C. de
+  Propaganda Fide_ (Rome, 1893); the _Bullarium_, a collection of papal
+  acts and constitutions; the editions of Cocquelines (28 vols., Rome,
+  1733-1756), and of Cherubini (19 vols., Luxemburg, 1727-1758), which
+  are better than the enlarged reprint of Turin, which was unfinished
+  (it goes up to 1730). The official edition of the _Bullarium_ of
+  Benedict XIV. (4 vols., Rome, 1754-1758) has been reprinted several
+  times and is of great importance; the continuation of the _Bullarium_
+  since Benedict XIV. has been published by Barberi, _Bullarii romani
+  continuatio_, in 20 vols., going up to the fourth year of Gregory XVI.
+  Every year, since 1854, has been printed a collection of pontifical
+  acts, _Acta Pii IX., Acta Leonis XIII._, &c., which are the
+  equivalents of the _Bullarium_. Dictionaries: Durand de Maillane,
+  _Dictionnaire canonique_ (Paris, 1786), re-edited by Andre under the
+  title, _Cours alphabetique et methodique de droit canonique_, and by
+  Wagner (Paris, 1894), has Gallican tendencies; Ferraris, _Prompta
+  bibliotheca canonica_, &c., several new and enlarged editions; the
+  best is that of Migne (1866), completed by Father Bucceroni, _Ferraris
+  Supplementum_ (Rome, 1899). Articles on canon law in Wetzer und
+  Welte's _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1880 et seq.); Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie fur prot. Theologie und Kirche_ (2nd ed., Leipzig,
+  1877-1888); Vacant-Mangenot's _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_,
+  in course of publication (Paris, 1899 et seq.). Periodicals: _Analecta
+  juris pontificii_, ed. by Mgr. Chaillot (1863-1889); _Analecta
+  ecclesiastica_ (since 1893); _Acta Sanctae sedis_ (since 1865);
+  _Archiv fur kathol. Kirchenrecht_ (since 1857); _Le Canoniste
+  contemporain_ (since 1878).     (A. Bo.*)
+
+_Canon Law in England and in the Anglican Communion_.--There were
+matters in which the local English and Irish canon law, even before the
+16th century, differed from that obtaining on the western part of the
+European continent. Thus (1), it has been said that--whereas the
+continental canon law recognized a quadripartite division of Church
+revenue of common right between (a) the bishop, (b) the clergy, (c) the
+poor, (d) the fabric--the English law maintained a tripartite
+division--(a) clergy, (b) the poor, (c) the fabric. Lord Selborne
+(_Ancient Facts and Fictions concerning Churches and Tithes_, 2nd ed.,
+1892) denies that there was any division of tithe in England. (2) By the
+general canon law the burden of repairing the nave, as well as the
+chancel of the church, was upon the parson or rector who collected the
+whole tithe. But the custom of England transferred this burden to the
+parishioners, and some particular local customs (as in the city of
+London) placed even the burden of repair of the chancel on them. To meet
+this burden church rates were levied. (3) A church polluted by the
+shedding of blood, as by suicide or murder, was reconsecrated on the
+continent. In England the custom was (and is) simply to "reconcile." (4)
+A much more important difference, if the decision of the Irish court of
+exchequer chamber upheld in the House of Lords, where the peers were
+equally divided, correctly stated the English Canon law (_Reg._ v.
+_Millis_, 10 Cl. & Fin., 534) was in regard to the essentials of
+marriage. By the general Western canon law before the council of Trent,
+the parties themselves were said to be the "ministers of the Sacrament"
+in the case of holy matrimony. The declared consent of the parties to
+take each other there and then constituted at once (although
+irregularly) holy matrimony. The presence of priest or witnesses was not
+necessary. In _Reg._ v. _Millis_, however, it was held that in England
+it was always otherwise and that here the presence of a priest was
+necessary. High authorities, however, have doubted the historical
+accuracy of this decision. (5) The addition of houses of priests to the
+provincial synods seems peculiar to England and Ireland.
+
+The historical position of the general canon law of the Catholic Church
+in the English provinces has, since the separation from Rome, been the
+subject of much consideration by English lawyers and ecclesiastics. The
+view taken by the king's courts, and acquiesced in by the ecclesiastical
+courts, since Henry VIII., is that the Church of England was always an
+independent national church, subject indeed to the general principles of
+the _jus commune ecclesiasticum_ (Whitlock J. in _Ever_ v. _Owen_,
+Godbolt's Reports, 432), but unbound by any particular constitutions of
+council or pope; unless those constitutions had been "received" here by
+English councils, or so recognized by English courts (secular or
+spiritual) as to become part of the ecclesiastical custom of the realm.
+Foreign canon law never bound (so it has been taught) _proprio vigore_.
+
+The sources of English ecclesiastical law (purely ecclesiastical) were
+therefore (1) the principles of the _jus commune ecclesiasticum_; (2)
+foreign particular constitutions received here, as just explained; (3)
+the constitutions and canons of English synods (cf. _Phill. Ecc. Law_,
+part i. ch. iv., and authorities there cited).
+
+1. On the existence of this _jus commune ecclesiasticum_ and that the
+Church of England, in whatever sense independent, takes it over until
+she repeals it, see _Escott_ v. _Mastin_, 4 Moo. _P.C.C._ 119. Lord
+Brougham, in delivering the judgment, speaks of the "common law
+prevailing for 1400 years over Christian Europe," and (p. 137) says that
+"nothing but express enactment can abrogate the common law of all
+Christendom before the Reformation of the Anglican Church."
+
+2. As to foreign particular constitutions in England, there are a great
+number of them, of which it has been and is admitted, that they have
+currency in England. However papal in their origin, post-Reformation
+lawyers have regarded them as valid, unless they can be shown to be
+contrary to the king's prerogative, or to the common or statute law of
+the realm. To this doctrine express statutory authority (as the events
+have happened) has been given by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, sect. 7. A
+striking example of the doctrine is furnished by the decree of Innocent
+III. in the Fourth Lateran Council against pluralities. This decree was
+enforced in the court of Arches against a pluralist clerk in 1848
+(_Burder_ v. _Mavor_, I Roberts, 614). The courts of common law from
+Lord Coke's time downwards have recognized this "constitution of the
+pope" (as the queen's bench called it in 1598). The exchequer chamber,
+in 1837, declared it to have "become part of the common law of the land"
+(_Alstan_ v. _Atlay, 7 A._ and _E._ 289).
+
+3. The particular constitutions of English synods are numerous and cover
+a large field. At least in legal theory, the only distinction between
+pre-Reformation and post-Reformation constitutions is in favour of the
+former--so long as they do not contravene the royal prerogative or the
+law of the land (see 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). The most important are
+collected together and digested (so far as regards England) in
+Lyndwood's _Provinciale_, a work which remains of great authority in
+English courts. These constitutions are again divided into two classes:
+(a) provincial constitutions promulgated by provincial synods, usually
+in the name of the presiding archbishop or bishop; and (b) decrees of
+papal legates, Otho in 1236 and Othobon (Ottobuono de' Fieschi,
+afterwards Pope Adrian V.) in 1269. Canons passed since 25 Hen. VIII. c.
+19 have not the parliamentary confirmation which that act has been held
+to give to previous canons, and do not necessarily bind the laity,
+although made under the king's licence and ratified by him. This
+doctrine laid down by Lord Hardwicke in _Middleton_ v. _Croft_ (2
+_Stra_. 1056) was approved in 1860 in _Marshall_ v. _Bp. of Exeter_
+(L.R. 3 H.L. 17). Nevertheless, there are many provisions in these
+post-Reformation canons which are declaratory of the ancient usage and
+law of the Church, and the law which they thus record is binding on the
+laity. The chief body of English post-Reformation canon law is to be
+found in the canons of 1603, amended in 1865 and 1888. The canons of
+1640 are apparently upon the same footing as those of 1603;
+notwithstanding objections made at the time that they were void because
+convocation continued to sit after the dissolution of parliament. The
+opinion of all the judges taken at the time was in favour of the
+legality of this procedure. 13 Car. ii. c. 12 simply provided that these
+canons should not be given statutory force by the operation of that act.
+
+In addition to the enactment of canons (strictly so-called) the English
+provincial synods since the Henrician changes have legislated--in 1570
+by the enactment of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in 1661 by approving the
+present Book of Common Prayer, and in 1873 by approving shorter forms of
+matins and evensong.
+
+The distinction between pre-Henrician and post-Henrician procedure lies
+in the requirement, since 25 Hen. VIII., of the royal licence and
+confirmation. Apparently diocesan synods may still enact valid canons
+without the king's authority; but these bodies are not now called.
+
+The prevailing legal view of the position of the Church of England in
+regard to canon law has been just stated, and that is the view taken by
+judicial authority for the past three centuries. On the other hand, it
+is suggested by, e.g., the late Professor Maitland, that it was not, in
+fact, the view taken here in the later middle ages--that in those ages
+there was no theory that "reception" here was necessary to validate
+papal decrees. It is said by this school of legal historians that, from
+the Conquest down to Henry VIII., the Church of England was regarded by
+churchmen not as in any sense as separate entity, but as two provinces
+of the extra-territorial, super-national Catholic Church, and that the
+pope at this period was contemplated as the _princeps_ of this Catholic
+Church, whose edicts bound everywhere, as those of Augustus had bound in
+the Roman empire.
+
+It is right that this view should be stated, but it is not that of the
+writer of this article.
+
+As to _Ireland_, in a national synod of the four Irish provinces held at
+Dublin before the four archbishops, in 1634, a hundred canons were
+promulgated with the royal licence, containing much matter not dealt
+with by similar constitutions in England. In 1711, some further canons
+were promulgated (with royal licence) by another national synod. Some
+forms of special prayer were appended to these canons.
+
+In 1869 the Irish Church Act (32 and 33 Vict. c. 42) "disestablished"
+the Irish Church, sect. 19 repealed any act of parliament, law or custom
+whereby the bishops, clergy or laity of the said church were prohibited
+from holding synods or electing representatives thereto for the purpose
+of making rules for the well-being and ordering of the said church, and
+enacted that no such law, &c., should hinder the said bishops, clergy
+and laity, by such representatives, lay and clerical, and so elected as
+they shall appoint, from meeting in general synod or convention and in
+such general synod or convention forming constitutions and providing for
+future representation of the members of the church in diocesan synods,
+general convention or otherwise. The Church of Ireland, so set free,
+created for herself new legislative authorities, unknown to the old
+canon law, viz. mixed synods of clergy and laity, and a system of
+representation by election, unknown to primitive or medieval times.
+Similar changes had, however, been introduced during the preceding
+century in some parts of the Anglican communion outside the British
+Isles (see _infra_). Sect. 20 of the same statute kept alive the old
+ecclesiastical law of Ireland by way of assumed contract (cf.
+ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION).
+
+Under the provisions of this statute, the "archbishops and bishops of
+the ancient Apostolic and Catholic Church of Ireland" (so they describe
+themselves), together with representatives of the clergy and laity,
+assembled in 1870, in "General Convention," to "provide for the
+regulation" of that church. This Convention declared that a General
+Synod of the archbishops and bishops, with representatives of the clergy
+and laity, should have chief legislative power in the Irish Church, with
+such administrative power as might be necessary and consistent with the
+church's episcopal constitution. This General Synod was to consist of
+two Houses--the House of Bishops and the House of Lay and Clerical
+Representatives. No question was to be carried unless there were in its
+favour a majority of the clerical and lay representatives, voting either
+conjointly or by orders, and also a majority of the bishops, should they
+desire to vote. This General Synod was given full power to alter or
+amend canons, or to repeal them, or to enact new ones. For any
+alteration or amendment of "articles, doctrines, rites or rubrics," a
+two-thirds majority of each order of the representative house was
+required and a year's delay for consultation of the diocesan synods.
+Provisions were made as to lay representation in the diocesan synods.
+The Convention also enacted some canons and a statute in regard to
+ecclesiastical tribunals (see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). It expressly
+provided that its own legislation might be repealed or amended by future
+general synods.
+
+In 1871 the General Synod attempted to codify its canon law in
+forty-eight canons which, "and none other," were to have force and
+effect as the canons of the Church of Ireland. Since 1871 the General
+Synod has, from time to time, put forth other canons.
+
+The post-Reformation history of canon law in the Anglican communion in
+_Scotland_ has differed from the story of that law in the last four
+centuries in Ireland. After the legislation under William and Mary
+disestablishing episcopacy in Scotland and subjecting its professors to
+civil penalties, little attention was given to canon law for many years.
+Synods of bishops at Edinburgh in 1724 and 1731 dealt with some disputed
+questions of ritual and ceremonial. In 1743 an assembly of five bishops
+enacted sixteen canons. A "primus" was to be chosen indifferently from
+the bishops, but to have no other powers than those of convoking and
+presiding over synods. He was to hold office only during pleasure of the
+other bishops. Bishops were to be elected by the presbyters of the
+district. Such election was subject to the confirmation of the majority
+of the bishops. In 1811, a "Code of Canons" was enacted by a "General
+Ecclesiastical Synod," consisting of the bishops, the deans (viz.
+presbyters appointed by the bishops in each diocese to defend the
+interests of the presbyters and now for the first time given "decisive"
+voice in synods) and certain clerical representatives from the
+"districts" or dioceses. Future synods, called for the purpose of
+altering the code, were to consist of two chambers. The first was to be
+composed of the bishops; the second to consist of the "deans" and
+clerical representatives. No law or canon was to be enacted or
+abrogated, save by the consent of both chambers. These canons were
+revised in 1828, 1829 and 1838. The code of this last year created
+diocesan synods, to be held annually and to consist of the bishop, dean
+and all instituted clergy of the diocese. It also provided for the
+annual meeting of a purely episcopal synod, which was to receive appeals
+from either clergy or laity. In 1862-1863, another General Synod further
+revised and amended the Code of Canons. This revised code enabled the
+bishop to appoint a learned and discreet layman to act as his
+chancellor, to advise him in legal matters and be his assessor at
+diocesan synods. Assistant curates and mission priests were, under
+certain restrictions, given seats in diocesan synods. Male communicants
+were also permitted to be present at such synods, with a deliberative
+but not "decisive" voice; unless in special circumstances the bishop
+excluded them. Canon 46 provides that "if any question shall arise as to
+the interpretation of this Code of Canons or of any part thereof, the
+general principles of canon law shall be alone deemed applicable
+thereto." This provision was reenacted in Canon 47 of 1876. Canon 51 of
+1890, however, weakens this provision. It enacts that: "The preceding
+canons shall in all cases be construed in accordance with the principles
+of the civil law of Scotland. Nevertheless, it shall be lawful, in cases
+of dispute or difficulty concerning the interpretation of these canons,
+to appeal to any generally recognized principles of canon law." The
+canons of 1862-1863 also provided for a lay share in the election of
+bishops. In 1890 the 32nd canon enacted that the "General Synod" should
+thereafter be called the Provincial Synod.
+
+The canon law in Scotland before the 16th century was generally that of
+the continent of Europe. The usages of the church were similar to those
+in France, and had not the insular character of those in England and
+Ireland. The canon law regulating marriage, legitimacy and succession
+was taken over by the Scottish secular courts (see ECCLESIASTICAL
+JURISDICTION) and survived as part of the common law of the land almost
+unimpaired. Thus, the courts recognize marriages by _verba de
+praesenti_ or by _verba de futuro cum copula_--in this last matter
+following a decree of Gregory IX.--and also legitimation _per subsequens
+matrimonium_. But though one of the _fontes juris Scotiae_, canon law
+never was of itself authoritative in Scotland. In the canons of her
+national provincial councils (at whose yearly meetings representatives
+attended on behalf of the king) that country possessed a canon law of
+her own, which was recognized by the parliament and the popes, and
+enforced in the courts of law. Much of it, no doubt, was borrowed from
+the _Corpus juris canonici_ and the English provincial canons. But the
+portions so adopted derived their authority from the Scottish Church.
+The general canon law, unless where it has been acknowledged by act of
+parliament, or a decision of the courts, or sanctioned by the canons of
+a provincial council, is only received in Scotland according to equity
+and expediency.
+
+The "Protestant Episcopal Church _in the United States_" is the
+organization of the Anglican Communion in the American colonies before
+the separation. This communion was subject to "all the laws of the
+Church of England applicable to its situation" (Murray Hoffman, _A
+Treatise on the Law of the Protestant Episcopal Church_, New York, 1850,
+p. 17). This body of law the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United
+States took over (_op. cit._ p. 41 et seq.; F. Vinton, _A Manual
+Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the
+Protestant Episcopal Church_, New York, 1870, p. 16 et seq.). Much,
+however, of the English post-Reformation canonical legislation was not
+applicable to the United States, because of different circumstances, as
+e.g. a very large portion of the canons of 1603 (Vinton, p. 32). In
+1789, a General Convention, consisting of clerical and lay deputies as
+well as of bishops, assumed for itself and provided for its successors
+supreme legislative power. The concurrence of both "orders," clerical
+and lay, was required for the validity of any vote. Since 1853 a lay
+deputy to the Convention has been required to be a communicant (_ib._ p.
+102). Upon the American bishops numbering more than three, they became a
+separate "House" from the "Convention." The House of Bishops was given a
+right to propose measures to the "House of Deputies," and to negative
+acts of the House of Deputies, provided they complied with certain
+forms. Similar "constitutions" providing for representation of the laity
+have been adopted by the different dioceses (Hoffman, _op. cit._ p. 184
+et seq.). Deacons are also admitted to a deciding voice in every diocese
+but New Jersey, where they may speak but not vote. A great body of
+legislation has been put forth by these bodies during the past century.
+
+Since 1870, at least, the "Church of the Province of _South Africa_" has
+secured autonomy while yet remaining a part of the Anglican Communion.
+By its constitution of that year the English Church in South Africa
+adopts the laws and usages of the Church of England, as far as they are
+applicable to an unestablished church, accepts the three creeds, the
+Thirty-Nine Articles, the Book of Common Prayer, the decisions of the
+undisputed general councils, the Authorized English Version of the
+Scriptures, disclaims the right of altering any of these standards of
+faith and doctrine, except in agreement with such alterations as may be
+adopted by a general synod of the Anglican Communion. But in
+interpreting these standards of faith and doctrine, the Church of the
+Province of South Africa is not bound by decisions other than those of
+its own Church courts, or such court as the Provincial Synod may
+recognize as a tribunal of appeal. The Provincial Synod is the
+legislative authority subject to a general synod of the Anglican
+Communion, provided such latter synod include representatives from the
+Church of South Africa. The Provincial Synod consists of (1) the House
+of Bishops, (2) the House of the Clergy, (3) the House of the Laity. No
+resolution can be passed which is not accepted by all three orders.
+Bishops are elected by the clergy with the assent of lay
+representatives, subject to the confirmation of the metropolitan and
+comprovincial bishops. The metropolitan is to be consecrated in England
+by the archbishop of Canterbury. He now bears the title of archbishop.
+All bishops are to enter into a contract to obey and maintain the
+constitution and canons of the province. Canon 18 of the Code of 1870
+recognizes the offices of catechist, reader and sub-deacon (Wirgman,
+_The English Church and People in South Africa_, p. 223 et seq.).
+
+In the West Indies, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, provincial and
+diocesan synods or conventions have been formed on one or other of the
+types above mentioned and have enacted canons.     (W. G. F. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th
+    century, have been published several times, notably in the great
+    collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &c.; they will be found brought
+    together in one small volume in Bruns, _Canones apostolorum et
+    conciliorum_ (Berlin, 1839).
+
+  [2] The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed to
+    343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by M.
+    Chabot, _Synodicon Orientale_, p. 278, note 4.
+
+  [3] See Boudinhon, "Note sur le concile de Laodicee," in the _Compte
+    rendu du premier congres des savants catholiques a Paris_, 1888
+    (Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420.
+
+  [4] For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that
+    of the Eastern Churches, see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_, SS 14-183 (ed.
+    1893). The Russian Church, as we know, adopted the Greek
+    ecclesiastical law.
+
+  [5] Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chifflet,
+    _Fulg. Ferrandi opera_ (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne, _Patr.
+    Lat._ vol. 67, col. 949.
+
+  [6] Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo, vol.
+    ii. (Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with learned
+    dissertations, _Opera S. Leonis_, vol. iii., Migne, _P.L. 56._
+
+  [7] Malnory, _Saint Cesaire d'Arles_ (Paris, 1894).
+
+  [8] _Collectio canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae_ (Madrid, 1808); reproduced
+    in Migne, _P.L. 84._
+
+  [9] L. Duchesne, "Le Concile d'Elvire" in the _Melanges Renier_.
+
+  [10] For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, _Die Bussordnungen der
+    abendlandischen Kirche_ (Halle, 1851); Mgr. H.J. Schmitz, _Die
+    Bussbucher und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche_ (2 vols., Mainz, 1883,
+    1898).
+
+  [11] This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of
+    Wasserschleben and Schmitz, by M. Paul Fournier, "Etude sur les
+    Penitentiels," in the _Revue d'histoire et de litterature
+    religieuses_, vol. vi. (1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp.
+    59-70 and 121-127.
+
+  [12] In Migne, _P.L._ 105, col. 651.
+
+  [13] Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 1874). See also P. Fournier,
+    "De l'influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des
+    collections canoniques," in _Nouvelle Revue historique de droit
+    francais et etranger_, vol. xxiii, note I.
+
+  [14] The collection of the False Decretals has been published with a
+    long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, _Decretales
+    Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (Leipzig, 1863). For the
+    rest of the bibliography, see DECRETALS (FALSE).
+
+  [15] The latest edition is in Pertz, _Monumenta Germaniae_, vol. ii.
+    part ii.
+
+  [16] Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840); reproduced by Migne,
+    _P.L. 132._
+
+  [17] Edited several times; in Migne, _P.L. 140._
+
+  [18] P. Fournier, "Le Premier Manuel canonique de la reforme du XIe
+    siecle," in _Melanges de l'Ecole francaise de Rome_, xiv. (1894).
+
+  [19] Unpublished.
+
+  [20] Edited by Mgr. Pio Martinucci (Venice, 1869). On this collection
+    see Wolf von Glanvell, _Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit_
+    (Paderborn, 1905).
+
+  [21] Unpublished.
+
+  [22] Several times edited; in Migne, _P.L._ 161. See P. Fournier,
+    "Les Collections canoniques attribuees a Yves de Chartres,"
+    _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartres_ (1896 and 1897).
+
+  [23] Printed in Martene, _Nov. Thesaur. anecdot._ vol. v. col. 1019.
+
+  [24] See P. Fournier, "Deux Controverses sur les origines du Decret
+    de Gratien," in the _Revue d'histoire et de litterature religieuses_,
+    vol. iii. (1898), pp. n. 2 and 3.
+
+  [25] See Laurin, _Introductio in corpus juris canonici_, c. vii. p.
+    73.
+
+  [26] By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts
+    inserted there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged
+    edition of the _Quinque compilationes_ (Leipzig, 1882).
+
+  [27] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summa des Paucapaiea_ (Giessen, 1890).
+
+  [28] Edited by Thaner, _Die Summa Magistri Rolandi_ (Innsbruck,
+    1874); later by Gietl, _Die Sentenzen Rolands_ (Freiburg im B.,
+    1891).
+
+  [29] Edited by H. Singer, _Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus_
+    (Paderborn, 1902).
+
+  [30] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis_
+    (Giessen, 1891).
+
+  [31] He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres,
+    _Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium_ (Mainz, 1860). The
+    commentaries of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently
+    published.
+
+  [32] The history of this commission and the rules which it followed
+    for editing the _Decretum_, will be found in Laurin, _Introductio in
+    corpus juris canonici_, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg's
+    edition of the _Decretum_.
+
+  [33] Quoted by Hogan, _Clerical Studies_, p. 235.
+
+  [34] There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That
+    which is favoured by canonists is Richter's edition (Leipzig, 1863),
+    in which each chapter _de reformatione_ is followed by a selection of
+    decisions of the S.C. of the council.
+
+  [35] Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have
+    escaped destruction: _Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo
+    nunenpantur Liber septimus Decretalium Clementis VIII._ (Freiburg im
+    B., 1870).
+
+  [36] _Omnium concilii Vaticani ... documentorum collectio_, per
+    Conradum Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152.
+
+
+
+
+CANOPUS, or CANOBUS, an ancient coast town of Lower Egypt, a hundred and
+twenty stadia, or 15 m. east of Alexandria, the principal port in Egypt
+for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, situated at the
+mouth of the westernmost (Canopic or Heracleotic) branch of the Nile, on
+the western bank. The channel, which entered the Mediterranean at the
+western end of the Bay of Aboukir, is entirely silted up, but on the
+shore at Aboukir there are extensive traces of the city with its quays,
+&c. Excavation has disclosed granite monuments with the name of Rameses
+II., but they may have been brought at a late period for the adornment
+of the place. It is not certain that Canopus was an old Egyptian town,
+but it appears in Herodotus as an ancient port. In the 9th year of
+Ptolemy Euergetes (239 B.C.) a great assembly of priests at Canopus
+passed an honorific degree, _inter alia_, conferring the title [Greek:
+Euergetaes] "Benefactor" on the king. Two examples of this decree are
+known, inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. From it we learn
+that the native form of the name of Canopus was Karob. A temple of
+Osiris was built by Euergetes, but very near to Canopus was an older
+shrine, a temple of Heracles mentioned by Herodotus as an asylum for
+fugitive slaves. The decree shows that Heracles here stands for Ammon.
+Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, a vase with a
+human head, and was identified with Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who
+was said to have been buried here: the name canopic has been applied,
+through an old misunderstanding, to the vases with human and animal
+heads in which the internal organs were placed by the Egyptians after
+embalming. In the Roman epoch the town was notorious for its
+dissoluteness. Aboukir means "father Cyrus," referring to a Coptic saint
+of that name.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOPY (through Fr. _canape_, from Med. Lat. _canapeum_, classical
+_conopeum_, a mosquito curtain, Gr. [Greek: konops], a gnat), the upper
+part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over an altar or
+scat or tomb. Early English canopies are generally simple, with
+trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later styles they are very
+rich, and divided into compartments with pendants, knots, pinnacles, &c.
+The triangular arrangement over an Early English and Decorated doorway
+is often called a canopy. The triangular canopies in the north of Italy
+are peculiar. Those in England are generally part of the arrangement of
+the arch mouldings of the door, and form, as it were, the hood-moulds to
+them, as at York. The former are above and independent of the door
+mouldings, and frequently support an arch with a tympanum, above which
+is a triangular canopy, as in the Duomo at Florence. Sometimes the
+canopy and arch project from the wall, and are carried on small jamb
+shafts, as at San Pietro Martire, at Verona. There is an extremely
+curious canopy, being a sort of horseshoe arch, surmounting and breaking
+into a circular arch, at Tournai. Similar canopies are often over
+windows, as at York, over the great west window, and lower tiers in the
+towers. These are triangular, while the upper windows in the towers have
+ogee canopies.
+
+
+
+
+CANOSA (anc. _Canusium_), a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
+Bari, situated on the right bank of the Ofanto (anc. _Aufidus_), 505 ft.
+above sea-level, 15 m. S.W. of Barletta by rail. Pop. (1901) 24,230. It
+was rebuilt in 963 below the Roman city, which had been abandoned after
+its devastation by the Saracens in the 9th century. The former cathedral
+of S. Sabino (the bishopric passed in 1818 to Andria), in the southern
+Romanesque style, was consecrated in 1101: it has five domes (resembling
+St Mark's at Venice, except that it is a Latin cross, instead of a Greek
+cross, in plan) and many ancient columns. The archiepiscopal throne and
+pulpit of the end of the 11th century are also fine. On the south side
+of the building is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert
+Guiscard, who died in 1111, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in
+the local style. It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions; the
+exterior is entirely faced with _cipollino_ (Carystian) marble. The
+conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this period, was
+undoubtedly derived from the _turbeh_ before a mosque; these turbehs are
+square, domed-roofed tombs in which the sultans and distinguished
+Mahommedans are buried (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie meridionale_,
+Paris, 1904, i. 312). A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of
+which the city stands. (See CANUSIUM.)     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOSSA, a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia, Italy, 12
+m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of the Apennines. It
+belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany (d. 1115), and is famous as
+the scene of the penance performed by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope
+Gregory VII. in 1077. The castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of
+Reggio in 1255.
+
+
+
+
+CANOVA, ANTONIO (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born on the 1st of
+November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village situated amid the
+recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these form the last undulations of
+the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains of Treviso. At three
+years of age Canova was deprived of both parents, his father dying and
+his mother remarrying. Their loss, however, was compensated by the
+tender solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother,
+the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest personal
+attention from her grandson, who, when he had the means, gave her an
+asylum in his house at Rome. His father and grandfather followed the
+occupation of stone-cutters or minor statuaries; and it is said that
+their family had for several ages supplied Passagno with members of that
+calling. As soon as Canova's hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated
+into the principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter
+possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, designed
+well, and showed considerable taste in the execution of ornamental
+works. He was greatly attached to his art; and upon his young charge he
+looked as one who was to perpetuate, not only the family name, but also
+the family profession.
+
+The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of his mind was
+to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the gratification of this
+predilection in the workshop of his grandfather were eagerly improved.
+In his ninth year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which
+are still extant. Soon after this period he appears to have been
+constantly employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized
+the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by this means
+young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that name, who
+afterwards became his most zealous patron. Between the younger son,
+Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a friendship commenced which terminated
+only with life. The senator Falier was induced to receive him under his
+immediate protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since
+repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to a trivial
+circumstance--the moulding of a lion in butter--for the warm interest
+which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote may or may not be true.
+By his patron Canova was placed under Bernardi, or, as he is generally
+called by filiation, Torretto, a sculptor of considerable eminence, who
+had taken up a temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity
+of the senator's mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his
+thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two years, making
+in many respects considerable progress. This master returned to Venice,
+where he soon afterwards died; but by the high terms in which he spoke
+of his pupil to Falier, the latter was induced to bring the young artist
+to Venice, whither he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of
+Torretto. With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with
+the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement he began
+to work on his own account, and received from his patron an order for a
+group, "Orpheus and Eurydice." The first figure, which represents
+Eurydice in flames and smoke, in the act of leaving Hades, was completed
+towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his
+patron and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to
+appear before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied him
+with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery. Here
+for nearly four years he laboured with the greatest perseverance and
+industry. He was also regular in his attendance at the academy, where he
+carried off several prizes. But he relied far more on the study and
+imitation of nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for
+their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he reverted to
+living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation. A large
+portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which science was
+regarded by him as "the secret of the art." He likewise frequented
+places of public amusement, where he carefully studied the expressions
+and attitudes of the performers. He formed a resolution, which was
+faithfully adhered to for several years, never to close his eyes at
+night without having produced some design. Whatever was likely to
+forward his advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On
+archaeological pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With ancient
+and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted and he also began
+to acquire some of the continental languages.
+
+Three years had now elapsed without any production coming from his
+chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for his patron, and the
+Orpheus which followed evinced the great advance he had made. The work
+was universally applauded, and laid the foundation of his fame. Several
+groups succeeded this performance, amongst which was that of "Daedalus
+and Icarus," the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The simplicity
+of style and the faithful imitation of nature which characterized them
+called forth the warmest admiration. His merits and reputation being now
+generally recognized, his thoughts began to turn from the shores of the
+Adriatic to the banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the
+commencement of his twenty-fourth year.
+
+Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the Venetian
+senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies without
+embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. The stipend
+amounted to three hundred ducats (about L60 per annum), and was limited
+to three years. Canova had obtained letters of introduction to the
+Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous
+protector of the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner.
+His arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era in
+his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the most
+splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the severest
+test by a competition with the living masters of the art. The result was
+equal to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his
+friends. The work which first established his fame at Rome was "Theseus
+vanquishing the Minotaur." The figures are of the heroic size. The
+victorious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body of the
+monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves
+the terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged.
+Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized Canova's
+style; with these were now united more exalted conceptions of grandeur
+and of truth. The Theseus was regarded with fervent admiration.
+
+Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honour of Clement XIV.; but
+before he proceeded with it he deemed it necessary to request permission
+from the Venetian senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in
+consideration of the pension. This he solicited in person, and it was
+granted. He returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated
+studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years of
+unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the models for
+the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, other two years
+were employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally opened to
+public inspection in 1787 The work, in the opinion of enthusiastic
+_dilettanti_, stamped the author as the first artist of modern times.
+After five years of incessant labour, he completed another cenotaph to
+the memory of Clement XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works
+now came rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a
+butterfly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with
+the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of man's
+immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect the most
+faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two different groups, and
+with opposite expression, the sculptor has represented Cupid with his
+bride; in the one they are standing, in the other recumbent. These and
+other works raised his reputation so high that the most flattering
+offers were sent him from the Russian court to induce him to remove to
+St Petersburg, but these were declined. "Italy," says he, in writing of
+the occurrence to a friend, "Italy is my country--is the country and
+native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was nurtured
+here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other land, they must be
+of some utility to Italy; and ought not her claim to be preferred to all
+others?"
+
+Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of which several
+were repetitions of previous productions. One was the celebrated group
+representing the "Parting of Venus and Adonis." This famous production
+was sent to Naples. The French Revolution was now extending its shocks
+over Italy; and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native
+Passagno. Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a
+year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had some
+knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings about this time. One
+of his productions is a picture representing the dead body of the
+Saviour just removed from the cross, surrounded by the three Marys, S.
+John, Joseph of Arimathea, and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus.
+Above appears the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory,
+and surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was
+greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his native
+place. Events in the political world having come to a temporary lull, he
+returned to Rome; but his health being impaired from arduous
+application, he took a journey through a part of Germany, in company
+with his friend Prince Rezzonico. He returned from his travels much
+improved, and again commenced his labours with vigour and enthusiasm.
+
+Canova's sculptures have been distributed under three heads:--(1) Heroic
+compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and elegance; and (3) Sepulchral
+monuments and relievos. In noticing the works which fall under each of
+these divisions, it will be impossible to maintain a strict
+chronological order, but perhaps a better idea of his productions may
+thus be obtained. Their vast number, however, prevents their being all
+enumerated.
+
+(1) His "Perseus with the Head of Medusa" appeared soon after his
+return. The moment of representation is when the hero, flushed with
+conquest, displays the head of the "snaky Gorgon," whilst the right hand
+grasps a sword of singular device. By a public decree, this fine work
+was placed in one of the _stanze_ of the Vatican hitherto reserved for
+the most precious works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say
+that it wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier
+realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini. In
+1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired to Paris to
+model a bust of the first consul. The artist was entertained with
+munificence, and various honours were conferred upon him. The statue,
+which is colossal, was not finished till six years after. On the fall of
+the great Napoleon, Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British
+government, by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington.
+"Palamedes," "Creugas and Damoxenus," the "Combat of Theseus and the
+Centaur," and "Hercules and Lichas" may close the class of heroic
+compositions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the enumeration
+of various others, such as "Hector and Ajax," and the statues of
+Washington, King Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of "Hercules
+and Lichas" is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova's
+mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled.
+
+(2) Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the statue of
+Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times has the artist
+embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each time with some
+variation. The only material improvement, however, is the substitution
+of a support more suitable to the simplicity of the art. Each of the
+statues is, in all its details, in expression, attitude and delicacy of
+finish, strikingly elegant. The "Dancing Nymphs" maintain a character
+similar to that of the Hebe. The "Graces" and the "Venus" are more
+elevated. The "Awakened Nymph" is another work of uncommon beauty. The
+mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa (as Concord), to model whom
+the author made a further journey to Paris in 1810, the princess
+Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia (Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in
+this class, as do the ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura,
+Beatrice and Helen of Troy.
+
+(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid is the
+monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, consisting of
+nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman pontiffs already mentioned,
+there is one for Alfieri, another for Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a
+small model of a cenotaph for Nelson, besides a great variety of
+monumental relievos.
+
+The events which marked the life of the artist during the first fifteen
+years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned works
+scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely absorbed in the labours of
+his studio, and, with the exception of his journeys to Paris, one to
+Vienna, and a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts
+of Italy, he never quitted Rome. In his own words, "his statues were the
+sole proofs of his civil existence." There was, however, another proof,
+which modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence,
+especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to
+superintend the transmission from Paris of those works of art which had
+formerly been conveyed thither under the direction of Napoleon. By his
+zeal and exertions, for there were many conflicting interests to
+reconcile, he adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his
+judgment and fortunate for his country. In the autumn of this year he
+gratified a wish he had long entertained of visiting London, where he
+received the highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed
+particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who might at the
+time be counted the sole representative of historical painting there,
+and whom he especially honoured for his championship of the Elgin
+marbles, then recently transported to England, and ignorantly
+depreciated by polite connoisseurs. Canova returned to Rome in the
+beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his country's genius.
+Immediately after, he received several marks of distinction,--by the
+hand of the Pope himself his name was inscribed in "the Golden Volume of
+the Capitol," and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with an
+annual pension of 3000 crowns, about L625.
+
+He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of Religion. The
+model filled Italy with admiration; the marble was procured, and the
+chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied to it, when the jealousy of
+churchmen as to the site, or some other cause, deprived the country of
+the projected work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warmest
+sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance he resolved to
+consecrate a shrine to the cause. In his native village he began to make
+preparations for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the
+above statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were to
+repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired to
+Passagno in 1810. At a sumptuous entertainment which he gave to his
+workmen, there occurred an incident which marks the kindliness of his
+character. When the festivities of the day had terminated, he requested
+the shepherdesses and peasantgirls of the adjacent hamlets to pass in
+review before him, and to each he made a present, expending on the
+occasion about L400. We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few
+years afterwards, when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in
+their last asylum, the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was
+in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity of
+more pompous mourning.
+
+After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova
+returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit
+Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and encourage them with
+pecuniary rewards and medals. In the meantime the vast expenditure
+exhausted his resources, and compelled him to labour with unceasing
+assiduity notwithstanding age and disease. During the period which
+intervened between commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he
+executed or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were
+the group "Mars and Venus," the colossal figure of Pius VI., the
+"Pieta," the "St John," the "recumbent Magdalen." The last performance
+which issued from his hand was a colossal bust of his friend, the Count
+Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to Naples, to superintend the
+construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of the perjured
+Bourbon king Ferdinand. This journey materially injured his health, but
+he rallied again on his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the
+year he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he
+experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the
+13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease was
+one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the continual
+use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. The most
+distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains, which were
+deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of the same month.
+
+Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in Italy, and
+brought it back to that standard from which it had declined when the
+sense both of classical beauty and moderation, and of Titanic invention
+and human or superhuman energy as embodied by the unexampled genius of
+Michelangelo, had succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of
+the 17th and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a
+special method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble. He
+formed his models of the same size as the work was intended to be. The
+prominent defect of Canova's attractive and highly trained art is that
+which may be summed up in the word artificiality,--that quality, so
+characteristic of the modern mind, which seizes upon certain properties
+of conception and execution in the art of the past, and upon certain
+types of beauty or emotion in life, and makes a compound of the
+two--regulating both by the standard of taste prevalent in contemporary
+"high society," a standard which, referring to cultivation and
+refinement as its higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of
+his moral character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most
+prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized by his
+works was distributed in acts of this description. He established prizes
+for artists and endowed all the academies of Rome. The aged and
+unfortunate were also the objects of his peculiar solicitude. His titles
+were numerous. He was enrolled amongst the nobility of several states,
+decorated with various orders of knighthood, and associated in the
+highest professional honours.
+
+  See the _Life of Canova_ by Memes; that by Missirini; the _Biografia_
+  by the Count Cicognara; _Canova et ses ouvrages_, by Quatremere de
+  Quincy (1834); _Opere scelte di Antonio Canova_, by Anzelmi (Naples,
+  1842); _Canova_, by A.G. Meyer (1898); and _La Relazione del Canova
+  con Napoli ... memorie con documenti inediti_, by Angelo Borzelli
+  (1901).     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO (1828-1897), Spanish statesman, was born
+in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828. Educated in his native town, he
+went to Madrid in 1845, bent upon finding means to complete his literary
+and philosophical studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebanez Calderon,
+found him a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but
+Canovas soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to
+support himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University.
+During this period he published his two best works--an historical novel,
+_Las Campanas de Huesca_, and the history of the decay of Spain from
+Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria. He became a
+politician through his Junius-like letters to the "Murcielago"--_The
+Bat_, a satirical political journal--and by drawing up the manifesto of
+Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal O'Donnell, of whom he always remained a
+loyal adherent. Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor
+of Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858,
+under-secretary at the home office in 1860, minister of the interior in
+1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of finance in 1866, and
+was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same year, afterwards becoming a
+bitter opponent of all the reactionary cabinets until the revolution of
+1868. He took no part in preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes
+Constituyentes of 1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all
+Radical and democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but
+he abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on the
+16th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his political
+friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets of King
+Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would depend on the
+concessions which government would make to Conservative principles.
+After the abdication of Amadeus and the proclamation of the federal
+republic, Canovas took the lead of the propaganda in favour of the
+restoration of the Bourbons, and was their principal agent and adviser.
+He drew up the manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XII.,
+at that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the military
+men who were actively conspiring to organize an Alphonsist
+_pronunciamiento_. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del Duero, he would have
+preferred to let events develop enough to allow of the dynasty being
+restored without force of arms, and he severely blamed the conduct of
+the generals when he first heard of the _pronunciamiento_ of Marshal
+Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (30th
+of December 1874); but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed
+Alphonso XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received
+from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a regency
+ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who confirmed his
+appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier except during the
+short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in 1875 and Marshal Campos for
+a few months in 1879. Canovas was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration.
+He had to reconstruct a Conservative party out of the least reactionary
+parties of the days of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate
+elements of the revolution. With such followers he made the constitution
+of 1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise in
+the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience,
+rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking
+democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, conciliating
+the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican, the Church
+and the religious orders, pandering to the protectionists by his tariff
+policy, and courting abroad the friendship of Germany and Austria after
+contributing to the marriage of his king to an Austrian princess.
+Canovas crowned his policy by countenancing the formation of a Liberal
+party under Sagasta, flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal
+generals, which took office in 1881. He again became premier in 1883,
+and remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very unpopular,
+and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his violent repression of
+popular and press demonstrations, and of student riots in Madrid and the
+provinces. At the death of Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen
+regent to send for Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he
+looked on quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and
+most of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of
+free trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the
+queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff policy
+of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce, and passing in
+1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the starting-point of the
+decline in foreign trade, the advance of foreign exchanges, the decay of
+railway traffic, and the monetary and financial crisis which continued
+from 1892 to 1898. Splits in the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to
+resign at the end of 1893, and Sagasta came in for eighteen months,
+Canovas resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of
+the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts, with
+characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and means for
+sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out his stern and
+unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions and no reforms. He
+was making up his mind for another effort to enable General Weyler to
+enforce the reforms that had been wrung from the Madrid government, more
+by American diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the
+bullet of an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda,
+cut short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the
+greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He was not
+only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of considerable
+merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic and philosophical
+questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a member of all the
+Madrid academies and a patron of art and letters.     (A. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN (1809-1895), marshal of France, was born at
+St Cere (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and educated at St Cyr; he
+received a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1828, becoming lieutenant in
+1833. He went to Algeria in 1835, served in the expedition to Mascara,
+at the capture of Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year
+he was wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of
+Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing a
+battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841 he was
+again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1846 and colonel
+of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the expedition against Ahmed
+Sghir in 1848, and defeated the Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to
+the Zouaves, he defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage
+and energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in
+command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December 1849). For
+his valour on the latter occasion he received the rank of general of
+brigade and the commandership of the Legion of Honour. He led the
+expedition against Narah in 1850 and destroyed the Arab stronghold.
+Summoned to Paris, he was made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis
+Napoleon, and took part in the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December
+1851. In the Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he
+was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling him to command
+in case of St Arnaud's death, and he thus succeeded to the chief command
+of the French army a few days after the battle. He was slightly wounded
+and had a horse killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of
+Zouaves. Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in
+general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the siege of
+Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he did not return
+to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old division almost up to
+the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to France he was sent on
+diplomatic missions to Denmark and Sweden, and made a marshal and
+senator of France (grand cross Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.).
+He commanded the III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing
+himself at Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp at
+Chalons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris. In the
+Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps, which won the
+greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte, where Canrobert
+commanded on the St Privat position. The VI. corps was amongst those
+shut up in Metz and included in the surrender of that fortress. After
+the war Canrobert was appointed a member of the superior council of war,
+and was also active in political life, being elected senator for Lot in
+1876 and for Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the
+28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral. His
+_Souvenirs_ were published in 1898 at Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CANT, ANDREW (1590?-1663), a leader of the Scottish Covenanters. About
+1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to be their minister, but he was
+rejected by James I. Ten years later he was minister of Pitsligo in
+Aberdeenshire, a charge which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in
+Mid-Lothian. In July of that year he went with other commissioners to
+Aberdeen in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery
+of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the following
+November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow which abolished
+episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was chaplain to the Scottish army and
+then settled as minister at Aberdeen. Though a stanch Covenanter, he was
+a zealous Royalist, preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and
+stoutly advocating the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the
+Commonwealth. Cant's frequent and bitter attacks on various members of
+his congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magistrates,
+in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son Andrew was
+principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685).
+
+
+
+
+CANT, (1) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. _cantos_, corner), in
+architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut off,
+octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of which are not
+parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said to be canted. (2)
+(From the Lat. _cantare_, to sing, very early in use, in a depreciatory
+sense, of religious services), a word appearing in English in the 16th
+century 'for the whining speech of beggars; hence it is applied to
+thieves' or gipsies' jargon, to the peculiar language of any class or
+sect, to any current phrase or turn of language, and particularly to the
+hypocritical use of pious phraseology.
+
+
+
+
+CANTABRI, an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast of Spain near
+Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind--a district hence known as
+Cantabria. Savage and untameable mountaineers, they long defied the
+Roman arms and made themselves a name for wild freedom. They were first
+attacked by the Romans about 150 B.C.; they were not subdued till
+Agrippa and Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 B.C.)
+which ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land was
+part of the province Hispania Tarraconensis with some measure of local
+self-government. They became slowly Romanized, but developed little town
+life and are rarely mentioned in history. They provided recruits for the
+Roman _auxilia_, like their neighbours the Astures, and their land
+contained lead mines, of which, however, little is known.
+
+
+
+
+CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS (Span. _Cordillera Cantabrica_), a mountain chain
+which extends for more than 300 m. across northern Spain, from the
+western limit of the Pyrenees to the borders of Galicia, and on or near
+the coast of the Bay of Biscay. The Cantabrians stretch from east to
+west, nearly parallel to the sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos,
+afterwards trending southward between Leon and Galicia. Their western
+boundary is marked by the valley of the river Mino (Portuguese Minho),
+by the lower Sil, which flows into the Mino, and by the Cabrera, a small
+tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the mountains of Galicia
+beyond the Mino as an integral part of the same system; others confine
+the name to the eastern half of the highlands between Galicia and the
+Pyrenees, and call their western half the Asturian Mountains. There are
+also many local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a
+whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their intricate
+ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in the east, it is
+possible to distinguish two principal ranges, from which the lesser
+ridges and mountain masses radiate. One range, or series of ranges,
+closely follows the outline of the coast; the other, which is loftier,
+forms the northern limit of the great tableland of Castile and Leon, and
+is sometimes regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal
+range rises in some parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so
+abrupt a declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and
+swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus of
+Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the Ebro,
+rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the Cantabrian
+chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about 60 m. in the
+east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are upwards of 6000 ft.
+high, but the greatest altitudes are attained in the central ridges on
+the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia and Santander. Here are the Pena
+Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta (8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an
+unnamed summit in the Penas de Europa, to which range the Pena Vieja
+also belongs, rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045
+ft.; farther west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubina, Rubia and Cuina all
+exceed 7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent
+tableland, is the number of its _parameras_, isolated plateaus shut in
+by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At the
+south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a lake-bed, now
+a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by mountains which
+bifurcate from the main range south of the pass of Leitariegos--the
+Sierra de Justredo and Montanas de Leon curving towards the east and
+south-west, the Sierra de Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges
+curving towards the west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in
+coal and iron; an account of their geological structure is given under
+SPAIN. They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their
+eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of Pajares,
+the railway from Leon to Gijon passes through the Perruca tunnel, which
+is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level; the railway descends
+northward through fifty-eight smaller tunnels. The line from Leon to
+Orense also traverses a remarkable series of tunnels, bridges and deep
+cuttings.
+
+
+
+
+CANTACUZINO, CANTACUZEN or CANTACUZENE, the name of a family which
+traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and writers of the same name
+(see under JOHN V., Cantacuzene). The founder of the family, Andronik,
+migrated to Rumania in 1633, and from his two sons Constantine and
+Gheorge sprang the two principal lines which afterwards branched into
+numerous families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars
+(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were represented in
+every branch of administration and in the world of letters. Under their
+influence the Rumanian language and literature in the 17th century
+reached their highest development. Among the more prominent members of
+the family the following may be mentioned, (1) SHERBAN CANTACUZINO
+(1640-1688), appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the
+Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is alleged
+that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople to drive the
+Turks out of Europe, the western powers having promised him their moral
+support. In the midst of his preparations he died suddenly, poisoned, it
+is said, by the boyars who were afraid of his vast plans. Far more
+important was his activity in economic and literary directions. He
+introduced the maize into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the
+country. He founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted
+liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and under
+his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in Bucharest in 1688.
+Through his influence also the Slavonic language was officially and
+finally abolished from the liturgy and the Rumanian language substituted
+for it. (2) STEFAN CANTACUZINO, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia,
+1714-1716. (3) DEMETRIUS CANTACUZINO, prince of Moldavia, 1674-1676. He
+left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and Sherban have
+emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there as governors of
+Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4) Of the Moldavian
+Cantacuzinos, THEODORE is well known as a chronicler of his times (c.
+1740). (5) GHEORGE CANTACUZINO (b. 1837), son of GREGORI (1800-1849). He
+was appointed in 1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in
+1889, president of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from
+1899 he was head of the Conservative party, and from 1905 to 1907 prime
+minister (see also RUMANIA: _History_).     (M. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTAGALLO, an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, about
+100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro, with which it is
+connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop. (1890) of the municipality,
+26,067, of whom less than one-fourth live in the town. Cantagallo is
+situated in the fertile Parahyba valley and is the commercial centre of
+a rich coffee-producing district. There are exhausted gold placer mines
+in its vicinity, but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable
+development in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry, but
+sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention is given to
+the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an excellent fruit
+region.
+
+
+
+
+CANTAL, a department of central France, formed from Haute-Auvergne, the
+southern portion of the old province of Auvergne. It is bounded N. by
+the department of Puy-de-Dome, E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozere, S. by
+Aveyron and Lozere, and W. by Correze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop.
+(1906) 228,600. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central plateau
+of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal, a volcanic group
+occupying its central region, and continued towards the north and east
+by ranges of lower altitude. The Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit
+of the department, attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the
+Puy Mary and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft.
+respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies the
+lofty but fertile plateau of Planeze, which merges into the Monts de la
+Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the Truyere skirts the
+Planeze on the south and divides it from the Monts d'Aubrac, at the foot
+of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted for its thermal springs, the most
+important in the department. Northwards the Monts du Cantal are
+connected with the Monts Dore by the volcanic range of Cezallier and the
+arid plateaus of Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus
+and beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central heights.
+Most of the streams of the department have their sources in this central
+ridge and fall by a short and rapid course into the rivers which
+traverse the extensive valleys on either side. The principal rivers are
+the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier; the Celle and Truyere,
+tributaries of the Lot; and the Cere and Rue, tributaries of the
+Dordogne. The climate of the department varies considerably in the
+different localities. In the alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour,
+and in the south-west in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally
+mild and dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are
+long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The cold and damp
+of the climate in these districts are great obstacles to the cultivation
+of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown in considerable quantities,
+and in natural pasture Cantal is extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly
+reared with profit, especially around Salers and in the Monts d'Aubrac,
+while butter and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large
+flocks of sheep pasture in the Monts d'Aubrac and elsewhere in the
+department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple and
+primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare. Many of them
+migrate for part of the year to Paris and the provinces, where they
+engage in the humblest occupations. The principal articles of food are
+rye, buckwheat and chestnuts. The internal resources of the department
+are considerable; but the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them
+being sufficiently developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and
+the streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic and
+medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal, antimony and
+lime. The department has no prominent manufactures. Live-stock, cheese,
+butter and coal are the principal exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour
+and earthenware are imported. The department is served by the railways
+of the Orleans and Southern companies, the construction of which at some
+points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the case of
+the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyere. Cantal is
+divided into four arrondissements--Aurillac, Mauriac, Murat and St
+Flour--23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs to the region of the
+XIII. army corps and to the academie (educational division) of
+Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is at St Flour and depends on the
+archbishopric of Bourges. Its court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is
+Aurillac (q.v.), and St Flour (q.v.) is the other principal town.
+
+
+
+
+CANTARINI, SIMONE (1612-1648), called SIMONE DA PESARO, painter and
+etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 1612. He was a disciple of
+Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domenichino and Albano. The
+irritability of his temper and his vanity were extreme; and it is said
+that his death, which took place at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by
+chagrin at his failure in a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others
+relate that he was poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured.
+His pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in
+originality. Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido
+Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the
+extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are "St
+Anthony," at Cagli; the "Magdalene," at Pesaro; the "Transfiguration,"
+in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the "Portrait of Guido," in the Bologna
+gallery; and "St Romuald," in the Casa Paolucci. His most celebrated
+etching is "Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal
+Borghese."
+
+
+
+
+CANTATA (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal composition
+accompanied by instruments and generally containing more than one
+movement. In the 16th century, when all serious music was vocal, the
+term had no reason to exist, but with the rise of instrumental music in
+the 17th century cantatas began to exist under that name as soon as the
+instrumental art was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the
+middle of the 17th till late in the 18th century a favourite form of
+Italian chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with
+accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo instruments.
+It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative,
+held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples
+may be found in the church music of Carissimi; and the English vocal
+solos of Purcell (such as _Mad Tom_ and _Mad Bess_) show the utmost that
+can be made of this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the
+cantata became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative.
+Handel's numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a rather large
+scale. His Latin motet _Silete Venti_, for soprano solo, shows the use
+of this form in church music.
+
+The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large scale, to
+become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera. In the same way the
+church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable from a small
+oratorio or portion of an oratorio. This is equally evident whether we
+examine the unparalleled church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200
+are extant, or the _Chandos Anthems_ of Handel. In Bach's case many of
+the larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the _Christmas
+Oratorio_ is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended for
+performance on six different days, though together forming as complete
+an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.
+
+The essential point, however, in Bach's church cantatas is that they
+formed part of a church service, and moreover of a service in which the
+organization of the music was far more coherent than is possible in the
+Anglican church. Many of Bach's greatest cantatas begin with an
+elaborate chorus followed by a couple of arias and recitatives, and end
+with a plain chorale. This has often been commented upon as an example
+of Bach's indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no
+one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church cantata
+occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was carefully based
+upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless the cantata was short the
+sermon probably took place after the first chorus or one of the arias,
+and the congregation joined in the final chorale. Thus the unity of the
+service was the unity of the music; and, in the cases where all the
+movements of the cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune,
+this unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century masses
+and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones of the festival
+for which they are written.
+
+In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively to
+choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has, perhaps, been
+only one kind of cantata since Bach which can be recognized as an art
+form and not as a mere title for works otherwise impossible to classify.
+It is just possible to recognize as a distinct artistic type that kind
+of early 19th-century cantata in which the chorus is the vehicle for
+music more lyric and songlike than the oratorio style, though at the
+same time not excludeing the possibility of a brilliant climax in the
+shape of a light order of fugue. Beethoven's _Glorreiche Augenblick_ is
+a brilliant "pot-boiler" in this style; Weber's _Jubel Cantata_ is a
+typical specimen, and Mendelssohn's _Walpurgisnacht_ is the classic.
+Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata," the _Lobgesang_, is a hybrid work,
+partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic
+movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven's ninth symphony;
+but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven's work is a symphony of
+which the fourth movement is a choral finale of essentially single
+design, whereas Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata" is a cantata with three
+symphonic preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral
+songs were realized at last by Brahms in his _Rinaldo_, set to a text
+which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of the
+_Walpurgisnacht_. The point of Brahms's work (his only experiment in
+this _genre_) has naturally been lost by critics who expected in so
+voluminous a composition the qualities of an elaborate choral music with
+which it has nothing whatever to do. Brahms has probably said the last
+word on this subject; and the remaining types of cantata (beginning with
+Beethoven's _Meeres-stille_, and including most of Brahms's and many
+notable English small choral works) are merely so many different ways of
+setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be comprised in
+one movement.     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTEEN (through the Fr. _cantine_, from Ital. _cantina_, a cellar), a
+word chiefly used in a military sense for an official sutler's shop,
+where provisions, &c., are sold to soldiers. The word was formerly
+applied also to portable equipments for carrying liquors and food, or
+for cooking in the field. Another sense of the word, which has survived
+to the present day, is that of a soldier's water-bottle, or of a small
+wooden or metal can for carying a workman's liquor, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CANTEMIR, the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin, which came
+from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled in Moldavia.
+
+CONSTANTINE CANTEMIR became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-1693. He was a
+good and conscientious ruler, who protected the people from the rapacity
+of the tax-gatherers and introduced peace into his country. He was
+succeeded on the throne by his son Antioch, who ruled twice, 1696-1700
+and 1705-1707.
+
+His youngest brother, DEMETRIUS or DEMETER CANTEMIR (b. October 26,
+1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 1710; he ruled only one year,
+1710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great in his campaign against the
+Turks and placed Moldavia under Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks,
+Cantemir emigrated to Russia, where he and his family finally settled.
+He died at Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest
+linguists of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being
+well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and original
+writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his writings range
+over many subjects. The best known is his _History of the Growth and
+Decay of the Ottoman Empire_. He also wrote a history of oriental music,
+which is no longer extant; the first critical history of Moldo-Walachia;
+the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of
+Moldavia, _Descriptio Moldaviae_, under the name of _Historia
+Hieroglyphica_, to which he furnished a key, and in which the principal
+persons are represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling
+houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical treatise on the
+old theme of the disputation between soul and body, written in Greek and
+Rumanian under the title _Divanul Lumii_.
+
+The latter's son, ANTIOCH CANTEMIR (born in Moldavia, 1700; died in
+Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great Britain, and in
+1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He brought to London the Latin
+MS. from whence the English translation of his father's history of the
+Turkish empire was made by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an
+exhaustive biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He
+was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in modern
+Russian literature.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Operele Principelui D. Cantemir_, ed. Academia Romana
+  (1872 foll.); A. Philippide, _Introducere in istoria limbei si
+  literat. romane_ (Iasi, 1888), pp. 192-202; O.G. Lecca, _Familiile
+  boeresti romane_ (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M. Gaster, _Chrestom.
+  romana_, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic).     (M. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON, 1ST VISCOUNT (1780-1845), speaker of
+the House of Commons, was the elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton
+(q.v.), afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and was born on the 29th of
+January 1780. Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he
+graduated B.A. in 1802, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in
+1806. At the general election of this year he was returned to parliament
+in the Tory interest as member for Scarborough, and in 1809 became
+judge-advocate-general in the ministry of Spencer Perceval. He retained
+this position until June 1817, when he was elected speaker in succession
+to Charles Abbot, created Baron Colchester, refusing to exchange this
+office in 1827 for that of home secretary. In 1832 he abandoned
+Scarborough and was returned to parliament as one of the members for the
+university of Cambridge. Before the general election of 1832
+Manners-Sutton had intimated his desire to retire from the position of
+speaker and had been voted an annuity of L4000 a year. The ministry of
+Earl Grey, however, reluctant to meet the reformed House of Commons with
+a new and inexperienced occupant of the chair, persuaded him to retain
+his office, and in 1833 he was elected speaker for the seventh time.
+Some feeling had been shown against him on this occasion owing to his
+Tory proclivities, and the Whigs frequently complained that outside the
+House he was a decided partisan. The result was that when a new
+parliament met in February 1835 a sharp contest ensued for the
+speakership, and Manners-Sutton was defeated by James Abercromby,
+afterwards Lord Dunfermline. In March 1835 the retiring speaker was
+raised to the peerage as Baron Bottesford and Viscount Canterbury. In
+1835 he was appointed high commissioner for Canada, but owing to
+domestic reasons he never undertook the appointment. He died in London
+on the 21st of July 1845 and was buried at Addington. His first wife was
+Lucy (d. 1815), daughter of John Denison of Ossington, by whom he had
+two sons and a daughter. Both his sons, Charles John (1812-1869), and
+John Henry Thomas (1814-1877), succeeded in turn to the viscounty. By
+his second wife, Ellen (d. 1845), widow of John Home-Purves, he had a
+daughter.
+
+
+
+
+CANTERBURY, a city and county of a city, the metropolis of an
+archdiocese of the Church of England, and a municipal, county and
+parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 62 m. E.S.E, of London by the
+South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 24,889. It lies on the
+river Stour, which here debouches from a beautiful narrow valley of the
+North Downs, the low but abrupt elevations of which command fine views
+of the city from the west and south, while the river presently enters
+upon the flat belt of land which separates the elevated Isle of Thanet
+from the rest of Kent. This belt represents the existence, in early
+historic times, of a sea-strait, and Fordwich, little more than 2 m.
+north-east of Canterbury, was once accessible for shipping. The city
+surrounds the precincts of the great cathedral.
+
+_The Cathedral_.--It was to Canterbury, as the capital of Aethelberht,
+the fourth Saxon king of Kent, that in 597 Augustine and his
+fellow-missionaries came from Rome, and their settlement by Aethelberht
+in his capital became the origin of its position, held ever since, as
+the metropolis of the Church of England. Aethelberht, whose queen,
+Bertha, was already a Christian, gave the missionaries a church whose
+mythical founder was King Lucius. Augustine was a Benedictine and
+established the monastery of that order attached to the cathedral; this
+foundation was set upon a firm basis after the Norman Conquest by
+Archbishop Lanfranc, who placed its charge (as distinct from that of the
+diocese) in the hands of a prior.
+
+
+  History of the building.
+
+Preparatory to the description of the cathedral, the principal epochs in
+the history of its erection may be noted. The Romano-British church
+occupied by St Augustine, of basilica form, remained long in use, though
+it was largely rebuilt by Archbishop Odo, c. 950; after further
+vicissitudes it was destroyed by fire in 1067. Archbishop Lanfranc,
+taking up his office in 1070, undertook the building of an entirely new
+church, but under Anselm (c. 1100) Prior Ernulf rebuilt the eastern
+part, and his successor Conrad carried on the work. A fire destroyed
+much of this part of the building in 1174, and from that year the
+architect, William of Sens, took up the work of rebuilding until 1178,
+when, on his suffering serious injury by falling from a scaffold,
+another William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carried on
+the work and completed it in 1184. In 1376 Archbishop Sudbury entered
+upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior Chillenden continued this
+under Archbishop Courtenay. The building of the central tower was
+undertaken c. 1495 by Prior Goldstone, with the counsel of Selling, his
+predecessor, and Archbishop Morton.
+
+
+  Exterior.
+
+This Perpendicular tower is the most notable feature of the exterior. It
+rises in two storeys to a height of 235 ft. from the ground, and is
+known variously as Bell Harry tower from the great bell it contains, or
+as the Angel steeple from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly
+adorned the summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front
+by towers, whose massive buttresses, rising in tiers, serve to enhance
+by contrast the beautiful effect of the unbroken straight lines of Bell
+Harry tower. The south-western of these towers is an original
+Perpendicular structure by Prior Goldstone, while the north-western was
+copied from it in 1834-1840, replacing a Norman tower which had carried
+a spire until 1705 and had become unsafe. The north-west and south-west
+transepts are included in Chillenden's Perpendicular reconstruction; but
+east of these earlier work is met with. The south-east transept exhibits
+Norman work; the projecting chapel east of this is known as Anselm's
+tower. The cathedral terminates eastward in a graceful apsidal form,
+with the final addition of the circular eastern chapel built by William
+the Englishman, and known as the Corona or Becket's Crown. St Andrew's
+tower or chapel on the north side, corresponding to Anselm's on the
+south, is the work of Ernulf. From this point westward the various
+monastic buildings adjoin the cathedral on the north side, so that the
+south side is that from which the details of the exterior must be
+examined.
+
+
+  Interior.
+
+When the nave of the cathedral is entered, the complete separation of
+the interior into two main parts, not only owing to the distinction
+between the two main periods of building; but by an actual structural
+arrangement, is realized as an unusual and, as it happens, a most
+impressive feature. In most English cathedrals the choir is separated
+from the nave by a screen; at Canterbury not only is this the case, but
+the separation is further marked by a broad flight of steps leading up
+to the screen, the choir floor (but not its roof) being much higher than
+that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding the nave, retained only the
+lower parts of some of the early Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers
+of the central tower arches. These piers were encased or altered on
+Perpendicular lines. In the choir, the late 12th-century work of the two
+Williams, the notable features are its great length, the fine
+ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed, a remarkable
+illustration of the transition between the Norman and Early English
+styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the shafts and mouldings
+strongly contrasting with the light stone which is the material
+principally used; and, finally, the graceful incurve of the main arcades
+and walls at the eastern end of the choir where it joins the chapel of
+the Trinity, an arrangement necessitated by the preservation of the
+earlier flanking chapels or towers of St Anselm and St Andrew. From the
+altar eastward the floor of the church is raised again above that of the
+choir. The choir screen was built by Prior de Estria, c. 1300. The
+organ is not seen, being hidden in the triforium and played from the
+choir. There are several tombs of archbishops in the choir. The
+south-east transept serves as the chapel of the King's school and
+exhibits the work of William of Sens in alteration of that of Ernulf.
+Anselm's chapel or tower, already mentioned, may be noticed again as
+containing a Decorated window (1336). This style is not common in the
+cathedral.
+
+
+  Becket's shrine. Pilgrimages.
+
+Behind the altar is Trinity Chapel, in the centre of which stood the
+celebrated shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The priory owed its chief
+fame to the murder of Archbishop Becket (1170) in the church, his
+canonization as St Thomas of Canterbury, and the resort of the Christian
+world on pilgrimage to his shrine. Miracles were almost immediately said
+to be worked at his grave in the crypt and at the well in which his
+garments had been washed; and from the time when Henry II. did his
+penance for the murder in the church, and the battle of Alnwick was
+gained over the Scots a few days afterwards--it was supposed as a
+result--the fame of the martyr's power and the popularity of his
+worship became established in England. On the rebuilding of the
+cathedral after the fire of 1174, a magnificent shrine was erected for
+him in Trinity Chapel, which was built for the purpose, and became
+thronged for three centuries by pilgrims and worshippers of all classes,
+from kings and emperors downward. Henceforward the interests of the city
+became bound up in those of the cathedral, and were shown in the large
+number of hostels for the accommodation of pilgrims, and of shops
+containing wares especially suited to their tastes. A pilgrimage to
+Canterbury became not only a pious exercise, but a favourite summer
+excursion; and the poet Chaucer, writing in the 14th century, gives an
+admirable picture of such pilgrimages, with the manners and behaviour of
+a party of pilgrims, leisurely enjoying the journey and telling stories
+on the road. The English language even preserved two words originating
+in these customs--a "canterbury," or a "canterbury tale," a phrase used
+for a fiction, and a "canter," which is a short form for a "canterbury
+gallop," an allusion to the easy pace at which these pilgrimages were
+performed. The shrine with its vast collected wealth was destroyed, and
+every reminiscence connected with it as far as possible effaced, by King
+Henry VIII.'s commissioners in 1538. But some of the beautiful old
+windows of stained glass, illustrating the miracles wrought in connexion
+with the saint, are preserved. The north-west transept was the actual
+scene of Becket's murder; the spot where he fell is shown on the floor,
+but this part of the building is of later date than the tragedy.
+
+Close to the site of the shrine is the fine tomb of Edward the Black
+Prince, with a remarkable portrait effigy, and above it his helmet,
+shield and other equipment. There is also in this chapel the tomb of
+King Henry IV. The Corona, at the extreme cast of the church, contains
+the so-called St Augustine's chair in which the archbishops are
+enthroned. It is of marble, but its name is not deserved, as it dates
+probably from c. 1200. The western part of the crypt, beneath the choir,
+is the work of Ernulf, and perhaps incorporates some of Lanfranc's work.
+The chapel of St John or St Gabriel, beneath Anselm's tower, is still
+used for service, in which the French language is used; it was devoted
+to this purpose in 1561, on behalf of French Protestant refugees, who
+were also permitted to carry on their trade as weavers in the crypt. The
+eastern and loftier part of the crypt, with its apsidal termination, is
+the work of William the Englishman. Here for some time lay the body of
+Becket, and here the celebrated penance of Henry II. was performed.
+
+
+  Monastic buildings.
+
+The chief entrance to the precincts is through an ornate gateway at the
+south-west, called Christchurch gateway, and built by Prior Goldstone in
+1517. Among the remains of the monastic buildings there may be mentioned
+the Norman ruins of the infirmary, the fine two-storeyed treasury and
+the lavatory tower, Norman in the lower part and Perpendicular in the
+upper. The cloisters are of various dates, containing a little rich
+Norman work, but were very largely rebuilt by Prior Chillenden. The
+upper part of the chapter-house is also his work, but the lower is by
+Prior de Estria. The library is modern. The site of the New Hall of the
+monastery is covered by modern buildings of King's school, but the
+Norman entry-stair is preserved--a magnificent example of the style,
+with highly ornate arcading.
+
+The principal dimensions of the cathedral arc: length (outside) 522 ft.,
+nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in breadth and 80 ft. in
+height.
+
+
+  Province and diocese.
+
+The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the
+ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England and Wales south of
+Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the diocese covers a great part of Kent with
+a small part of Sussex. The following is a list of archbishops of
+Canterbury:--
+
+   1. Augustine, 597 to 605.           55. Thomas  Bradwardin, 1349.
+   2. Lawrence (Laurentius), 605       56. Simon Islip, 1349 to 1366.
+        to 619.                        57. Simon Langham, 1366 to
+   3. Mellitus, 619 to 624.                 1368.
+   4. Justin. 624 to 627.              58. William Whittlesea, 1368
+   5. Honorius, 627 to 653.                  to 1374.
+   6. Deusdedit (Frithona), 655        59. Simon Sudbury, 1375 to
+        to 664.                              1381.
+   7. Theodore, 668 to 690.            60. William Courtenay, 1381 to
+   8. Brethwald (Berhtuald), 693             1396.
+        to 731.                        61. Thomas Arundel, 1396 to
+   9. Taetwine. 731 to 734.                  1414.
+  10. Nothelm, 734 to 740.             62. Henry Chicheley, 1414 to
+  11. Cuthbert, 740 to 758.                  1443.
+  12. Breogwine, 759 to 762.           63. John Stafford, 1443 to 1452.
+  13. Jaenberht, 763 to 790.           64. John Kemp, 1452 to 1454.
+  14. Aethelhard, 790 to 803.          65. Thomas Bourchier, 1454 to
+  15. Wulfred, 803 to 829.                   1486.
+  16. Fleogild, 829 to 830.            66. John Morton, 1486 to 1500.
+  17. Ceolnoth, 830 to 870.            67. Henry Dean (Dene), 1501 to
+  18. Aethelred, 870 to 889.                 1503.
+  19. Plegemund, 889 to 914.           68. William Warham, 1503 to
+  20. Aethelm, 914 to 923.                   1532.
+  21. Wulfelm, 923 to 942.             69. Thomas Cranmer, 1533 to
+  22. Odo, 942 to 959.                       1556.
+  23. Aelsine, 959.                    70. Reginald Pole, 1556 to 1558.
+  24. Dunstan, 960 to 988.             71. Matthew Parker, 1559 to
+  25. Aethelgar, 988 to 989.                 1575.
+  26. Sigeric, 990 to 994.             72. Edmund Grindal, 1575 to
+  27. Aelfric, 995 to 1005.                  1583.
+  28. Alphege (Aelfeah), 1005  to      73. John Whitgift, 1583 to 1604.
+        1012.                          74. Richard Bancroft, 1604 to
+  29. Lyfing, 1013 to 1020.                  1610.
+  30. Aethelnoth, 1020 to 1038.        75. George Abbot, 1610 to 1633.
+  31. Eadsige, 1038 to 1050.           76. William Laud, 1633 to 1645.
+  32. Robert of Jumieges, 1051 to      77. William Juxon, 1660 to 1663.
+        1052.                          78. Gilbert Sheldon, 1663 to
+  33. Stigand, 1052 to 1070.                 1677.
+  34. Lanfranc, 1070 to 1089.          79. William Sancroft, 1678 to
+  35. Anselm, 1093 to 1109.                  1691.
+  36. Ralph de Turbine,  1114 to       80. John Tillotson, 1691 to 1694.
+        1122.                          81. Thomas Tenison, 1694 to
+  37. William de Corbeuil                    1715.
+        (Curbellio), 1123 to 1136.     82. William Wake, 1716 to 1737.
+  38. Theobald, 1139 to 1161.          83. John Potter, 1737 to 1747.
+  39. Thomas Becket, 1162 to 1170.     84. Thomas Herring, 1747 to
+  40. Richard, 1174 to 1184.                 1757.
+  41. Baldwin, 1185 to 1190.           85. Matthew Hutton, 1757 to
+  42. Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn, 1191.           1758.
+  43. Hubert Walter, 1193 to 1205.     86. Thomas Secker, 1758 to
+  44. Stephen Langton, 1207 to               1768.
+        1228.                          87. Frederick Cornwallis, 1768
+  45. Richard Wethershed, 1229               to 1783.
+        to 1231.                       88. John Moore, 1783 to 1805.
+  46. Edmund Rich (de Abbendon)         89. Charles Manners-Sutton,
+        1234 to 1240.                        1805 to 1828.
+  47. Boniface of Savoy, 1241 to       90. William Howley, 1828 to
+        1270.                                1848.
+  48. Robert Kilwardby, 1273 to        91. John Bird Sumner, 1848 to
+        1278.                                1862.
+  49. John Peckham, 1279 to 1292.      92. Charles Thomas Longley,
+  50. Robert Winchelsea, 1293 to             1862 to 1868.
+        1313.                          93. Archibald Campbell Tait,
+  51. Walter Reynolds, 1313 to               1868 to 1882.
+        1327.                          94. Edward White Benson, 1882
+  52. Simon de Meopham, 1328 to              to 1896.
+        1333.                          95. Frederick Temple, 1896 to
+  53. John Stratford, 1333 to 1348.          1903
+  54. John de Ufford, 1348 to 1349.    96. Randall Thomas Davidson.
+
+The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth Palace, London. There are fragments
+in Palace Street of the old archbishop's palace which have been
+incorporated with a modern palace.
+
+_Other Ecclesiastical Foundations._--Canterbury naturally abounded in
+religious foundations. The most important, apart from the cathedral, was
+the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine. This was erected on a site
+granted by King Aethelberht outside his capital, in a tract called
+Longport. Augustine dedicated it to St Peter and St Paul, but Archbishop
+Dunstan added the sainted name of the founder to the dedication, and in
+common use it came to exclude those of the apostles. The site is now
+occupied by St Augustine's Missionary College, founded in 1844 when the
+property was acquired by A.J.B. Beresford Hope. Some ancient remnants
+are preserved, the principal being the entrance gateway (1300), with the
+cemetery gate, dated a century later, and the guest hall, now the
+refectory; but the scanty ruins of St Pancras' chapel are of high
+interest, and embody Roman material. The chapel is said to have received
+its dedication from St Augustine on account of the special association
+of St Pancras with children, and in connexion with the famous story of
+St Gregory, w hose attention was first attracted to Britain when he saw
+the fair-faced children of the Angles who had been brought to Rome, and
+termed them "not Angles but angels."
+
+There were lesser houses of many religious orders in Canterbury, but
+only two, those of the Dominicans near St Peter's church in St Peter's
+Street, and the Franciscans, also in St Peter's Street, have left
+notable remains. The Dominican refectory is used as a chapel. Among the
+many churches, St Martin's, Longport, is of the first interest. This was
+the scene of the earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury, and had seen
+Christian service before his arrival. Its walls contain Roman masonry,
+but whether it is in part a genuine remnant of a Romano-British
+Christian church is open to doubt. There are Norman, Early English and
+later portions; and the font may be in part pre-Norman, and is indeed
+associated by tradition with the baptism of Aethelberht himself. St
+Mildred's church exhibits Early English and Perpendicular work, and the
+use of Roman material is again visible here. St Paul's is of Early
+English origin; St Dunstan's, St Peter's and Holy Cross are mainly
+Decorated and Perpendicular. The village of Harbledown, on the hill west
+of Canterbury on the London road, from the neighbourhood of which a
+beautiful view over the city is obtained, has many associations with the
+ecclesiastical life of Canterbury. It is mentioned by Chaucer in his
+pilgrimage under the name, appropriate to its site, of "Bob up and
+down." The almshouses, which occupy the site of Lanfranc's hospital for
+lepers, include an ancient hall and a chapel in which the west door and
+northern nave arcade are Norman, and are doubtless part of Lanfranc's
+buildings. The neighbouring parish church is in great part rebuilt.
+Among the numerous charitable institutions in Canterbury there are
+several which may be called the descendants of medieval ecclesiastical
+foundations.
+
+_City Buildings, &c._--The old city walls may be traced, and the public
+walk called the Dane John (derived probably from _donjon_) follows the
+summit of a high artificial mound within the lines. The cathedral is
+finely seen from this point. Only the massive turreted west gate, of the
+later part of the 14th century, remains out of the former six city
+gates. The site of the castle is not far from the Dane John, and enough
+remains of the Norman keep to show its strength and great size. Among
+other buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the guildhall in
+High Street, of the early part of the 18th century; the museum, which
+includes a fine collection of local, including many Roman, relics; and
+the school of art, under municipal management, but founded by the
+painter T. Sidney Cooper (d. 1902), who was a resident at Harbledown. A
+modern statue of a muse commemorates the poet Christopher Marlowe
+(1564-1593), a native of the city; and a pillar indicates the place
+where a number of persons were burnt at the stake in the reign of Mary.
+
+The King's school, occupying buildings adjacent to the cathedral,
+developed out of the early teaching furnished by the monastery. It was
+refounded by Henry VIII. in 1541 (whence its name), and is managed on
+the lines of ordinary public schools. It has about 250 boys; and there
+is besides a junior or preparatory school. The school is still connected
+with the ecclesiastical foundation, the dean and chapter being its
+governors.
+
+A noted occasion of festivity in Canterbury is the Canterbury
+cricket-week, when the Kent county cricket eleven engages in matches
+with other first-class teams, and many visitors are attracted to the
+city.
+
+Canterbury has a considerable agriculture trade, breweries, tanneries,
+brickworks and other manufactures. The parliamentary borough returns one
+member. The city is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+Area, 3955 acres.
+
+_History of the City._--The existence of a Romano-British town on the
+site of Canterbury has already been indicated. It was named
+_Durovernum_, and was a flourishing county town on the road from the
+Kentish ports to London. Mosaic pavements and other remains have been
+found in considerable abundance. The city, known by the Saxons as
+_Cantwaraburh_, the town of the men of Kent, was the metropolis of
+Aethelberht's kingdom. At the time of the Domesday survey Canterbury
+formed part of the royal demesne and was governed by a portreeve as it
+had been before the Conquest. In the 13th and 14th centuries, two
+bailiffs presided over the burghmote, assisted by a larger and smaller
+council. Henry II., by an undated charter, confirmed former privileges
+and granted to the citizens that no one should implead them outside the
+city walls and that the pleas of the crown should be decided according
+to the customs of the city. In 1256 Henry III. granted them the city at
+an annual fee farm of L60, also the right of electing their bailiffs.
+Confirmations of former charters with additional liberties were granted
+by later sovereigns, and Henry VI. incorporated Canterbury, which he
+called "one of our most ancient cities," under the style of the mayor
+and commonalty, the mayor to be elected by the burgesses. James I. in
+1609 confirmed these privileges, giving the burgesses the right to be
+called a body corporate and to elect twelve aldermen and a common
+council of twenty-four. Charles II., after calling in the charters of
+corporations, granted a confirmation in 1684. Canterbury was first
+represented in parliament in 1283, and it continued to return two
+members until 1885, when the number was reduced to one. A fair was
+granted by Henry VI. to the citizens to be held in the city or suburbs
+on the 4th of August and the two days following; other fairs were in the
+hands of the monasteries; the corn and cattle markets and a general
+market have been held by prescription from time immemorial. Canterbury
+was a great centre of the silk-weaving trade in the 17th century, large
+numbers of Walloons, driven by persecution to England, having settled
+there in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1676 Charles II. granted a charter
+of incorporation to the Walloon congregation under style of the master,
+wardens and fellowship of weavers in the city of Canterbury. The market
+for the sale of corn and hops was regulated by a local act in 1801.
+
+  See A.P. Stanley, _Historical Memorials of Canterbury_ (London, 1855);
+  J. Brent, _Canterbury in the Olden Time_ (Canterbury, 1879); J.W. Legg
+  and W.H. St J. Hope, _Inventories of Christchurch, Canterbury_
+  (London, 1902); _Victoria County History, Kent_.
+
+
+
+
+CANTHARIDES, or SPANISH FLIES, the common blister-beetles (_Cantharis
+vesicatoria_) of European pharmacy. They are bright, iridescent,
+golden-green or bluish-coloured beetles (see COLEOPTERA), with the
+breast finely punctured and pubescent, head and thorax with a
+longitudinal channel, and elytra with two slightly elevated lines. The
+insect is from half-an-inch to an inch in length, and from one to two
+lines broad, the female being broader in the abdomen and altogether
+larger than the male. It is a native of the south of Europe, being found
+in Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the south of Russia, and
+it is also obtained in Siberia. The Spanish fly is also occasionally
+found in the south of England. The insects feed upon ash, lilac, privet
+and jasmine leaves, and are found more rarely on elder, rose, apple and
+poplar trees. Their presence is made known by a powerful disagreeable
+odour, which penetrates to a considerable distance. They are collected
+for use at late evening or early morning, while in a dull bedewed
+condition, by shaking them off the trees or shrubs into cloths spread on
+the ground; and they are killed by dipping them into hot water or
+vinegar, or by exposing them for some time over the vapour of vinegar.
+They are then dried and put up for preservation in glass-stoppered
+bottles; and they require to be very carefully guarded against mites and
+various other minute insects, to the attacks of which they are
+peculiarly liable. It has been shown by means of spectroscopic
+observations that the green colour of the elytra, &c., is due to the
+presence of chlorophyll; and that the variations of the spectral bands
+are sufficient, after the lapse of many years, to indicate with some
+certainty the kind of leaves on which the insects were feeding shortly
+before they were killed.
+
+Cantharides owe their value to the presence of a peculiar chemical
+principle, to which the name _cantharidin_ has been given. It is most
+abundant in large full-grown insects, while in very young specimens no
+cantharidin at all has been found. From about one-fourth to rather more
+than one-half per cent, of cantharidin has been obtained from different
+samples; and it has been ascertained that the elytra or wing-sheaths of
+the insect, which alone are used in pharmacy, contain more of the active
+principle than the soft parts taken together; but apparently
+cantharidin is most abundant in the eggs and generative organs.
+
+Cantharidin constitutes from 1/2 to 1% of cantharides. It has the
+formula C10H14O4, and on hydrolysis is converted into cantharinic acid,
+C10H14O5. It crystallizes in colourless plates and is readily soluble in
+alcohol, ether, &c., but not in water. The British Pharmacopeia contains
+a large number of preparations of cantharides, but the only one needing
+special mention is the tincture, which is meant for internal
+administration; the small dose is noteworthy, five minims being probably
+the maximum for safety.
+
+The external action of cantharides or cantharidin is extremely
+characteristic. When it is applied to the skin there are no obvious
+consequences for some hours. Thereafter the part becomes warm and
+painful, owing to marked local vascular dilatation. This is the typical
+_rubefacient_ action. Soon afterwards there is an accumulation under the
+epidermis of a serum derived from the dilated blood-vessels. The
+numerous small blisters or vesicles thus derived coalesce, forming a
+large sac full of "blister-fluid." The drug is described as a
+counter-irritant, though the explanation of this action is very
+doubtful. Apparently there is an influence on the afferent nerves of the
+part which causes a reflex contraction--some authors say dilatation--of
+the vessels in the internal organs that are under the control of the
+same segment of the nervous system as that supplying the area of skin
+from which the exciting impulse comes. When applied in this fashion a
+certain quantity of the cantharides is absorbed.
+
+Taken internally in any but minute doses, the drug causes the most
+severe gastro-intestinal irritation, the vomited and evacuated matters
+containing blood, and the patient suffering agonizing pain and extreme
+depression. The further characteristic symptoms are displayed in the
+genito-urinary tract. The drug circulates in the blood in the form of an
+albuminate and is slowly excreted by the kidneys. The effect of large
+doses is to cause great pain in the renal region and urgent wish to
+micturate. The urine is nevertheless small in amount and contains
+albumen and blood owing to the local inflammation produced in the kidney
+by the passage of the poison through that organ. The drug often has a
+marked aphrodisiac action, producing priapism, or in the female sex the
+onset of the catamenia or abortion.
+
+Cantharides is used externally for its counter-irritant action. There
+are certain definite contra-indications to its use. It must not be
+employed in cases of renal disease, owing to the risks attendant upon
+absorption. It must always be employed with caution in the case of
+elderly persons and children; and it must not be applied to a paralysed
+limb (in which the power of healing is deficient), nor to parts upon
+which the patient lies, as otherwise a bed-sore is likely to follow its
+use. The drug is administered internally in certain cases of impotence
+and occasionally in other conditions. Its criminal employment is usually
+intended to heighten sexual desire, and has frequently led to death.
+
+The toxic symptoms have already been detailed, the patient usually dying
+from arrest of the renal functions. The treatment is far from
+satisfactory, and consists in keeping up the strength and diluting the
+poison in the blood and in the urine by the administration of bland
+fluids, such as soda-water, milk and plain water, in quantities as large
+as possible. External warmth should also be applied to the regions
+specially affected by the drug.
+
+A very large number of other insects belonging to the same family
+possess blistering properties, owing to their containing cantharidin. Of
+these the most remarkable is the Telini "fly" of India (_Mylabris
+cichorii_), the range of which extends from Italy and Greece through
+Egypt and central Asia as far as China. It is very rich in cantharidin,
+yielding fully twice as much as ordinary cantharides. Several
+green-coloured beetles are, on account of their colour, used as
+adulterants to cantharides, but they are very easily detected by
+examination with the eye, or, if powdered, with the microscope.
+
+
+
+
+CANTICLES. The Old Testament book of Canticles, or the Song of Solomon,
+is called in Hebrew _The Song of Songs_ (that is, _the choicest of
+songs_), or, according to the full title which stands as the first verse
+of the book, _The choicest of the songs of Solomon_. In the Western
+versions the book holds the third place among the so-called Solomonic
+writings, following Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. In Hebrew Bibles it
+stands among the _Megilloth_, the five books of the Hagiographa which
+have a prominent place in the Synagogue service. In printed Bibles and
+in German MSS. it is the first of these because it is read at the
+Passover, which is the first great feast of the sacred year of the Jews.
+
+No part of the Bible has called forth a greater diversity of opinions
+than the Song of Solomon, and this for two reasons. In the first place,
+the book holds so unique a position in the Old Testament, that the
+general analogy of Hebrew literature is a very inadequate key to the
+verbal difficulties, the artistic structure, and the general conception
+and purpose of the poem. In point of language the departures from
+ordinary Hebrew are almost always in the direction of Aramaic. Many
+forms unique in Biblical Hebrew are at once explained by the Aramaic
+dialects, but not a few are still obscure. The philological difficulties
+of the book are, however, less fundamental than those which lie in the
+unique character of the Song of Solomon in point of artistic form, and
+in the whole atmosphere of thought and feeling in which it moves. Even
+in these respects it is not absolutely isolated. Parallels to the
+peculiar imagery may be found in the book of Hosea, in Ezekiel xvi. and
+xxiii. and above all in the 45th Psalm; but such links of union to the
+general mass of the Old Testament literature are too slight to be of
+material assistance in the solution of the literary problem of the book.
+Here, again, as in the lexical difficulties already referred to, we are
+tempted or compelled to argue from the distant and insecure analogy of
+other Eastern literatures, or are thrown back upon traditions of
+uncertain origin and ambiguous authority.
+
+The power of tradition has been the second great source of confusion of
+opinion about the Song of Solomon. To tradition we owe the title, which
+apparently indicates Solomon as the author and not merely as the subject
+of the book. The authority of titles in the Old Testament is often
+questionable, and in the present case it is certain on linguistic
+grounds that the title is not from the hand that wrote the poem; while
+to admit that it gives a correct account of the authorship is to cut
+away at one stroke all the most certain threads of connexion between the
+book and our historical knowledge of the Old Testament people and
+literature.
+
+To tradition, again, we owe the prejudice in favour of an allegorical
+interpretation, that is, of the view that from verse to verse the Song
+sets forth the history of a spiritual and not merely of an earthly love.
+To apply such an exegesis to Canticles is to violate one of the first
+principles of reasonable interpretation. True allegories are never
+without internal marks of their allegorical design. The language of
+symbol is not so perfect that a long chain of spiritual ideas can be
+developed without the use of a single spiritual word or phrase; and even
+were this possible it would be false art in the allegorist to hide away
+his sacred thoughts behind a screen of sensuous and erotic imagery, so
+complete and beautiful in itself as to give no suggestion that it is
+only the vehicle of a deeper sense. Apart from tradition, no one, in the
+present state of exegesis, would dream of allegorizing poetry which in
+its natural sense is so full of purpose and meaning, so apt in
+sentiment, and so perfect in imagery as the lyrics of Canticles. We are
+not at liberty to seek for allegory except where the natural sense is
+incomplete. This is not the case in the Song of Solomon. On the
+contrary, every form of the allegorical interpretation which has been
+devised carries its own condemnation in the fact that it takes away from
+the artistic unity of the poem and breaks natural sequences of
+thought.[1] The allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon bad
+its rise in the very same conditions which forced a deeper sense, now
+universally discarded, upon so many other parts of scripture. Yet
+strangely enough there is no evidence that the Jews of Alexandria
+extended to the book their favourite methods of interpretation. The
+arguments which have been adduced to prove that the Septuagint
+translation implies an allegorical exegesis are inadequate;[2] and Philo
+does not mention the book. Nor is there any allusion to Canticles in the
+New Testament. The first trace of an allegorical view identifying Israel
+with the "spouse" appears to be in the Fourth Book of Ezra, near the
+close of the 1st Christian century (v. 24, 26; vii. 26). Up to this time
+the canonicity of the Canticles was not unquestioned; and the final
+decision as to the sanctity of the book, so energetically carried
+through by R. Aqiba, when he declared that "the whole world is not worth
+the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; for all the
+scriptures (or Hagiographa) are holy, but the Canticles most holy," must
+be understood as being at the same time a victory of the allegorical
+interpretation over the last remains of a view which regarded the poem
+as simply erotic.[3]
+
+The form in which the allegorical theory became fixed in the synagogue
+is contained in the Midrash _Chazita_ and in the Targum, which is a
+commentary rather than a translation. The spouse is Israel, her royal
+lover the divine king, and the poem is explained as tracing the great
+events of the people's history from the Exodus to the Messianic glory
+and final restoration.[4]
+
+The authority of Origen, who, according to Jerome, surpassed himself in
+his commentary of ten volumes on this book, established the allegorical
+theory in the Christian church in the two main forms in which it has
+since prevailed. The bridegroom is Christ, the bride either the church
+or the believing soul. The latter conception is, of course, that which
+lends itself most readily to purposes of mystical edification, and which
+has made Canticles the manual in all ages of a wide-spread type of
+religious contemplation. But the other view, which identifies the bride
+with the church, must be regarded as the standard of orthodox exegesis.
+Of course the allegorical principle admitted of very various
+modifications, and readily adapted itself to new religious developments,
+such as the rise of Mariolatry. Within the limits of the orthodox
+traditions the allegory took various colours, according as its mystical
+or its prophetical aspect was insisted on. Among medieval commentators
+of the former class S. Bernard holds a pre-eminent place; while the
+second class is represented by Nicolaus de Lyra, who, himself a
+converted Jew, modified the Jewish interpretation so as to find in the
+book an account of the _processus ecclesiae_ under the Old and New
+Testaments. The prophetic exegesis reached its culminating point in the
+post-Reformation period, when Cocceius found in the Canticles a complete
+conspectus of church history. But the relaxation of traditional
+authority opened the door to still stranger vagaries of interpretation.
+Luther was tempted to understand the book of the political relations of
+Solomon and his people. Others detected the loves of Solomon and
+Wisdom--a view which found a supporter in Rosenmuller.
+
+The history of the literal interpretation begins with the great
+"commentator" of the Syrian Church, Theodorus of Mopsuestia (died 429),
+who condemned equally the attempt to find in the book a prophecy of the
+blessings given to the church, and the idea even at that time expressed
+in some quarters that the book is immoral. Theodorus regarded the
+Canticles as a poem written by Solomon in answer to the complaints of
+his people about his Egyptian marriage; and this was one of the heresies
+charged upon him after his death, which led to his condemnation at the
+second council of Constantinople (553 A.D.). A literal interpretation
+was not again attempted till in 1544 Chateillon (Castellio or Castalion)
+lost his regency at Geneva for proposing to expel the book from the
+canon as impure. Grotius (_Annot. in V.T._, 1644) took up a more
+moderate position. Without denying the possibility of a secondary
+reference designed by Solomon to give his poem a more permanent value,
+he regards the Canticles as primarily an [Greek: oaristys] (conjugal
+prattle) between Solomon and Pharaoh's daughter. The distinction of a
+primary and secondary sense gradually became current not only among the
+Remonstrants, but in England (Lightfoot, Lowth) and even in Catholic
+circles (Bossuet, 1693). In the actual understanding of the book in its
+literal sense no great progress was made. Solomon was still viewed as
+the author, and for the most part the idea that the poem is a dramatic
+epithalamium was borrowed from Origen and the allegorists, and applied
+to the marriage of Pharaoh's daughter.
+
+From Grotius to Lowth the idea of a typical reference designed by
+Solomon himself appears as a mere excrescence on the natural
+interpretation, but as an excrescence which could not be removed without
+perilling the place of Canticles in the canon, which, indeed, was again
+assailed by Whiston in 1723. But in his notes on Lowth's lectures, J.D.
+Michaelis, who regarded the poem as a description of the enduring
+happiness of true wedded love long after marriage, proposed to drop the
+allegory altogether, and to rest the canonicity of the book, as of those
+parts of Proverbs which treat of conjugal affection, on the moral
+picture it presents (1758).
+
+Then came Herder's exquisite little treatise on _Solomon's Songs of
+Love, the Oldest and Sweetest of the East_ (1778). Herder, possessing
+delicacy of taste and sympathetic poetical genius, delighted in the
+Canticles as the transparently natural expression of innocent and tender
+love. He expressed the idea that the poem is simply a sequence of
+independent songs without inner unity, grouped so as to display various
+phases and stages of love in a natural order, culminating in the placid
+joys of wedded life. The theory of Herder, which refuses to acknowledge
+any continuity in the book, was accepted by Eichhorn on the part of
+scholars, and with some hesitation by Goethe on the part of the poets.
+Commentaries based on this view are those of Dopke (1829), Magnus
+(1842), Noyes (1846).
+
+The prevalent view of the 19th century, however, recognizes in the poem
+a more or less pronounced dramatic character, and following Jacobi
+(1771) distinguishes the shepherd, the true love of the Shulamite, from
+King Solomon, who is made to play an ignominious part. Propounded by
+Staudlin (1792) and Ammon (1795), this view was energetically carried
+out by Umbreit (1820), and above all by Ewald, whose acuteness gave the
+theory a new development, while his commanding influence among Hebrew
+scholars acquired for it general recognition. Ewald assumed a very
+simple dramatic structure, and did not in his first publication (1826)
+venture to suppose that the poem had ever been acted on a stage. His
+less cautious followers have been generally tempted to dispose of
+difficulties by introducing more complicated action and additional
+interlocutors (so, for example, Hitzig, 1855; Ginsburg, 1857; Renan,
+1860); while Bottcher (1850) did his best to reduce the dramatic
+exposition to absurdity by introducing the complexities and stage
+effects of a modern operetta. Another view is that of Delitzsch (1851
+and 1875) and his followers, who also plead for a dramatic form--though
+without supposing that the piece was ever acted--but adhere to the
+traditional notion that Solomon is the author, who celebrates his love
+to a peasant maiden, whom he made his wife, and in whose company the
+proud monarch learned to appreciate the sweetness of a true affection
+and a simple rustic life.
+
+In view of the prevalence of the "dramatic" theory of Canticles during
+the 19th century, and its retention by some comparatively recent writers
+(Oettli, Driver, Adeney, Harper), it seems desirable that this theory
+should be presented in some detail. A convenient summary of the form it
+assumed in the hands of Ewald (the shepherd-hypothesis) and of Delitzsch
+(the king-hypothesis) is given by Driver (_Literature of the Old
+Testament_, ch. x. S 1). The following presentation of the theory, on
+the general lines of Ewald, gives that form of it which Robertson Smith
+was able to accept in 1876.
+
+The centre of attraction is throughout a female figure, and the unity of
+this figure is the chief test of the unity of the book. In the long
+canto, i. 1-ii. 7, the heroine appears in a royal palace (i. 4) among the
+daughters of Jerusalem, who are thus presumably ladies of the court of
+Zion. At i. 9, an additional interlocutor is introduced, who is plainly a
+king, and apparently Solomon (i. 9, 12). He has just risen from table,
+and praises the charms of the heroine with the air of a judge of beauty,
+but without warmth. He addresses her simply as "my friend" (not as
+English version, "my love"). The heroine, on the contrary, is
+passionately in love, but nothing can be plainer than that the object of
+her affection is not the king. She is not at home in the palace, for she
+explains (i. 6) that she has spent her life as a peasant girl in the care
+of vineyards. Her beloved, whom she knows not where to find (i. 7), but
+who lies constantly on her heart and is cherished in her bosom like a
+spray of the sweet henna flowers which Oriental ladies delight to wear
+(i. 13, 14), is like herself a peasant--a shepherd lad (i. 7)--with whom
+she was wont to sit in the fresh greenwood under the mighty boughs of
+the cedars (i. 16, 17). Even before the king's entrance the ladies of the
+court are impatient at so silly an affection, and advise her, "if she is
+really so witless," to begone and rejoin her plebeian lover (i. 8). To
+them she appeals in ii. 5, 6, where her self-control, strung to the
+highest pitch as she meets the compliments of the king with
+reminiscences of her absent lover, breaks down in a fit of
+half-delirious sickness. The only words directed to the king are those
+of i. 12, which, if past tenses are substituted for the presents of the
+English version, contain a pointed rebuff. Finally, ii. 7 is, on the
+plainest translation, a charge not to arouse love till it please. The
+moral of the scene is the spontaneity of true affection.
+
+Now, at viii. 5, a female figure advances leaning upon her beloved, with
+whom she claims inseparable union,--"for love is strong as death, its
+passion inflexible as the grave, its fire a divine flame which no waters
+can quench or floods drown. Yea, if a man would give all his wealth for
+love he would only be contemned." This is obviously the sentiment of ii.
+7, and the suitor, whose wealth is despised, must almost of necessity be
+identified with the king of chapter i., if, as seems reasonable, we
+place viii. ii, 12 in the mouth of the same speaker--"King Solomon has
+vineyards which bring him a princely revenue, and enrich even the
+farmers. Let him and them keep their wealth; my vineyard is before me"
+(i.e. I possess it in present fruition). The last expression is plainly
+to be connected with i. 6. But this happiness has not been reached
+without a struggle. The speaker has proved herself an impregnable
+fortress (ver. 10), and, armed only with her own beauty and innocence,
+has been in his eyes as one that found peace. The sense is that, like a
+virgin fortress, she has compelled her assailant to leave her in peace.
+To these marks of identity with the heroine of ch. i. are to be added
+that she appears here as dwelling in gardens, there as a keeper of
+vineyards (i. 6, and viii. 13), and that as there it was her brethren
+that prescribed her duties, so here she apparently quotes words in which
+her brothers, while she was still a child, speculated as to her future
+conduct and its reward (viii. 8, 9).
+
+If this analysis of the commencement and close of the book is correct,
+it is certain that the poem is in a sense dramatic, that is, that it
+uses dialogue and monologue to develop a story. The heroine appears in
+the opening scene in a difficult and painful situation, from which in
+the last chapter she is happily extricated. But the dramatic progress
+which the poem exhibits scarcely involves a plot in the usual sense of
+that word. The words of viii. 9, 10 clearly indicate that the
+deliverance of the heroine is due to no combination of favouring
+circumstances, but to her own inflexible fidelity and virtue.
+
+The constant direction of the maiden's mind to her true love is partly
+expressed in dialogue with the ladies of the court (the daughters of
+Jerusalem), who have no dramatic individuality, and whose only function
+in the economy of the piece is to give the heroine opportunity for a
+more varied expression of her feelings. In i. 8 we found them
+contemptuous. In chapter iii. they appear to be still indifferent; for
+when the heroine relates a dream in which the dull pain of separation
+and the uneasy consciousness of confinement and danger in the
+unsympathetic city disappear for a moment in imagined reunion with her
+lover, they are either altogether silent or reply only by taking up a
+festal part song describing the marriage procession of King Solomon
+(iii. 6-11), which stands in jarring contrast to the feelings of the
+maiden.[5] A second dream (v. 2-8), more weird and melancholy, and
+constructed with that singular psychological felicity which
+characterizes the dreams of the Old Testament, gains more sympathy, and
+the heroine is encouraged to describe her beloved at large (v. 10-vi.
+3). The structure of these dialogues is so simple, and their purpose is
+so strictly limited to the exhibition of the character and affection of
+the maiden, that it is only natural to find them supplemented by a free
+use of pure monologue, in which the heroine recalls the happiness of
+past days, or expresses her rising hope of reunion with her shepherd,
+and restoration to the simple joys of her rustic life. The vivid
+reminiscence of ii. 8-17 takes the form of a dialogue within the main
+dialogue of the poem, a picture within a picture--the picture of her
+beloved as he stood at her window in the early spring time, and of her
+own merry heart as she laughingly answered him in the song with which
+watchers of the vineyards frighten away the foxes. It is, of course, a
+fault of perspective that this reminiscence is as sharp in outline and
+as strong in colour as the main action. But no one can expect
+perspective in such early art, and recollection of the past is clearly
+enough separated from present reality by ii. 16, 17. The last monologue
+(vii. 10-viii. 3), in which the hope of immediate return with her lover
+is tempered by maidenly shame, and a maiden's desire for her mother's
+counsel, is of special value for a right appreciation of the psychology
+of the love which the poem celebrates, and completes a picture of this
+flower of the northern valleys which is not only firm in outline, but
+delicate in touch. The subordinate action which supports the portraiture
+of the maiden of Galilee is by no means easy to understand.
+
+We come next to chapter vi., which again sings the praises of the
+heroine, and takes occasion in this connexion to introduce, with the
+same want of perspective as we observed in ch. ii., a dialogue
+descriptive of Solomon's first meeting with the maiden. We learn that
+she was an inhabitant of Shulem or Shunem in Issachar, whom the king and
+his train surprised in a garden on the occasion of a royal progress
+through the north. Her beauty drew from the ladies of the court a cry of
+admiration. The maiden shrinks back with the reply--"I was gone down
+into my garden to see its growth.... I know not how my soul hath brought
+me among the chariots of princes"; but she is commanded to turn and let
+herself be seen in spite of her bashful protest--"Why do ye gaze on the
+Shulamite as at a dance of Mahanaim (a spectacle)?" Now the person in
+whose mouth this relation is placed must be an eye-witness of the scene,
+and so none other than the king. But in spite of the verbal repetition
+of several of the figures of ch. iv.... the tone in which the king now
+addresses the Shulamite is quite changed. She is not only beautiful but
+terrible, her eyes trouble him, and he cannot endure their gaze. She is
+unique among women, the choice and only one of her mother. The unity of
+action can only be maintained by ignoring vii. 1-9, and taking the words
+of Solomon in chapter vi. in their obvious sense as implying that the
+king at length recognizes in the maiden qualities of soul unknown in the
+harem, a character which compels respect, as well as a beauty that
+inflames desire. The change of feeling which was wrought in the
+daughters of Jerusalem in the previous scene now extends to Solomon
+himself, and thus the glad utterances of vii. 10, seq., have a
+sufficient motive, and the _denouement_ is no longer violent and
+unprepared.
+
+The _nodus_ of the action is fully given in chapter i., the final issue
+in chapter viii. The solution lies entirely in the character and
+constancy of the heroine, which prevail, in the simplest possible way,
+first over the ladies of the court and then over the king.
+
+The attractiveness of the above theory cannot be denied; but it may be
+asked whether the attraction does not lie in the appeal to modern taste
+of a story which is largely the product of modern imagination. It
+supposes a freedom of intercourse between lovers inconceivable for the
+East. The initial situation of the maiden in the harem of Solomon is
+left as a problem for the reader to discover, until he comes to its
+supposed origin in vi. 11; the expedient might be granted in the case of
+one of Browning's _Men and Women_, but seems very improbable in the
+present case. The more elaborate dramatic theories can find no parallel
+in Semitic literature to the "drama" of Canticles, the book of Job being
+no exception to this statement; whilst even the simpler theories ask us
+to believe that the essential parts of the story--the rape of the
+Shulamite, the change in Solomon's disposition, her release from the
+harem--are to be supplied by the reader from obscure and disputable
+references. More serious still is the fact that any progress of action
+from first to last is so difficult to prove. In the first chapter we
+listen to a woman speaker desiring to be kissed by the man who has
+brought her into his chambers, and speaking of "our bed"; in the last we
+leave her "leaning upon her beloved." The difficulties of detail are
+equally great. To suppose that all the male love-making, by hypothesis
+unsuccessful, belongs to Solomon, whilst the heroine addresses her
+passionate words to the continuously absent shepherd, is obviously
+unconvincing; yet, if this shepherd speaks in iv. 8-v. 1, how are we to
+explain his appearance in the royal harem? This and other difficulties
+were acknowledged by Robertson Smith, notably the presence of vii. 1-9,
+which he proposed to set aside as an interpolation, because of its
+sensuality and of the difficulty of working it into the dramatic scheme.
+The fact that this passage has subsequently become the central element
+in the new interpretation of the book is, perhaps, a warning against
+violent measures with difficulties.
+
+Attention has already been drawn to Herder's proposal, accepted by some
+later writers, including Diestel and Reuss, to regard the book as a
+collection of detached songs. This received new and striking
+confirmation from the anthropological data supplied by J.G. Wetstein
+(1873), Prussian consul at Damascus. His observations of the wedding
+customs of Syrian peasants led him to believe that Canticles is
+substantially a collection of songs originally sung at such festivities.
+Wetstein's contribution was republished shortly afterwards by Delitzsch,
+in an appendix to his _Commentary_; but it received little attention.
+The first amongst Old Testament scholars to perceive its importance
+seems to have been Stade, who accepted Wetstein's view in a footnote to
+his _History of the Jewish People_ (ii. p. 197), published in 1888; to
+Budde, however, belongs the distinction of the systematic and detailed
+use of Wetstein's suggestions, especially in his _Commentary_ (1898).
+This interpretation of the book is accepted by Kautzsch (1896),
+Siegfried (1898), Cheyne (1899), and other eminent scholars. The
+last-named states the theory tersely as follows: "The book is an
+anthology of songs used at marriage festivals in or near Jerusalem,
+revised and loosely connected by an editor without regard to temporal
+sequence" (_Ency. Bibl._ 691). The character of the evidence which has
+contributed to the acceptance of this view may be indicated in
+Wetstein's own statements:--
+
+  "The finest time in the life of the Syrian peasant consists of the
+  first seven days after his wedding, in which he and his young wife
+  play the part of king (_melik_) and queen (_melika_), both being so
+  treated and served by their village and the invited communities of the
+  neighbourhood. The majority of the greater village weddings fall in
+  the month of March, the finest of the Syrian year. The winter rains
+  being over, and the sun still refreshing, not oppressive as in the
+  following months, the weddings are celebrated in the open air on the
+  village threshing-floor, which at this time of the year is with few
+  exceptions a flowery mead. ...We pass over the wedding-day itself with
+  its displays, the sword-dance of the bride, and the great feast. On
+  the morrow, bridegroom and bride awake as king and queen. Already
+  before sunrise they receive the leader of the bridesmen, as their
+  vizier, and the bridesmen themselves; the latter thereupon fetch the
+  threshing-board and bring it to the threshing-floor, singing a rousing
+  song of battle or love, generally both. There it is erected as a
+  throne, and after the royal couple have taken their seats and the
+  necessary formalities are gone through, a great dance in honour of the
+  young couple begins; the accompanying song is concerned only with
+  themselves, its principal element being the inevitable _wasf_, i.e. a
+  description of the physical perfections of both and their ornaments.
+  The eulogy of the queen is more moderate, and praises her visible,
+  rather than veiled, charms; this is due to the fact that she is to-day
+  a married woman, and that the _wasf_ sung on the previous day during
+  her sword-dance has left nothing to desire. This _wasf_ is the weak
+  element in Syrian wedding-songs according to our taste; its
+  comparisons are to us frequently too clumsy and reveal the stereotyped
+  pattern. It is the same with the little collection of charming
+  wedding-songs and fragments of them which has been received into the
+  canon of the Old Testament under the name of Canticles; the _wasf_
+  (iv.--vii.) is considerably below the rest in poetical value. With
+  this dance begin the sports, lasting seven days, begun in the morning
+  on the first, shortly before midday on the other days, and continuing
+  far into the night by the light of the fires that are kindled; on the
+  last day alone all is over by sunset. During the whole week both
+  royalties are in marriage attire, must do no work and have no cares;
+  they have only to look down from the _merteba_ (throne) on the sports
+  carried on before them, in which they themselves take but a moderate
+  part; the queen, however, occasionally gives a short dance to attract
+  attention to her bridal attire."[6]
+
+For the general application of these and the related customs to the
+interpretation of the book, reference should be made to Budde's
+_Commentary_, which recognizes four _wasfs_, viz. iv. 1-7 (describing
+the bride from head to breasts), v. 10-16 (the bridegroom), vi. 4-7
+(similar to and partly repeating iv. 1-7), and vii. 1-9, belonging to
+the sword-dance of the bride, her physical charms being sung from feet
+to head (cf. vii. 1; "Why look ye on the Shulamite as (on) a dance of
+camps?" i.e. a war-dance). This dance receives its name from the fact
+that she dances it with a sword in her hand in the firelight on the
+evening of her wedding-day, and amid a circle of men and women, whilst
+such a _wasf_ as this is sung by the leader of the choir. The passage
+relating to the litter of Solomon (iii. 6-11)--an old difficulty with
+the dramatizers--relates to the erection of the throne on the
+threshing-floor.[7] The terms "Solomon" and "the Shulamite" are
+explained as figurative references to the famous king, and to Abishag
+the Shulamite, "fairest among women," on the lines of the use of "king"
+and "queen" noted above. Other songs of Canticles are referred by Budde
+to the seven days of festivities. It need hardly be said that
+difficulties still remain in the analysis of this book of wedding-songs;
+whilst Budde detects 23 songs, besides fragments, Siegfried divides the
+book into 10.[8] Such differences are to be expected in the case of a
+collection of songs, some admittedly in dialogue form, all concerned
+with the common theme of the love of man and woman, and without any
+external indication of the transition from one song to the next.
+
+Further, we must ask whether the task has been complicated by any
+editorial rearrangement or interpolation; the collector of these songs
+has certainly not reproduced them in the order of their use at Syrian
+weddings. Can we trace any principle, or even any dominant thought in
+this arrangement? In this connexion we touch the reason for the
+reluctance of some scholars to accept the above interpretation, viz. the
+alleged marks of literary unity which the book contains (e.g. Driver,
+_loc. cit._). These are (1) general similarity of treatment, seen in the
+use of imagery (the bride as a garden, iv. 12; vi. 2, 3), the frequent
+references to nature and to particular places, and the recurrence of
+descriptions of male and female beauty; (2) references to "Solomon" or
+"the king," to "the Shulamite" and to "the daughters of Jerusalem" (from
+which, indeed, the dramatic theory has found its chief inspiration); (3)
+indications that the same person is speaking in different places (cf.
+the two dreams of a woman, and the vineyard references, i. 6; viii. 12);
+(4) repetitions of words and phrases especially of the refrains,
+"disturb not love" (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and "until the day break"
+(ii. 17; iv. 6). But of these (1) is no more than should be expected,
+since the songs all relate to the same subject, and spring from a common
+world of life and thought of the same group of people; (2) finds at
+least a partial parallel and explanation in the use of "king" and
+"queen" noted above; whilst (3) and (4) alone seem to require something
+more than the work of a mere collector of the songs. It is, of course,
+true that, in recurrent ceremonies, the same thought inevitably tends to
+find expression in the same words. But this hardly meets the case of the
+refrains, whilst the reference to the vineyard at beginning and end does
+suggest some literary connexion. It is to be noted that the three
+refrains "disturb not love" severally follow passages relating to the
+consummation of the sexual relation, whilst the two refrains "until the
+day break" appear to form an invitation and an answer in the same
+connexion, whilst the "Omnia vincit Amor" passage in the last chapter
+forms a natural climax (cf. Haupt's translation). So far, then, as this
+somewhat scanty evidence goes, it may point to some one hand which has
+given its semblance of unity to the book by underlining the joy of
+consummated love--to which the vineyard and garden figures throughout
+allude--and by so arranging the collection that the descriptions of this
+joy find their climax in viii. 6-7.[9]
+
+Whatever conclusion, however, may be reached as to the present
+_arrangement_ of Canticles, the recognition of wedding-songs as forming
+its nucleus marks an important stage in the interpretation of the book;
+even Rothstein (1902), whilst attempting to resuscitate a dramatic
+theory, "recognizes ... the possibility that older wedding-songs (as,
+for instance, the _wasfs_) are worked up in the Song of Songs"
+(Hastings' _D.B._ p. 594b). The drama he endeavours to construct might,
+indeed, be called "The Tokens of Virginity," since he makes it culminate
+in the procedure of Deut. xxii. 13 f., which still forms part of the
+Syrian ceremonies. But his reconstruction is open to the same objection
+as all similar attempts, in that the vital moments of the dramatic
+action have to be supplied from without. Thus between v. 1 and v. 2, the
+baffled king is supposed to have disappeared, and to have been replaced
+by the happy lover; between viii. 7 and viii. 8, we are required to
+imagine "the bridal night and its mysteries"; whilst between viii. 9 and
+viii. 10, we must suppose the evidence that the bride has been found a
+virgin is exhibited. He also attempts, with considerable ingenuity, to
+trace the legend involved in the supposed drama to the fact that Abishag
+remained a virgin in regard to David (1 Kings i. 4) whilst nothing is
+said of her marriage to Solomon.[10]
+
+On the view accepted above, Canticles describes in a number of separate
+poems the central passion of human life, and is wholly without didactic
+tendencies. Of its earliest history as a book we have no information. It
+is already included in the Hebrew canon (though its right to be there is
+disputed) when the first explicit mention of the book occurs. We have no
+evidence, therefore, of the theory of interpretation prevalent at the
+time of its incorporation with the other books of the canon. It seems,
+however, fair to infer that it would hardly have found acceptance but
+for a Solomonic theory of authorship and a "religious" theory of
+meaning. The problem raised by its present place in the canon occurs in
+relation to mistaken Jewish theories about other books also; it
+suggests, at least, that divine inspiration may belong to the life of a
+people rather than to the letter of their literature. Of that life
+Canticles portrays a central element--the passion of love--in striking
+imagery and graceful language, however far its oriental standard of
+taste differs from that of the modern West.
+
+From the nature of the book, it is impossible to assign a precise date
+for its origin; the wedding-songs of which it chiefly consists must
+belong to the folklore of more than one century. The only evidence we
+possess as to date is drawn from the character of the Hebrew in which
+the book is written, which shows frequent points of contact with new
+Hebrew.[11] On this ground, we may suppose the present form of the work
+to date from the Greek period, i.e. after 332 B.C. This is the date
+accepted by most recent writers, e.g. Kautzsch, Cheyne, Budde,
+Rothstein, Jacob, Haupt. This late date finds some confirmation in the
+fact that Canticles belongs to the third and latest part of the Old
+Testament canon, and that its canonicity was still in dispute at the end
+of the 1st century A.D. The evidence offered for a north Israelite
+origin, on the ground of linguistic parallels and topographical
+familiarity (Driver, _loc. cit._), does not seem very convincing; Haupt,
+however, places the compilation of the book in the neighbourhood of
+Damascus.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Most of the older books of importance are named above;
+  Ginsburg, _The Song of Songs_ (1857), gives much information as to the
+  history of the exegesis of Canticles; Diestel's article, "Hohes Lied,"
+  in Schenkel's _Bibel Lexikon_ (1871), reviews well the history of
+  interpretation prior to Wetstein; cf. also Riedel, _Die Auslegung des
+  Hohenliedes in der judischen Gemeinde und der griechischen Kirche_
+  (1898). The most important commentary is that by Budde, in Marti's
+  _Kurzer Hand-Commentar (Die funf Megilloth)_ (1898), where references
+  to the literature of the 19th century are given. To his list add
+  Siegfried, "Prediger und Hoheslied," in Nowack's _Handkommentar_
+  (1898); Cheyne's article "Canticles," in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_
+  (1899); Dalman, _Palastinischer Diwan_ (1901), parallels to the songs;
+  Rothstein's article, "Song of Songs," in Hastings' _Dictionary of the
+  Bible_ (1902); G. Jacob, _Das Hohelied auf Grund arabischer und
+  anderer Parallelen von neuem Untersucht_ (1902); A. Harper, _The Song
+  of Songs_ (1902); Haupt, "The Book of Canticles," in _The American
+  Journal of Semitic Languages_ (July 1902); Scholz, _Kommentar uber das
+  Hohelied und Psalm 45_ (1904) (written from the Roman Catholic
+  dogmatic standpoint of allegorical interpretation, with a vigorous
+  criticism of other positions). No commentator in English, except
+  Haupt, in the article named above, has yet worked on the lines of the
+  above anthology theory. Haupt gives valuable notes, with a translation
+  and rearrangement of the separate songs.     (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] An argument for the allegorical interpretation has been often
+    drawn from Mahommedan mysticism--from the poems of Hafiz, and the
+    songs still sung by dervishes. See Jones, _Poeseos Asiaticae Com._
+    pt. in. cap. 9; Rosenmuller's remarks on Lowth's _Praelectio_, xxxi.,
+    and Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, ch. xxiv. But there is no true analogy
+    between the Old Testament and the pantheistic mysticism of Islam, and
+    there is every reason to believe that, where the allegory takes a
+    form really analogous to Canticles, the original sense of these songs
+    was purely erotic.
+
+  [2] Repeated recently by Scholz, _Kommentar_, pp. iii. and iv.
+
+  [3] The chief passages of Jewish writings referring to this dispute
+    are Mishna _Jadaim_, iii. 5 and Tosifta _Sanhedrin_, xii. For other
+    passages see Gratz's _Commentary_, p. 115, and in control of his
+    criticism the introduction to the commentary of Delitzsch.
+
+  [4] The text of the Targum in the Polyglots and in Buxtorf's Rabbinic
+    Bible is not complete. The complete text is given in the Venice
+    editions, and in Lagarde's _Hagiographa Chaldaice_ (Lipsiae, 1873).
+    The Polyglots add a Latin version. A German version is given by
+    Riedel in his very useful book, _Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes_
+    (1898), which also reviews the interpretation of Canticles by
+    Hippolytus, Origen and later Greek writers.
+
+  [5] Ewald and others make this song a distinct scene in the action of
+    the poem, supposing that the author here exhibits the honourable form
+    of espousal by which Solomon thought to vanquish the scruples of the
+    damsel. This view, however, seems to introduce a complication foreign
+    to the plan of the book.
+
+  [6] Wetstein, _Zeitschrift f. Ethn._, 1873, pp. 270-302; quoted and
+    condensed by Budde as above in _Comm_. p. xvii.; for a fuller
+    reproduction of Wetstein in English see Harper, _The Song of Songs_,
+    pp. 74-76.
+
+  [7] For the connexion of the threshing-floor with marriage through
+    the idea of sexual fertility, we may compare many primitive ideas and
+    customs, such as those described by Frazer (_The Golden Bough_, ii.
+    p. 181 f., 186).
+
+  [8] Castelli (_Il Cantico dei Cantici_, 1892) has written a very
+    attractive little book on Canticles (quite apart from the Wetstein
+    development) regarded as "a poem formed by a number of dialogues
+    mutually related by a certain succession"; they require for their
+    understanding nothing but some indication of the speaker at each
+    transition (such as we find in codex A of the Septuagint).
+
+  [9] On the erotic meaning of many of the figures employed see the
+    notes of Haupt in _The American Journal of Semitic Languages_ (July
+    1902); also G. Jacob, _Das Hohelied_ (1902), who rightly protests
+    against the limitation in the _Comm_. of Budde and Siegfried (p. 10)
+    of all the songs to the marriage relation. Haupt thinks that the
+    songs were not originally composed for weddings, though used there
+    (p. 207, _op. cit._). Diestel had pointed out, in another connexion
+    (_B.L._ 125), that nothing is said in the book of the blessing of
+    children, the chief end of _marriage_ from a Hebrew standpoint.
+
+  [10] Rothstein's criticism of Budde turns chiefly on the latter's
+    admission of redactional elements, introducing "movement and action,"
+    and may be summed up in the statement that "Budde himself by the
+    characteristics he assigns to the redactor points the way again past
+    his own hypothesis to the dramatical view of the Song" (_loc cit._
+    594b). A. Harper, "The Song of Songs" (_Cambridge Bible_) also
+    criticizes Budde at length in favour of the conventional dramatical
+    theory (Appendix).
+
+  [11] _E.g._ the late form of the relative pronoun used throughout
+    except in title; foreign words, Persian and Greek; Aramaic words and
+    usages (details in the _Comm_. or in _E.B._ 693).
+
+
+
+
+CANTILEVER (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived from "lever," in
+its ordinary meaning, and "cant," an angle or edge, or else from modern
+Lat. _quanta libra_, of what weight), a building term for a stone, iron
+or wooden bracket, considerably greater in length than depth, used to
+support a gallery, &c.; and for a system of bridge-building (see
+BRIDGES).
+
+
+
+
+CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE (c. 1218-1282), English saint and prelate, was a
+son of William de Cantilupe, the 2nd baron (d. 1251), one of King John's
+ministers, and a nephew of Walter de Cantilupe, bishop of Worcester. He
+was educated at Paris and Orleans, afterwards becoming a teacher of
+canon law at Oxford and chancellor of the university in 1262. During the
+Barons' War Thomas favoured Simon de Montfort and the baronial party. He
+represented the barons before St Louis of France at Amiens in 1264; he
+was made chancellor of England in February 1265, but was deprived of
+this office after Montfort's death at Evesham, and lived out of England
+for some time. Returning to England, he was again chancellor of Oxford
+University, lectured on theology, and held several ecclesiastical
+appointments. In 1274 he attended the second council of Lyons, and in
+1275 he was appointed bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe was now a trusted
+adviser of Edward I.; he attended the royal councils, and even when
+differing from the king did not forfeit his favour. The archbishop of
+Canterbury, Robert Kilwardby, was also his friend; but after Kilwardby's
+death in 1279 a series of disputes arose between the bishop and the new
+archbishop, John Peckham, and this was probably the cause which drove
+Cantilupe to visit Italy. He died at Orvieto, on the 25th of August
+1282, and he was canonized in 1330. Cantilupe appears to have been an
+exemplary bishop both in spiritual and secular affairs. His charities
+were large and his private life blameless; he was constantly visiting
+his diocese, correcting offenders and discharging other episcopal
+duties; and he compelled neighbouring landholders to restore estates
+which rightly belonged to the see of Hereford. In 1905 the Cantilupe
+Society was founded to publish the episcopal registers of Hereford, of
+which Cantilupe's is the first in existence.
+
+  See the _Ada Sanctorum, Boll._, 1st October; and the _Register of
+  Thomas de Cantilupe_, with introduction by W.W. Capes (1906).
+
+
+
+
+CANTILUPE, WALTER DE (d. 1265), bishop of Worcester, came of a family
+which had risen by devoted service to the crown. His father and his
+elder brother are named by Roger of Wendover among the "evil
+counsellors" of John, apparently for no better reason than that they
+were consistently loyal to an unpopular master. Walter at first followed
+in his father's footsteps, entering the service of the Exchequer and
+acting as an itinerant justice in the early years of Henry III. But he
+also took minor orders, and, in 1236, although not yet a deacon,
+received the see of Worcester. As bishop, he identified himself with the
+party of ecclesiastical reform, which was then led by Edmund Rich and
+Robert Grosseteste. Like his leaders he was sorely divided between his
+theoretical belief in the papacy as a divine institution and his
+instinctive condemnation of the policy which Gregory IX. and Innocent
+IV. pursued in their dealings with the English church. At first a court
+favourite, the bishop came at length to the belief that the evils of the
+time arose from the unprincipled alliance of crown and papacy. He raised
+his voice against papal demands for money, and after the death of
+Grosseteste (1253) was the chief spokesman of the nationalist clergy. At
+the parliament of Oxford (1258) he was elected by the popular party as
+one of their representatives on the committee of twenty-four which
+undertook to reform the administration; from that time till the outbreak
+of civil war he was a man of mark in the councils of the baronial party.
+During the war he sided with Montfort and, through his nephew, Thomas,
+who was then chancellor of Oxford, brought over the university to the
+popular side. He was present at Lewes and blessed the Montfortians
+before they joined battle with the army of the king; he entertained
+Simon de Montfort on the night before the final rout of Evesham. During
+Simon's dictatorship, the bishop appeared only as a mediating influence;
+in the triumvirate of "Electors" who controlled the administration, the
+clergy were represented by the bishop of Chichester. Walter de Cantilupe
+died in the year after Evesham (1266). He was respected by all parties,
+and, though far inferior in versatility and force of will to
+Grosseteste, fully merits the admiration which his moral character
+inspired. He is one of the few constitutionalists of his day whom it is
+impossible to accuse of interested motives.
+
+  See the _Chronica Maiora_ of Matthew Paris ("Rolls" series, ed.
+  Luard); the _Chronicon de Bellis_ (ed. Halliwell, Camden Society); and
+  the _Annales Monastici_ ("Rolls" series, ed. Luard); also T.F. Tout
+  in the _Political History of England_, vol. iii. (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CANTO (from the Lat. _cantus_, a song), one of the divisions of a long
+poem, a convenient division when poetry was more usually sung by the
+minstrel to his own accompaniment than read. In music, the _canto_, in a
+concerted piece, is that part to which the air is given. In modern
+music this is nearly always the soprano. The old masters, however, more
+frequently allotted it to the tenor. _Canto fermo_, or _cantus firmus_,
+is that part of the melody which remains true to the original motive,
+while the other parts vary with the counterpoint; also in Church music
+the simple straightforward melody of the old chants as opposed to _canto
+figurato_, which is full of embellishments of a florid character (see
+PLAIN SONG).
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772), English natural philosopher, was born at
+Stroud, Gloucestershire, on the 31st of July 1718. At the age of
+nineteen, he was articled for five years as clerk to the master of a
+school in Spital Square, London, with whom at the end of that time he
+entered into partnership. In 1750 he read a paper before the Royal
+Society on a method of making artificial magnets, which procured him
+election as a fellow of the society and the award of the Copley medal.
+He was the first in England to verify Benjamin Franklin's hypothesis of
+the identity of lightning and electricity, and he made several important
+electrical discoveries. In 1762 and 1764 he published experiments in
+refutation of the decision of the Florentine Academy, at that time
+generally accepted, that water is incompressible; and in 1768 he
+described the preparation, by calcining oyster-shell with sulphur, of
+the phosphorescent material known as Canton's phosphorus. His
+investigations were carried on without any intermission of his work as a
+schoolmaster. He died in London on the 22nd of March 1772.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW FU), a large and populous commercial
+city of China, in the province of Kwangtung, situated on the eastern
+bank of the Pearl river, which at Canton is somewhat broader than the
+Thames at London Bridge, and is navigable 300 m. into the interior. The
+Pearl river has an additional course of 80 m. to the sea, the first part
+of which lies through a rich alluvial plain. Beyond this rises a range
+of hills terminating in abrupt escarpments along the course of the
+river. The bold shore thus formed compresses the stream at this point
+into a narrow pass, to which the Chinese have given the name of Hu-mun,
+or Tiger's Gate. This the Portuguese translated into Boca Tigre, whence
+the designation of "the Bogue," by which it is commonly known among
+Europeans. When viewed from the hills on the north, Canton appears to be
+little more than an expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large
+trees,--two pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storeyed
+tower near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects. These
+hills rise 1200 ft. above the river. Little or no vegetation is seen on
+them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with graves and tombs,
+serve as the necropolis of this vast city. Three or four forts are built
+on the points nearest the northern walls. Facing the city on the
+opposite side of the river is the suburb and island of Honan. The part
+of Canton enclosed by walls is about 6 m. in circumference, and has a
+partition wall, running east and west, and dividing the city into two
+unequal parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and
+the southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a circuit
+of nearly 10 m. The houses stretch along the river for 4 m., and the
+banks are almost entirely concealed by boats and rafts. The walls of the
+city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone and granite, are 20 ft.
+thick, and rise to an average height of 25 ft. On the north side the
+wall rises to include a hill which it there meets with, and on the other
+three sides the city is surrounded by a ditch, which is filled by the
+rising tide, when, for a time, the revolting mass of filth that lies in
+its bed is concealed from view. There are twelve outer gates--four of
+which are in the partition wall, and two water gates, through which
+boats pass from east to west across the new city. The gates are all shut
+at night, and in the daytime a guard is stationed at them to preserve
+order. The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long,
+straight, and very narrow. They are mostly paved and are not as dirty as
+those of some of the other cities in the empire; in fact, considering
+the habits of the people and the inattention of the government to these
+matters, Canton may be said to be a well-governed and comparatively
+cleanly city. The houses are in general small, seldom consisting of more
+than two storeys, the ground floor serving as a shop, and the rest of
+the house, with the court behind, being used as a warehouse. Here are to
+be found the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the
+merchants are in general attentive, civil, expert men of business, and
+generally assiduous.
+
+The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but none of
+them presents features worthy of special remark. There are two pagodas
+near the west gate of the old city, and 124 temples, pavilions, halls
+and other religious edifices within the city. One of the pagodas called
+the _Kwangtah_, or Plain Pagoda, is a Mahommedan mosque, which was
+erected by the Arabian voyagers who were in the habit of visiting Canton
+about ten centuries ago. It rises in an angular tapering tower to the
+height of 160 ft. The other is an octagonal pagoda of nine storeys, 170
+ft. in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago. A
+Buddhist temple at Honan, opposite the foreign factories, and named in
+Chinese _Hai-ch'wang-sze_, or the Temple of the Ocean Banner, is one of
+the largest in Canton. Its grounds, which cover about seven acres, are
+surrounded by a wall, and are divided into courts, gardens and a
+burial-ground, where are deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies
+are burned. There are about 175 priests connected with this
+establishment. Besides the _Hai-ch'wang-sze_ the most noteworthy temples
+in and about the city are those of the Five Hundred Gods and of
+Longevity, both in the western suburbs; the Tatar City Temple and the
+Temple of the Five Genii. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is
+not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000, nine-tenths of whom
+are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-looking edifices. The areas in
+front of them are usually occupied by hucksters, beggars and idlers, who
+are occasionally driven off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the
+theatrical performances got up by the wealthy inhabitants are acted. The
+principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in front,
+and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men almost as
+senseless as the idols they serve.
+
+The residences of the high officers of government are all within the
+walls of the old city. The residence of the governor-general used to be
+in the south-west corner of the new city, but it was utterly destroyed by
+the bombardment in 1856. The site remained desolate until 1860, when it
+was taken possession of by the French authorities, who erected a Roman
+Catholic cathedral upon it. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in
+the old city, and is said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There
+are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. For the space of 4 or 5
+m. opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to each other in
+such close order as to resemble a floating city; and these marine
+dwellings are occupied by numerous families, who reside almost constantly
+on the water. In the middle of the river lie the Chinese junks, some of
+them of from 600 to 1000 tons burden, which trade to the north and to the
+Strait Settlements. The various gilds and associations among the people
+and the merchants from other provinces have public halls each for its own
+particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than 150.
+Canton was long the only seat of British trade with China, and was no
+doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the European trade, as
+being the most distant from the capital Peking.
+
+Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the _hong_ or
+security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners. They were
+commonly men of large property and were famed for integrity in their
+transactions. All foreign cargoes passed through the hands of these
+merchants, and by them also the return cargoes were furnished. They
+became security for the payment of customs duties, and it was criminal
+for any other merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners.
+
+Although it is in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the climate
+of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to that of most
+places situated between the tropics. The extreme range of the
+thermometer is from 38 deg. to 100 deg. F., though these extremes are
+rarely reached. In ordinary years the winter minimum is about 42 deg.
+and the maximum in summer 96 deg.. The hot season is considered to last
+from May to October; during the rest of the year the weather is cool.
+In shallow vessels ice sometimes forms at Canton; but so rarely is snow
+seen that when in February 1835 a fall to the depth of 2 in. occurred,
+the citizens hardly knew its proper name. Most of the rain falls during
+May and June, but the amount is nothing in comparison with that which
+falls during a rainy season in Calcutta. July, August and September are
+the regular monsoon months, the wind coming from the south-west with
+frequent showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the
+northerly winds begin, with some interruptions at first, but from
+October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear and the
+air invigorating. Few large cities are more generally healthy than
+Canton, and epidemics rarely prevail there.
+
+Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant, and in general
+are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is a singular fact
+that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in its natural state or in
+the form of butter or cheese. Among the delicacies of a Chinese market
+are to be seen horse-flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, owls and edible
+birds'-nests. The business between foreigners and natives at Canton is
+generally transacted in a jargon known as "pidgin English," the Chinese
+being extremely ready in acquiring a sufficient smattering of English
+words to render themselves intelligible.
+
+The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of the Cape of Good
+Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent an ambassador,
+accompanied by a fleet of eight ships, to Peking, on which occasion the
+sanction of the emperor to establish a trade at Canton was obtained. It
+was in 1596, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first
+attempted to open an intercourse with China, but ineffectually, for the
+two ships which were despatched on this mission were lost on the outward
+voyage, and it was not till about 1634 that English ships visited
+Canton. Unfortunately at this time a misunderstanding having occurred
+with the Chinese authorities owing to the treachery of the Portuguese, a
+rupture and a battle took place, and it was with difficulty that peace
+was again restored. In 1673 China was again visited by an English ship
+which was subsequently refused admission into Japan, and in 1677 a
+factory was established at Amoy. But during an irruption of the Tatars
+three years later this building was destroyed, and it was not till 1685
+that the emperor permitted any trade with Europeans at that port. Upon
+the union of the two East India Companies in London, an imperial edict
+was issued, restricting the foreign commerce to the port of Canton.
+
+Tea was first imported into England about the year 1667, and in 1689 a
+customs duty of 5s. per lb was for the first time imposed. From this
+date to 1834 the East India Company held a monopolv of the trade at
+Canton, and during this period the prosperity of the port increased and
+multiplied, notwithstanding the obstructions which were constantly
+thrown in the way of the "barbarians" by the Chinese government. The
+termination of the Company's monopoly brought no alteration in the
+conduct of the native authorities, whose oppressions became before long
+so unbearable that in 1839 war was declared on the part of Great
+Britain. In 1841, while the forces under Sir Hugh (afterwards Lord)
+Gough were preparing to capture Canton, Captain Elliott entered into
+negotiations with the Chinese, and consented to receive a pecuniary
+ransom in lieu of occupying the city. Meanwhile the war was carried on
+in central China, and finally resulted in the conclusion of the Nanking
+treaty in August 1842, under the terms of which four additional ports,
+viz. Shanghai, Ningpo, Fu-chow and Amoy, were thrown open to foreign
+trade, and foreigners were granted permission to enter the city of
+Canton, from which they had hitherto been excluded. This latter
+provision of the treaty, however, the Chinese refused to carry out; and
+after endless disputes about this and other improper acts of the Chinese
+government, war was again declared in 1856, the immediate cause of which
+was an insult offered to the British flag by the capture of certain
+Chinese on board the "Arrow," a small craft trading under English
+colours. The outbreak of hostilities was followed by the pillage and
+destruction of the foreign "factories" in December 1856 by a Chinese
+mob, and twelve months later Canton was taken by assault by a force
+under Sir Charles Straubenzee, which had been sent out from England for
+the purpose. From this time until October 1861 the city was occupied by
+an English and French garrison, and the administration of affairs was
+entrusted to an allied commission, consisting of two English officers
+and one French officer, acting under the English general. Since the
+withdrawal of this garrison, the city of Canton has been freely open to
+foreigners of all nationalities, and the English consul has his
+residence in the Yamun formerly occupied by the allied commissioners,
+within the city walls.
+
+On the conclusion of peace it became necessary to provide a foreign
+settlement for the merchants whose "factories" had been destroyed, and
+after some consultation it was determined to fill in and appropriate as
+the British settlement an extensive mud flat lying to the westward of
+the old factory site, and known as Sha-mien or "The Sand Flats." This
+site having been leased, it was converted into an artificial island by
+building a massive embankment of granite in an irregular oval form.
+Between the northern face of the site and the Chinese suburb a canal of
+100 ft. in width was constructed, thus forming an island of about 2850
+ft. in length and 950 ft. in greatest breadth. The expense of making
+this settlement was 325,000 Mexican dollars, four-fifths of which were
+defrayed by the British government and one-fifth by the French
+government. The British portion of the new settlement was laid out in
+eighty-two lots; and so bright appeared the prospect of trade at the
+time of their sale that 9000 dollars and upwards was paid in more than
+one instance for a lot with a river frontage, measuring 12,645 sq. ft.
+The depression in trade, however, which soon followed acted as a bar to
+building, and it was not until the British consulate was erected in 1865
+that the merchants began to occupy the settlement in any numbers. The
+British consulate occupies six lots, with an area of 75,870 sq. ft. in
+the centre of the site, overlooking the river, and is enclosed with a
+substantial wall. A ground-rent of 15,000 cash (about L3) per _mow_ (a
+third of an acre) is annually paid by the owners of lots to the Chinese
+government.
+
+The Sha-mien settlement possesses many advantages. It is close to the
+western suburb of Canton, where reside all the wholesale dealers as well
+as the principal merchants and brokers; it faces the broad channel known
+as the Macao Passage, up which the cool breezes in summer are wafted
+almost uninterruptedly, and the river opposite to it affords a safe and
+commodious anchorage for steamers up to 1000 tons burden. Steamers only
+are allowed to come up to Canton, sailing vessels being restricted to
+the anchorage at Whampoa. There is daily communication by steamer with
+Hong-Kong, and with the Portuguese colony of Macao which lies near the
+mouth of the river. Inland communication by steam is now open by the
+west river route to the cities of Wuchow and Nanking. The opening of
+these inland towns to foreign trade, which has been effected, cannot but
+add considerably to the volume of Canton traffic. The native population
+is variously estimated at from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000, the former being
+probably nearer the truth. The foreign residents number about 400.
+Canton is the headquarters of the provincial government of Kwangtung and
+Kwangsi, generally termed the two Kwang, at the head of which is a
+governor-general or viceroy, an office which next to that of Nanking is
+the most important in the empire. It possesses a mint built in 1889 by
+the then viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and equipped with a very complete
+plant supplied from England. It turns out silver subsidiary coinage and
+copper cash. Contracts have been entered into to connect Canton by
+railway with Hong-Kong (Kowlun), and by a grand trunk line with Hankow
+on the Yangtsze. It is connected by telegraph with all parts. The value
+of the trade of Canton for the year 1904 was L13,749,582, L7,555,090 of
+which represented imports and L6,194,490 exports.     (R. K. D.)
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, a city of Fulton county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the
+state, 12 m. N. of the Illinois river, and 28 m. S.W. of Peoria. Pop.
+(1890) 5604; (1900) 6564 (424 foreign-born); (1910) 10,453. Canton is
+served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Toledo, Peoria &
+Western, and the Illinois Central Electric Interurban railways. About 1
+m. from the centre of the city are the Canton Chautauqua grounds. The
+city has a public library. Canton is situated in a rich agricultural
+region, for which it is a supply point, and there are large coal-mines
+in the vicinity. Among the manufactures are agricultural implements
+(particularly ploughs), machine-shop and foundry products (particularly
+mining-cars and equipment), flour, cigars, cigar-boxes, brooms, and
+bricks and tile. The municipal water-works are supplied from a deep
+artesian well. Canton was laid out in 1825; it was incorporated as a
+town in 1837 and as a village in 1849, and was chartered as a city in
+1854.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, a village and the county-seat of St Lawrence county, New York,
+U.S.A., 17 m. S.E. of Ogdensburg, on the Grasse river. Pop. (1890) 2580;
+(1900) 2757; (1905) 3083; (1910) 2701. The village is served by the
+Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg division of the New York Central & Hudson
+River railway. Canton is the seat of St Lawrence University
+(co-educational; chartered in 1856; at first Universalist, afterwards
+unsectarian), having a college of letters and science, which developed
+from an academy, opened in 1859; a theological school (Universalist),
+opened in 1858; a law school, established in 1869, discontinued in 1872
+and re-established in Brooklyn, New York, in 1903 as the Brooklyn Law
+School of St Lawrence University; and a state school of agriculture,
+established in 1906 by the state legislature and opened in 1907. In
+1907-1908 the university had 52 instructors, 168 students in the college
+of letters and science, 14 students in the theological school, 287 in
+the law school and 13 in the agricultural school. The Clinton Liberal
+Institute (Universalist, 1832), which was removed in 1879 from Clinton
+to Fort Plain, New York, was established in Canton in 1901. The Grasse
+river furnishes water-power, and the village has saw-, planing- and
+flour-mills, and plant for the building of small boats and launches. The
+village corporation owns a fine water-supply system. Canton was first
+settled in 1800 by Daniel Harrington of Connecticut and was incorporated
+in 1845. It was for many years the home of Silas Wright, who was buried
+here.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON, a city and the county-seat of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+Nimisillen Creek, 60 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 26,189;
+(1900) 30,667, of whom 4018 were foreign-born; and (1910) 50,217. It is
+served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling &
+Lake Erie railways, and is connected by an interurban electric system
+with all the important cities and towns within a radius of 50 m. It lies
+at an elevation of about 1030 ft. above sea-level, in a wheat-growing
+region, in which bituminous coal, limestone, and brick and potter's clay
+abound. Meyer's Lake in the vicinity is a summer attraction. The
+principal buildings are the post-office, court-house, city hall, an
+auditorium with a seating capacity of 5000, a Masonic building, an
+Oddfellows' temple, a Y.M.C.A. building and several handsome churches.
+On Monument Hill, in West Lawn Cemetery, in a park of 26 acres--a site
+which President McKinley had suggested for a monument to the soldiers
+and sailors of Stark county--there is a beautiful monument to the memory
+of McKinley, who lived in Canton. This memorial is built principally of
+Milford (Mass.) granite, with a bronze statue of the president, and with
+sarcophagi containing the bodies of the president and Mrs McKinley, and
+has a total height, from the first step of the approaches to its top, of
+163 ft. 6 in., the mausoleum itself being 98 ft. 6 in. high and 78 ft. 9
+in. in diameter; it was dedicated on the 30th of September 1907, when an
+address was delivered by President Roosevelt. Another monument
+commemorates the American soldiers of the Spanish-American War. Among
+the city's manufactures are agricultural implements, iron bridges and
+other structural iron work, watches and watch-cases, steel, engines,
+safes, locks, cutlery, hardware, wagons, carriages, paving-bricks,
+furniture, dental and surgical chairs, paint and varnish, clay-working
+machinery and saw-mill machinery. The value of the factory product in
+1905 was $10,591,143, being 10.6% more than the product value of 1900.
+Canton was laid out as a town in 1805, became the county-seat in 1808,
+was incorporated as a village in 1822 and in 1854 was chartered as a
+city.
+
+
+
+
+CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. _cantone_, a corner or angle), a word
+used for certain divisions of some European countries. In France, the
+canton, which is a subdivision of the arrondissement, is a territorial,
+rather than an administrative, unit. The canton, of which there are
+2908, generally comprises, on an average, about twelve communes, though
+very large communes are sometimes divided into several cantons. It is
+the seat of a justice of the peace, and returns a member to the _conseil
+d'arrondissement_ (see FRANCE). In Switzerland, canton is the name given
+to each of the twenty-two states comprising the Swiss confederation (see
+SWITZERLAND).
+
+In heraldry, a "canton" is a corner or square division on a shield,
+occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). It is in area
+two-thirds of the quarter (see HERALDRY).
+
+
+
+
+CANTONMENT (Fr. _cantonnement_, from _cantonner_, to quarter; Ger.
+_Ortsunterkunft_ or _Quartier_). When troops are distributed in small
+parties amongst the houses of a town or village, they are said to be in
+cantonments, which are also called quarters or billets. Formerly this
+method of providing soldiers with shelter was rarely employed on active
+service, though the normal method in "winter quarters," or at seasons
+when active military operations were not in progress. In the field,
+armies lived as a rule in camp (q.v.), and when the provision of canvas
+shelter was impossible in bivouac. At the present time, however, it is
+unusual, in Europe at any rate, for troops on active service to hamper
+themselves with the enormous trains of tent wagons that would be
+required, and cantonments or bivouacs, or a combination of the two have
+therefore taken the place, in modern warfare, of the old long
+rectilinear lines of tents that marked the resting-place and generally,
+too, the order of battle of an 18th-century army. The greater part of an
+army operating in Europe at the present day is accommodated in
+widespread cantonments, an army corps occupying the villages and farms
+found within an area of 4 m. by 5 or 6. This allowance of space has been
+ascertained by experience to be sufficient, not only for comfort, but
+also for subsistence for one day, provided that the density of the
+ordinary civil population is not less than 200 persons to the square
+mile. Under modern conditions there is little danger from such a
+dissemination of the forces, as each fraction of each army corps is
+within less than two hours' march of its concentration post. If the
+troops halt for several days, of course they require either a more
+densely populated country from which to requisition supplies, or a wider
+area of cantonments. The difficulty of controlling the troops, when
+scattered in private houses in parties of six or seven, is the principal
+objection to this system of cantonments. But since Napoleon introduced
+the "war of masses" the only alternative to cantoning the troops is
+bivouacking, which if prolonged for several nights is more injurious to
+the well-being of the troops than the slight relaxation of discipline
+necessitated by the cantonment system, when the latter is well arranged
+and policed. The troops nearest the enemy, however, which have to be
+maintained in a state of constant readiness for battle, cannot as a rule
+afford the time either for dispersing into quarters or for rallying on
+an alarm, and in western Europe at any rate they are required to
+bivouac. In India, the term "cantonment" means more generally a military
+station or standing camp. The troops live, not in private houses, but in
+barracks, huts, forts or occasionally camps. The large cantonments are
+situated in the neighbourhood of the North-Western frontier, of the
+large cities and of the capitals of important native states. Under Lord
+Kitchener's redistribution of the Indian army in 1903, the chief
+cantonments are Rawalpindi, Quetta, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Nowshera,
+Sialkot, Mian Mir, Umballa, Muttra, Ferozepore, Meerut, Lucknow, Mhow,
+Jubbulpore, Bolarum, Poona, Secunderabad and Bangalore.
+
+
+
+
+CANTU, CESARE (1804-1895), Italian historian, was born at Brivio in
+Lombardy and began his career as a teacher. His first literary essay
+(1828) was a romantic poem entitled _Algiso, o la Lega Lombarda_ (new
+ed., Milan, 1876), and in the following year he produced a _Storia di
+Como_ in two volumes (Como, 1829). The death of his father then left
+him in charge of a large family, and he worked very hard both as a
+teacher and a writer to provide for them. His prodigious literary
+activity led to his falling under the suspicions of the Austrian police,
+and he was mixed up in a political trial and arrested in 1833. While in
+prison writing materials were denied him, but he managed to write on
+rags with a tooth-pick and candle smoke, and thus composed the novel
+_Margherita Pusterla_ (Milan, 1838). On his release a year later, as he
+was interdicted from teaching, literature became his only resource. In
+1836 the Turinese publisher, Giuseppe Pomba, commissioned him to write a
+universal history, which his vast reading enabled him to do. In six
+years the work was completed in seventy-two volumes, and immediately
+achieved a general popularity; the publisher made a fortune out of it,
+and Cantu's royalties amounted, it is said, to 300,000 lire (L12.000).
+Just before the revolution of 1848, being warned that he would be
+arrested, he fled to Turin, but after the "Five Days" he returned to
+Milan and edited a paper called _La Guardia Nazionale_. Between 1849 and
+1850 he published his _Storia degli Italiani_ (Turin, 1855) and many
+other works. In 1857 the archduke Maximilian tried to conciliate the
+Milanese by the promise of a constitution, and Cantu was one of the few
+Liberals who accepted the olive branch, and went about in company with
+the archduke. This act was regarded as treason and caused Cantu much
+annoyance in after years. He continued his literary activity after the
+formation of the Italian kingdom, producing volume after volume until
+his death. For a short time he was member of the Italian parliament; he
+founded the Lombard historical society, and was appointed superintendent
+of the Lombard archives. He died in March 1895. His views are coloured
+by strong religious and political prejudice, and by a moralizing
+tendency, and his historical work has little critical value and is for
+the most part pure book-making, although he collected a vast amount of
+material which has been of use to other writers. In dealing with modern
+Italian history he is reactionary and often wilfully inaccurate. Besides
+the above-mentioned works he wrote _Gli Eretici in Italia_ (Milan,
+1873); _Cronistoria dell' Indipendenza italiana_ (Naples, 1872-1877);
+_II Conciliatore e i Carbonari_ (Milan, 1878), &c.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+CANUSIUM (Gr. [Greek: Kanusion], mod. _Canosa_), an ancient city of
+Apulia, on the right bank of the Aufidus (Ofanto), about 12 m. from its
+mouth, and situated upon the Via Traiana, 85 m. E.N.E. of Beneventum. It
+was said to have been founded by Diomede, and even at the time of Horace
+(_Sat._ i. 10. 30) both Greek and Latin were spoken there. The legends
+on the coins are Greek, and a very large number of Greek vases have been
+found in the necropolis. The town came voluntarily under Roman
+sovereignty in 318 B.C., afforded a refuge to the Roman fugitives after
+Cannae, and remained faithful for the rest of the war. It revolted in
+the Social War, in which it would appear to have suffered, inasmuch as
+Strabo (vi. 283) speaks of Canusium and Arpi as having been, to judge
+from the extent of their walls, the greatest towns in the plain of
+Apulia, but as having shrunk considerably in his day. Its importance was
+maintained, however, by its trade in agricultural products and in
+Apulian wool (which was there dyed and cleaned), by its port (probably
+Cannae) at the mouth of the Aufidus, and by its position on the
+high-road. It was a _municipium_ under the early empire, but was
+converted into a _colonia_ under Antoninus Pius by Herodes Atticus, who
+provided it with a water-supply. In the 6th century it was still the
+most important city of Apulia. Among the ancient buildings which are
+still preserved, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct and a city gate may be
+mentioned.
+
+  See N. Jacobone, _Ricerche sulla storia e la topografia di Canosa
+  Antica_ (Canosa di Puglia, 1905).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CANUTE (CNUT), known as "the Great" (c. 995-1035), king of Denmark and
+England, second son of King Sweyn Forkbeard and his first wife, the
+daughter of the Polish prince, Mieszko, was born c. 995. On the death
+of his father he was compelled to quit England by a general rising of
+the Anglo-Saxons, on which occasion in a fit of rage, for he was not
+naturally cruel, he abandoned his hostages after cutting off their
+hands, ears and noses. In the following year, 1015, he returned with a
+great fleet manned by a picked host, "not a thrall or a freedman among
+them." He speedily succeeded in subduing all England except London, now
+the last refuge of King Aethelred and his heroic son, Edmund Ironside.
+On the death of Aethelred (23rd of April 1016) Canute was elected king
+by an assembly of notables at Southampton; but London clung loyally to
+Edmund, who more than once succeeded in raising the western shires
+against Canute. Edmund indeed approved himself the better general of the
+two, and would doubtless have prevailed, but for the treachery of his
+own ealdormen. This was notably the case at the great battle of
+Assandun, in which by the desertion of Eadric an incipient Anglo-Saxon
+victory was converted into a crushing defeat. Nevertheless, the
+antagonists were so evenly matched that the great men on both sides,
+fearing that the interminable war would utterly ruin the land, arranged
+a conference between Canute and Edmund on an island in the Severn, when
+they agreed to divide England between them, Canute retaining Mercia and
+the north, while Edmund's territory comprised East Anglia and Wessex
+with London. On the death of Edmund, a few months later (November 1016),
+Canute was unanimously elected king of all England at the beginning of
+1017. The young monarch at once showed himself equal to his
+responsibilities. He did his utmost to deserve the confidence of his
+Anglo-Saxon subjects, and the eighteen years of his reign were of
+unspeakable benefit to his adopted country. He identified himself with
+the past history of England and its native dynasty by wedding Emma, or
+Aelgifu, to give her her Saxon name (the Northmen called her Alfifa),
+who came over from Normandy at his bidding, Canute previously
+repudiating his first wife, another Aelgifu, the daughter of the
+ealdorman Aelfhem of Deira, who, with her sons, was banished to Denmark.
+In 1018 Canute inherited the Danish throne, his elder brother Harold
+having died without issue. He now withdrew most of his army from
+England, so as to spare as much as possible the susceptibilities of the
+Anglo-Saxons. For the same reason he had previously dispersed all his
+warships but forty. On his return from Denmark he went a step farther.
+In a remarkable letter, addressed to the prelates, ealdormen and people,
+he declared his intention of ruling England by the English, and of
+upholding the laws of King Edgar, at the same time threatening with his
+vengeance all those who did not judge righteous judgment or who let
+malefactors go free. The tone of this document, which is not merely
+Christian but sacerdotal, shows that he had wisely resolved, in the
+interests of law and order, to form a close alliance with the native
+clergy. Those of his own fellow-countrymen who refused to co-operate
+with him were summarily dismissed. Thus, in 1021, the stiffnecked jarl
+Thorkil was banished the land, and his place taken by an Anglo-Saxon,
+the subsequently famous Godwin, who became one of Canute's chief
+counsellors. The humane and conciliatory character of his government is
+also shown in his earnest efforts to atone for Danish barbarities in the
+past. Thus he rebuilt the church of St Edmundsbury in memory of the
+saintly king who had perished there at the hands of the earlier Vikings,
+and with great ceremony transferred the relics of St Alphege from St
+Paul's church at London to a worthier resting-place at Canterbury. His
+work of reform and reconciliation was interrupted in 1026 by the attempt
+of Olaf Haraldson, king of Norway, in conjunction with Anund Jakob, king
+of Sweden, to conquer Denmark. Canute defeated the Swedish fleet at
+Stangebjerg, and so seriously injured the combined squadrons at the
+mouth of the Helgeaa in East Scania, that in 1028 he was able to subdue
+the greater part of Norway "without hurling a dart or swinging a sword."
+But the conquest was not permanent, the Norwegians ultimately rising
+successfully against the tyranny of Alfifa, who misruled the country in
+the name of her infant son Sweyn. Canute also succeeded in establishing
+the dominion of Denmark over the southern shores of the Baltic, in
+Witland and Samland, now forming part of the coast of Prussia. Of the
+details of Canute's government in Denmark proper we know but little. His
+most remarkable institution was the _Tinglid_, a military brotherhood,
+originally 3000 in number, composed of members of the richest and
+noblest families, who not only formed the royal bodyguard, but did
+garrison duty and defended the marches or borders. They were subject to
+strict discipline, embodied in written rules called the _Viderlog_ or
+_Vederlag_, and were the nucleus not only of a standing army but of a
+royal council. Canute is also said to have endeavoured to found
+monasteries in Denmark, with but indifferent success, and he was
+certainly the first Danish king who coined money, with the assistance of
+Anglo-Saxon mint-masters. Of his alliance with the clergy we have
+already spoken. Like the other great contemporary kingdom-builder,
+Stephen of Hungary, he clearly recognized that the church was the one
+civilizing element in a world of anarchic barbarism, and his submission
+to her guidance is a striking proof of his perspicacity. But it was no
+slavish submission. When, in 1027, he went to Rome, with Rudolf III. of
+Burgundy, to be present at the coronation of the emperor Conrad II., it
+was quite as much to benefit his subjects as to receive absolution for
+the sins of his youth. He persuaded the pope to remit the excessive fees
+for granting the _pallium_, which the English and Danish bishops had
+found such a grievous burden, substituting therefor a moderate amount of
+Peter's pence. He also induced the emperor and other German princes to
+grant safe-conducts to those of his subjects who desired to make the
+pilgrimage to Rome.
+
+Canute died at Shaftesbury on the 12th of November 1035 in his 40th
+year, and was buried at Winchester. He was cut off before he had had the
+opportunity of developing most of his great plans; yet he lived long
+enough to obtain the title of "Canute the Wealthy" (i.e. "Mighty"), and
+posterity, still more appreciative, has well surnamed him "the Great." A
+violent, irritable temper was his most salient defect, and more than one
+homicide must be laid to his charge. But the fierce Viking nature was
+gradually and completely subdued; for Canute was a Christian by
+conviction and sincerely religious. His humility is finely illustrated
+by the old Norman poem which describes how he commanded the rising tide
+of the Thames at Westminster to go back. The homily he preached to his
+courtiers on that occasion was to prepare them for his subsequent
+journey to Rome and his submission to the Holy See. Like his father
+Sweyn, Canute loved poetry, and the great Icelandic skalder, Thorar
+Lovtunge and Thormod Kolbrunarskjold, were as welcome visitors at his
+court as the learned bishops. As an administrator Canute was excelled
+only by Alfred. He possessed in an eminent degree the royal gift of
+recognizing greatness, and the still more useful faculty of conciliating
+enemies. No English king before him had levied such heavy taxes, yet
+never were taxes more cheerfully paid; because the people felt that
+every penny of the money was used for the benefit of the country.
+According to the _Knytlinga Saga_ King Canute was huge of limb, of great
+strength, and a very goodly man to look upon, save for his nose, which
+was narrow, lofty and hooked; he had also long fair hair, and eyes
+brighter and keener than those of any man living.
+
+  See _Danmarks Riges Historie. Old Tiden og den aeldre Middelalder_,
+  pp. 382-406 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Freeman, _Norman Conquest_
+  (Oxford, 1870-1875); Steenstrup, _Normannerne_ (Copenhagen,
+  1876-1882).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CANUTE VI. (1163-1202), king of Denmark, eldest son of Valdemar I., was
+crowned in his seventh year (1170), as his father's co-regent, so as to
+secure the succession. In 1182 he succeeded to the throne. During his
+twenty years' reign Denmark advanced steadily along the path of
+greatness and prosperity marked out for her by Valdemar I.,
+consolidating and extending her dominion over the North Baltic coast and
+adopting a more and more independent attitude towards Germany. The
+emperor Frederick I.'s claim of overlordship was haughtily rejected at
+the very outset, and his attempt to stir up Duke Bogislav of Pomerania
+against Denmark's vassal, Jaromir of Rugen, was defeated by Archbishop
+Absalon, who destroyed 465 of Bogislav's 500 ships in a naval action off
+Strela (Stralsund) in 1184. In the following year Bogislav did homage to
+Canute on the deck of his long-ship, off Jomsborg in Pomerania, Canute
+henceforth styling himself king of the Danes and Wends. This victory
+led two years later to the voluntary submission of the two Abodrite
+princes Niklot and Borwin to the Danish crown, whereupon the bulk of the
+Abodrite dominions, which extended from the Trave to the Warnow,
+including modern Mecklenburg, were divided between them. The concluding
+years of Canute's reign were peaceful, as became a prince who, though by
+no means a coward, was not of an overwhelmingly martial temperament. In
+1197, however, German jealousy of Denmark's ambitions, especially when
+Canute led a fleet against the pirates of Esthonia, induced Otto,
+margrave of Brandenburg, to invade Pomerania, while in the following
+year Otto, in conjunction with Duke Adolf of Holstein, wasted the
+dominions of the Danophil Abodrites. The war continued intermittently
+till 1201, when Duke Valdemar, Canute's younger brother, conquered the
+whole of Holstein, and Duke Adolf was subsequently captured at Hamburg
+and sent in chains to Denmark. North Albingia, as the district between
+the Eider and the Elbe was then called, now became Danish territory.
+Canute died on the 12th of November 1202. Undoubtedly he owed the
+triumphs of his reign very largely to the statesmanship of Absalon and
+the valour of Valdemar. But he was certainly a prudent and circumspect
+ruler of blameless life, possessing, as Arnold of Lubeck (c. 1160-1212)
+expresses it, "the sober wisdom of old age even in his tender youth."
+
+  See _Danmarks Riges Historic. Oldtiden og den aeldre Middelalder_
+  (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), pp. 721-735.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CANVAS, a stout cloth which probably derives its name from _cannabis_,
+the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indicate that canvas was
+originally made from yarns of the hemp fibre, and there is some ground
+for the assumption. This fibre and that of flax have certainly been used
+for ages for the production of cloth for furnishing sails, and for
+certain classes of cloth used for this purpose the terms "sailcloth" and
+"canvas" are synonymous. Warden, in his _Linen Trade_, states that the
+manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1590, as appears
+by the preamble of James I., cap. 23:--"Whereas the cloths called
+_Mildernix_ and _Powel Davies_, whereof sails and other furniture for
+the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore altogether brought out
+of France and other parts beyond sea, and the skill and art of making
+and weaving of the said sailcloths never known or used in England until
+about the thirty-second year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what
+time and not before the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the
+said cloths was attained to, and since practised and continued in this
+realm, to the great benefit and commodity thereof." But this, or a
+similar cloth of the same name had been used for centuries before this
+time by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. Since the introduction of the
+power loom the cloth has undergone several modifications, and it is now
+made both from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton, or a mixture of these,
+but the quality of sailcloth for the British government is kept up to
+the original standard. All flax canvas is essentially of double warp,
+for it is invariably intended to withstand some pressure or rough usage.
+
+In structure it is similar to jute tarpaulin; indeed, if it were not for
+the difference in the fibre, it would be difficult to say where one type
+stopped and the other began. "Bagging," "tarpaulin" and "canvas" form an
+ascending series of cloths so far as fineness is concerned, although the
+finest tarpaulins are finer than some of the lower canvases. The cloth
+may be natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being tan.
+It has an enormous number of different uses other than naval.
+
+Amongst other articles made from it are:--receptacles for photographic
+and other apparatus; bags for fishing, shooting, golf and other sporting
+implements; shoes for cricket and other games, and for yachting;
+travelling cases and hold-alls, letter-bags, school-bags and nose-bags
+for horses. Large quantities of the various makes of flax and cotton
+canvases are tarred, and then used for covering goods on railways,
+wharves, docks, etc.
+
+Sail canvas is, naturally, of a strong build, and is quite different
+from the canvas cloth used for embroidery purposes, often called "art
+canvas." The latter is similar in structure to cheese cloths and
+strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art canvas are,
+in general, of a superior nature. All kinds of vegetable fibres are used
+in their production, chief among which are cotton, flax and jute. The
+yarns are almost invariably two or more ply, an arrangement which tends
+to obtain a uniform thickness--a very desirable element in these
+open-built fabrics.
+
+[Illustration.]
+
+The plain weave A in the figure is extensively used for these fabrics,
+but in many cases special weaves are used which leave the open spaces
+well defined. Thus weave B is often employed, while the "imitation
+gauze" weaves, C and D, are also largely utilized in the production of
+these embroidery cloths. Weave B is known as the hopsack, and probably
+owes its name to being originally used for the making of bags for hops.
+The cloth for this purpose is now called "hop pocketing," and is of a
+structure between bagging and tarpaulin. Another class of canvas, single
+warp termed "artists' canvas," is used, as its name implies, for
+paintings in oils. It is also much lighter than sail canvas, but must,
+of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities are made of
+cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual to find an
+admixture of tow, and even of cotton in the commoner kinds. When the
+cloth comes from the loom, it undergoes a special treatment to prepare
+the surface for the paint.
+
+
+
+
+CANVASS (an older spelling of "canvas"), to sift by shaking in a sheet
+of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly; as a political term it means to
+examine carefully the chances of the votes in a prospective election,
+and to solicit the support of the electors.
+
+
+
+
+CANYNGES, Canynge, WILLIAM (c. 1399-1474), English merchant, was born
+at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a member of a wealthy family of merchants
+and cloth-manufacturers in that city. He entered, and in due course
+greatly extended, the family business, becoming one of the richest
+Englishmen of his day. Canynges was five times mayor of, and twice
+member of parliament for, Bristol. He owned a fleet of ten ships, the
+largest hitherto known in England, and employed, it is said, 800 seamen.
+By special license from the king of Denmark he enjoyed for some time a
+monopoly of the fish trade between Iceland, Finland and England, and he
+also competed successfully with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic,
+obtaining a large share of their business. In 1456 he entertained
+Margaret of Anjou at Bristol, and in 1461 Edward IV. Canynges undertook
+at his own expense the great work of rebuilding the famous Bristol
+church of St Mary, Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred workmen
+in his regular service for this purpose. In 1467 he himself took holy
+orders, and in 1469 was made dean of Westbury. He died in 1474. The
+statesman George Canning and the first viscount Stratford de Redcliffe
+were descendants of his family.
+
+  See Pryce, _Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times_
+  (Bristol, 1854).
+
+
+
+
+CANYON (Anglicized form of Span. _canon_, a tube, pipe or cannon; the
+Spanish form being also frequently written), a type of valley with huge
+precipitous sides, such as the Grand Canyons of the Colorado and the
+Yellowstone livers, and the gorge of the Niagara river below the falls,
+due to rapid stream erosion in a "young" land. A river saws its channel
+vertically downwards, and a swift stream erodes chiefly at the bottom.
+In rainy regions the valleys thus formed are widened out by slope-wash
+and the resultant valley-slopes are gentle, but in arid regions there is
+very little side-extension of the valleys and the river cuts its way
+downwards, leaving almost vertical cliffs above the stream. If the
+stream be swift as in the western plateau of North America, the cutting
+action will be rapid. The ideal conditions for developing a canyon are:
+great altitude and slope causing swift streams, arid conditions with
+absence of side-wash, and hard rock horizontally bedded which will hold
+the walls up.
+
+
+
+
+CANZONE, a form of verse which has reached us from Italian literature,
+where from the earliest times it has been assiduously cultivated. The
+word is derived from the Provencal _canso_, a song, but it was in
+Italian first that the form became a literary one, and was dedicated to
+the highest uses of poetry. The canzone-strophe consists of two parts,
+the opening one being distinguished by Dante as the _fronte_, the
+closing one as the _sirma_. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being
+usual to make the rhyme of the last line of the _fronte_ identical with
+that of the first line of the _sirma_. In other respects the canzone has
+great liberty, as regards number and length of lines, arrangement of
+rhymes and conduct of structure. An examination of the best Italian
+models, however, shows that the tendency of the canzone-strophe is to
+possess 9, 10, 11, 13, 14 or 16 verses, and that of these the strophe of
+14 verses is so far the most frequent that it may almost be taken as the
+type. In this form it resembles an irregular sonnet. The _Vita Nuova_
+contains many examples of the canzone, and these are accompanied by so
+many explanations of their form as to lead us to believe that the
+canzone was originally invented or adopted by Dante. The following is
+the _proemio_ or _fronte_ of one of the most celebrated canzoni in the
+_Vita Nuova_ (which may be studied in English in Dante Gabriel
+Rossetti's translation):--
+
+  "Donna pietosa e di novella etate,
+   Adorna assai di gentilezza umane,
+   Era la ov' io chiamava spesso Morte.
+   Veggendo gli occhi miei pien di pietate,
+   Ed ascoltando le parole vane,
+   Si mosse con paura a pianger forte;
+   Ed altro donne, che si furo accorte
+   Di me per quella che meco piangia,
+   Fecer lei partir via
+   Ed apprissarsi per farmi sentire.
+   Quel dicea: 'Non dormire';
+   E qual dicea: 'Perche si te sconforte?'
+   Allor lasciai la nuova fantasia,
+   Chiamando il nome della donna mia."
+
+The _Canzoniere_ of Petrarch is of great authority as to the form of
+this species of verse. In England the canzone was introduced at the end
+of the sixteenth century by William Drummond of Hawthornden, who has
+left some very beautiful examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by
+A.W. von Schlegel and other poets of the Romantic period. It is
+doubtful, however, whether it is in agreement with the genius of any
+language but Italian, and whether the genuine "Canzone toscana" is a
+form which can be reproduced elsewhere than in Italy. (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CAPE BRETON, the north-east portion of Nova Scotia, Canada, separated
+from the mainland by a narrow strait, known as the Gut of Canceau or
+Canso. Its extreme length from north to south is about 110 m., greatest
+breadth about 87 m., and area 3120 sq. m. It juts out so far into the
+Atlantic that it has been called "the long wharf of Canada," the
+distance to the west coast of Ireland being less by a thousand miles
+than from New York. A headland on the east coast is also known as Cape
+Breton, and is said by some to be the first land made by Cabot on his
+voyage in 1497-1498. The large, irregularly-shaped, salt-water lakes of
+Bras d'Or communicate with the sea by two channels on the north-east; a
+short ship canal connects them with St Peter's bay on the south, thus
+dividing the island into two parts. Except on the north-west, the
+coast-line is very irregular, and indented with numerous bays, several
+of which form excellent harbours. The most important are Aspy, St Ann's,
+Sydney, Mira, Louisburg, Gabarus, St Peter's and Mabou; of these, Sydney
+Harbour, on which are situated the towns of Sydney and North Sydney, is
+one of the finest in North America. There are numerous rivers, chiefly
+rapid hill streams not navigable for any distance; the largest are the
+Denys, the Margaree, the Baddeck and the Mira. Lake Ainslie in the west
+is the most extensive of several fresh-water lakes. The surface of the
+island is broken in several places by ranges of hills of moderate
+elevation, well wooded, and containing numerous picturesque glens and
+gorges; the northern promontory consists of a plateau, rising at Cape
+North to a height of 1800 ft. This northern projection is formed of
+Laurentian gneiss, the only instance in Nova Scotia of this formation,
+and is fringed by a narrow border of carboniferous rocks. South of this
+extends a Cambrian belt, a continuation of the same formation on the
+Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. On various portions of the west coast,
+and on the south side of the island at Seacoal Bay and Little River
+(Richmond county), valuable seams of coal are worked. Still more
+important is the Sydney coal-field, which occupies the east coast from
+Mira Bay to St Ann's. The outcrop is plainly visible at various points
+along the coast, and coal has been mined in the neighbourhood from a
+very early period. Since 1893 the operations have been greatly extended,
+and over 3,000,000 tons a year are now shipped, chiefly to Montreal and
+Boston. The coal is bituminous, of good quality and easily worked, most
+of the seams dipping at a low angle. Several have been mined for some
+distance beneath the ocean. Slate, marble, gypsum and limestone are
+quarried, the latter, which is found in unlimited quantities, being of
+great value as a flux in the blast-furnaces of Sydney. Copper and iron
+are also found, though not in large quantities.
+
+Its lumber, agricultural products and fisheries are also important.
+Nearly covered with forest at the time of its discovery, it still
+exports pine, oak, beech, maple and ash. Oats, wheat, turnips and
+potatoes are cultivated, chiefly for home consumption; horses, cattle
+and sheep are reared in considerable numbers; butter and cheese are
+exported. The Bras d'Or lakes and the neighbouring seas supply an
+abundance of cod, mackerel, herring and whitefish, and the fisheries
+employ over 7000 men. Salmon are caught in several of the rivers, and
+trout in almost every stream, so that it is visited by large numbers of
+tourists and sportsmen from the other provinces and from the United
+States. The Intercolonial railway has been extended to Sydney, and
+crosses the Gut of Canso on a powerful ferry. From the same strait a
+railway runs up the west coast, and several shorter lines are controlled
+by the mining companies. Of these the most important is that connecting
+Sydney and Louisburg. Numerous steamers, with Sydney as their
+headquarters, ply upon the Bras d'Or lakes. The inhabitants are mainly
+of Highland Scottish descent, and Gaelic is largely spoken in the
+country districts. On the south and west coasts are found a number of
+descendants of the original French settlers and of the Acadian exiles
+(see NOVA SCOTIA), and in the mining towns numbers of Irish are
+employed. Several hundred Mic Mac Indians, for the most part of mixed
+blood, are principally employed in making baskets, fish-barrels and
+butter-firkins. Nearly the whole population is divided between the Roman
+and Presbyterian creeds, and the utmost cordiality marks the relations
+between the two faiths. The population is steadily increasing, having
+risen from 27,580 in 1851 to over 100,000 in 1906.
+
+There is some evidence in favour of early Norse and Icelandic voyages to
+Cape Breton, but they left no trace. It was probably visited by the
+Cabots in 1497-1498, and its name may either have been bestowed in
+remembrance of Cap Breton near Bayonne, by the Basque sailors who early
+frequented the coast, or may commemorate the hardy mariners of Brittany
+and Normandy.
+
+In 1629 James Stewart, fourth Lord Ochiltree, settled a small colony at
+Baleine, on the east side of the island; but he was soon after taken
+prisoner with all his party by Captain Daniell of the French Company,
+who caused a fort to be erected at Great Cibou (now St Ann's Harbour).
+By the peace of St Germain in 1632, Cape Breton was formally assigned to
+France; and in 1654 it formed part of the territory granted by patent to
+Nicholas Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, who made several small settlements on
+the island, which, however, had only a very temporary success. When by
+the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the French were deprived of Nova Scotia and
+Newfoundland, they were still left in possession of Cape Breton, and
+their right to erect fortifications for its defence was formally
+acknowledged. They accordingly transferred the inhabitants of Plaisance
+in Newfoundland to the settlement of Havre a l'Anglois, which soon
+after, under the name of Louisburg, became the capital of Cape Breton
+(or Ile Royale, as it was then called), and an important military post.
+
+Cod-fishing formed the staple industry, and a large contraband trade in
+French wines, brandy and sugar, was carried on with the English colonies
+to the south. In 1745 it was captured by a force of volunteers from New
+England, under Sir William Pepperell (1696-1759) aided by a British
+fleet under Commodore Warren (1703-1752). By the treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, the town was restored to France; but in 1758 was again
+captured by a British force under General Sir Jeffrey Amherst and
+Admiral Boscawen. On the conclusion of hostilities the island was ceded
+to England by the treaty of Paris; and on the 7th of October 1763 it was
+united by royal proclamation to the government of Nova Scotia. In 1784
+it was separated from Nova Scotia, and a new capital founded at the
+mouth of the Spanish river by Governor Desbarres, which received the
+name of Sydney in honour of Lord Sydney (Sir Thomas Townshend), then
+secretary of state for the colonies. There was immediately a
+considerable influx of settlers to the island, which received another
+important accession by the immigration of Scottish Highlanders from 1800
+to 1828. In 1820, in spite of strong opposition, it was again annexed to
+Nova Scotia. Since then, its history has been uneventful, chiefly
+centring in the development of the mining industry.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Historical: Richard Brown, _A History of the Island of
+  Cape Breton_ (1869), and Sir John Bourinot, _Historical and
+  Descriptive Account of Cape Breton_ (1892), are both excellent. See
+  also Denys, _Description geogr. et hist, des cotes de l'Amerique
+  septentrionale_ (1672); Pichon, _Lettres et memoires du Cap
+  Breton_ (1760). General: _Reports_ of Geological Survey, 1872 to
+  1882-1886, and 1895 to 1899 (by Robb, H. Fletcher and Faribault); H.
+  Fletcher, _The Sydney Coal Fields, Cape Breton, N.S._ (1900); Richard
+  Brown, _The Coal Fields of Cape Breton_ (1871; reprinted, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CAPE COAST, a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa, in 5 deg. 5'
+N., 1 deg. 13' W., about 80 m. W. of Accra. Pop. (1901) 28,948, mostly
+Fantis. There are about 100 Europeans and a colony of Krumen. The town
+is built on a low bank of gneiss and micaceous slate which runs out into
+the sea and affords some protection at the landing-place against the
+violence of the surf. (This bank was the _Cabo Corso_ of the Portuguese,
+whence the English corruption of Cape Coast.) The castle faces the sea
+and is of considerable size and has a somewhat imposing appearance. Next
+to the castle, used as quarters for military officers and as a prison,
+the principal buildings are the residence of the district commissioner,
+the churches and schools of various denominations, the government
+schools and the colonial hospital. Many of the wealthy natives live in
+brick-built residences. The streets are hilly, and the town is
+surrounded on the east and north by high ground, whilst on the west is a
+lagoon. Fort Victoria lies west of the town, and Fort William (used as a
+lighthouse) on the east.
+
+The first European settlement on the spot was that of the Portuguese in
+1610. In 1652 the Swedes established themselves here and built the
+castle, which they named Carolusburg. In 1659 the Dutch obtained
+possession, but the castle was seized in 1664 by the English under
+Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir) Robert Holmes, and it has not since
+been captured in spite of an attack by De Ruyter in 1665, a French
+attack in 1757, and various assaults by the native tribes. Next to
+Elmina it was considered the strongest fort on the Guinea Coast. Up to
+1876 the town was the capital of the British settlements on the coast,
+the administration being then removed to Accra. It is still one of the
+chief ports of the Gold Coast Colony, and from it starts the direct road
+to Kumasi. In 1905 it was granted municipal government. In the courtyard
+of the castle are buried George Maclean (governor of the colony
+1830-1843) and his wife (Laetitia Elizabeth Landon). The graves are
+marked by two stones bearing respectively the initials "L.E.L." and
+"G.M." The land on the east side of the town is studded with disused
+gold-diggers' pits. The natives are divided into seven clans called
+companies, each under the rule of recognized captains and possessing
+distinct customs and fetish.
+
+  See A. Ffoulkes, "The Company System in Cape Coast Castle," in _Jnl.
+  African Soc._ vol. vii., 1908; and GOLD COAST.
+
+
+
+
+CAPE COLONY (officially, "PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE"), the most
+southern part of Africa, a British possession since 1806. It was named
+from the promontory on its south-west coast discovered in 1488 by the
+Portuguese navigator Diaz, and near which the first settlement of
+Europeans (Dutch) was made in 1652. From 1872 to 1910 a self-governing
+colony, in the last-named year it entered the Union of South Africa as
+an original province. Cape Colony as such then ceased to exist. In the
+present article, however, the word "colony" is retained. The "provinces"
+referred to are the colonial divisions existing before the passing of
+the South Africa Act 1909, except in the sections _Constitution and
+Government_ and _Law and Justice_, where the changes made by the
+establishment of the Union are set forth. (See also SOUTH AFRICA.)
+
+_Boundaries and Area._--The coast-line extends from the mouth of the
+Orange (28 deg. 38' S. 16 deg. 27' E.) on the W. to the mouth of the
+Umtamvuna river (31 deg. 4' S. 30 deg. 12' E.) on the E., a distance of
+over 1300 m. Inland the Cape is bounded E. and N.E. by Natal,
+Basutoland, Orange Free State and the Transvaal; N. by the Bechuanaland
+Protectorate and N.W. by Great Namaqualand (German S.W. Africa). From
+N.W. to S.E. the colony has a breadth of 800 m., from S.W. to N.E. 750
+m. Its area is 276,995 sq. m.--more than five times the size of England.
+Walfish Bay (q.v.) on the west coast north of the Orange river is a
+detached part of Cape Colony.
+
+_Physical Features._--The outstanding orographic feature of the country
+is the terrace-formation of the land, which rises from sea-level by
+well-marked steps to the immense plateau which forms seven-eighths of
+South Africa. The coast region varies in width from a few miles to as
+many as fifty, being narrowest on the south-east side. The western coast
+line, from the mouth of the Orange to the Cape peninsula, runs in a
+general south-east direction with no deep indentations save just south
+of 33 deg. S. where, in Saldanha Bay, is spacious and sheltered
+anchorage. The shore is barren, consisting largely of stretches of white
+sand or thin soil sparsely covered with scrub. The Cape peninsula, which
+forms Table Bay on the north and False Bay on the south, juts pendant
+beyond the normal coast line and consists of an isolated range of hills.
+The scenery here becomes bold and picturesque. Dominating Table Bay is
+the well-known Table Mountain (3549 ft.), flat-topped and often covered
+with a "tablecloth" of cloud. On its lower slopes and around Table Bay
+is built Cape Town, capital of the colony. Rounding the storm-vexed Cape
+of Good Hope the shore trends south-east in a series of curves, forming
+shallow bays, until at the saw-edged reefs of Cape Agulhas (Portuguese,
+Needles) in 34 deg. 51' 15" S. 20 deg. E. the southernmost point of the
+African continent is reached. Hence the coast, now very slightly
+indented, runs north by east until at Algoa Bay (25 deg. 45' E.) it
+takes a distinct north-east bend, and so continues beyond the confines
+of the colony. Along the southern and eastern shore the country is
+better watered, more fertile and more picturesque than along the western
+seaboard. Cape Point (Cape of Good Hope) stands 840 ft. above the sea;
+Cape Agulhas 455 ft. Farther on the green-clad sides of the Uiteniquas
+Mountains are plainly visible from the sea, and as the traveller by boat
+proceeds eastward, stretches of forest are seen and numbers of mountain
+streams carrying their waters to the ocean. In this part of the coast
+the only good natural harbour is the spacious estuary of the Knysna
+river in 23 deg. 5' E. The entrance, which is over a bar with 14 ft.
+minimum depth of water, is between two bold sandstone cliffs, called the
+Heads.
+
+Off the coast are a few small islands, mainly mere rocks within the bay.
+None is far from the mainland. The largest are Dassen Island, 20 m. S.
+of Saldanha Bay, and Robben Island, at the entrance to Table Bay. St
+Croix is a rock in Algoa Bay, upon which Diaz is stated to have erected
+a cross. A number of small islands off the coast of German South-West
+Africa, chiefly valuable for their guano deposits, also belong to Cape
+Colony (see ANGRA PEQUENA).
+
+_Ocean Currents._--Off the east and south shores of the colony the
+Mozambique or Agulhas current sweeps south-westward with force
+sufficient to set up a back drift. This back drift or counter current
+flowing north-east is close in shore and is taken advantage of by
+vessels going from Cape Town to Natal. On the west coast the current
+runs northwards. It is a deflected stream from the west drift of the
+"roaring forties" and coming from Antarctic regions is much colder than
+the Agulhas current. Off the southern point of the continent the Agulhas
+current meets the west drift, giving rise to alternate streams of warm
+and cold water. This part of the coast, subject alike to strong westerly
+and southeasterly winds, is often tempestuous, as is witnessed by the
+name, Cabo Tormentoso, given to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the many
+wrecks off the coast. The most famous was that of the British troopship
+"Birkenhead," on the 26th of February 1852, off Danger Point, midway
+between Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE COLONY MAP.]
+
+_Mountains and Tablelands._--It has been stated that the land rises by
+well-marked steps to a vast central plateau. Beyond the coast plain,
+which here and there attains a height of 600 ft., are mountain ranges
+running parallel to the shore. These mountains are the supporting walls
+of successive terraces. When the steep southern sides of the ranges
+nearest the sea are ascended the hills are often found to be flat-topped
+with a gentle slope northward giving on to a plateau rarely more than 40
+m. wide. This plateau is called the Southern or Little Karroo, Karroo
+being a corruption of a Hottentot word meaning dry, arid. Having crossed
+the Little Karroo, from which rise minor mountain chains, a second high
+range has to be climbed. This done the traveller finds himself on
+another tableland--the Great Karroo. It has an average width of 80 m.
+and is about 350 m. long. Northwards the Karroo (q.v.) is bounded by the
+ramparts of the great inner tableland, of which only a comparatively
+small portion is in Cape Colony. This sequence of hill and plain--namely
+(1) the coast plain, (2) first range of hills, (3) first plateau (Little
+Karroo), (4) second range of hills, (5) second plateau (the Great
+Karroo), (6) main chain of mountains guarding, (7) the vast interior
+tableland--is characteristic of the greater part of the colony but is
+not clearly marked in the south-east and north-west borders. The
+innermost, and most lofty, chain of mountains follows a curve almost
+identical with that of the coast at a general distance of 120 m. from
+the ocean. It is known in different places under different names, and
+the same name being also often given to one or more of the coast ranges
+the nomenclature of the mountains is confusing (see the map). The most
+elevated portion of the innermost range, the Drakensberg (q.v.) follows
+the curve of the coast from south to north-east. Only the southern
+slopes of the range are in Cape Colony, the highest peaks--over 10,000
+ft.--being in Basutoland and Natal. Going westward from the Drakensberg
+the rampart is known successively as the Stormberg, Zuurberg,
+Sneeuwberg and Nieuwveld mountains. These four ranges face directly
+south. In the Sneeuwberg range is Compass Berg, 8500 ft. above the sea,
+the highest point in the colony. In the Nieuwveld are heights of over
+6000 ft. The Komsberg range, which joins the Nieuwveld on the east,
+sweeps from the south to the north-west and is followed by the Roggeveld
+mountains, which face the western seaboard. North of the Roggeveld the
+interior plateau approaches closer to the sea than in southern Cape
+Colony. The slope of the plateau being also westward, the mountain
+rampart is less elevated, and north of 32 deg. S. few points attain 5000
+ft. The coast ranges are here, in Namaqualand and the district of Van
+Rhyns Dorp, but the outer edges of the inner range. They attain their
+highest point in the Kamies Berg, 5511 ft. above the sea. Northward the
+Orange river, marking the frontier of the colony, cuts its way through
+the hills to the Atlantic.
+
+From the Olifants river on the west to the Kei river on the east the
+series of parallel ranges, which are the walls of the terraces between
+the inner tableland and the sea, are clearly traceable. Their general
+direction is always that of the coast, and they are cut across by rugged
+gorges or _kloofs_, through which the mountain streams make their way
+towards the sea. The two chief chains, to distinguish them from the
+inner chain already described, may be called the coast and central
+chains. Each has many local names. West to east the central chain is
+known as the Cedarberg, Groote Zwarteberg (highest point 6988 ft.),
+Groote river, Winterhoek (with Cockscomb mountain 5773 ft. high) and
+Zuurberg ranges. The Zuurberg, owing to the north-east trend of the
+shore, becomes, east of Port Elizabeth, a coast range, and the central
+chain is represented by a more northerly line of hills, with a dozen
+different names, which are a south-easterly spur of the Sneeuwberg. In
+this range the Great Winter Berg attains a height of 7800 ft.
+
+The coast chain is represented west to east by the Olifants mountains
+(with Great Winterhoek, 6618 ft. high), Drakenstein, Zonder Einde,
+Langeberg (highest point 5614 ft.), Attaquas, Uiteniquas and various
+other ranges. In consequence of the north-east trend of the coast,
+already noted, several of these ranges end in the sea in bold bluffs.
+From the coast plain rise many short ranges of considerable elevation,
+and on the east side of False Bay parallel to Table Bay range is a
+mountain chain with heights of 4000 and 5000 ft. East of the Kei river
+the whole of the country within Cape Colony, save the narrow seaboard,
+is mountainous. The southern part is largely occupied with spurs of the
+Stormberg; the northern portion, Griqualand East and Pondoland, with the
+flanks of the Drakensberg. Several peaks exceed 7000 ft. in height.
+Zwart Berg, near the Basuto-Natal frontier, rises 7615 ft. above the
+sea. Mount Currie, farther south, is 7296 ft. high. The Witte Bergen
+(over 5000 ft. high) are an inner spur of the Drakensberg running
+through the Herschel district.
+
+That part of the inner tableland of South Africa which is in the colony
+has an average elevation of 3000 ft., being higher in the eastern than
+in the western districts. It consists of wide rolling treeless plains
+scarred by the beds of many rivers, often dry for a great part of the
+year. The tableland is broken by the Orange river, which traverses its
+whole length. North of the river the plateau slopes northward to a level
+sometimes as low as 2000 ft. The country is of an even more desolate
+character than south of the Orange (see BECHUANALAND). Rising from the
+plains are chains of isolated flat-topped hills such as the Karree
+Bergen, the Asbestos mountains and Kuruman hills, comparatively
+unimportant ranges.
+
+Although the mountains present bold and picturesque outlines on their
+outward faces, the general aspect of the country north of the
+coast-lands, except in its south-eastern corner, is bare and monotonous.
+The flat and round-topped hills (_kopjes_), which are very numerous on
+the various plateaus, scarcely afford relief to the eye, which searches
+the sun-scorched landscape, usually in vain, for running water. The
+absence of water and of large trees is one of the most abiding
+impressions of the traveller. Yet the vast arid plains are covered with
+shallow beds of the richest soil, which only require the fertilizing
+power of water to render them available for pasture or agriculture.
+After the periodical rains, the Karroo and the great plains of
+Bushmanland are converted into vast fields of grass and flowering
+shrubs, but the summer sun reduces them again to a barren and burnt-up
+aspect. The pastoral lands or _velds_ are distinguished according to the
+nature of their herbage as "sweet" or "sour." Shallow sheets of water
+termed _vleis_, usually brackish, accumulate after heavy rain at many
+places in the plateaus; in the dry seasons these spots, where the soil
+is not excessively saline, are covered with rich grass and afford
+favourite grazing land for cattle. Only in the southern coast-land of
+the colony is there a soil and moisture supply suited to forest growth.
+
+_Rivers_.--The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of the
+colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the Orange
+(q.v.), which flows from east to west nearly across the continent. For a
+considerable distance, both in its upper and lower courses, the river
+forms the northern frontier of Cape Colony. In the middle section, where
+both banks are in the colony, the Orange receives from the north-east
+its greatest tributary, the Vaal (q.v.). The Vaal, within the boundaries
+of the colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and
+the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony the
+Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the Orange flow,
+in their lower courses, through the eastern part of Griqualand West, the
+only well-watered portion of the colony north of the mountains. From the
+north, below the Vaal confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman,
+intermittent streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional
+surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose themselves in
+some _vlei_ in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob mark the frontier
+between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Cape; the Kuruman lies
+wholly within the colony. From the south a number of streams, the Brak
+and Ongers, the Zak and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the
+Hartebeest), flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for
+a great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the
+volume of the Orange.
+
+South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic or
+Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast rivers fall
+thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and many are little
+else than mountain torrents. They make their way down the mountain sides
+through great gorges, and are noted in the eastern part of the country
+for their extremely sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams
+after heavy rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry
+up altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers are
+obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange river also,
+they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable.
+
+Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic are the
+Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here that the same
+name is repeatedly applied throughout South Africa to different streams,
+Buffalo, Olifants (elephants') and Groote (great) being favourite
+designations. They all occur more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west
+coast rivers, the Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and
+least important, flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150
+m.), which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the
+Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg and Olifants
+ranges. The Doorn, a stream with a somewhat parallel but more easterly
+course, joins the Olifants about 50 m. above its mouth, the Atlantic
+being reached by a semicircular sweep to the south-west. The Berg river
+(125 m.) rises in the district of French Hoek and flows through fertile
+country, in a north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It
+is navigable for a few miles from its mouth.
+
+On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the Breede
+(about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and broad channel.
+Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the mountains by Mitchell's
+Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of Ceres and Worcester, and
+receives, beyond the last-named place, the waters which descend from
+the famous Hex River Pass. The Breede thence follows the line of the
+Langeberg mountains as far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and
+traversing the coast plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From
+its mouth the river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m.
+East of the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the
+inner mountain chain, are passed in the order named:--Gouritz (200
+m.),[1] Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.), Kei (150
+m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John's (140 m.).
+
+The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the Gamka and the
+Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld not far from Beaufort West,
+traverses the Great Karroo from north to south, and forces a passage
+through the Zwarteberg. Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from
+the east by the Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great
+Karroo, being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the
+Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the Little
+Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka. The united
+stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south, and receives from
+the west, a few miles above the point where it breaks through the coast
+range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the common name Groote, but known in
+its upper course as the Buffels. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The
+Touws (90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources
+of the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the Groote
+the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and enters the Indian
+Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel Bay.
+
+The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams, the Kouga, an
+unimportant river which rises in the coast hills, and the Groote river.
+This, _the_ Groote river of Cape Colony, has its rise in the Nieuwveld
+near Nels Poort, being known in its upper course as the Salt river.
+Flowing south-east, it is joined by the Kariega on the left, and
+breaking through the escarpment of the Great Karroo, on the lower level
+changes its name to the Groote, the hills which overhang it to the
+north-east being known as Groote River Heights. Bending south, the
+Groote river passes through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and
+being joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St
+Francis Bay.
+
+Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams, change its name
+on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo and again on reaching the
+coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg north-west of Graaff Reinet,
+flows south-east through one of the most fertile districts of the Great
+Karroo, which it pierces at the western end of the Zuurberg (of the
+coast chain), and reaches the ocean in Algoa Bay.
+
+Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with the Great
+Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small streams rising in
+the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form the Great Fish river
+which passes through Cradock, and crossing the Karroo, changes its
+general direction from south to east, and is joined by the Kooner (or
+Koonap) and Kat, both of which rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the
+Great Salt river, it winds south to the sea. Great Fish river is
+distinguished for the sudden and great rise of its waters after heavy
+rain and for its exceedingly sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway
+station it makes an almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being
+scarcely 2 m. apart, in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like
+the other streams which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in
+its upper course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000
+cubic ft.
+
+The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise in the
+Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish in its many
+twists, flows in a general south-east direction through mountainous
+country until it reaches the coast plain. Its mouth is 40 m. in a direct
+line north-east of East London. In the history of the Cape the Kei
+plays an important part as long marking the boundary between the colony
+and the independent Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei
+rivers see KAFFRARIA.)
+
+Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.), Kowie (40
+m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be mentioned. The Knysna
+rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of importance as a feeder of the
+lagoon or estuary of the same name, one of the few good harbours on the
+coast. The banks of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which
+rises in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham's Town, is also noted for
+the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The water over the
+bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft. draught. The Buffalo
+river rises in the hilly country north of King William's Town, past
+which it flows. At the mouth of the river, where the scenery is very
+fine, is East London, third in importance of the ports of Cape Colony.
+
+The frequency of "fontein" among the place names of the colony bears
+evidence of the number of springs in the country. They are often found
+on the flat-topped hills which dot the Karroo. Besides the ordinary
+springs, mineral and thermal springs are found in several places.
+
+_Lakes and Caves._--Cape Colony does not possess any lakes properly so
+called. There are, however, numerous natural basins which, filled after
+heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an incrustation of salt on the
+ground, whence their name of salt pans. The largest, Commissioner's Salt
+Pan, in the arid north-west district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference.
+Besides these pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools
+or _vleis_ whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture of
+the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore by a
+sandbank only, are a series of five _vleis_, turned in flood times into
+one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to the ocean. These
+_vleis_ are known collectively as "the lakes." In the Zwarteberg of the
+central chain are the Cango Caves, a remarkable series of caverns
+containing many thousand of stalactites and stalagmites. These caves,
+distant 20 m. from Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone
+bed about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers, the
+caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line.
+
+_Climate_.--The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthiness. Its
+chief characteristics are the dryness and clearness of the atmosphere
+and the considerable daily range in temperature; whilst nevertheless the
+extremes of heat and cold are rarely encountered. The mean annual
+temperature over the greater part of the country is under 65 deg. F. The
+chief agents in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in
+the southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large extent
+of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature of the air
+in places south of the tropics compared with that experienced in
+countries in the same latitude north of the equator. Thus Cape Town,
+about 34 deg. S., has a mean temperature, 63 deg. F., which corresponds
+with that of the French and Italian Riviera, in 41 deg. to 43 deg. N.
+For the dryness of the atmosphere the elevation of the country is
+responsible. The east and south-east winds, which contain most moisture,
+dissipate their strength against the Drakensberg and other mountain
+ranges which guard the interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially
+in the south-east, enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance
+west and north contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger
+part of the country drought is common and severe. Along the valley of
+the lower Orange rain does not fall for years together. The drought is
+increased in intensity by the occasional hot dry wind from the desert
+region in the north, though this wind is usually followed by violent
+thunderstorms.
+
+Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here outlined,
+in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there are many
+variations in different districts. In the coast-lands the daily range of
+the thermometer is less marked than in the interior and the humidity of
+the atmosphere is much greater. Nevertheless, the west coast north of
+the Olifants river is practically rainless and there is great difference
+between day and night temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the
+characteristics of the interior plateau. The division of the year into
+four seasons is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where
+exceptional conditions prevail. In general the seasons are but
+two--summer and winter, summer lasting from September to April and
+winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is experienced
+in December, January and February, whilst June and July are the coldest
+months. In the western part of the colony the winter is the rainy
+season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in summer. A line drawn
+from Port Elizabeth north-west across the Karroo in the direction of
+Walfish Bay roughly divides the regions of the winter and summer rains.
+All the country north of the central mountain chain and west of 23 deg.
+E., including the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual
+rainfall of under 12 in. East of the 23 deg. E. the plateaus have a mean
+annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-lands and
+the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in.; the Cape
+peninsula by exception having an average yearly rainfall of 40 in. (see
+CAPE TOWN). Along the south coast and in the south-east the mean annual
+rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is over 50 in. at some stations. The rain
+falls, generally, in heavy and sudden storms, and frequently washes away
+the surface soil. The mean annual temperature of the coast region,
+which, as stated, is 63 deg. F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the
+coast not only trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect
+of the warm Mozambique or Agulhas current.
+
+On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77 deg. F., the mean
+minimum 49 deg., the mean daily range about 27 deg.. In summer the
+drought is severe, the heat during the day great, the nights cool and
+clear. In winter frost at night is not uncommon. The climate of the
+northern plains is similar to that of the Karroo, but the extremes of
+cold and heat are greater. In the summer the shade temperature reaches
+110 deg. F., whilst in winter nights 12 deg. of frost have been
+registered. The hot westerly winds of summer make the air oppressive,
+though violent thunderstorms, in which form the northern districts
+receive most of their scanty rainfall, occasionally clear the
+atmosphere. Mirages are occasionally seen. The keen air, accompanied by
+the brilliant sunshine, renders the winter climate very enjoyable. Snow
+seldom falls in the coast region, but it lies on the higher mountains
+for three or four months in the year, and for as many days on the
+Karroo. Violent hailstorms, which do great damage, sometimes follow
+periods of drought. The most disagreeable feature of the climate of the
+colony is the abundance of dust, which seems to be blown by every wind,
+and is especially prevalent in the rainy season.
+
+That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the history of South
+Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations of settlers, from northern
+Europe have been born, lived and died there, and the race is as strong
+and vigorous as that from which it sprang. Malarial fever is practically
+non-existent in Cape Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare.
+     (F. R. C.)
+
+_Geology_.--The colony affords the typical development of the geological
+succession south of the Zambezi. The following general arrangement has
+been determined:--
+
+  TABLE OF FORMATIONS.
+  _Post-Cretaceous and Recent._
+
+  Cretaceous      / Pondoland Cretaceous Series  \ Cretaceous
+    System        \ Uitenhage Series             /
+
+                  / Stormberg Series             \
+  Karroo System  <  Beaufort Series               > Carboniferous
+                  | Ecca Series                  |    to Jurassic
+                  \ Dwyka Series                 /
+
+                  / Witteberg Series             \
+  Cape System    <  Bokkeveld Series              > Devonian
+                  | Table Mountain Sandstone     |
+                  \   Series                     /
+
+                  / Includes several independent \
+  Pre-Cape Rocks <  unfossiliferous formations    > Archaean to
+                  \   of pre-Devonian age        /    Silurian(?)
+
+The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be regarded as a
+shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal rocks of the Karroo.
+These form the plains and plateaus of the interior. Rocks of pre-Cape
+age rise from beneath them on the north and west; on the south and east
+the Lower Karroo and Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath
+which, but in quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the
+folded regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south
+and east.
+
+Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different
+development in each:--
+
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+
+  |          North.         |          West.          |    South.   |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+
+  | Matsap Series           | Nieuwerust Beds         | Cango Beds  |
+  | Ongeluk Volcanic Series |                         |             |
+  | Griquatown Series       | Ibiquas Beds            |             |
+  | Campbell Rand Series    |                         |             |
+  | Black Reef Series       |                         |             |
+  | Pniel Volcanic Series   |                         |             |
+  | Keis Series             |                         |             |
+  | Namaqualand Schists     | Namaqualand Schists and | Malmesbury  |
+  |                         |   Malmesbury Beds       |   Beds      |
+  +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+
+
+The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt represent
+formations of widely different ages, but all that can be said is that
+they are greatly older than the Cape System. The hope that they will
+yield fossils has been held out but not yet fulfilled. Their total
+thickness amounts to several thousand feet. The rocks have been greatly
+changed by pressure in most cases and by the intrusion of great masses
+of igneous material, the Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being
+most altered.
+
+The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse conglomerate;
+the other rocks include slates, limestone and porphyroids. The Ibiquas
+beds consist of conglomerates and grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas
+series have been invaded by granite of older date than the Table
+Mountain series. The Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and
+shales. They rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury
+beds.
+
+The pre-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Campbell Rand,
+Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in the Schuftebergen.
+They contain a great variety of sediments and igneous rocks. The oldest,
+or Keis, series consists of quartzites, quartz-schists, phyllites and
+conglomerates. These are overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great
+thickness of lavas and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer
+Vley and Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites,
+grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the
+Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some interbedded
+quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quartzites, limestones and
+shales are numerous bands of jasper and large quantities of crocidolite
+(a fibrous amphibole); while at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200
+ft. thick, is locally developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known
+glaciations have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The
+Ongeluk volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conformably
+overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites and
+conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great
+discordance.
+
+Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the southern and
+eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member (Table Mountain
+Sandstone) consists of sandstones with subordinate bands of shale. It
+forms the upper part of Table Mountain and enters largely into the
+formation of the southern mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous
+except for a few obscure sheils obtained near the base. A bed of
+conglomerate is regarded as of glacial origin.
+
+The Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into a sequence of
+sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well exposed in the Cold and
+Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds contain many fossils, including
+_Phacops, Homalonotus, Leptocoelia, Spirifer, Chonetes, Orthothetes,
+Orthoceras, Bellerophon_. Many of the species are common to the Devonian
+rocks of the Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with
+perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South America than
+to that of any other country.
+
+The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sandstones,
+quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far imperfect remains
+of plants (_Spirophyton_) are the only fossils, and these are not
+sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the Devonian or
+Carboniferous System.
+
+The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.
+
+The Karroo System is _par excellence_ the geological formation of South
+Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do large tracts
+in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes the following
+well-defined subdivisions:--
+
+                                           Feet.
+             / Volcanic Beds  .  .  .  .   4000 \
+  Stormberg <  Cave Sandstone .  .  .  .    800  > Jurassic
+    Series   | Red Beds .  .  .  .  .  .   1400 /
+             \ Molteno Beds   .  .  .  .   2000 \
+  Beaufort   / Burghersdorp Beds \               > Trias
+    Series  <  Dicynodon Beds     > .  .   5000 /
+             \ Pareiasaurus Beds /              \  Permian
+  Ecca       / Shales and Sandstones \          /
+    Series  <  Laingsburg Beds        >.   2600 \
+             \ Shales                /          |
+  Dwyka      / Upper Shales   .  .  .  .    600  > Carboniferus
+    Series  <  Conglomerates  .  .  .  .   1000 |
+             \ Lower Shales   .  .  .  .    700 /
+
+In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape System
+conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on very much older
+rocks. The most remarkable deposits are the conglomerates of the Dwyka
+series. These afford the clearest evidences of glaciation on a great
+scale in early Carboniferous times. The deposit strictly resembles a
+consolidated modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks,
+and in different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is
+remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward. The
+upper shales contain the small reptile _Mesosaurus tenuidens_.
+
+Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among others
+they include _Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca_. The Beaufort
+series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable and often
+gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and species are numerous,
+_Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus_ being the best known. Among plants
+_Glossopteris_ occurs for the last time. The Stormberg series occurs in
+the mountainous regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno
+beds contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable feature
+of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an extensive
+scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed by lava streams
+of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets, most of which end at the
+folded belt, are also numerous. The age of the intrusive sheets met with
+in the Beaufort series is usually attributed to the Stormberg period.
+They form the kopjes, or characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great
+Karroo. The Stormberg series contains the remains of numerous reptiles.
+A true crocodile, _Notochampsa_, has been discovered in the Red Beds and
+Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, _Thinnfeldia_ and _Taeniopteris_ are
+common. Three genera of fossil fishes, _Cleithrolepis, Semionotus_ and
+_Ceratodus_, ascend from the Beaufort series into the Cave Sandstone.
+
+Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the Uitenhage
+beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden. The marine fauna
+of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age. The chief genera are
+_Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus_ and certain _Trigoniae_.
+
+The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are widely spread.
+High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft. above the sea. The remains
+of a gigantic ox, _Bubalus Baini_, have been obtained from the alluvium
+near the Modder river. The recent deposits indicate that the land has
+risen for a long period.     (W. G.*)
+
+_Fauna._--The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals common
+in the early days of the colony have been exterminated (e.g. quagga and
+blaauwbok), and others (e.g. the lion, rhinoceros, giraffe) driven
+beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game have been so reduced in
+numbers as to require special protection. This class includes the
+elephant (now found only in the Knysna and neighbouring forest regions),
+buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved, and confined to much the same
+regions as the elephant), eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other
+kinds of antelope and gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in
+the mountainous districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare
+woolly variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs
+are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other carnivora more
+or less common to the colony are the spotted hyena, aard-wolf (or
+_Proteles_), silver jackal, the _Otocyon_ or Cape wild dog, and various
+kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a few hundreds of rare
+varieties, there are the springbuck, of which great herds still wander
+on the open veld, the steinbok, a small and beautiful animal which is
+sometimes coursed like a hare, the klipspringer or "chamois of South
+Africa," common in the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock
+rabbit. There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of
+jerboa and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been
+introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland. The
+ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is found on the Karroo,
+where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps which dot the plain. There is
+also a scaly ant-eater and various species of pangolins, of arboreal
+habit, which live on ants. Baboons are found in the mountains and
+forests, otters in the rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile,
+confined to the Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the
+cobra di capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises,
+including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental land
+forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some regions. The
+great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft. high. Other game birds
+include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, snipe, wild
+duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal, plover and rail. Birds of prey include
+the bearded vulture, aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks,
+falcons and owls. Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in
+large variety.
+
+Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong to the order
+Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very common, the Cape canary,
+long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and wagtails are fairly numerous. The
+English starling is stated to be the only European bird to have
+thoroughly established itself in the colony. The Cape sparrow has
+completely acclimatized itself to town life and prevented the English
+sparrow obtaining a footing.
+
+Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions, tarantula spiders,
+butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In some districts the tsetse fly
+causes great havoc. The most interesting of the endemic insectivora is
+the _Chrysochloris_ or "golden mole," so called from the brilliant
+yellow lustre of its fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater
+fish, the commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both
+are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 lb. The smallest
+variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the _vleis_ and
+streams in which the water is intermittent the fish preserve life by
+burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been introduced into several rivers
+and have become acclimatized. Of sea fish there are more than forty
+edible varieties. The snock, the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in
+the estuaries and bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters
+of the Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.
+
+Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed by the
+natives when the country was discovered by Europeans. The various farm
+animals introduced by the whites have thriven well (see below,
+_Agriculture_).
+
+_Flora_.--The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast
+districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less variety.
+In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted in the colony,
+about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape. The bush of the coast
+districts and lower hills consists largely of heaths, of which there are
+over 400 species. The heaths and the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a
+plant 1 to 2 ft. high resembling heather, form the characteristic
+features of the flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom
+is pink coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry
+season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the flowers are
+the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group, including many
+varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In the eastern
+coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-tropical. Of
+pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty genera: Cape
+"everlasting" flowers (generally species of _Helichrysum_) are in great
+numbers. Several species of aloe are indigenous to the Cape. The
+so-called American aloe has also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant
+and many other plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great
+abundance. Among plants remarkable in their appearance and structure may
+be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge plants, the _Stapelia_ or
+carrion flower, and the elephant's foot or Hottentots' bread, a plant of
+the same order as the yam. Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic
+of many South African plants.
+
+Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges facing
+south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The forests contain a great
+variety of useful woods, affording excellent timber; among the commonest
+trees are the yellow wood, which is also one of the largest, belonging
+to the yew species; black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable
+stinkhout; melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and the
+assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed 30 ft. in height
+and scarcely any attain a greater height than 60 ft. A characteristic
+Cape tree is _Leucadendron argenteum_ or silver tree, so named from the
+silver-like lustre of stem and leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the
+Cedarberg got its name, exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the
+Dutch or British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the
+Australian blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle
+grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands, e.g. the
+Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more rapidly and more
+luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few indigenous fruits; the kei
+apple is the fruit of a small tree or shrub found in Kaffraria and the
+eastern districts, where also the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard
+pears, gourds, water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon
+are also native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been
+introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of dwarf
+mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the spring rains are
+gorgeous in blossom (see KARROO). The grass of the interior plains is of
+a coarse character and yellowish colour, very different from the meadow
+grasses of England. The "Indian" doab grass is also indigenous.
+
+With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not reach beyond
+about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered with small heath,
+_Bruniaceae, Rutaceae_, &c. All plants with permanent foliage are
+thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over seventy species of plants
+of Alpine character have been found.
+
+_Races and Population_.--The first inhabitants of Cape Colony of whom
+there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots (q.v.). The last-named
+were originally called Quaequaes, and received the name Hottentots from
+the Dutch. They dwelt chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of
+the country; elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and
+to them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered by
+Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was very scanty and
+it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers and a few Huguenot families
+in the 17th century was followed in the 19th century by that of English
+and German immigrants. The Bushmen retreated before the white races and
+now few are to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the
+districts bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the
+Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no _pure bred_
+representatives of the race survive in the colony.
+
+Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now form the bulk
+of the native population west of the Great Fish river. Of Kaffir tribes
+the most important living north of the Orange river are the Bechuanas,
+whilst in the eastern province and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus
+and Pondos. The Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony
+proper. The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot
+half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country. During the
+slavery period many thousands of negroes were imported, chiefly from
+the Guinea coast. The negroes have been largely assimilated by the
+Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the native races see their separate
+articles.) Of the white races in the Colony the French element has been
+completely absorbed in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are
+mainly pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased form
+their own language, also engage largely in agriculture and viticulture.
+Of fine physique and hardy constitution, they are of strongly
+independent character; patriarchal in their family life; shrewd, _slim_
+and courageous; in religion Protestants of a somewhat austere type.
+Education is somewhat neglected by them, and the percentage of
+illiteracy among adults is high. They are firm believers in the
+inferiority of the black races and regard servitude as their natural
+lot. The British settlers have developed few characteristics differing
+from the home type. The British element of the community is largely
+resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in
+professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk of the
+farmers are English or German; the German farmers being found in the
+district between King William's Town and East London, and on the Cape
+Peninsula. Numbers of them retain their own language. The term
+"Africander" is sometimes applied to all white residents in Cape Colony
+and throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to the
+Dutch-speaking colonists. "Boer," i.e. farmer, as a synonym for "Dutch,"
+is not in general use in Cape Colony.
+
+Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of Malays in
+Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the Dutch as slaves.
+These people are largely leavened with foreign elements and, professing
+Mahommedanism, religion rather than race is their bond of union. They
+add greatly by their picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street
+scenes. They are generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There
+are also a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of
+the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the _taal_ or
+vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites, as it is
+of the natives in the western provinces.
+
+The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the colony,
+which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not include the
+comparatively densely-populated Native Territories, was 566,158. Of
+these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or about 33% of the whole. Of the
+coloured races the Hottentots and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000,
+whilst the Kaffirs formed about 50% of the population. Since 1865
+censuses have been taken--in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland
+formed part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand East,
+Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated, and Basutoland
+had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland and British Bechuanaland had
+been added. The following table gives the area and population at each of
+the three periods.
+
+  +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  |       1875.       |       1891.       |       1904.       |
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+  |  Area.  |   Pop.  |  Area.  |   Pop.  |  Area.  |   Pop.  |
+  | sq. m.  |         | sq. m.  |         | sq. m.  |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+  | 201,136 | 849,160 | 260,918 |1,527,224| 276,995 |2,409,804|
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at 720,984, and
+that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is officially divided into
+nine provinces, but is more conveniently treated as consisting of three
+regions, to which may be added the detached area of Walfish Bay and the
+islands along the coast of Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows
+the distribution of population in the various areas.
+
+The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865 and 579,741 in
+1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783 in 1875 and 376,987 in
+1891. The proportion of Dutch descended whites to those of British
+origin is about 3 to 2. No exact comparison can be made showing the
+increase in the native population owing to the varying areas of the
+colony, but the natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites;
+the increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable
+measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25% of the total
+population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the colony proper. The
+great bulk of the people inhabit the coast region. The population is
+densest in the south-west corner (which includes Cape Town, the capital)
+where the white outnumbers the coloured population. Here in an area of
+1711 sq. m. the inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The
+urban population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns
+and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the total
+population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants at the 1904
+census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as Indians, 85,892 as
+Hottentots,[2] 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as Griquas. The Kaffir and
+Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067 individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes
+separately classified, while 279,662 persons were described as of mixed
+race. Divided by sex (including white and black) the males numbered
+(1904) 1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion
+of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:--whites, 82.16 females
+to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared with 1891); coloured,
+103.22 females to every 100 males. Of the total population over 14 years
+old--1,409,975--the number married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the
+white population this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.
+
+  +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
+  |                         |                 Population (1904).                |
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+  |                         | Area in |  White. | Coloured. |   Total.  |  Per  |
+  |                         |  sq. m. |         |           |           | sq. m.|
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+  | Cape Colony Proper      | 206,613 | 553,452 |   936,239 | 1,489,691 |  7.21 |
+  | British Bechuanaland    |  51,424 |   9,368 |    75,104 |    84,472 |  1.64 |
+  | Native Territories      |  18,310 |  16,777 |   817,867 |   834,644 | 45.50 |
+  | Walfish Bay and Islands |     648 |     144 |       853 |       977 |  1.50 |
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+  |              Total      | 276,995 | 579,741 | 1,830,063 | 2,409,804 |  8.70 |
+  +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+
+
+The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ about 1/4th
+of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged in such pursuits
+numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and 67,278, whereas 99,319
+were engaged in domestic employment, and 111,175 in agricultural
+employment, while 214,982 (mostly children) were dependants. The natives
+follow domestic and agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.
+
+Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory till 1895.
+Among the European population the birth-rate is about 33.00 per
+thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand. The birth-rate among
+the coloured inhabitants is about the same as with the whites, but the
+death-rate is higher--about 25.00 per thousand.
+
+_Immigration and Emigration_.--From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337 persons
+availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants from England to
+the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped. The total number of adult
+immigrants by sea, however, steadily increased from 11,559 in 1891 to
+38,669 in 1896, while during the same period the number of departures by
+sea only increased from 8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took
+place in the last year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the
+political position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants,
+while the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900 there
+were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163 departures.
+Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the immigration figures rose
+in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures numbered 29,615. This great
+increase proved transitory; in 1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered
+32,282 and 33,775 respectively, while in the same years the emigrants
+numbered 33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the
+European population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian
+extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.
+
+_Provinces_.--The first division of the colony for the purposes of
+administration and election of members for the legislative council was
+into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the western being largely
+Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly British. With the growth of the
+colony these provinces were found to be inconveniently large, and by an
+act of government, which became law in 1874, the country was portioned
+out into seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were
+formed within them by the reduction of those already existing. The seven
+provinces are named from their geographical position: western,
+north-western, south-western, eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and
+midland. In general usage the distinction made is into western and
+eastern provinces, according to the area of the primary division.
+Griqualand West on its incorporation with the colony in 1880 became a
+separate province, and when the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was
+taken over by the Cape in 1895 it also became a separate province (see
+GRIQUALAND and BECHUANALAND). For electoral purposes the Native
+Territories (see KAFFRARIA) are included in the eastern province.
+
+_Chief Towns_.--With the exception of Kimberley the principal towns (see
+separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape Town, had a
+population (1904) of 77,668, or including the suburbs, 169,641. The most
+important of these suburbs, which form separate municipalities, are
+Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg (18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley,
+the centre of the diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape
+Town, had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of
+Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959
+inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river, 25,220.
+Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London. Uitenhage (pop.
+12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. Of the other towns Somerset
+West (2613), Somerset West Strand (3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl
+(11,293), Wellington (4881), Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon
+(3508), Worcester (7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are
+named in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam is
+distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony are
+Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West (5478), Victoria
+West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of Mossel Bay (4206) and
+George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083), Middleburg (6137), Cradock
+(7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg (2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more
+centrally situated, while in the east are Graham's Town (13,887), King
+William's Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp
+(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North (5566), the
+largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset East (5216).
+Simon's Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of the British navy.
+Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the colony near the Transvaal
+frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg (2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad
+(2903) is the capital of Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of
+Tembuland.
+
+Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines, whose
+headquarters are at O'okiep (2106). Knysna, Port Alfred and Port St
+Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and Barkly West are two widely
+separated towns, the first being E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West
+in Griqualand West. Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the
+middle course of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on
+the north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western part
+of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining region in
+the east of the colony. The general plan of the small country towns is
+that of streets laid out at right angles, and a large central market
+square near which are the chief church, town hall and other public
+buildings. In several of the towns, notably those founded by the early
+Dutch settlers, the streets are tree-lined. Those towns for which no
+population figures are given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000
+inhabitants.
+
+_Agriculture and Allied Industries._--Owing to the scarcity of water
+over a large part of the country the area of land under cultivation is
+restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are pastoralists, whose
+wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep and goats, horses, and,
+in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of adequate irrigation much
+fertile soil is left untouched.
+
+The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000 bushels
+in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and Kaffir corn (a
+kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing districts are in the
+south-western and eastern provinces. The yield per acre is fully up to
+the average of the world's yield, computed at twelve bushels to the
+acre. The quality of Cape wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives
+its name to the Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower
+hills of Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and
+horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and Kaffir
+corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider area than any
+other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest crop grown. They are
+often cut whilst still tender, dried and used as forage being known as
+oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of about 5-1/2 lb each were produced in
+1904). The principal vegetables cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold
+and beet, beans and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small,
+whilst those devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging
+from 3000 acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers
+own the farms they occupy.
+
+The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief
+occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000 woolled and
+3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There were 2,775,000 angora and
+4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000 cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000
+asses. These figures showed in most cases a large decrease compared with
+those obtained in 1891, the cause being largely the ravages of
+rinderpest. Lucerne and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich
+farms are maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country,
+young birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres
+supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated ostriches in
+1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over 200,000 since 1891. There
+are large mule-breeding establishments on the veld.
+
+Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony. It is
+doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to the Cape. The
+first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards, while the cuttings of
+French vines introduced by the Huguenots about 1688 have given rise to
+an extensive culture in the south-western districts of the colony. The
+grapes are among the finest in the world, whilst the fruit is produced
+in almost unrivalled abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of
+wine are produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000,
+and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides
+1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those known as
+Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot. The high reputation
+which they had in the first half of the 19th century was afterwards lost
+to a large extent. Owing to greater care on the part of growers, and the
+introduction of French-American resistant stocks to replace vines
+attacked by the phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th
+century again acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater
+part of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the colony.
+The chief wine-producing districts are those of the Paarl, Worcester,
+Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and the Cape, all in the
+south-western regions. Beyond the colony proper there are promising vine
+stocks in the Gordonia division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata
+district of Tembuland.
+
+Fruit culture has become an important industry with the facilities
+afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in Europe. The trees
+whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection and yield the largest
+harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and apple. Large quantities of
+table grapes are also grown. Many millions of each of the fruits named
+are produced annually. The pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees
+likewise flourish. Cherry trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive
+was begun in the western provinces, c. 1900. In the Oudtshoorn,
+Stockenstroom, Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is
+grown. The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 lb.
+
+Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to that of
+diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres are Port Elizabeth
+and the Cape district. In 1904 the output of the mills was valued at
+over L2,200,000, more than 7,000,000 bushels of wheat being ground.
+
+Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown property
+and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries were little developed
+before 1897 when government experiments were begun, which proved that
+large quantities of fish were easily procurable by trawling. Large
+quantities of soles are obtained from a trawling ground near Cape
+Agulhas. The collection of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is
+under government control.
+
+_Mining_.--The mineral wealth of the country is very great. The most
+valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in Griqualand West and
+also at Hopetown, and other districts along the Orange river. The
+diamond-mining industry is almost entirely under the control of the De
+Beers Mining Company. From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come
+larger numbers of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the
+world combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years
+1896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and a half
+million carats, of the average annual value of L4,250,000, the average
+price per carat being L1:13:3. From the other districts alluvial
+diamonds are obtained of the average annual value of L250,000-L400,000.
+They are finer stones than the Kimberley diamonds, having an average
+value of L3:2:7 per carat.
+
+Next in importance among mineral products are coal and copper. The
+collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of considerable extent.
+The Indwe mines are the most productive. The colonial output increased
+from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000 tons in 1904. The copper mines are
+in Namaqualand, an average of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined
+yearly. Copper was the first metal worked by white men in the colony,
+operations beginning in 1852.
+
+Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near Mafeking--the
+outcrop extending about 30 m.---and, in small quantities, from mines in
+the Knysna district. In the Cape and Paarl districts are valuable stone
+and granite quarries. Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which
+neighbourhood there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several
+districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown and Uitenhage
+divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near Cape Town. Many other
+minerals exist but are not put to industrial purposes.
+
+_Trade_.--The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities,
+but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods to and from the
+Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia. The staple exports are
+diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich
+feathers, mohair, hides and skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000
+lb in 1860, had doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 lb in 1905 when
+the export was valued at L1,887,459. In the same year (1905) 471,024 lb
+of ostrich feathers were exported valued at L1,081,187. The chief
+imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky, timber, hardware
+and machinery. The value of the total imports rose from L13,612,405 in
+1895 to L33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped to L20,000,913 in 1905. The
+exports in 1895 were valued at L16,798,137 and rose to L23,247,258 in
+1899. The dislocation of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics
+brought down the exports in 1900 to L7,646,682 (in which year the value
+of the gold exported was only L336,795). They rose to L10,000,000 and
+L16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and in 1905 had reached
+L33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold valued at L20,731,159.)
+About 75% of the imports come from the United Kingdom or British
+colonies, and nearly the whole of the exports go to the United Kingdom.
+The tonnage of ships entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from
+10,175,903 in 1895 to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year 9/11ths of the
+tonnage was British. It is interesting to compare the figures already
+given with those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the
+colony over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country was
+under L1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over L4,500,000, in 1874 it
+exceeded L10,500,000. It remained at about this figure until the
+development of the Witwatersrand gold mines. The consequent great
+increase in the carrying trade with the Transvaal led to some neglect of
+the internal resources of the colony. Trade depression following the war
+of 1899-1902 turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory
+results. The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was
+L12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony being
+L15,302,854. A "trade balance-sheet" for 1906 drawn up for the Cape Town
+chamber of commerce by its president showed, however, a debtor account
+of L18,751,000 compared with a credit account of L17,931,000, figures
+representing with fair accuracy the then economic condition of the
+country.
+
+Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union. The tariff,
+revised in 1906, is protective with a general _ad valorem_ rate of 15%
+on goods not specifically enumerated. On machinery generally there is a
+3% _ad valorem_ duty. Books, engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c., are
+on the free list. There is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United
+Kingdom, machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.
+
+_Communications_.--There is regular communication between Europe and the
+colony by several lines of steamships. The British mails are carried
+under contract with the colonial government by packets of the
+Union-Castle Steamship Co., which leave Southampton every Saturday and
+Cape Town every Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m.,
+according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the distance
+in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers sail once a week, or
+oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days) East London (543 m., three
+days) and Durban (823 m., four or five days); Mossel Bay being called at
+once a fortnight. Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated
+intervals for Port Nolloth.
+
+Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (_Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie_), starting from
+Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three chief Cape ports.
+The western route is via Dover to Cape Town, the eastern route is via
+the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines of steamers ply between Cape
+Town and Australian ports, and others between Cape Colony and India.
+
+There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers crossing
+main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the colony is that which
+spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is 1480 ft. long and cost L114,000. Of
+the roads in general it may be said that they are merely tracks across
+the veld made at the pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally
+used as a draught animal in country districts remote from railways;
+sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying 3 to 4
+tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted the ox-wagon for
+bringing agricultural produce to market. The "Scotch cart," a light
+two-wheeled vehicle is also much used.
+
+_Railways_.--Railway construction began in 1859 when a private company
+built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line, 64 m. long, was
+the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen years. In 1871
+parliament resolved to build railways at the public expense, and in 1873
+(the year following the conferment of responsible government on the
+colony) a beginning was made with the work, L5,000,000 having been voted
+for the purpose. In the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was
+bought by the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private
+companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving
+subsidies from the government, which owns and works the greater part of
+the railways in the colony.
+
+The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines from the
+seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines then begun
+determined the development of the whole system. The standard gauge in
+South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways mentioned are of that
+gauge unless otherwise stated.
+
+The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified under
+three great systems:--the Western, the Midland and the Eastern.
+
+The Western system--the southern section of the Cape to Cairo
+route--starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley (647 m.) to Vryburg
+(774 m.), whence it is continued by the Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking
+(870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.), the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623
+m.) and the Belgian Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs
+via Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen Streams, a
+station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via Klerksdorp to
+Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most direct route between Cape
+Town and the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955
+m.)
+
+The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main line runs by
+Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval's Pont on the Orange river, whence it
+is continued through the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal by
+Bloemfontein to Johannesburg (714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria
+(741 m.). From Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and
+Johannesburg, a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban,
+and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and Port
+Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line (186 m.) runs by
+Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the main line at Rosmead, from
+which a junction line (83 m.) runs eastwards, connecting with the
+Eastern system at Stormberg. From Naauwpoort another junction line (69
+m.) runs north-west, connecting the Midland with the Western system at
+De Aar, and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from Cape
+Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg via
+Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)
+
+The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal line runs
+to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony, where it joins the
+line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal. (Distance from East London to
+Johannesburg, 665 m.) From Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a
+branch, originally the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).
+
+The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways running for
+the most part parallel with the coast. Starting from Worcester, 109 m.
+from Cape Town on the western main line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via
+Swellendair and Riversdale. From Mossel Bay another line runs by George,
+Oudtshoorn and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from
+Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town 666 m.) From
+Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King William's Town to Blaney
+junction on the eastern main line and 31 m. from East London. The
+Somerset East line crosses, at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line
+from Port Elizabeth to the north, and by this route the distance between
+Port Elizabeth and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905
+of the Somerset East-King William's Town line, the nearest railway
+connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and Stormberg
+junction--a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom junction on the eastern
+main line a branch railway goes through the Transkei to connect at
+Riverside, the frontier station, with the Natal railways. It runs via
+the Indwe coal-mines (66 m. from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and
+Kokstad. From Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also
+connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele, a station
+51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata (180 m. distant).
+Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns (307 m. from East London),
+whence another line 142 m. long goes to Kokstad.
+
+Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all the towns
+within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked to it by railway. Longer
+branches run from the capital S.E. to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via
+Malmesbury (47 m.), and Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A
+line runs N.W. across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line
+via Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction, a line
+(111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange river. From
+Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown, whence another
+line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie
+river. Another line (179 m.) on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port
+Elizabeth via Humansdorp to Avontuur.
+
+A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from Port
+Nolloth on the west coast to the O'okiep copper mines (92 m.). It has a
+gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.
+
+The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively short
+distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the Karroo. The
+steepest gradient is on the western main line. Having entered the hilly
+district at Tulbagh Road, where the railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the
+Hex River Pass is reached soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above
+the sea. In the next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that
+distance being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is
+the most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from East
+London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m. from its
+starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft., at Cathcart (109
+m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat, where it pierces the
+Stormberg, 204 m. from East London, the rails are 5450 ft. above the
+sea. From Sterkstroom to Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The
+highest railway station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the
+Zuurberg, on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems.
+The capital expended on government railways to the end of 1905 was
+L29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of L10,034. The gross earnings in
+1905 were L4,047,065 (as compared with L3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses
+L3,076,920 (as compared with L1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in
+1905 numbered 20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000
+lb).
+
+_Posts and Telegraphs_.--Direct telegraphic communication between London
+and Cape Town was established on Christmas day 1879. Cables connect the
+colony with Europe (1) via Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena,
+Ascension and St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar
+and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and Cocos.
+
+An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji, on Lake
+Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other lines connect Cape Town
+with all other South African states, while within the colony there is a
+complete system of telegraphic communication, over 8000 m. of lines
+being open in 1906. The telephone service is largely developed in the
+chief towns. The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely
+built, at a cost up to 1906 of L865,670, by the government, which in
+1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.).
+
+The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the reach of
+the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts of Gordonia
+(Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails. Since 1890 a yearly
+average of over 50,000,000 has passed through the post. Of these about
+four-fifths are letters.
+
+_Constitution and Government_.--Under the constitution established in
+1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature consisted of
+two chambers, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. Members of
+the Legislative Council or Upper House represented the provinces into
+which the colony was divided and were elected for seven years; members
+of the House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for five
+years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces. At the head
+of the executive was a governor appointed by the crown. By the South
+Africa Act 1909 this constitution was abolished as from the
+establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Cape Colony entered
+the Union as an original province, being represented in the Union
+parliament by eight members in the Senate and fifty-one in the House of
+Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the election of members of
+the House of Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at
+the establishment of the Union, and are as follows:--Voters must be born
+or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape province at least
+twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no distinction being made as to
+race or colour), must be in possession of property worth L75, or in
+receipt of salary or wages of not less than L50 a year. No one not an
+elector in 1892 can be registered as a voter unless he can sign his name
+and write his address and occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does
+not qualify for a vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified
+for election to parliament (see further SOUTH AFRICA). The number of
+registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000 were
+non-Europeans.
+
+For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting of the
+same number of members as are elected by the province to the House of
+Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the council are the same as
+for the House of Assembly. All voters, European and non-European, are
+eligible for seats on the council, but any councillor who becomes a
+member of parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial
+council. The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation
+within the province for purely local purposes, and generally controls
+all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. The
+council was also given, for five years following the establishment of
+the Union, control of elementary education. All ordinances passed by the
+council must have the sanction of the Union government before coming
+into force. The council is elected for three years and is not subject to
+dissolution save by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an
+official appointed by the Union government and styled administrator of
+the province. The administrator holds his post for a period of five
+years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting of four
+persons elected by the provincial council but not necessarily members of
+that body.
+
+To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the divisional
+and municipal councils of the province, but the powers of such
+subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn by the Union
+parliament acting directly. Divisional councils, which are elected
+triennially, were established in 1855. In 1908 they numbered eighty-one.
+The councils are presided over by a civil commissioner who is also
+usually resident magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the
+division; can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money on
+the security of the rates for public works; and return three members
+yearly to the district licensing court. Their receipts in 1908 were
+L269,000; their expenditure in the same period was L283,000. The
+electors to the divisional councils are the owners or occupiers of
+immovable property. Members of the councils must be registered voters
+and owners of immovable property in the division valued at not less than
+L500.
+
+Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for the most
+part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal Act of 1882.
+Certain municipalities have, however, obtained special acts for their
+governance. In 1907 there were 110 municipalities in the province. Under
+the act of 1882 the municipalities were given power to levy annually an
+owner's rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and a
+tenant's rate assessed upon the annual value of such property. No rate
+may exceed 2d. in the L on the capital value or 8d. in the L on the
+annual value. The receipts of the municipalities in 1907 amounted to
+L1,430,000. During the same period the expenditure amounted to
+L1,539,000.
+
+_Law and Justice_.--The basis of the judicial system is the Roman-Dutch
+law, which has been, however, modified by legislation of the Cape
+parliament. In each division of the province there is a resident
+magistrate with primary jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. The
+South Africa Act 1909 created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the
+supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town,
+becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over
+by a judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony,
+namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham's Town, and the
+high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley, became local divisions
+of the Supreme Court of South Africa. Each of these courts consists of a
+judge-president and two puisne judges. The provincial and local courts,
+besides their original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which
+the government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which the
+validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into question. From the
+decisions of these courts appeals may be made to the appellate division
+of the Supreme Court. The judges of the divisional courts go on circuit
+twice a year. In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at
+Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond buying
+("I.D.B."). This court consists of two judges of the supreme court and
+one other member, hitherto the civil commissioner or the resident
+magistrate of Kimberley. The Transkeian territories, which fall under
+the jurisdiction of the eastern district court, are subject to a Native
+Territories Penal Code, which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual
+magistrates in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident
+at Cape Town, with two assistants in the territories.
+
+_Religion_.--Up to the year 1876 government provided an annual grant for
+ecclesiastical purposes which was divided among the various churches,
+Congregationalists alone declining to receive state aid. From that date,
+in accordance with the provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants
+were only continued to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed
+Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the country,
+is by far the most numerous community. Next in number of adherents among
+the white community come the Anglicans--Cape Colony forming part of the
+Province of South Africa. In 1847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to
+preside over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape
+Colony and Natal, but also over the island of St Helena. Later, however,
+separate bishops were appointed for the eastern province (with the seat
+at Graham's Town) and for Natal. Subsequently another bishopric, St
+John's, Kaffraria, was created and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the
+rank of archbishop. Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber
+the Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people. The
+Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham's Town, but are
+comparatively few. There are, besides, several foreign missions in the
+colony, the most important being the Moravian, London and Rhenish
+missionary societies. The Moravians have been established since 1732.
+
+The following figures are extracted from the census returns of
+1904:--Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118; Jews, 19,537;
+Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; "no religion," 1,016,255. In
+this last category are placed the pagan natives. The figures for the
+chief Protestant sects were:--Dutch Reformed Church, 399,487;
+Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209; Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433;
+Presbyterians, 88,660; Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other
+Methodists, 290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the
+Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and Bechuanas
+26% were returned as Christians.
+
+_Education_.--There is a state system of primary education controlled by
+a superintendent-general of education and the education department which
+administers the parliamentary grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of
+public schools, drawn up by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into
+operation, and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive
+scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the colony into
+school districts under the control of popularly elected school boards,
+which were established during 1905-1906. These boards levy, through
+municipal or divisional councils, a rate for school purposes and
+supervise all public and poor schools. The schools are divided into
+public undenominational elementary schools; day schools and industrial
+institutions for the natives; mission schools to which government aid
+for secular instruction is granted; private farm schools, district
+boarding schools, training schools for teachers, industrial schools for
+poor whites, &c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were
+open. Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of the
+white population over fourteen years old could read and write. In the
+same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and 53,000 could read
+but not write. There are also numbers of private schools receiving no
+government aid. These include schools maintained by the German
+community, in which the medium of instruction is German.
+
+The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of London,
+stands at the head of the educational system of the colony. It arose out
+of and superseded the board of public examiners (which had been
+constituted in 1858), was established in 1874 and was granted a royal
+charter in 1877. It is governed by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who
+is chairman of the university council) and a council consisting (1909)
+of 38 members, including representatives of Natal. The university is
+empowered to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university
+in Great Britain. Originally only B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B., and
+M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature, science and
+music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The number of students who
+matriculated rose from 34 in 1875 to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in
+1905. The examinations are open to candidates irrespective of where they
+have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants are paid to
+seven colleges that specially devote themselves to preparing students
+for the graduation courses. These are the South African College at Cape
+Town (founded in 1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the
+Diocesan College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham's
+Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines at Kimberley
+and the Huguenot Ladies' College at Wellington. Several denominational
+colleges, receiving no government aid, do the same work in a greater or
+less degree, the best known being St Aidan's (Roman Catholic) College
+and Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham's Town. Graaff Reinet
+College, Dale College, King William's Town, and the Grey Institute, Port
+Elizabeth, occupy the place of high schools under the education
+department. The Theological Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares
+theological students for the ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town
+is a Royal Observatory, founded in 1829, one of the most important
+institutions of its kind in the world. It is under the control of a
+royal astronomer and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty.
+
+_Defence_.--The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to repelling
+attacks from the sea. Simon's Town, which is on the east side of the
+peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and West Coast naval
+squadron. It is strongly fortified, as is also Table Bay. Port Elizabeth
+is likewise fortified against naval attack. A strong garrison of the
+British army is stationed in the colony, with headquarters at Cape Town.
+The cost of this garrison is borne by the imperial government. For
+purposes of local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted
+Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has been
+maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape Mounted Riflemen
+and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty is to preserve order in the
+Transkeian territories. The Cape Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are
+also available for the defence of the colony and are fully armed. There
+are numerous volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the
+government. By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between
+eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as
+within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force.
+
+_Revenue, Debt, &c._--The following table shows the total receipts
+(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts) of the
+colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905:--
+
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+
+  |             |              Receipts.              |            |
+  | Year ending +----------------+--------------------+  Payments. |
+  |  30th June. |     Total.     |       Loans        |            |
+  |             |                |(included in total).|            |
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+
+  |    1880     |             L3,556,601              | L3,742,665 |
+  |    1885     |  L3,814,947    |      L496,795      |  4,211,832 |
+  |    1890     |   5,571,907    |     1,141,857      |  5,327,496 |
+  |    1895     |   5,416,611    |        26,441      |  5,388,157 |
+  |    1900     |   6,565,752    |       128,376      |  7,773,230 |
+  |    1905     |  13,856,247    |     5,214,290      | 10,914,784 |
+  +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+
+
+The colony had a public debt of L42,109,561 on the 31st of December
+1905, including sums raised for corporate bodies, harbour boards, &c.,
+but guaranteed in the general revenue. The greater part of the loans
+were issued at 3-1/2 or 4% interest. Nearly the whole of the loans raised
+have been spent on railways, harbours, irrigation and other public
+works. The value of assessed property for divisional council purposes
+was returned in 1905 at L87,078,268. The total revenue of the divisional
+councils increased from L160,558 in 1901 to L273,543 in 1905, and the
+expenditure from L170,892 in 1901 to L243,241 in 1905. The receipts
+from municipal rates and taxes rose from L520,587 in 1901 to L700,103 in
+1905; the total municipal receipts in the same period from L978,867 to
+L1,752,105. At the end of 1905 the total indebtedness of the
+municipalities was L5,775,420, and the value of assessed property within
+the municipal bounds L53,948,224.
+
+_Banks._--The following table gives statistics of the banks under trust
+laws:--
+
+  +----------+------------------------------------+--------------+------------+
+  |          |      Including Head Offices.       |              | Assets and |
+  |   31st   +------------+-----------+-----------+ Circulation, |Liabilities |
+  | December.|   Capital  |  Capital  |  Reserve  | Colony only. |Colony only.|
+  |          | Subscribed.|  Paid up. |           |              |            |
+  +----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+
+  |   1890   | L5,780,610 |L1,558,612 |  L850,489 |   L740,210   | L9,221,661 |
+  |   1895   |  7,189,090 | 2,382,003 | 1,008,837 |    612,266   | 11,864,152 |
+  |   1900   | 12,166,800 | 6,508,308 | 1,810,621 |  1,361,637   | 20,537,343 |
+  |   1905   | 11,510,900 | 4,456,925 | 2,948,428 |  1,065,251   | 20,749,988 |
+  +----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+
+
+_Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures_.--Since 1903 a standard
+time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being that of 30 deg. or
+two hours east of Greenwich. In other words noon in South Africa
+corresponds to 10.0 A.M. in London. The actual difference between the
+meridians of Greenwich and Cape Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The
+monetary system is that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation
+are exclusively British. Though all the standard weights and measures
+are British, the following old Dutch measures are still used:--_Liquid
+Measure_: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half aum = 15-1/2
+imperial gallons; anker = 7-1/2 imperial gallons. _Capacity_: Muid = 3
+bushels. The general surface measure is the old Amsterdam _Morgen_,
+reckoned equal to 2.11654 acres; 1000 Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033
+British imperial feet. The Cape ton is 2000 lb.
+
+_The Press_.--The first newspaper of the colony, written in Dutch and
+English, was published in 1824, and its appearance marked an era not
+only in the literary but in the political history of the colony, since
+it drew to a crisis the disputes which had arisen between the colonists
+and the governor, Lord Charles Somerset, who had issued a decree
+prohibiting all persons from convening or attending public meetings. Its
+criticisms on public affairs soon led to its suppression by the
+governor, and a memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for
+a free press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in
+1828, and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by
+public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are
+divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the British or
+the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both sides. There are
+about one hundred newspapers in English or Dutch published in the
+colony.
+
+The chief papers are the _Cape Times, Cape Argus, South African News_
+(Bond), both daily and weekly; the _Diamond Fields Advertiser_
+(Kimberley) and the _Eastern Province Herald_ (Port Elizabeth). _Ons
+Land_ and _Het Dagblad_ are Dutch papers published at Cape Town.
+     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_Discovery and Settlement_.--Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese navigator,
+discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and Vasco da Gama in 1497
+sailed along the whole coast of South Africa on his way to India. The
+Portuguese, attracted by the riches of the East, made no permanent
+settlement at the Cape. But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the
+Portuguese power, established themselves in the East, early saw the
+importance of the place as a station where their vessels might take in
+water and provisions. They did not, however, establish any post at the
+Cape until 1652, when a small garrison under Jan van Riebeek were sent
+there by the Dutch East India Company. Riebeek landed at Table Bay and
+founded Cape Town. In 1671 the first purchase of land from the
+Hottentots beyond the limits of the fort built by Riebeek marked the
+beginning of the Colony proper. The earliest colonists were for the most
+part people of low station or indifferent character, but as the result
+of the investigations of a commissioner sent out in 1685 a better class
+of immigrants was introduced. About 1686 the European population was
+increased by a number of the French refugees who left their country on
+the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The influence of this small body
+of immigrants on the character of the Dutch settlers was marked. The
+Huguenots, however, owing to the policy of the Company, which in 1701
+directed that Dutch only should be taught in the schools, ceased by the
+middle of the 18th century to be a distinct body, and the knowledge of
+French disappeared. Advancing north and east from their base at Cape
+Town the colonists gradually acquired--partly by so-called contracts,
+partly by force--all the land of the Hottentots, large numbers of whom
+they slew. Besides those who died in warfare, whole tribes of Hottentots
+were destroyed by epidemics of smallpox in 1713 and in 1755. Straggling
+remnants still maintained their independence, but the mass of the
+Hottentots took service with the colonists as herdsmen, while others
+became hangers-on about the company's posts and grazing-farms or roamed
+about the country. In 1787 the Dutch government passed a law subjecting
+these wanderers to certain restrictions. The effect of this law was to
+place the Hottentots in more immediate dependence upon the farmers, or
+to compel them to migrate northward beyond the colonial border. Those
+who chose the latter alternative had to encounter the hostility of their
+old foes, the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the plains from the
+Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg mountains to the Orange river. The colonists
+also, pressing forward to those territories, came in contact with these
+Ishmaelites--the farmers' cattle and sheep, guarded only by a Hottentot
+herdsman, offering the strongest temptation to the Bushman. Reprisals
+followed; and the position became so desperate that the extermination of
+the Bushmen appeared to the government the only safe alternative.
+"Commandoes" or war-bands were sent out against them, and they were
+hunted down like wild beasts. Within a period of six years, it is said,
+upwards of 3000 were either killed or captured. Out of the organization
+of these commandoes, with their field-commandants and field-cornets, has
+grown the common system of local government in the Dutch-settled
+districts of South Africa.
+
+It was not to the hostility of the natives, nor to the hard struggle
+with nature necessary to make agriculture profitable on Karroo or veld,
+that the slow progress made by the colonists was due, so much as to the
+narrow and tyrannical policy adopted by the East India Company, which
+closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade
+in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial
+powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops
+they were to grow, demanded from them a large part of their produce, and
+harassed them with other exactions tending to discourage industry and
+enterprise. (See further SOUTH AFRICA, where the methods and results of
+Dutch colonial government are considered in their broader aspects.) To
+this mischievous policy is ascribed that dislike to orderly government,
+and that desire to escape from its control, which characterized for many
+generations the "boer" or farmer class of Dutch settlers--qualities
+utterly at variance with the character of the Dutch in their native
+country. It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked
+farther and farther from the seat of government. The company, to control
+the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and
+another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos river had been declared,
+c. 1740, the eastern frontier of the colony, but it was soon passed. In
+1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Kaffir
+tribes advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with
+them to make the Great Fish river the common boundary. In 1795 the
+heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no
+protection against the Kaffirs, expelled the officials of the East India
+Company, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff
+Reinet. In the same year, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary
+government of France, a British force under General Sir James Craig was
+sent to Cape Town to secure the colony for the prince of Orange--a
+refugee in England--against the French. The governor of Cape Town at
+first refused to obey the instructions from the prince, but on the
+British proceeding to take forcible possession he capitulated.[3] His
+action was hastened by the fact that the Hottentots, deserting their
+former masters, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff
+Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them, while
+in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a
+result of the peace of Amiens, the colony was handed over to the
+Batavian Republic, which introduced many needful reforms, as had the
+British during their eight years' rule. (One of the first acts of
+General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of
+justice.) War having again broken out, a British force was once more
+sent to the Cape. After an engagement (Jan. 1806) on the shores of Table
+Bay the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle surrendered to the British under
+Sir David Baird, and in 1814 the colony was ceded outright by Holland to
+the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of
+mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland,
+and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000,
+of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Hottentots and the rest slaves.
+These slaves were mostly imported negroes and Malays. Their introduction
+was the chief cause leading the white settlers to despise manual labour.
+
+_The First and Second Kaffir Wars_.--At the time of the cession to Great
+Britain the first of several wars with the Kaffirs had been fought. (The
+numerous minor conflicts which since 1789 had taken place between the
+colonists and the Kaffirs--the latter sometimes aided by Hottentot
+allies--are not reckoned in the usual enumeration of the Kaffir wars.)
+The Kaffirs, who had crossed the colonial frontier, had been expelled
+from the district between the Sunday and Great Fish rivers known as the
+Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous
+to 1811 the Kaffirs, however, had taken possession of the neutral ground
+and committed depredations on the colonists. In order to expel them from
+the Zuurveld, Colonel John Graham took the field with a mixed force in
+December 1811, and in the end the Kaffirs were driven beyond the Fish
+river. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which
+bears his name. In 1817 further trouble arose with the Kaffirs, the
+immediate cause of quarrel being an attempt by the colonial authorities
+to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. Routed in 1818 the
+Kaffirs rallied, and in the early part of 1819 poured into the colony in
+vast hordes. Led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked Graham's
+Town on the 22nd of April, then held by a handful of white troops. Help
+arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then arranged
+that the land between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers should be neutral
+territory.
+
+_The British Settlers of 1820_.--The war of 1817-19 led to the first
+introduction of English settlers on a considerable scale, an event
+fraught with far-reaching consequences. The then governor, Lord Charles
+Somerset, whose treaty arrangements with the Kaffir chiefs had proved
+unfortunate, desired to erect a barrier against the Kaffirs by settling
+white colonists in the border district. In 1820, on the advice of Lord
+Charles, parliament voted L50,000 to promote emigration to the Cape, and
+4000 British were sent out. These people formed what was known as the
+Albany settlement, founding Port Elizabeth and making Graham's Town
+their headquarters. Intended primarily as a measure to secure the safety
+of the frontier, and regarded by the British government chiefly as a
+better means of affording a livelihood to a few thousands of the surplus
+population, this emigration scheme accomplished a far greater work than
+its authors contemplated. The new settlers, drawn from every part of the
+British Isles and from almost every grade of society, retained, and
+their descendants retain, strong sympathy with their native land. In
+course of time they formed a valuable counterpoise to the Dutch
+colonists, and they now constitute the most progressive element in the
+colony. The advent of these immigrants was also the means of introducing
+the English language at the Cape. In 1825, for the first time,
+ordinances were issued in English, and in 1827 its use was extended to
+the conduct of judicial proceedings. Dutch was not, however, ousted, the
+colonists becoming to a large extent bilingual.
+
+_Dislike of British Rule_.--Although the colony was fairly prosperous,
+many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they
+had been with that of the Dutch East India Company, though their ground
+of complaint was not the same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been
+established for the benefit of the Hottentots,[4] and in 1799 the London
+Missionary Society began work among both Hottentots and Kaffirs. The
+championship of Hottentot grievances by the missionaries caused much
+dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose views, it may
+be noted, temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued
+which empowered magistrates to bind Hottentot children as apprentices
+under conditions differing little from that of slavery. Meantime,
+however, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength
+in England, and the missionaries at length appealed from the colonists
+to the mother country. An incident which occurred in 1815-1816 did much
+to make permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British. A
+farmer named Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the
+complaint of a Hottentot, and firing on the party sent to arrest him,
+was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a miniature
+rebellion, and on its suppression five ringleaders were publicly hanged
+at the spot--Slachters Nek--where they had sworn to expel "the English
+tyrants." The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by
+the circumstances of the execution--for the scaffold on which the rebels
+were simultaneously swung, broke down from their united weight and the
+men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance passed in 1827,
+abolishing the old Dutch courts of _landroost_ and _heemraden_ (resident
+magistrates being substituted) and decreeing that henceforth all legal
+proceedings should be conducted in English; the granting in 1828, as a
+result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with
+whites to the Hottentots and other free coloured people; the imposition
+(1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of slaves, and finally the
+emancipation of the slaves in 1834,[5]--all these things increased the
+dislike of the farmers to the government. Moreover, the inadequate
+compensation awarded to slave-owners, and the suspicions engendered by
+the method of payment, caused much resentment, and in 1835 the trekking
+of farmers into unknown country in order to escape from an unloved
+government, which had characterized the 18th century, recommenced.
+Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been continuous for
+150 years, but it now took on larger proportions.
+
+_The Third Kaffir War_.--On the eastern border further trouble arose
+with the Kaffirs, towards whom the policy of the Cape government was
+marked by much vacillation. On the 11th of December 1834 a chief of high
+rank was killed while resisting a commando party. This set the whole of
+the Kaffir tribes in a blaze. A force of 10,000 fighting men, led by
+Macomo, a brother of the chief who was killed, swept across the
+frontier, pillaged and burned the homesteads and murdered all who dared
+to resist. Among the worst sufferers were a colony of freed Hottentots
+who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat river valley by the British
+authorities. The fighting power of the colony was scanty, but the
+governor, Sir Benjamin D'Urban (q.v.), acted with promptitude, and all
+available forces were mustered under Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry)
+Smith, who reached Graham's Town on the 6th of January 1835, six days
+after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy's territory was
+invaded, and after nine months' fighting the Kaffirs were completely
+subdued, and a new treaty of peace concluded (on the 17th of September).
+By this treaty all the country as far as the river Kei was acknowledged
+to be British, and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for
+the seat of government was selected and named King Wiliam's Town.
+
+_The Great Trek_.--The action of Sir Benjamin D'Urban was not approved
+by the home government, and on the instruction of Lord Glenelg,
+secretary for the colonies, who declared that "the great evil of the
+Cape Colony consists in its magnitude," the colonial boundary was moved
+back to the Great Fish river, and eventually (in 1837) Sir Benjamin was
+dismissed from office. "The Kaffirs," in the opinion of Lord Glenelg,
+"had an ample justification for war; they had to resent, and endeavoured
+justly, though impotently, to avenge a series of encroachments"
+(despatch of the 26th of December 1835). This attitude towards the
+Kaffirs was one of the many reasons given by the Trek Boers for leaving
+Cape Colony. The Great Trek, as it is called, lasted from 1836 to 1840,
+the trekkers, who numbered about 7000, founding communities with a
+republican form of government beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers, and in
+Natal, where they had been preceded, however, by British emigrants. From
+this time Cape Colony ceased to be the only civilized community in South
+Africa, though for long it maintained its predominance. Up to 1856 Natal
+was, in fact, a dependency of the Cape (see SOUTH AFRICA). Considerable
+trouble was caused by the emigrant Boers on either side of the Orange
+river, where the new comers, the Basutos and other Kaffir tribes,
+Bushmen and Griquas contended for mastery. The Cape government
+endeavoured to protect the rights of the natives. On the advice of the
+missionaries, who exercised great influence with all the non-Dutch
+races, a number of native states were recognized and subsidized by the
+Cape government, with the object--not realized--of obtaining peace on
+this northern frontier. The first of these "Treaty States" recognized
+was that of the Griquas of Griqualand West. Others were recognized in
+1843 and 1844--in the last-named year a treaty was made with the Pondoes
+on the eastern border. During this period the condition of affairs on
+the eastern frontier was deplorable, the government being unable or
+unwilling to afford protection to the farmers from the depredations of
+the Kaffirs. Elsewhere, however, the colony was making progress. The
+change from slave to free labour proved to be advantageous to the
+farmers in the western provinces; an efficient educational system, which
+owed its initiation to Sir John Herschel, the astronomer (who lived in
+Cape Colony from 1834 to 1838), was adopted; Road Boards were
+established and did much good work; to the staple industries--the
+growing of wheat, the rearing of cattle and the making of wine--was
+added sheep-raising; and by 1846 wool became the most valuable export
+from the country. The creation, in 1835, of a legislative council, on
+which unofficial members had seats, was the first step in giving the
+colonists a share in the government.
+
+_The War of the Axe_.--Another war with the Kaffirs broke out in 1846
+and was known as the War of the Axe, from the murder of a Hottentot, to
+whom an old Kaffir thief was manacled, while being conveyed to Graham's
+Town for trial for stealing an axe. The escort was attacked by a party
+of Kaffirs and the Hottentot killed. The surrender of the murderer was
+refused, and war was declared in March 1846. The Gaikas were the chief
+tribe engaged in the war, assisted during the course of it by the
+Tambukies. After some reverses the Kaffirs were signally defeated on the
+7th of June by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles from Fort
+Peddie. Still the war went on, till at length Sandili, the chief of the
+Gaikas, surrendered, followed gradually by the other chiefs; and by the
+beginning of 1848 the Kaffirs were again subdued, after twenty-one
+months' fighting.
+
+_Extension of British Sovereignty_.--In the last month of the war
+(December 1847) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town as governor of the
+colony, and with his arrival the Glenelg policy was reversed. By
+proclamation, on the 17th of December, he extended the frontier of the
+colony northward to the Orange river and eastward to the Keiskamma
+river, and on the 23rd, at a meeting of the Kaffir chiefs, announced the
+annexation of the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to
+the British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by order of
+Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with the Cape, but made
+a crown dependency under the name of British Kaffraria. For a time the
+Kaffirs accepted quietly the new order of things. The governor had other
+serious matters to contend with, including the assertion of British
+authority over the Boers beyond the Orange river, and the establishment
+of amicable relations with the Transvaal Boers. In the colony itself a
+crisis arose out of the proposal to make it a convict station.
+
+_The Convict Agitation and Granting of a Constitution_.--In 1848 a
+circular was sent by the 3rd Earl Grey, then colonial secretary, to the
+governor of the Cape (and to other colonial governors), asking him to
+ascertain the feelings of the colonists regarding the reception of a
+certain class of convicts, the intention being to send to South Africa
+Irish peasants who had been driven into crime by the famine of 1845.
+Owing to some misunderstanding, a vessel, the "Neptune," was despatched
+to the Cape before the opinion of the colonists had been received,
+having on board 289 convicts, among whom were John Mitchell, the Irish
+rebel, and his colleagues. When the news reached the Cape that this
+vessel was on her way, the people of the colony became violently
+excited; and they established an anti-convict association, by which they
+bound themselves to cease from all intercourse of every kind with
+persons in any way connected "with the landing, supplying or employing
+convicts." On the 19th of September 1849 the "Neptune" arrived in
+Simon's Bay. Sir Harry Smith, confronted by a violent public agitation,
+agreed not to land the convicts, but to keep them on board ship in
+Simon's Bay till he received orders to send them elsewhere. When the
+home government became aware of the state of affairs orders were sent
+directing the "Neptune" to proceed to Tasmania, and it did so after
+having been in Simon's Bay for five months. The agitation did not,
+however, pass away without other important results, since it led to
+another movement, the object of which was to obtain a free
+representative government for the colony. This concession, which had
+been previously promised by Lord Grey, was granted by the British
+government, and, in 1854, a constitution was established of almost
+unprecedented liberality.
+
+_The Kaffir War of 1850-1853_.--The anti-convict agitation had scarcely
+ceased when the colony was once again involved in war. The Kaffirs
+bitterly resented their loss of independence, and ever since the last
+war had been secretly preparing to renew the struggle. Sir Harry Smith,
+informed of the threatening attitude of the natives, proceeded to the
+frontier, and summoned Sandili and the other chiefs to an interview.
+Sandili refused obedience; upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs
+(October 1850), the governor declared him deposed from his chiefship,
+and appointed an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be temporary
+chief of the Gaika tribe. The governor appears to have believed that the
+measures he took would prevent a war and that Sandili could be arrested
+without armed resistance. On the 24th of December Col. Geo. Mackinnon,
+being sent with a small force with the object of securing the chief, was
+attacked in a narrow defile by a large body of Kaffirs, and compelled to
+retreat with some loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the
+Gaika tribe. The settlers in the military villages, which had been
+established along the frontier, assembled in fancied security to
+celebrate Christmas Day, were surprised, many of them murdered, and
+their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in quick
+succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man. The greater
+part of the Kaffir police deserted, many of them carrying off their arms
+and accoutrements. Emboldened by success, the enemy in immense force
+surrounded and attacked Fort Cox, where the governor was stationed with
+an inconsiderable force. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to
+relieve Sir Harry; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the occasion.
+At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied by Colonel Mackinnon,
+he dashed out of the fort, and, through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode
+to King William's Town--a distance of 12 m. Meantime, a new enemy
+appeared. Some 900 of the Kat river Hottentots, who had in former wars
+been firm allies of the British, threw in their lot with their
+hereditary enemies--the Kaffirs. They were not without excuses. They
+complained that while doing burgher duty in former wars--the Cape
+Mounted Rifles consisted largely of Hottentot levies--they had not
+received the same treatment as others serving in defence of the colony,
+that they got no compensation for the losses they had sustained, and
+that they were in various ways made to feel they were a wronged and
+injured race. A secret combination was formed with the Kaffirs to take
+up arms to sweep the Europeans away and establish a Hottentot republic.
+Within a fortnight of the attack on Colonel Mackinnon the Kat river
+Hottentots were also in arms. Their revolt was followed by that of the
+Hottentots at other missionary stations; and part of the Hottentots of
+the Cape Mounted Rifles followed their example, including the very men
+who had escorted the governor from Fort Cox. But numbers of Hottentots
+remained loyal and the Fingo Kaffirs likewise sided with the British.
+
+After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided, and
+preparations had been made, Sir Harry Smith and his gallant force turned
+the tide of war against the Kaffirs. The Amatola mountains were stormed;
+and the paramount chief Kreli, who all along covertly assisted the
+Gaikas, was severely punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith was
+recalled by Earl Grey, who accused him--unjustly, in the opinion of the
+duke of Wellington--of a want of energy and judgment in conducting the
+war, and he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Cathcart. Kreli was
+again attacked and reduced to submission. The Amatolas were finally
+cleared of the Kaffirs, and small forts erected among them to prevent
+their reoccupation. The British commanders were hampered throughout by
+the insufficiency of their forces, and it was not till March 1853 that
+this most sanguinary of Kaffir wars was brought to a conclusion, after a
+loss of many hundred British soldiers. Shortly afterwards, British
+Kaffraria was made a crown colony. The Hottentot settlement at Kat river
+remained, but the Hottentot power within the colony was now finally
+crushed.
+
+_The Great Amaxosa Delusion._--From 1853 the Kaffir tribes on the east
+gave little trouble to the colony. This was due, in large measure, to an
+extraordinary delusion which arose among the Amaxosa in 1856, and led in
+1857 to the death of some 50,000 persons. This incident is one of the
+most remarkable instances of misplaced faith recorded in history. The
+Amaxosa had not accepted their defeat in 1853 as decisive and were
+preparing to renew the struggle with the white men. At this juncture,
+May 1856, a girl named Nongkwase told her father that on going to draw
+water from a stream she had met strangers of commanding aspect. The
+father, Mhlakza, went to see the men, who told him that they were
+spirits of the dead, who had come, if their behests were obeyed, to aid
+the Kaffirs with their invincible power to drive the white man from the
+land. Mhlakza repeated the message to his chief, Sarili, one of the most
+powerful Kaffir rulers. Sarili ordered the commands of the spirits to be
+obeyed. These orders were, at first, that the Amaxosa were to destroy
+their fat cattle. The girl Nongkwase, standing in the river where the
+spirits had first appeared, heard unearthly noises, interpreted by her
+father as orders to kill more and more cattle. At length the spirits
+commanded that not an animal of all their herds was to be left alive,
+and every grain of corn was to be destroyed. If that were done, on a
+given date myriads of cattle more beautiful than those destroyed would
+issue from the earth, while great fields of corn, ripe and ready for
+harvest, would instantly appear. The dead would rise, trouble and
+sickness vanish, and youth and beauty come to all alike. Unbelievers and
+the hated white man would on that day utterly perish. The people heard
+and obeyed. Sarili is believed by many persons to have been the
+instigator of the prophecies. Certainly some of the principal chiefs
+regarded all that was done simply as the preparation for a last struggle
+with the whites, their plan being to throw the whole Amaxosa nation
+fully armed and in a famishing condition upon the colony. There were
+those who neither believed the predictions nor looked for success in
+war, but destroyed their last particle of food in unquestioning
+obedience to their chief's command. Either in faith that reached the
+sublime, or in obedience equally great, vast numbers of the people
+acted. Great kraals were also prepared for the promised cattle, and huge
+skin sacks to hold the milk that was soon to be more plentiful than
+water. At length the day dawned which, according to the prophecies, was
+to usher in the terrestrial paradise. The sun rose and sank, bat the
+expected miracle did not come to pass. The chiefs who had planned to
+hurl the famished warrior host upon the colony had committed an
+incredible blunder in neglecting to call the nation together under
+pretext of witnessing the resurrection. This error they realized too
+late, and endeavoured by fixing the resurrection for another day to
+gather the clans, but blank despair had taken the place of hope and
+faith, and it was only as starving suppliants that the Amaxosa sought
+the British. The colonists did what they could to save life, but
+thousands perished miserably. In their extremity many of the Kaffirs
+turned cannibals, and one instance of parents eating their own child is
+authenticated. Among the survivors was the girl Nongkwase; her father
+perished. A vivid narrative of the whole incident will be found in G.M.
+Theal's _History and Geography of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1878),
+from which this account is condensed. The country depopulated as the
+result of this delusion was afterwards peopled by European settlers,
+among whom were members of the German legion which had served with the
+British army in the Crimea, and some 2000 industrious North German
+emigrants, who proved a valuable acquisition to the colony.
+
+_Sir George Grey's Governorship._--In 1854 Sir George Grey became
+governor of the Cape, and the colony owed much to his wise
+administration. The policy, imposed by the home government, of
+abandoning responsibility beyond the Orange river, was, he perceived, a
+mistaken one, and the scheme he prepared in 1858 for a confederation of
+all South Africa (q.v.) was rejected by Great Britain. By his energetic
+action, however, in support of the missionaries Moffat and Livingstone,
+Sir George kept open for the British the road through Bechuanaland to
+the far interior. To Sir George was also due the first attempt,
+missionary effort apart, to educate the Kaffirs and to establish British
+authority firmly among them, a result which the self-destruction of the
+Amaxosa rendered easy. Beyond the Kei the natives were left to their own
+devices. Sir George Grey left the Cape in 1861. During his governorship
+the resources of the colony had been increased by the opening up of the
+copper mines in Little Namaqualand, the mohair wool industry had been
+established and Natal made a separate colony. The opening, in November
+1863, of the railway from Cape Town to Wellington, begun in 1859, and
+the construction in 1860 of the great breakwater in Table Bay, long
+needed on that perilous coast, marked the beginning in the colony of
+public works on a large scale. They were the more or less direct result
+of the granting to the colony of a large share in its own government. In
+1865 the province of British Kaffraria was incorporated with the colony,
+under the title of the Electoral Divisions of King William's Town and
+East London. The transfer was marked by the removal of the prohibition
+of the sale of alcoholic liquors to the natives, and the free trade in
+intoxicants which followed had most deplorable results among the Kaffir
+tribes. A severe drought, affecting almost the entire colony for several
+years, caused great depression of trade, and many farmers suffered
+severely. It was at this period (1869) that ostrich-farming was
+successfully established as a separate industry.
+
+Whether by or against the wish of the home government, the limits of
+British authority continued to extend. The Basutos, who dwelt in the
+upper valleys of the Orange river, had subsisted under a
+semi-protectorate of the British government from 1843 to 1854; but
+having been left to their own resources on the abandonment of the Orange
+sovereignty, they fell into a long exhaustive warfare with the Boers of
+the Free State. On the urgent petition of their chief Moshesh, they were
+proclaimed British subjects in 1868, and their territory became part of
+the colony in 1871 (see BASUTOLAND). In the same year the south-eastern
+part of Bechuanaland was annexed to Great Britain under the title of
+Griqualand West. This annexation was a consequence of the discovery
+there of rich diamond mines, an event which was destined to have
+far-reaching results.     (F. R. C.)
+
+_Development of Modern Conditions._--The year 1870 marks the dawn of a
+new era in South Africa. From that date the development of modern South
+Africa may be said to have fairly started, and in spite of political
+complications, arising from time to time, the progress of Cape Colony
+down to the outbreak of the Transvaal War of 1899 was steadily forward.
+The discovery of diamonds on the Orange river in 1867, followed
+immediately afterwards by the discovery of diamonds on the Vaal river,
+led to the rapid occupation and development of a tract of country which
+had hitherto been but sparsely inhabited. In 1870 Dutoitspan and
+Bultfontein diamond mines were discovered, and in 1871 the still richer
+mines of Kimberley and De Beers. These four great deposits of mineral
+wealth are still richly productive, and constitute the greatest
+industrial asset which the colony possesses. At the time of the
+beginning of the diamond industry, not only the territory of Cape Colony
+and the Boer Republics, but all South Africa, was in a very depressed
+condition. Ostrich-farming was in its infancy, and agriculture but
+little developed. The Boers, except in the immediate vicinity of Cape
+Town, were a primitive people. Their wants were few, they lacked
+enterprise, and the trade of the colony was restricted. Even the British
+colonists at that time were far from rich. The diamond industry
+therefore offered considerable attractions, especially to colonists of
+British origin. It was also the means at length of demonstrating the
+fact that South Africa, barren and poor on the surface, was rich below
+the surface. It takes ten acres of Karroo to feed a sheep, but it was
+now seen that a few square yards of diamondiferous blue ground would
+feed a dozen families. By the end of 1871 a large population had already
+gathered at the diamond fields, and immigration continued steadily,
+bringing new-comers to the rich fields. Among the first to seek a
+fortune at the diamond fields was Cecil Rhodes.
+
+In 1858 the scheme of Sir George Grey for the federation of the various
+colonies and states of South Africa had been rejected, as has been
+stated, by the home authorities. In 1874 the 4th earl of Carnarvon,
+secretary of state for the colonies, who had been successful in aiding
+to bring about the federation of Canada, turned his attention to a
+similar scheme for the confederation of South Africa. The representative
+government in Cape Colony had been replaced in 1872 by responsible, i.e.
+self-government, and the new parliament at Cape Town resented the manner
+in which Lord Carnarvon propounded his suggestions. A resolution was
+passed (June 11, 1875) stating that any scheme in favour of
+confederation must in its opinion originate within South Africa itself.
+James Anthony Froude, the distinguished historian, was sent out by Lord
+Carnarvon to further his policy in South Africa. As a diplomatist and a
+representative of the British government, the general opinion in South
+Africa was that Froude was not a success, and he entirely failed to
+induce the colonists to adopt Lord Carnarvon's views. In 1876,
+Fingoland, the Idutywa reserve, and Noman's-land, tracts of country on
+the Kaffir frontier, were annexed by Great Britain, on the understanding
+that the Cape government should provide for their government. Lord
+Carnarvon, still bent on confederation, now appointed Sir Bartle Frere
+governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner of South Africa.
+
+Frere had no sooner taken office as high commissioner than he found
+himself confronted with serious native troubles in Zululand and on the
+Kaffir frontier of Cape Colony. In 1877 there occurred an outbreak on
+the part of the Galekas and the Gaikas. A considerable force of imperial
+and colonial troops was employed to put down this rising, and the war
+was subsequently known as the Ninth Kaffir war. It was in this war that
+the famous Kaffir chief, Sandili, lost his life. At its conclusion the
+Transkei, the territory of the Galeka tribe, under Kreli, was annexed by
+the British. In the meantime Lord Carnarvon had resigned his position in
+the British cabinet, and the scheme for confederation which he had been
+pushing forward was abandoned. As a matter of fact, at that time Cape
+Colony was too fully occupied with native troubles to take into
+consideration very seriously so great a question as confederation. A
+wave of feeling spread amongst the different Kaffir tribes on the
+colonial frontier, and after the Gaika-Galeka War there followed in 1879
+a rising in Basutoland under Moirosi, whose cattle-raiding had for some
+time past caused considerable trouble. His stronghold was taken after
+very severe fighting by a colonial force, but, their defeat
+notwithstanding, the Basutos remained in a restless and aggressive
+condition for several years. In 1880 the colonial authorities
+endeavoured to extend to Basutoland the Peace Preservation Act of 1878,
+under which a general disarmament of the Basutos was attempted. Further
+fighting followed on this proclamation, which was by no means
+successful, and although peace was declared in the country in December
+1882, the colonial authorities were very glad in 1884 to be relieved of
+the administration of a country which had already cost them L3,000,000.
+The imperial government then took over Basutoland as a crown colony, on
+the understanding that Cape Colony should contribute for administrative
+purposes L18,000 annually. In 1880, Sir Bartle Frere, who by his
+energetic and statesmanlike attitude on the relations with the native
+states, as well as on all other questions, had won the esteem and regard
+of loyal South African colonists, was recalled by the 1st earl of
+Kimberley, the liberal secretary of state for the colonies, and was
+succeeded by Sir Hercules Robinson. Griqualand West, which included the
+diamond fields, was now incorporated as a portion of Cape Colony.
+
+_Origin of the Afrikander Bond._--The Boer War of 1881, with its
+disastrous termination, naturally reacted throughout South Africa; and
+as one of the most important results, in the year 1882 the first
+Afrikander Bond congress was held at Graaff Reinet. The organization of
+the Bond developed into one embracing the Transvaal, the Orange Free
+State and Cape Colony. Each country had a provincial committee with
+district committees, and branches were distributed throughout the whole
+of South Africa. At a later date the Bond in the Cape Colony dissociated
+itself from its Republican branches. The general lines of policy which
+this organization endeavoured to promote may best be gathered from _De
+Patriot_, a paper published in the colony, and an avowed supporter of
+the organization. The following extracts from articles published in 1882
+will illustrate, better than anything else, the ambition entertained by
+some of the promoters of this remarkable organization.
+
+  "The Afrikander Bond has for its object the establishment of a South
+  African nationality by spreading a true love for what is really our
+  fatherland. No better time could be found for establishing the Bond
+  than the present, when the consciousness of nationality has been
+  thoroughly aroused by the Transvaal war." ... "The British government
+  keep on talking about a confederation under the British flag, but that
+  will never be brought about. They can be quite certain of that. There
+  is just one obstacle in the way of confederation, and that is the
+  British flag. Let them remove that, and in less than a year the
+  confederation would be established under the Free Afrikander flag."
+  "After a time the English will realize that the advice given them by
+  Froude was the best--they must just have Simon's Bay as a naval and
+  military station on the way to India, and give over all the rest of
+  South Africa to the Afrikanders." ... "Our principal weapon in the
+  social war must be the destruction of English trade by our
+  establishing trading companies for ourselves." ... "It is the duty of
+  each true Afrikander not to spend anything with the English that he
+  can avoid."
+
+_De Patriot_ afterwards became imperialist, but _Ons Land_, another Bond
+organ, continued in much the same strain.
+
+In addition to having its press organs, the Bond from time to time
+published official utterances less frank in their tone than the
+statements of its press. Some of the Articles of the Bond's original
+manifesto are entirely praiseworthy, e.g. those referring to the
+administration of justice, the honour of the people, &c.; such clauses as
+these, however, were meaningless in view of the enlightened government
+which obtained in Cape Colony, and for the true "inwardness" of this
+document it is necessary to note Article 3, which distinctly speaks of
+the promotion of South Africa's independence (_Zelfstandigheid_). If the
+Bond aroused disloyalty and mistaken aspirations in one section of the
+Cape inhabitants, it is equally certain that it caused a great wave of
+loyal and patriotic enthusiasm to pass through another and more
+enlightened section. A pamphlet written in 1885 for an association called
+the Empire League by Mr Charles Leonard, who afterwards consistently
+championed the cause of civil equality and impartial justice in South
+Africa, maintained as follows:--
+
+  "(1) That the establishment of the English government here was
+  beneficial to all classes; and (2) that the withdrawal of that
+  government would be disastrous to every one having vested interests in
+  the colony.... England never can, never will, give up this colony, and
+  we colonists will never give up England.... Let us, the inhabitants of
+  the Cape Colony, be swift to recognize that we are one people, cast
+  together under a glorious flag of liberty, with heads clear enough to
+  appreciate the freedom we enjoy, and hearts resolute to maintain our
+  true privileges; let us desist from reproaching and insulting one
+  another, and, rejoicing that we have this goodly land as a common
+  heritage, remember that by united action only can we realize its grand
+  possibilities. We belong both of us to a home-loving stock, and the
+  peace and prosperity of every home in the land is at stake. On our
+  action now depends the question whether our children shall curse or
+  bless us; whether we shall live in their memory as promoters of civil
+  strife, with all its miserable consequences, or as joint architects of
+  a happy, prosperous and united state. Each of us looks back to a noble
+  past. United, we may ensure to our descendants a not unworthy future.
+  Disunited, we can hope for nothing but stagnation, misery and ruin. Is
+  this a light thing?"
+
+It is probable that many Englishmen reading Mr Leonard's manifesto at
+the time regarded it as unduly alarming, but subsequent events proved
+the soundness of the views it expressed. The fact is that, from 1881
+onwards, two great rival ideas came into being, each strongly opposed to
+the other. One was that of Imperialism--full civil rights for every
+civilized man, whatever his race might be, under the supremacy and
+protection of Great Britain. The other was nominally republican, but in
+fact exclusively oligarchical and Dutch. The policy of the extremists of
+this last party was summed up in the appeal which President Kruger made
+to the Free State in February 1881, when he bade them "Come and help us.
+God is with us. It is his will to unite us as a people"--"to make a
+united South Africa free from British authority." The two actual
+founders of the Bond party were Mr Borckenhagen, a German who was
+residing in Bloemfontein, and Mr Reitz, afterwards state secretary of
+the Transvaal. Two interviews have been recorded which show the true
+aims of these two promoters of the Bond at the outset. One occurred
+between Mr Borckenhagen and Cecil Rhodes, the other between Mr Reitz and
+Mr T. Schreiner, whose brother became, at a later date, prime minister
+of Cape Colony. In the first interview Mr Borckenhagen remarked to
+Rhodes: "We want a united Africa," and Rhodes replied: "So do I." Mr
+Borckenhagen then continued: "There is nothing in the way; we will take
+you as our leader. There is only one small thing: we must, of caurse, be
+independent of the rest of the world." Rhodes replied: "You take me
+either for a rogue or a fool. I should be a rogue to forfeit all my
+history and my traditions; and I should be a fool, because I should be
+hated by my own countrymen and mistrusted by yours." But as Rhodes truly
+said at Cape Town in 1898, "The only chance of a true union is the
+overshadowing protection of a supreme power, and any German, Frenchman,
+or Russian would tell you that the best and most liberal power is that
+over which Her Majesty reigns." The other interview took place at the
+beginning of the Bond's existence. Being approached by Mr Reitz, Mr T.
+Schreiner objected that the Bond aimed ultimately at the overthrow of
+British rule and the expulsion of the British flag from South Africa. To
+this Mr Reitz replied: "Well, what if it is so?" Mr Schreiner
+expostulated in the following terms: "You do not suppose that that flag
+is going to disappear without a tremendous struggle and hard fighting?"
+"Well, I suppose not, but even so, what of that?" rejoined Mr Reitz. In
+the face of this testimony with reference to two of the most prominent
+of the Bond's promoters, it is impossible to deny that from its
+beginning the great underlying idea of the Bond was an independent South
+Africa.
+
+_Mr Hofmeyr's Policy_.--In 1882 an act was passed in the Cape
+legislative assembly, empowering members to speak in the Dutch language
+on the floor of the House, if they so desired. The intention of this act
+was a liberal one, but the moment of its introduction was inopportune,
+and its effect was to give an additional stimulus to the policy of the
+Bond. It was probably also the means of bringing into the House a number
+of Dutchmen, by no means well educated, who would not have been returned
+had they been obliged to speak English. By this act an increase of
+influence was given to the Dutch leaders. The head of the Afrikander
+Bond at this time in Cape Colony, and the leader of Dutch opinion, was
+Mr J.H. Hofmeyr, a man of undoubted ability and astuteness. Although he
+was recognized leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony, he consistently
+refused to take office, preferring to direct the policy and the action
+of others from an independent position. Mr Hofmeyr sat in the house of
+assembly as member for Stellenbosch, a strong Dutch constituency. His
+influence over the Dutch members was supreme, and in addition to
+directing the policy of the Bond within the Cape Colony, he supported
+and defended the aggressive expansion policy of President Kruger and the
+Transvaal Boers. In 1883, during a debate on the Basutoland
+Dis-annexation Bill, Rhodes openly charged Mr Hofmeyr in the House with
+a desire to see a "United States of South Africa under its own flag." In
+1884 Mr Hofmeyr led the Bond in strongly supporting the Transvaal Boers
+who had invaded Bechuanaland (q.v.), proclaiming that if the
+Bechuanaland freebooters were not permitted to retain the territories
+they had seized, in total disregard of the terms of the conventions of
+1881 and 1884, there would be rebellion among the Dutch of Cape Colony.
+Fortunately, however, for the peace of Cape Colony at that time, Sir
+Charles Warren, sent by the imperial government to maintain British
+rights, removed the invading Boers from Stellaland and Goshen--two
+so-called republics set up by the Boer freebooters--in March 1885 and no
+rebellion occurred. Nevertheless the Bond party was so strong in the
+House that they compelled the ministry under Sir Thomas Scanlen to
+resign in 1884. The logical and constitutional course for Mr Hofmeyr to
+have followed in these circumstances would have been to accept office
+and himself form a government. This he refused to do. He preferred to
+put in a nominee of his own who should be entirely dependent on him. Mr
+Upington, a clever Irish barrister, was the man he selected, and under
+him was formed in 1884 what will always be known in Cape history as the
+"Warming-pan" ministry. This action was denounced by many British
+colonists, who were sufficiently loyal, not only to Great Britain, but
+also to that constitution which had been conferred by Great Britain upon
+Cape Colony, to desire to see the man who really wielded political power
+also acting as the responsible head of the party. It was Mr Hofmeyr's
+refusal to accept this responsibility, as well as the nature of his Bond
+policy, which won for him the political sobriquet of the "Mole." Open
+and responsible exercise of a power conferred under the constitution of
+the country, Englishmen and English colonists would have accepted and
+even welcomed. But that subterranean method of Dutch policy which found
+its strongest expression in Pretoria, and which operated from Pretoria
+to Cape Town, could not but be resented by loyal colonists. From 1881
+down to 1898, Mr Hofmeyr practically determined how Dutch members should
+vote, and also what policy the Bond should adopt at every juncture in
+its history. In 1895 he resigned his seat in parliament--an action which
+made his political dictatorship still more remarkable. This influence on
+Cape politics was a demoralizing one. Other well-known politicians at
+the Cape subsequently found it convenient to adapt their views a good
+deal too readily to those held by the Bond. In justice to Mr Hofmeyr,
+however, it is only fair to say that after the Warren expedition in
+1885, which was at least evidence that Great Britain did not intend to
+renounce her supremacy in South Africa altogether, he adopted a less
+hostile or anti-British attitude. The views and attitude of Mr Hofmeyr
+between 1881 and 1884--when even loyal British colonists, looking to the
+events which followed Majuba, had almost come to believe that Great
+Britain had little desire to maintain her supremacy--can scarcely be
+wondered at.
+
+_Rhodes and Dutch Sentiment._--Recognizing the difficulties of the
+position, Cecil Rhodes from the outset of his political career showed
+his desire to conciliate Dutch sentiment by considerate treatment and
+regard for Dutch prejudices. Rhodes was first returned as member of the
+House of Assembly for Barkly West in 1880, and in spite of all
+vicissitudes this constituency remained loyal to him. He supported the
+bill permitting Dutch to be used in the House of Assembly in 1882, and
+early in 1884 he first took office, as treasurer-general, under Sir
+Thomas Scanlen. Rhodes had only held this position for six weeks when
+Sir Thomas Scanlen resigned, and in August of the same year he was sent
+by Sir Hercules Robinson to British Bechuanaland as deputy-commissioner
+in succession to the Rev. John Mackenzie, the London Missionary
+Society's representative at Kuruman, who in the previous May had
+proclaimed the queen's authority over the district. Rhodes's efforts to
+conciliate the Boers failed--hence the necessity for the Warren mission.
+In 1885 the territories of Cape Colony were farther extended, and
+Tembuland, Bomvanaland and Galekaland were formally added to the colony.
+In 1886 Sir Gordon Sprigg succeeded Sir Thomas Upington as prime
+minister.
+
+_South Affican Customs Union._--The period from 1878 to 1885 in Cape
+Colony had been one of considerable unrest. In this short time, in
+addition to the chronic troubles with the Basutos--which led the Cape to
+hand them over to the imperial authorities--there occurred a series of
+native disturbances which were followed by the Boer War of 1881, and the
+Bechuanaland disturbances of 1884. In spite, however, of these
+drawbacks, the development of the country proceeded. The diamond
+industry was flourishing. In 1887 a conference was held in London for
+"promoting a closer union between the various parts of the British
+empire by means of an imperial tariff of customs." At this conference it
+is worthy of note that Mr Hofmeyr propounded a sort of "Zollverein"
+scheme, in which imperial customs were to be levied independently of the
+duties payable on all goods entering the empire from abroad. In making
+the proposition he stated that his objects were "to promote the union of
+the empire, and at the same time to obtain revenue for the purposes of
+general defence." The scheme was not at the time found practicable. But
+its authorship, as well as the sentiments accompanying it, created a
+favourable view of Mr Hofmeyr's attitude. In the year 1888, in spite of
+the failure of statesmen and high commissioners to bring about political
+confederation, the members of the Cape parliament set about the
+establishment of a South African Customs Union. A Customs Union Bill was
+passed, and this in itself constituted a considerable development of the
+idea of federation. Shortly after the passing of the bill the Orange
+Free State entered the union. An endeavour was also made then, and for
+many years afterwards, to get the Transvaal to join. But President
+Kruger, consistently pursuing his own policy, hoped through the Delagoa
+Bay railway to make the South African Republic entirely independent of
+Cape Colony. The endeavour to bring about a customs union which would
+embrace the Transvaal was also little to the taste of President Kruger's
+Hollander advisers, interested as they were in the schemes of the
+Netherlands Railway Company, who owned the railways of the Transvaal.
+
+_Diamonds and Railways._--Another event of considerable commercial
+importance to the Cape Colony, and indeed to South Africa, was the
+amalgamation of the diamond-mining companies, chiefly brought about by
+Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit and "Barney" Barnato, in 1889. One of the
+principal and most beneficent results of the discovery and development
+of the diamond mines was the great impetus which it gave to railway
+extension. Lines were opened up to Worcester and Beaufort West, to
+Graham's Town, Graaff Reinet and Queenstown. Kimberley was reached in
+1885. In 1890 the line was extended northwards on the western frontier
+of the Transvaal as far as Vryburg in Bechuanaland. In 1889 the Free
+State entered into an arrangement with the Cape Colony whereby the main
+trunk railway was extended to Bloemfontein, the Free State receiving
+half the profits. Subsequently the Free State bought at cost price the
+portion of the railway in its own territory. In 1891 the Free State
+railway was still farther extended to Viljoen's Drift on the Vaal river,
+and in 1892 it reached Pretoria and Johannesburg.
+
+_Rhodes as Prime Minister: Native Policy_.--In 1889 Sir Henry Loch was
+appointed high commissioner and governor of Cape Colony in succession to
+Sir Hercules Robinson. In 1890 Sir Gordon Sprigg, the premier of the
+colony, resigned, and a Rhodes government was formed. Prior to the
+formation of this ministry (see table at end of article), and while Sir
+Gordon Sprigg was still in office, Mr Hofmeyr approached Rhodes and
+offered to put him in office as a Bond nominee. This offer was declined.
+When, however, Rhodes was invited to take office after the downfall of
+the Sprigg ministry, he asked the Bond leaders to meet him and discuss
+the situation. His policy of customs and railway unions between the
+various states, added to the personal esteem in which he was at this
+time held by many of the Dutchmen, enabled him to undertake and to carry
+on successfully the business of government.
+
+The colonies of British Bechuanaland and Basutoland were now taken into
+the customs union existing between the Orange Free State and Cape
+Colony. Pondoland, another native territory, was added to the colony in
+1894, and the year was marked by the Glen Grey Act, a departure in
+native policy for which Rhodes was chiefly responsible. It dealt with
+the natives residing in certain native reserves, and in addition to
+providing for their interests and holdings, and in other ways protecting
+the privileges accorded to them, the principle of the duty of some
+degree of labour devolving upon every able-bodied native enjoying these
+privileges was asserted, and a small labour tax was levied.[6] This is
+in many respects the most statesmanlike act dealing with natives on the
+statute-book; and in the session of 1895 Rhodes was able to report to
+the Cape parliament that the act then applied to 160,000 natives. In
+1905 the labour clauses of this act, which had fallen into desuetude,
+were repealed. The clauses had, however, achieved success, in that they
+had caused many thousands of natives to fulfil the conditions requisite
+to claim exemption.
+
+In other respects Rhodes's native policy was marked by combined
+consideration and firmness. Ever since the granting of self-government
+the natives had enjoyed the franchise. An act passed in 1892, at the
+instance of Rhodes, imposed an educational test on applicants for
+registration, and made other provisions, all tending to restrict the
+acquisition of the franchise by "tribal" natives, the possible danger
+arising from a large native vote being already obvious (see section
+_Constitution_).
+
+Rhodes opposed the native liquor traffic, and at the risk of offending
+some of his supporters among the brandy-farmers of the western
+provinces, he suppressed it entirely on the diamond mines, and
+restricted it as far as he was able in the native reserves and
+territories. Nevertheless the continuance of this traffic on colonial
+farms, as well as to some extent in the native territories and reserves,
+is a black spot in the annals of the Cape Colony. The Hottentots have
+been terribly demoralized, and even partially destroyed by it in the
+western province.
+
+Another and little-known instance of Rhodes's keen insight in dealing
+with native affairs--an action which had lasting results on the history
+of the colony--may be given. After the native territories east of the
+Kei had been added to Cape Colony, a case of claim to inheritance came
+up for trial, and in accordance with the law of the colony, the court
+held that the eldest son of a native was his heir. This decision created
+the strongest resentment among the people of the territory, as it was in
+distinct contradiction to native tribal law, which recognized the great
+son, or son of the chief wife, as heir. The government were threatened
+with a native disturbance, when Rhodes telegraphed his assurance that
+compensation should be granted, and that such a decision should never be
+given again. This assurance was accepted and tranquillity restored. At
+the close of the next session (that of 1894), after this incident had
+occurred, Rhodes laid on the table a bill drafted by himself, the
+shortest the House had ever seen. It provided that all civil cases were
+to be tried by magistrates, an appeal to lie only to the chief
+magistrate of the territory with an assessor. Criminal cases were to be
+tried before the judges of supreme court on circuit. The bill was
+passed, and the effect of it was, inasmuch as the magistrates
+administered according to native law, that native marriage customs and
+laws (including polygamy) were legalized in these territories. Rhodes
+had retrieved his promise, and no one who has studied and lived amongst
+the Bantu will question that the action taken was both beneficent and
+wise.
+
+During 1895 Sir Hercules Robinson was reappointed governor and high
+commissioner of South Africa in succession to Sir Henry Loch, and in the
+same year Mr Chamberlain became secretary of state for the colonies.
+
+_Movement for Commercial Federation_.--With the development of railways,
+and the extension of trade between Cape Colony and the Transvaal, there
+had grown up a closer relationship on political questions. Whilst
+premier of Cape Colony, by means of the customs union and in every other
+way, Rhodes endeavoured to bring about a friendly measure of at least
+commercial federation among the states and colonies of South Africa. He
+hoped to establish both a commercial and a railway union, and a speech
+which he made in 1894 at Cape Town admirably describes this policy:--
+
+  "With full affection for the flag which I have been born under, and
+  the flag I represent, I can understand the sentiment and feeling of a
+  republican who has created his independence, and values that before
+  all; but I can say fairly that I believe in the future that I can
+  assimilate the system, which I have been connected with, with the Cape
+  Colony, and it is not an impossible idea that the neighbouring
+  republics, retaining their independence, should share with us as to
+  certain general principles. If I might put it to you, I would say the
+  principles of tariffs, the principle of railway connexion, the
+  principle of appeal in law, the principle of coinage, and in fact all
+  those principles which exist at the present moment in the United
+  States, irrespective of the local assemblies which exist in each
+  separate state in that country."
+
+To this policy President Kruger and the Transvaal government offered
+every possible opposition. Their action in what is known as the Vaal
+River Drift question will best illustrate the line of action which the
+Transvaal government believed it expedient to adopt. A difficulty arose
+at the termination of the agreement in 1894 between the Cape government
+railway and the Netherlands railway. The Cape government, for the
+purposes of carrying the railway from the Vaal river to Johannesburg,
+had advanced the sum of L600,000 to the Netherlands railway and the
+Transvaal government conjointly; at the same time it was stipulated that
+the Cape government should have the right to fix the traffic rate until
+the end of 1894, or until such time as the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line was
+completed. These rates were fixed by the Cape government at 2d. per ton
+per mile, but at the beginning of 1895 the rate for the 52 m. of railway
+from the Vaal river to Johannesburg was raised by the Netherlands
+railway to no less a sum than 8d. per ton per mile. It is quite evident
+from the action which President Kruger subsequently took in the matter
+that this charge was put on with his approval, and with the object of
+compelling traffic to be brought to the Transvaal by the Delagoa route,
+instead of as heretofore by the colonial railway. In order to compete
+against this very high rate, the merchants of Johannesburg began
+removing their goods from the Vaal river by waggon. Thereupon President
+Kruger arbitrarily closed the drifts (fords) on the Vaal river, and thus
+prevented through waggon traffic, causing an enormous block of waggons
+on the banks of the Vaal. A protest was then made by the Cape government
+against the action of the Transvaal, on the ground that it was a breach
+of the London Convention. President Kruger took no notice of this
+remonstrance, and an appeal was made to the imperial government;
+whereupon the latter entered into an agreement with the Cape government,
+to the effect that if the Cape would bear half the cost of any
+expedition which should be necessary, assist with troops, and give full
+use of the Cape railway for military purposes if required, a protest
+should be sent to President Kruger on the subject. These terms were
+accepted by Rhodes and his colleagues, of whom Mr W.P. Schreiner was
+one, and a protest was then sent by Mr Chamberlain stating that the
+government would regard the closing of the drifts as a breach of the
+London Convention, and as an unfriendly action calling for the gravest
+remonstrance. President Kruger at once reopened the drifts, and
+undertook that he would issue no further proclamation on the subject
+except after consultation with the imperial government.
+
+On the 29th of December 1895 Dr Jameson (q.v.) made his famous raid into
+the Transvaal, and Rhodes's complicity in this movement compelled him to
+resign the premiership of Cape Colony in January 1896, the vacant post
+being taken by Sir Gordon Sprigg. As Rhodes's complicity in the raid
+became known, there naturally arose a strong feeling of resentment and
+astonishment among his colleagues in the Cape ministry, who had been
+kept in complete ignorance of his connexion with any such scheme. Mr
+Hofmeyr and the Bond were loud in their denunciation of him, nor can it
+be denied that the circumstances of the raid greatly embittered against
+England the Dutch element in Cape Colony, and influenced their
+subsequent attitude towards the Transvaal Boers.
+
+In 1897 a native rising occurred under Galeshwe, a Bantu chief, in
+Griqualand West. Galeshwe was arrested and the rebellion repressed. On
+cross-examination Galeshwe stated that Bosnian, a magistrate of the
+Transvaal, had supplied ammunition to him, and urged him to rebel
+against the government of Cape Colony. There is every reason to suppose
+that this charge was true, and it is consistent with the intrigues which
+the Boers from time to time practised among the natives.
+
+In 1897 Sir Alfred Milner was appointed high commissioner of South
+Africa and governor of Cape Colony, in succession to Sir Hercules
+Robinson, who had been created a peer under the title of Baron Rosmead
+in August 1896.
+
+_Mr Schreiner's Policy_.--In 1898 commercial federation in South Africa
+advanced another stage, Natal entering the customs union. A fresh
+convention was drafted at this time, and under it "a uniform tariff on
+all imported goods consumed within such union, and an equitable
+distribution of the duties collected on such goods amongst the parties
+to such union, and free trade between the colonies and state in respect
+of all South African products," was arranged. In the same year, too, the
+Cape parliamentary election occurred, and the result was the return to
+power of a Bond ministry under Mr W.P. Schreiner. From this time, until
+June 1900, Mr Schreiner remained in office as head of the Cape
+government. During the negotiations (see TRANSVAAL) which preceded the
+war in 1899, feeling at the Cape ran very high, and Mr Schreiner's
+attitude was very freely discussed. As head of a party, dependent for
+its position in power on the Bond's support, his position was
+undoubtedly a trying one. At the same time, as prime minister of a
+British colony, it was strongly felt by loyal colonists that he should
+at least have refrained from openly interfering between the Transvaal
+and the imperial government during the course of most difficult
+negotiations. His public expressions of opinion were hostile in tone to
+the policy pursued by Mr Chamberlain and Sir Alfred Milner. The effect
+of them, it was believed, might conceivably be to encourage President
+Kruger in persisting in his rejection of the British terms. Mr
+Schreiner, it is true, used directly what influence he possessed to
+induce President Kruger to adopt a reasonable course. But however
+excellent his intentions, his publicly expressed disapproval of the
+Chamberlain-Milner policy probably did more harm than his private
+influence with Mr Kruger could possibly do good. On the 11th of June
+1899, shortly after the Bloemfontein conference, from which Sir Alfred
+Milner had just returned, Mr Schreiner asked the high commissioner to
+inform Mr Chamberlain that he and his colleagues agreed in regarding
+President Kruger's Bloemfontein proposals as "practical, reasonable and
+a considerable step in the right direction." Early in June, however, the
+Cape Dutch politicians began to realize that President Kruger's attitude
+was not so reasonable as they had endeavoured to persuade themselves,
+and Mr Hofmeyr, accompanied by Mr Herholdt, the Cape minister of
+agriculture, visited Pretoria. On arrival, they found that the Transvaal
+Volksraad, in a spirit of defiance and even levity, had just passed a
+resolution offering four new seats in the Volksraad to the mining
+districts, and fifteen to exclusively burgher districts. Mr Hofmeyr, on
+meeting the executive, freely expressed indignation at these
+proceedings. Unfortunately, Mr Hofmeyr's influence was more than
+counterbalanced by an emissary from the Free State, Mr Abraham Fischer,
+who, while purporting to be a peacemaker, practically encouraged the
+Boer executive to take extreme measures. Mr Hofmeyr's established
+reputation as an astute diplomatist, and as the trusted leader for years
+of the Cape Dutch party, made him as powerful a delegate as it was
+possible to find. If any emissary could accomplish anything in the way
+of persuading Mr Kruger, it was assuredly Mr Hofmeyr. Much was looked
+for from his mission by moderate men of all parties, and by none more
+so, it is fair to believe, than by Mr Schreiner. But Mr Hofmeyr's
+mission, like every other mission to Mr Kruger to induce him to take a
+reasonable and equitable course, proved entirely fruitless. He returned
+to Cape Town disappointed, but probably not altogether surprised at the
+failure of his mission. Meanwhile a new proposal was drafted by the Boer
+executive, which, before it was received in its entirety, or at least
+before it was clearly understood, elicited from Mr Schreiner a letter on
+the 7th of July to the _South African News_, in which, referring to his
+government, he said:--
+
+  "While anxious and continually active with good hope in the cause of
+  securing reasonable modifications of the existing representative
+  system of the South African Republic, this government is convinced
+  that no ground whatever exists for active interference in the internal
+  affairs of that republic."
+
+This letter was precipitate and unfortunate. On the 11th of July, after
+seeing Mr Hofmeyr on his return, Mr Schreiner made a personal appeal to
+President Kruger to approach the imperial government in a friendly
+spirit. At this time an incident occurred which raised the feeling
+against Mr Schreiner to a very high pitch. On the 7th of July 500 rifles
+and 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition were landed at Port Elizabeth,
+consigned to the Free State government, and forwarded to Bloemfontein.
+Mr Schreiner's attention was called to this consignment at the time, but
+he refused to stop it, alleging as his reason that, inasmuch as Great
+Britain was at peace with the Free State, he had no right to interdict
+the passage of arms through the Cape Colony. The British colonist is as
+capable of a grim jest as the Transvaal Boer, and this action of Mr
+Schreiner's won for him the nickname "Ammunition Bill." At a later date
+he was accused of delay in forwarding artillery and rifles for the
+defence of Kimberley, Mafeking and other towns of the colony. The reason
+he gave for delay was that he did not anticipate war; and that he did
+not wish to excite unwarrantable suspicions in the minds of the Free
+State. His conduct in both instances was perhaps technically correct,
+but it was much resented by loyal colonists.
+
+On the 28th of July Mr Chamberlain sent a conciliatory despatch to
+President Kruger, suggesting a meeting of delegates to consider and
+report on his last franchise proposals, which were complex to a degree.
+Mr Schreiner, on the 3rd of August, telegraphed to Mr Fischer begging
+the Transvaal to welcome Mr Chamberlain's proposal. At a later date, on
+receiving an inquiry from the Free State as to the movements of British
+troops, Mr Schreiner curtly refused any information, and referred the
+Free State to the high commissioner. On the 28th of August Sir Gordon
+Sprigg in the House of Assembly moved the adjournment of the debate, to
+discuss the removal of arms to the Free State. Mr Schreiner, in reply,
+used expressions which called down upon him the severest censure and
+indignation, both in the colony and in Great Britain. He stated that,
+should the storm burst, he would keep the colony aloof with regard both
+to its forces and its people. In the course of the speech he also read a
+telegram from President Steyn, in which the president repudiated all
+contemplated aggressive action on the part of the Free State as absurd.
+The speech created a great sensation in the British press. It was
+probably forgotten at the time (though Lord Kimberley afterwards
+publicly stated it) that one of the chief reasons why the Gladstone
+government had granted the retrocession of the Transvaal after Majuba,
+was the fear that the Cape Colonial Dutch would join their kinsmen if
+the war continued. What was a danger in 1881, Mr Schreiner knew to be a
+still greater danger in 1899. At the same time it is quite obvious, from
+a review of Mr Schreiner's conduct through the latter half of 1899, that
+he took an entirely mistaken view of the Transvaal situation. He
+evinced, as premier of the Cape Colony, the same inability to understand
+the Uitlanders' grievances, the same futile belief in the eventual
+fairness of President Kruger, as he had shown when giving evidence
+before the British South Africa Select Committee into the causes of the
+Jameson Raid. Actual experience taught him that President Kruger was
+beyond an appeal to reason, and that the protestations of President
+Steyn were insincere. War had no sooner commenced with the ultimatum of
+the Transvaal Republic on the 9th of October 1899, than Mr Schreiner
+found himself called upon to deal with the conduct of Cape rebels. The
+rebels joined the invading forces of President Steyn, whose false
+assurances Mr Schreiner had offered to an indignant House of Assembly
+only a few weeks before. The war on the part of the Republics was
+evidently not to be merely one of self-defence. It was one of aggression
+and aggrandisement. Mr Schreiner ultimately addressed, as prime
+minister, a sharp remonstrance to President Steyn for allowing his
+burghers to invade the colony. He also co-operated with Sir Alfred
+Milner, and used his influence to restrain the Bond.
+
+_The War of 1899-1902._[7]--The first shot actually fired in the war
+was at Kraipan, a small railway station within the colony, 40 m. south
+of Mafeking, a train being derailed, and ammunition intended for Colonel
+Baden-Powell seized. The effect of this was entirely to cut off
+Mafeking, the northernmost town in Cape Colony, and it remained in a
+state of siege for over seven months. On the 16th of October Kimberley
+was also isolated. Proclamations by the Transvaal and Free State
+annexing portions of Cape Colony were actually issued on the 18th of
+October, and included British Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, with the
+diamond fields. On the 28th of October Mr Schreiner signed a
+proclamation issued by Sir Alfred Milner as high commissioner, declaring
+the Boer annexations of territory within Cape Colony to be null and
+void.
+
+Then came the British reverses at Magersfontein (on the 11th of
+December) and Stormberg (on the 10th of December). The effect of these
+engagements at the very outset of the war, occurring as they did within
+Cape Colony, was to offer every inducement to a number of the frontier
+colonial Boers to join their kinsmen of the republics. The Boers were
+prolific, and their families large. Many younger sons from the colony,
+with nothing to lose, left their homes with horse and rifle to join the
+republican forces.
+
+Meanwhile the loyal Cape colonists were chafing at the tardy manner in
+which they were enrolled by the imperial authorities. It was not until
+after the arrival of Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener at Cape Town on the
+10th of January 1900 that these invaluable, and many of them
+experienced, men were freely invited to come forward. So strongly did
+Lord Roberts feel on the subject, that he at once made Colonel Brabant,
+a well-known and respected colonial veteran and member of the House of
+Assembly, a brigadier-general, and started recruiting loyal colonists in
+earnest. On the 15th of February Kimberley was relieved by General
+French, and the Boer general, Cronje, evacuated Magersfontein, and
+retreated towards Bloemfontein. Cecil Rhodes was shut up in Kimberley
+during the whole of the siege, and his presence there undoubtedly
+offered an additional incentive to the Boers to endeavour to capture the
+town, but his unique position and influence with the De Beers workmen
+enabled him to render yeoman service, and infused enthusiasm and courage
+into the inhabitants. The manufacture of a big gun, which was able to
+compete with the Boer "Long Tom," at the De Beers workshops, under
+Rhodes's orders, and by the ingenuity of an American, Mr. Labram, who
+was killed a few days after its completion, forms one of the most
+striking incidents of the period.
+
+With the relief of Mafeking on the 17th of May, the Cape rebellion
+ended, and the colony was, at least for a time, delivered of the
+presence of hostile forces.
+
+On the 20th of March Mr (afterwards Sir James) Rose-Innes, a prominent
+member of the House of Assembly, who for several years had held aloof
+from either party, and who also had defended Mr Schreiner's action with
+regard to the passage of arms to the Free State, addressed his
+constituents at Claremont in support of the annexation of both
+republics; and in the course of an eloquent speech he stated that in
+Canada, in spite of rebellions, loyalty had been secured from the French
+Canadians by free institutions. In South Africa they might hope that a
+similar policy would attain a similar result with the Boers. In June, Mr
+Schreiner, whose recent support of Sir Alfred Milner had incensed many
+of his Bond followers, resigned in consequence of the refusal of some of
+his colleagues to support the disfranchisement bill which he was
+prepared, in accordance with the views of the home government, to
+introduce for the punishment of Cape rebels. The bill certainly did not
+err on the side of severity, but disfranchisement for their supporters
+in large numbers was more distasteful to the Bond extremists than any
+stringency towards individuals. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who after a political
+crisis of considerable delicacy, succeeded Mr Schreiner and for the
+fourth time became prime minister, was able to pass the Bill with the
+co-operation of Mr Schreiner and his section. Towards the end of the
+year 1900 the war entered on a new phase, and took the form of guerilla
+skirmishes with scattered forces of marauding Boers. In December some of
+these bands entered the Cape Colony and endeavoured to induce colonial
+Boers to join them. In this endeavour they met at first with little or
+no success; but as the year 1901 progressed and the Boers still managed
+to keep the various districts in a ferment, it was deemed necessary by
+the authorities to proclaim martial law over the whole colony, and this
+was done on the 9th of October 1901.
+
+On the 4th of January 1901 Sir Alfred Milner was gazetted governor of
+the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, being shortly afterwards created
+a peer as Lord Milner, and Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, governor of
+Natal, was appointed his successor as governor of the Cape Colony. The
+office of high commissioner in South Africa was now separated from the
+governorship of the Cape and associated with that of the Transvaal--an
+indication of the changed conditions in South Africa. The division of
+the colonists into those who favoured the Boer states and those firmly
+attached to the British connexion was reflected, to the detriment of the
+public weal, in the parties in the Cape parliament. Proposals were made
+to suspend the constitution, but this drastic course was not adopted.
+The Progressive party, the name taken by those who sought a permanent
+settlement under the British flag, lost their leader, and South Africa
+its foremost statesman by the death, in May 1902, of Cecil Rhodes, a few
+weeks before the end of the war.
+
+_After the War_.--The acknowledgment of defeat by the Boers in the
+field, and the surrender of some 10,000 rebels, did not weaken the
+endeavours of the Dutch to obtain political supremacy in the colony.
+Moreover, in the autumn of 1902 Sir Gordon Sprigg, the prime minister,
+nominally the leader of the Progressives, sought to maintain his
+position by securing the support of the Bond party in parliament. In the
+early part of 1903 Mr Chamberlain included Cape Town in his visit to
+South Africa, and had conferences with the political leaders of all
+parties. Reconciliation between the Bond and British elements in the
+colony was, however, still impossible, and the two parties concentrated
+their efforts in a struggle for victory at the coming election. Mr
+Hofmeyr, who had chosen to spend the greater part of the war period in
+Europe, returned to the Cape to reorganize the Bond. On the other side
+Dr Jameson came forward as the leader of the Progressives. Parliament
+was dissolved in September 1903. It had passed, since the war, two
+measures of importance--one (1902) restricting alien immigration, the
+other (1903) ratifying the first customs convention between all the
+South African colonies. This convention was notable for its grant of
+preferential treatment (in general, a rebate of 25% on the customs
+already levied) to imports from the United Kingdom.
+
+The election turned on the issue of British or Bond supremacy. It was
+fought on a register purged of the rebel voters, many of whom, besides
+being disfranchised, were in prison. The issue was doubtful, and each
+side sought to secure the support of the native voters, who in several
+constituencies held the balance of power. The Bondsmen were more lavish
+than their opponents in their promises to the natives and even invited a
+Kaffir journalist (who declined) to stand for a seat in the Assembly. In
+view of the agitation then proceeding for the introduction of Chinese
+coolies to work the mines on the Rand, the Progressives declared their
+intention, if returned, to exclude them from the colony, and this
+declaration gained them some native votes. The polling (in January and
+February 1904) resulted in a Progressive majority of five in a house of
+95 members. The rejected candidates included prominent Bond supporters
+like Mr Merriman and Mr Sauer, and also Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr A.
+Douglass, another member of the cabinet. Mr W.P. Schreiner, the
+ex-premier, who stood as an Independent, was also rejected.
+
+_The Jameson Ministry_.--On the 18th of February Sir Gordon Sprigg
+resigned and was succeeded by Dr L.S. Jameson, who formed a ministry
+wholly British in character. The first task of the new government was to
+introduce (on the 4th of March) an Additional Representation Bill, to
+rectify--in part--the disparity in electoral power of the rural and
+urban districts. Twelve new seats in the House of Assembly were divided
+among the larger towns, and three members were added to the legislative
+council. The town voter being mainly British, the bill met with the
+bitter opposition of the Bond members, who declared that its object was
+the extinction of their parliamentary power. In fact, the bill was
+called for by the glaring anomalies in the distribution of seats by
+which a minority of voters in the country districts returned a majority
+of members, and it left the towns still inadequately represented. The
+bill was supported by two or three Dutch members, who were the object of
+violent attack by the Bondsmen. It became law, and the elections for the
+additional seats were held in July, after the close of the session. They
+resulted in strengthening the Progressive majority both in the House of
+Assembly and in the legislative council--where the Progressives
+previously had a majority of one only.
+
+At the outset of its career the Jameson ministry had to face a serious
+financial situation. During the war the supplying of the army in the
+field had caused an artificial inflation of trade, and the Sprigg
+ministry had pursued a policy of extravagant expenditure not warranted
+by the finances of the colony. The slow recovery of the gold-mining and
+other industries in the Transvaal after the war was reflected in a great
+decline in trade in Cape Colony during the last half of 1903, the
+distress being aggravated by severe drought. When Dr Jameson assumed
+office he found an empty treasury, and considerable temporary loans had
+to be raised. Throughout 1904, moreover, revenue continued to
+shrink--compared with 1903 receipts dropped from L11,701,000 to
+L9,913,000. The government, besides cutting down official salaries and
+exercising strict economy, contracted (July 1904) a loan for L3,000,000.
+It also passed a bill imposing a graduated tax (6d. to 1s. in the L) on
+all incomes over L1000. A substantial excise duty was placed on spirits
+and beer, measures of relief for the brandy-farmers being taken at the
+same time. The result was that while there was a deficit on the budget
+of 1904-1905 of L731,000, the budget of 1905-1906 showed a surplus of
+L5161. This small surplus was obtained notwithstanding a further
+shrinkage in revenue.
+
+Dr Jameson's programme was largely one of material development. In the
+words of the speech opening the 1905 session of parliament, "without a
+considerable development of our agricultural and pastoral resources our
+position as a self-sustaining colony cannot be assured." This reliance
+on its own resources was the more necessary for the Cape because of the
+keen rivalry of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the
+Transvaal. The opening up of backward districts by railways was
+vigorously pursued, and in other ways great efforts were made to assist
+agriculture. These efforts to help the country districts met with
+cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers, and the release, in May
+1904, of all rebel prisoners was another step towards reconciliation. On
+the exclusion of Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in
+agreement with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established
+school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual
+introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of friendly
+relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one of the leading
+objects of Dr Jameson's policy. The Bond, on its side, sought to draw
+closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization in the Transvaal, and similar
+bodies, and at its 1906 congress, held in March that year at Ceres, a
+resolution with that aim was passed, the design being to unify, in
+accordance with the original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and
+action throughout South Africa.
+
+Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In January 1905
+an inter-colonial native affairs commission reported on the native
+question as it affected South Africa as a whole, proposals being made
+for an alteration of the laws in Cape Colony respecting the franchise
+exercised by natives. In the opinion of the commission the possession of
+the franchise by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to
+create in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous
+thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over 23,000
+coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed separate voting
+by natives only for a fixed number of members of the legislature--the
+plan adopted in New Zealand with the Maori voters. The privileged
+position of the Cape native was seen to be an obstacle to the federation
+of South Africa. The discussion which followed, based partly on the
+reports that the ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led,
+however, to no immediate results.
+
+Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs was the
+revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-West Africa (q.v.).
+In 1904 and the following years large numbers of refugees, including
+some of the most important chiefs, fled into British territory, and
+charges were made in Germany that sufficient control over these refugees
+was not exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came to
+an end in September 1907. In that month Morenga, a chief who had been
+interned by the colonial authorities, but had escaped and recommenced
+hostilities against the Germans, was once more on the British side of
+the frontier and, refusing to surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted
+Police and killed after a smart action. The revolt in the German
+protectorate had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the
+indirect occasion of a "Boer raid" into Cape Colony. In November 1906 a
+small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been employed by the Germans
+against the Hottentots, entered the colony under the leadership of a man
+named Ferreira, and began raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits.
+Within a week the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four
+companions were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death
+sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude.
+
+As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pietermaritzburg
+in the early months of 1906, a new customs convention of a strongly
+protective character came into force on the 1st of June of that year. At
+the same time the rebate on goods from Great Britain and reciprocating
+colonies was increased. The session of parliament which sanctioned this
+change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and railway
+schemes. But one important measure of a political character was passed
+in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under its provisions over 7000
+ex-rebels, who would otherwise have had no vote at the ensuing general
+election, were readmitted to the franchise in 1907.
+
+While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources
+of the country proved successful, the towns continued to suffer from the
+inflation--over-buying, over-building and over-speculation--which marked
+the war period. As a consequence, imports further declined during
+1906-1907, and receipts being largely dependent on customs the result
+was a considerably diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending
+30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of L640,455. The decline in revenue,
+L4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection of the economic
+condition of the country--yearly becoming more self-supporting by the
+increase in home produce--caused general disquietude and injuriously
+affected the position of the ministry. In the session of 1907 the
+Opposition in the legislative council brought on a crisis by refusing to
+grant supplies voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the
+constitutional right of the council so to act, and on his advice the
+governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolution
+parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on diamond- and
+copper-mining companies earning over L50,000 per annum, and another act
+establishing an agricultural credit bank.
+
+_Mr Merriman, Premier_.--The elections for the legislative council were
+held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond victory. Its supporters, who
+called themselves the South African party, the Progressives being
+renamed Unionists, obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson
+thereupon resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with Mr
+J.X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J.W. Sauer as minister of
+public works. Neither of these politicians was a member of the Bond, and
+both had held office under Cecil Rhodes and W.P. Schreiner. They had,
+however, been the leading parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a
+considerable time. The elections for the legislative assembly followed
+in April and, partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the
+ex-rebels, resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry.
+There were returned 69 members of the South African party, 33 Unionists
+and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr
+Schreiner. The change of ministry was not accompanied by any relief in
+the financial situation. While the country districts remained fairly
+prosperous (agricultural and pastoral products increasing), the transit
+trade and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression was
+accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected adversely
+the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the diamond trade, leading
+to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley mines. (The "slump" in the
+diamond trade is shown by a comparison of the value of diamonds exported
+from the Cape in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at
+L8,973,148, in 1908 at L4,796,655.) This seriously diminished the
+revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907-1908 showed a
+deficit of L996,000, and a prospective deficit for the ensuing year of
+an almost equal amount. To balance the budget, Mr Merriman proposed
+drastic remedies, including the suspension of the sinking fund, the
+reduction of salaries of all civil servants, and taxes on incomes of L50
+per annum. Partly in consequence of the serious economic situation the
+renewed movement for the closer union of the various South African
+colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received the support
+of the Cape parliament. During 1907-1908 a national convention decided
+upon unification, and in 1910 the Union of South Africa was established
+(see SOUTH AFRICA: _History_).
+
+_Leading Personalities_.--The public life of Cape Colony has produced
+many men of singular ability and accomplishments. The careers of Cecil
+Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, and of Dr L.S. Jameson have been
+sufficiently indicated (see also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon
+Sprigg, four times premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from
+1873 to 1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In and
+out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those qualities
+which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great leader, he was at
+least a model of industry. Among other prominent politicians were Sir
+James Rose-Innes, Mr J.X. Merriman and Mr W.P. Schreiner. The two last
+named both held the premiership; their attitude and views have been
+indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a lawyer whose
+intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been impugned, was not a
+"party man," and this made him, on more than one occasion, a somewhat
+difficult political ally. On the native question he held a consistently
+strong attitude, defending their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing
+the native liquor traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief
+justice of that colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative,
+though he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every
+enlightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought forward. A
+man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made his influence felt,
+not only in politics, but in journalism and the best social life of the
+Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he held the office of agent-general of
+the colony in London.
+
+In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors whose works
+have taken their place among those of the best English writers of their
+day. The _History of South Africa_, by Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a
+classic work of reference. The careful industry and the lucidity which
+characterize Mr Theal's work stamp him as a historian of whom South
+Africa may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs
+Cronwright-Schreiner) produced, while still in her teens, the _Story of
+an African Farm_, a work which gave great promise of original literary
+genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest of South Africa, was
+subsequently swept into the seething vortex of contemporary politics and
+controversy. In music and painting there have been artists of talent in
+the Cape Colony, but the country is still too young, and the conditions
+of life too disturbed, to allow such a development as has already
+occurred in Australia.
+
+  GOVERNORS AT THE CAPE SINCE INTRODUCTION OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT
+
+  1870. Sir Henry Barkly.
+  1877. Sir Bartle Frere.
+  1880. Sir Hercules Robinson.
+  1889. Sir Henry Loch.
+  1895. Sir Hercules Robinson (Lord Rosmead).
+  1897. Sir Alfred Milner.
+  1901. Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson.
+
+  PRIME MINISTERS.
+
+  1872. Mr J.C. Molteno.          1890. Mr C.J. Rhodes.
+  1878. Mr J. Gordon Sprigg.      1896. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.
+  1881. Mr T.C. Scanlen.          1898. Mr W.P. Schreiner.
+  1884. Mr Upington.              1900. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.
+  1886. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg.     1904. Dr L.S. Jameson.
+                   1908. Mr J.X. Merriman.
+       (A. P. H.; F. R. C.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY--The majority of the books concerning Cape Colony deal
+  also with South Africa as a whole (see SOUTH AFRICA: _Bibliography_).
+  The following list gives books specially relating to the Cape. For
+  ethnography see the works mentioned under BUSHMEN, HOTTENTOTS, KAFFIRS
+  and BECHUANA.
+
+  (a) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:--The best
+  early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille's _Journal
+  historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Esperance_ (Paris, 1763),
+  the _Nouvelle Description du Cap de Bonne Esperance_ (Amsterdam,
+  1778); F. le Vaillant's _Voyage dans l'interieur de l'Afrique_ (Paris,
+  1790), and _Second Voyage_ (Paris, _an_ III. [1794-1795]); C.P.
+  Thunberg's "Account of the Cape of Good Hope" in vol. xvi. of
+  Pinkerton's _Travels_ (London, 1814); A. Sparman's _Voyage to the Cape
+  of Good Hope ... 1772-1776_ (translated into English from the Swedish,
+  London, 1785)--an excellent work; and W. Paterson's _A Narrative of
+  Four Journeys ... 1777-1779_ (London, 1789). P. Kolbe or Kolben's
+  _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_ (English translation from the
+  German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy. Sir J. Barrow's _Account of
+  Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa in 1797-1798_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1801-1804); H. Lichtenstein's _Travels in Southern Africa in
+  1803-1806_ (translated from the German, 2 vols., London, 1812-1815),
+  and W.J. Burchell's _Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa_ (2
+  vols., London, 1822-1824) are standard works. Burchell's book contains
+  the best map of the Cape published up to that time. W.P. Greswell's
+  _Geography of Africa south of the Zambesi_ (Oxford, 1892) deals
+  specially with Cape Colony; the _Illustrated Official Handbook of the
+  Cape and South Africa_ (Cape Town, 1893) includes chapters on the
+  zoology, flora, productions and resources of the colony. A.R.E.
+  Burton, _Cape Colony To-day_ (Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the
+  country and its resources. A _Statistical Register_ is issued yearly
+  by the Cape government. The _Census of the Colony, 1904: General
+  Report_ (Cape Town, 1905) and previous census reports contain much
+  valuable matter.
+
+  (b) Special subjects:--For detailed information on special subjects
+  consult _The Natives of South Africa_ (London, 1901); R. Wallace,
+  _Farming Industries of Cape Colony_ (London, 1896); A.R.E. Burton,
+  _Cape Colony for the Settler_ (London, 1903); _The Agricultural
+  Journal of the Cape of Good Hope_; Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond
+  Mines of South Africa_, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative
+  work by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A.W. Rogers, _An
+  Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony_ (London, 1905) and "The
+  Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay," _Trans. Geol. Soc S.
+  Africa_, vol. ix. (1906); _Reports_, Geological Commission of the Cape
+  of Good Hope (1896 et seq.); _Science in South Africa_ (Cape Town,
+  1905); H.A. Bryden, _Kloof and Karoo_; sport, legend and natural
+  history in Cape Colony (London, 1889); _South African Education
+  Yearbook_ (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et seq.). For books
+  dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see SOUTH AFRICA.
+
+  (c) History:--H.C.V. Leibbrandt, _Precis of the Archives of the Cape
+  of Good Hope_ (15 vols., vols. v.-vii. contain van Riebeek's
+  _Journal_, Cape Town, 1896--1902); _The Rebellion of 1815, generally
+  known as Slachter's Nek_ (Cape Town, 1902); G.M. Theal, _Chronicles of
+  Cape Commanders ... 1651-1691_ ... (Cape Town, 1882), and _Records of
+  the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831_, from MS. in the
+  Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897-1905); _History of
+  South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company,
+  1652 to 1795_ (2 vols., London, 1897); _History of South Africa from
+  1795 to 1834_ (London, 1891); E.B. Watermeyer, _Three Lectures on the
+  Cape ... under the ... Dutch East India Company_ (Cape Town, 1857); A.
+  Wilmot and J.C. Chase, _History of the ... Cape ... from its Discovery
+  to ... 1868_ (Cape Town, 1869); Lady Anne Barnard, _South Africa a
+  Hundred Years Ago: Letters-written from the Cape, 1797-1801_ (London,
+  1901), a vivid picture of social life, &c.; Mrs A.F. Trotter, _Old
+  Cape Colony ... Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806_ (London, 1903);
+  C.T. Campbell, _British South Africa, 1795-1825_ (London, 1897), the
+  story of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau's
+  _Life of Sir Bartle Frere_; the _Autobiography_ of Sir Harry Smith;
+  P.A. Molteno's _Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno_ (first
+  premier of Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A. Wilmot's _Life of
+  Sir Richard Southey_ (London, 1904), and G.C. Henderson's _Sir George
+  Grey_ (London, 1907). B. Worsfold's _Lord Milner's Work in South
+  Africa, 1897-1902_ (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape
+  politics. For Blue-books, &c., relating to the colony published by the
+  British parliament, see the _Colonial Office List_ (London, yearly)
+       (F. R. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The distances given after the names of rivers indicate the length
+    of the river valleys, including those of the main upper branch. In
+    nearly all instances the rivers, owing to their sinuous course, are
+    much longer.
+
+  [2] This is an overstatement. The director of the census estimated
+    the true number of Hottentots at about 56,000.
+
+  [3] It is stated that Colonel R.J. Gordon (the explorer of the Orange
+    river), who commanded the Dutch forces at the Cape, chagrined by the
+    occupation of the country by the British, committed suicide.
+
+  [4] From 1737 to 1744 George Schmidt, "The apostle to the
+    Hottentots," had a mission at Genadendal--"The Vale of Grace."
+
+  [5] Masters were allowed to keep their ex-slaves as "apprentices"
+    until the 1st of December 1838.
+
+  [6] The act enjoined that "every male native residing in the
+    district, exclusive of natives in possession of lands under ordinary
+    quit-rent titles, or in freehold, who, in the judgment of the
+    resident magistrate, is fit for and capable of labour, shall pay to
+    the public revenue a tax of ten shillings per annum unless he can
+    show to the satisfaction of the magistrate that he has been in
+    service beyond the borders of the district for at least three months
+    out of the previous twelve, when he will be exempt from the tax for
+    that year, or unless he can show that he has been employed for a
+    total period of three years, when he will be exempt altogether."
+
+  [7] See also TRANSVAAL.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various
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